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Department of Physics and Astronomy

Project Descriptions for Physics and Astronomy MSc Students

2013/14

Astronomy and Cosmology

Dr Mafalda Dias:M.Dias@sussex.ac.ukRoom: Pevensey III 4C4

Reliable Predictions in Multifield Inflation

One of the most fascinating challenges for cosmology is to learn about the physics of the very

early universe via observations of the primordial distribution of matter. For this, we need to be

able to test models of inflation against cosmological data to high precision. A very important

class of inflation models are those involving several scalar fields, the so-called multifield models.

For these, it is not always easy to calculate predictions, and in fact, in some cases the ability to

make predictions is still an open question. It is of extreme importance to understand in whichcases this occurs. In this project, you will explore the challenges of computing reliable

predictions in inflation, in particular in multifield models, and develop tests that identify if a model

can or cannot be compared with data. The project will be mainly analytic but it will also require

some numerical work in Maple or Mathematica.

Dr Dipak Munshi:d.munshi@sussex.ac.ukRoom Pevensey III 4C4

1. Estimation of 3D Power Spectrum from Cosmological Data

In the near future, surveys such as Euclid, will measure a large number of photometric redshifts.

This will allow determination of power-spectrum of density fluctuations not only in projection butalso in three dimensions (3D). The aim of this project is to develop analytical framework and

implement them numerically for estimation of power-spectrum from individual cosmological data

sets or cross-correlate two different data-sets in 3D. Results obtained will be useful in analysing

3D galaxy surveys to probe Baryonic Acoustic Oscillations or to analyze data from Weak

Lensing surveys and cross-correlate them against CMB surveys to extract 3D evolution of

secondaries. No prior knowledge of prior spectrum estimation from cosmological data set will be

assumed.

2. Statistical Characterization of CMB SecondariesThe aim of this project will be to understand the statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background

Radiation (CMB) temperature maps with special emphasis on morphological estimators such as

the Minkowski Functionals and higher order multi-spectra. We will focus on various secondaries

such as the lensing of CMB and its cross-correlation with other secondaries e.g. the Integrated

Sachs-Wolfe (ISW) effect or the thermal Sunyaev Zeldovich (tSZ) effect. The project will initially

focus on understanding the physics of CMB secondaries and their impact on the statistics of

temperature fluctuations. Finally simulations of CMB sky will be used to compare theoretical

predictions against numerical simulations. No prior knowledge of CMB physics or simulations

will be assumed. At the end of the project it is expected that student will understand the basics of

CMB and will be able to analyze simulated CMB maps or maps from CMB missions such as

mailto:M.Dias@sussex.ac.ukmailto:M.Dias@sussex.ac.ukmailto:M.Dias@sussex.ac.ukmailto:d.munshi@sussex.ac.ukmailto:d.munshi@sussex.ac.ukmailto:d.munshi@sussex.ac.ukmailto:d.munshi@sussex.ac.ukmailto:M.Dias@sussex.ac.uk

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WMAP or Planck. The statistical tools that will be developed will have diverse applications in

other areas of cosmology.

Dr Ilian Iliev:I.T.Iliev@sussex.ac.uk - Room: Pevensey III 4C5

1. Observational signatures of Cosmic ReionizationAfter the hot Big Bang the Universe expanded and cooled, eventually turning the primordialsoup of particles into a sea of neutral gas,starting the cosmic "Dark Ages". The light producedby the First Stars gradually ionized the universe again and ended the Dark Ages. Thistransition, called Cosmic Reionization had profound effects on the formation and character ofthe early cosmological structures and left deep impressions on subsequent galaxy and starformation. Within this project we will be analysing the results from state-of-the-art simulations ofthis process to infer the observable features produced by the first structures and detectable bythe current generation of large dedicated observational facilities like the radio inferometerLOFAR.

2. Properties of halos and large-scale structuresThe small density inhomogeneties left over from the period of fast initial expansion of theuniverse gradually grew under the force of gravity, and eventually formed the galaxies andlarge-scale structures we see today. Within this project we will be using the results fromstate-of-the-art numerical N-body simulations on supercomputers, some of which among thelargest ever performed to date, to understand this process. In particular, we will study thenon-linear evolution of structures - clustering, sub-structures and internal properties of galacticand cluster dark matter halos, redshift-space distortions and others. We will be comparingthese features to data from large galaxy surveys in order to derive the fundamental parametersdescribing the universe we live in.

Dr Antony Lewis:Antony.Lewis@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey III 4C7

Neutrino density perturbations in cosmology Neutrinos are known to have some small mass,which can be important for the growth of cosmological structures. In linear theory this can becalculated by tracking how the distribution of neutrinos with different speeds evolves with time,and integrating over the distribution to find the density and pressure, which then effects thegrowth of large scale structure in the universe. However this process is computationally timeconsuming, and simpler methods should be accurate to track the evolution when the neutrinos

are highly relativistic or non-relativistic, or the fluctuations are very small compared to thehorizon size. You will investigate the use of fluid and other approximations for calculating theevolution of the neutrino perturbations. The project will be fairly mathematical and require someanalytic as well as numerical work (adapting the Fortran 90 code CAMB to test differentapproximations).

Dr Jon Loveday:J.Loveday@sussex.ac.uk Room: Chichester III 3R347b

1. Galaxy properties and environmentThe first part of this project is to measure the local density of galaxies in the Galaxy and MassAssembly (GAMA; http://www.gama-survey.org/) survey, correcting for survey boundaries and

the survey selection function. You will then go on to investigate correlations between

mailto:I.T.Iliev@sussex.ac.ukmailto:Antony.Lewis@sussex.ac.ukmailto:Antony.Lewis@sussex.ac.ukmailto:J.Loveday@sussex.ac.ukmailto:J.Loveday@sussex.ac.ukmailto:Antony.Lewis@sussex.ac.ukmailto:I.T.Iliev@sussex.ac.uk

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environment and intrinsic galaxy properties, such as luminosity, colour, stellar mass andstar formation rate, determining the extent to which these properties are influenced byenvironment.

2. Galaxy clustering: dependence on galaxy propertiesUsing proprietary data from the GAMA survey, you will investigate the dependence of galaxyclustering on galaxy properties, including luminosity, colour and morphology. This will be

done using marked correlation functions, and can be used to constrain models of galaxyformation and evolution by comparing with results from simulated galaxy catalogues.

3. What shapes galaxies?Galaxies take on a variety of intrinsic three-dimensional shapes but are seen projected on thesky. Using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods, the true three-dimensional shapes ofgalaxies observed by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (www.sdss.org) may be inferred. Aninvestigation of correlations between galaxy shapes and their intrinsic properties, such asluminosity and colour, and environmental properties, such as local density, will allow you todetermine what physical processes are most important in determining galaxy shapes.

Professor Seb Oliver:S.Oliver@sussex.ac.uk Room: Chichester III 3R346

Title: The Herschel Multi-Tiered Extra-galactic Survey: HerMESThe formation of stars in the distant Universe is a process usually shrouded in dust. This dustobscures the light from young stars which is absorbed and re-emitted as far infrared orsub-millimetre radiation. This process is so significant that half of all the light received fromdistant galaxies today half is seen at these long wavelengths. Thus understanding obscuredstar formation is critical to understanding galaxy evolution and so far very challenging. TheEuropean Space Agency (ESA) recently launched a major 1B mission, Herschel, to studyobscured star formation. The largest project on Herschel is HerMES is mapping 70 sq.degrees of the sky and is led at Sussex by Prof. Oliver. This project has already discovered

10s of thousands of distant obscured galaxies (compared to about 2000 prior toHerschel). Your project would contribute to HerMES, either in theoretically modelling thepopulations of galaxies we find or observationally in processing and analysing the data fromHerschel and others telescopes observing the Herschel galaxies.

Dr Kathy Romer:Romer@sussex.ac.uk Room: Chichester III 3R347a

Clusters of galaxies as cosmological probes and astrophysical laboratories: making use of thelatest X-ray and optical surveys.

Supervisor: Dr A. Kathy Romer (in collaboration with the XMM Cluster Survey and DarkEnergy Survey international consortia)

Clusters of galaxies offer a unique window on the universe. As the largest collapsed objects inthe heavens, they can be used to probe cosmology in a variety of ways. Moreover, they arehost to a range of complex astrophysical processes and hold the key to unlocking mysteriessuch as the evolution of galaxies. The XMM Cluster Survey (XCS) is an international, Sussexled, project (~20 scientists) that has uncovered more X-ray bright clusters than any othersurvey before it. This world leading project is ripe for scientific exploitation, with thousands ofclusters available for individual or ensemble analysis. The ultimate goal of the XCS is toconstrain models of Dark Energy, but a student would be able to choose from a variety of

different science and analysis applications. The student would also be able to take part

mailto:S.Oliver@sussex.ac.ukmailto:Romer@sussex.ac.ukmailto:Romer@sussex.ac.ukmailto:Romer@sussex.ac.ukmailto:S.Oliver@sussex.ac.uk

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supernovae (exploding stars) and active galactic nuclei (supermassive black holes).

Simulations of galaxy formation are in their infancy and cannot yet reproduce a realistic galaxypopulation. Instead, major advances have been made using "semi-analytic models" for thegrowth of galaxies within dark matter halos.

This project can be set at a variety of levels depending upon the experience of the student:

* Comparing the predictions of semi-analytic models to the latest observational data.* Adapting an existing semi-analytic model to try to better reproduce the observations and/orgive greater insight into the processes governing galaxy formation.

You will work with the latest observational data from large galaxy surveys such as SDSS (theSloan Digital Sky Survey) or SERVS (the Spitzer Extragalactic Representative Volume Survey),and simulations from the Vigo Supercomuting Consortium.

Familiarity with MATLAB (or IDL) is desirable.

Dr Chris Byrnes:ctb22@sussex.ac.ukPevensey III 4C6

1. There has been a tremendous progress in observations about the universe in the pastdecade. Detailed observations of the cosmic microwave background have placed the field ofcosmology onto a firm footing. However, these observations are all made on the very largestscales which exist in the visible universe. To learn more about the early universe and especiallythe theory of inflation, we also need to learn about much smaller scales.

One way to do this is to study the formation of primordial black holes, which will form wheneverthere are large over densities present in the early universe. The aim of this project is to studyhow they likely they are to form in a few special models of inflation. This involves calculating theprobability of creating sufficiently large over densities depending on the probability density

function of the energy density distribution. Doing this will require both some analytical andnumerical work, for example using Maple or Mathematica. Some knowledge of cosmology isrequired, but there is no need to have studied anything to do with black holes.

2. Implications from the Planck satellite on the curvaton scenarioIn 2013 the Planck satellite has released the best ever snapshot of the big bang, morespecifically on an epoch of inflation during the very early universe. One of its biggestachievements was strongly tightening the allowed deviations from a Gaussian distribution of theprimordial density/temperature perturbations. The curvaton model is a popular and special typeof inflationary model in which the perturbations are typically not Gaussian. The aim of this

project is to study how compatible the curvaton model remains today, in light of the excellentPlanck constraints. The curvaton model still satisfies the observations for some regions ofparameter space, but how finely tuned are these regions?A strong level of mathematics is essential for this project. Some experience with programmingand producing plots is also desirable, e.g. using Maple or Mathematica.

mailto:ctb22@sussex.ac.ukmailto:ctb22@sussex.ac.ukmailto:ctb22@sussex.ac.ukmailto:ctb22@sussex.ac.uk

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Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics

Dr Jacob Dunningham: Room: Pevensey II 3A3

1. Quantum-enhanced sensing devicesOne of the most exciting new potential technologies to emerge from quantum physics is theability to measure physical phenomena with unprecedented precision. This could allow us to

subject scientific theories to higher levels of scrutiny and lead to a range of new industrialapplications. Current sensors rely on conventional (classical) physics. However, by using a fullyquantum approach it is possible to achieve much greater sensitivities to phenomena such asmagnetic, electric, or gravitational fields or rotations. Quantum sensing could therefore beapplied to detecting and identifying remote objects or (in the case of rotations) improving theprecision of gyroscopes for navigation and stabilisation devices.While the feasibility of these ideas has been demonstrated in principle, the key problem ismaking them practical. The quantum states required for many schemes are difficult to engineerand fragile to noise which is inevitably present in any real-world situation. In this project we willstudy the principles of quantum enhanced sensing and develop schemes that overcome theseproblems. The key aim will be to identify a way of achieving a sensitivity that surpasses

anything possible in classical physics even when the effects of noise are accounted for.

2. Particle localisation via measurement-induced entanglementOne of the mysteries of physics is why we have two very successful theoriesclassical andquantum physicsthat operate on different length scales. The correspondence principle statesthat quantum theory should be able to describe both and that the quantum predictions shouldmatch those of classical theory in the limit of large quantum numbers. However, there arecertain quantum features such as superposition that we dont see in the classical world.This project aims to explore the boundary between the two theories in the context of quantumentanglement. In particular, we will study how particles acquire well-defined spatial localisationswhen light is scattered off them and detected. This process creates a specific type of

entanglement between pairs of particles that mimics the behaviour of classical particles but inrelative (rather than absolute) space. This suggests we can interpret classicality in terms of theuniquely quantum feature of entanglement.We will explore the nature of this process and understand the link between localisation andentanglement. We will also aim to devise experiments that could be carried out to test thistheory and study the important effects of the particle dynamics on the localisation process.

Dr Claudia Eberlein:claudia@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 4A16

Research area: Quantum Field Theory applied to quantum optics and cold-atom physics

Quantum mechanics and quantum field theory are well explored and very successful forsystems considered in isolation, for example for the description of the energy levels of a singleatom. However, when such an atom is found in close proximity to a material surface, quantumfluctuations of the electromagnetic field lead to a shift in its energy levels and this shift dependson the distance from the surface, leading to an attractive force on the atom. These kind ofeffects are becoming increasingly important with the rapid progress in nanotechnology, andthere is a wide range of systems to explore where they might play a role. Students wanting towork on a project in this area need excellent mathematical skills and solid knowledge ofelectrodynamics, quantum mechanics to an advanced level, and condensed matter physics.Most calculations will be analytic. Students will need to take a non-standard selection of

courses comprising quantum field theory, complex analysis and partial differential equations,

mailto:claudia@sussex.ac.ukmailto:claudia@sussex.ac.ukmailto:claudia@sussex.ac.uk

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and atomic physics. Some projects may be run in collaboration with an experimental physicist,most likely with Jose Verdu.

Professor Barry Garraway:B.M.Garraway@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 4A11

Title: Decay of quantum systems

Description: There are two choices of project here which look at issues in the topic ofdecoherence, or the decay of quantum systems. In the first project you will examine how aquantum system coupled to an environment can be understood as a system coupled to a chainof quantum oscillators. This has been of recent interest in understanding photosynthesis.The project will model a simple system using the chain and examine how excitation travelsdown the chain. In the second project a model will be made of a quantum system with threeresonances, which poses interesting issues for simple representations and approximations tothe system because of interferences.

Title: Control of cold atoms with electromagnetic gratingsDescription: Ultra-cold atoms and BECs have the potential to revolutionise the technology of,

for example, interferometry, rotation sensing, and gravimetry. Improving this technologyrequires new kinds of atom traps which are under design and construction. This theory projectwill look at methods for ejecting atoms from their traps and in particular will examine the use ofelectromagnetic gratings (such as standing waves) for creating momentum distributions fromthe cold atoms (i.e. a beam splitter for atoms).

Titile: Cold atoms in rf trapsDescription: In this project you will examine the behaviour of cold atoms in hybrid trapscomposed of magnetic and electromagnetic fields. Modelling of experiments may beundertaken. Double-well potentials leading to applications in matter wave interferometry are ofparticular interest. (Computing ability is essential.)

Dr Winni Hensinger:W.K.Hensinger@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 3A5

Ion Quantum TechnologyQuantum theory can have powerful applications due to the possibility of implementing newquantum technologies such as the quantum computer. While such a device could have veryimportant commercial and national security applications due to the existence of quantumfactoring algorithms, its existence would revolutionize modern day science by allowing truequantum simulations of systems that may be modelled classically only insufficiently due to anin-principle limitation of current computer technology. Recent developments in ion trappingtechnology show that it should be possible to build a quantum computer with trapped ions. Inthe Ion Quantum Technology group at Sussex, we are in the process to build an elementaryquantum computer, an effort that will be based in Sussex but include links to nanofabricationfacilities, ion trapping groups and theorists around the world. (More information on the web:http://www.sussex.ac.uk/physics/iqt/)

1. Laser cooling of ytterbium ionsTrapping single atoms is being described as one of the most demanding experiments in atomicphysics. This project includes experimental work in trapping and cooling single ions towards therealization of an ion trap quantum computer. You will learn about laser cooling of ytterbium ions.

Furthermore, you will study ways how to cool the ions to the quantum mechanical ground state.

mailto:B.M.Garraway@sussex.ac.ukmailto:W.K.Hensinger@sussex.ac.ukhttp://www.sussex.ac.uk/physics/iqt/http://www.sussex.ac.uk/physics/iqt/http://www.sussex.ac.uk/physics/iqt/mailto:W.K.Hensinger@sussex.ac.ukmailto:B.M.Garraway@sussex.ac.uk

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This project includes both theoretical and experimental parts. You will learn how to align lasersonto the ion trap, operation of a laser locking scheme, and the handling of a complicatedimaging system as well as studying the theoretical foundations of how to manipulate ions usinglasers. Your work should leads towards the experimental realisation of ground state coolingwith trapped ions.

2. Advanced ion chips

For large scale quantum computing to occur large scale ion trap arrays need to be designedthat allow optimal storage, shuttling and entanglement operations to be performed. The arraysare constructed within an integrated microchip. In this project you will study how to addadvanced features to ion chips such as digital signal processing, on-chip cavities, fibreconnects along with on-chip resistors and capacitors. In addition, you will devise recipes for theapplication of microwaves on the chip and the implementation of magnetic field gradients. Youwill identify important issues in nanofabrication of ion traps and address such challenges withadvances in condensed matter physics.

3. Exploring optimal ion trap geometriesAt Sussex, we are actively researching optimal in trap geometries for the implementation of

large scale ion trap chips. This project will investigate different ion trap geometries and modeldifferent ion trap junction types. The aim is to find optimal geometries for shuttling, storing andmanipulating single ions. Shuttling of single atomic ions that are used as quantum bits for aquantum computer is a complicated process and we need to understand how single ions canbe efficiently separated from another, turn corners and be decelerated using optimalgeometries for this purpose. Electromagnetic field simulations will determine the ion trappingcharacteristics of different trap geometries. In this project you will research such optimal iontrap geometries and find scaling laws to understand such geometries in depth.

4. Shuttling trapped ions inside arraysIn our group we develop advanced ion trap arrays on a chip. In order to transport ions through

such an array of electrodes the motion of the ion has to be carefully controlled. This projectinvestigates how ions can be carefully shuttled in such an ion trap array without changing theirmotional quantum state. You will investigate optimal ways to transport individual ions anddevelop voltage sequences that are applied to multiple electrodes in order to move ions along aline, transport them through a junction or separate ions that are part of an ion string.

5. Quantum hybrid systems and cryogenic vacuum systemsRealization of quantum hybrid systems is one of the major challenges in modern science. Weplan to couple the quantum state of an ion to that of a macroscopic object, a cantilever or

membrane. Realizing such a system may require the operation of a cryogenic vacuum systemoperating at 4K. Within this project you will analyze what would be required to realize such asystem appropriate for our experiments. You will evaluate and design the system, learningabout cryogenics and determine optimal solutions. You will then design the system using CADsoftware and investigate all relevant practical issues.

6. Entanglement creation and quantum simulators Quantum technology, particularlyquantum computing relies on the ability to entangle ions. Entanglement has been referred byEinstein as spooky and is one of the most counterintuitive predictions of quantum physics. Inorder to create ion entanglement here at Sussex optimal ion quantum gates must be identifiedand the ion trap experiment must be modified to allow for entanglement gates. This may involve

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some theory, programming and experimental work. You will also evaluate how to increase gatefidelities in order to reduce error rates within quantum computing operations.

7. Entanglement with magnetic field gradients.You will devise recipes for the application of microwaves on the chip and the implementation ofmagnetic field gradients for entanglement generation. You will design particular ion chips forthis purpose, optimize their performance and develop practical fabrication designs.

8. Communicating quantum technologyA famous quantum physicist once proclaimed that the only physicists who understand quantumphysics are the ones who know that they dont understand it. Within this project you will analyzethe factors that lead to the difficulty in obtaining an intuitive understanding of quantum physics.Once these factors become clear, you will devise strategies to circumvent such problems andcreate a strategy to communicate quantum technology research to a number of different targetgroups such as the general public, A-level students and undergraduate physics students. Youwill then create appropriate materials such as websites, simulations, applets, handouts andhand-on demonstrations in order effectively communicate quantum technology research. Youwill also measure the efficiency of the created strategy and materials by analyzing its effect on

various target groups. Experience in making websites and interactive simulations would be veryuseful.

Dr Matthias Keller:M.K.Keller@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 3A5a

1. Spectroscopy of molecular ionsIn order to perform high resolution spectroscopy on molecular ions the relevant transitionfrequencies must be known to better than a few MHz. This requires novel spectroscopymethods which combine the continuous generation of molecular ions and the extraction of aspectroscopic signal. The molecular ions will be created in a low pressure gas discharge. Theincrease of the molecules internal energy due to the absorption of light changes the properties

of the gas discharge which will serve as the spectroscopic signal.The goal of this project is to design, build and test an opto-galvanic spectroscopy system and toperform spectroscopy of molecular nitrogen.Skills you will acquire:

- Electronic design and circuit production- Optics design and alignment- Laser spectroscopy- Set up of diode lasers- Vacuum technology

2. Micro-controller based Signal ProcessingElectronic circuits are indispensible in modern molecular physics labs. Often, the requiredprocessing of signals cant be easily done with analogue electronics. Using fastanalogue-to-digital converters together with a micro-controller can serve as a versatile signalprocessing unit. The signal is digitalised and processed by the programmable micro-controllerand then converted back into an analogue signal.The goal of this project is the programming of a PIC micro-controller to serve as a versatilesignal processing system. It includes the design and test of peripheral electronic circuits.Skills you will acquire:

- Electronic design and circuit production- Micro-controller programming

mailto:M.K.Keller@sussex.ac.ukmailto:M.K.Keller@sussex.ac.ukmailto:M.K.Keller@sussex.ac.uk

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3. Frequency doubling of a IR diode laserContinuous lasers in the ultra-violet are important tools for the laser cooling and state detectionof atomic ions. However, often there are no lasers available at the required wavelength. Incontrast, the near IR range of the light spectrum is entirely covered by diode lasers. Theselasers are easy to use, reliable and cheap. In order to generate UV laser radiation, the light ofan IR diode laser is frequency doubled by an intra-cavity non-linear crystal.The goal of this project is to design, plan and build a frequency doubled diode laser system

consisting of an IR diode laser and an optical cavity to enhance the laser power.Skills you will acquire:

- Electronic design and circuit production- Optics design and alignment- Set up of diode lasers

High precision frequency reference for cavity-QED

Experiments in cavity-QED require the stabilisation of all components of the set-up, in particularthe optical resonator and the semiconductor laser sources used for excitation in our laboratory.This is an important requirement for controlling the interaction of ions and photons in schemes

like single photon generation or long distance ion-photon entanglement. As a reference towhich all other tuneable components are stabilised, a semiconductor diode laser is used whichitself is locked to a transition in atomic caesium. In the project, the student will set up this stablediode laser system and compare the precision of different Doppler-free stabilisation methods, inparticular polarization spectroscopy and modulation transfer spectroscopy. The project involveswork with diode lasers, optics and electronics.

Dr Jose Verdu:J.L.Verdu-Galiana@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 4A10

The geonium chip. Cryogenic Penning traps permit the control of the dynamics of a trapped

single electron with very high accuracy. The electron remains confined for months, highlyprotected against decoherence. Moreover, the continuous Stern-Gerlach effect allows forthe coherent manipulation of its spin. A single electron in a Penning trap is known as ageonium atom, where the role of the nucleus is played by the external trapping fields. Thegeonium atom is an outstanding system for testing the laws of physics with very highaccuracy. In our new Atomic Physics laboratory at Sussex we are starting to set-up acryogenic system by means of a Pulse Tube Cryocooler, a closed cycle cryostat with basetemperature around 2.8 K. We have conceived a novel planar trap chip that usessuperconducting microwave resonators and where a single electron will be captured andobserved a geonium chip , which should become a versatile building block for futurequantum circuits.

Two experimental MSc projects are offered:

The first project regards the implementation of a cryogenic electron emitter for loading thetrap with electrons on-demand. This project requires simulations with electron-opticssoftware (SimIon) and the mechanical and electrical design of the system.

The second one regards the design and implementation of a cryogenic detector forobserving a single trapped electron. The task requires the construction and test of a highquality-factor tank-circuit @ 30 MHz, its corresponding cryogenic amplifier and the room

temperature detection electronics.

mailto:J.L.Verdu-Galiana@sussex.ac.ukmailto:J.L.Verdu-Galiana@sussex.ac.ukmailto:J.L.Verdu-Galiana@sussex.ac.uk

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Theorists are also welcome to discuss about possible projects.

Experimental Particle Physics

Dr Alessandro Cerri:a.cerri@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 4A14

The physics of flavour with the ATLAS experiment

The Large Hadron Collider is colliding protons at the highest energies ever achieved in aman-made experiment. This allows us to perfect our understanding of the dynamics of thetiniest constituents of matter, as well as that of the evolution of our universe. Theseunderstandings often happen through precision investigations of phenomena that arealready known, like the so called "flavour sector" of particle physics. Flavour physics isindeed an ideal precision ground to look for indirect concrete evidences of new physics andthe ATLAS experiment has collected a large amount of data which can be used toinvestigate and constrain these contributions, in a physics context which is rich, fruitful andwell understood. Measurements can range from precision determinations of particle

properties (production mechanisms, lifetimes etc.) to the search and identification ofproperties of new particles: the ATLAS heavy flavour group is in fact the one responsible forthe very first new particle discovered at the LHC. In contributing to a study in this topic,you will learn the basic tools of experimental measurements in particle physics: dataanalysis, statistical methods and the simple beauty of this sector of particle physics.

Depending on your skills and interest, the activity can be focused on detector-relatedstudies, data analysis oriented programming (C++, as well as the ROOT analysisframework) and the statistical treatment of data. In all cases you will become part of ananalysis team and contribute to the publication of a new result from the ATLAS experimentat the LHC.

The identification of low-momentum muons in the ATLAS experiment

The first data taking period of the ATLAS experiment has come to a conclusion, and particlephysicists are working to obtain the best possible results out of the data collected so far.The unprecedented energies achieved in the LHC collisions, as well as the large amount ofdata collected, set the experiment in the ideal situation to look for very rare disintegrationsof known particles. Besides the intrinsic interest, these are very important because the tinyprobabilities involved could be significantly affected by the existence of yet undiscoveredparticles: this could be one of the first exciting places where to look for what is around the

corner in our next steps of understanding of the physical universe! One of the mostsensitive and glamorous of these "rare decays" is the disintegration of b-quark bound statesknown as "B mesons" into two light highly-penetrating muons. The purity and efficiency withwhich these muons are identified has an immediate reflection in our ability to identify one ofthe rarest (1 decay every ~ 1000000000) disintegrations ever observed. The aim of thisproject is to employ the information coming from some of the most sophisticated parts of theATLAS detector using advanced statistical techniques to obtain the most precise andaccurate information on the candidate muons used to look for rare B decays. This can havea huge impact in the reach for evidences of new physical processes, and will be part of oneof the most sought-after public results of the ATLAS experiment.

This project, although very specific and very instructive in terms of experimental particle

mailto:a.cerri@sussex.ac.ukmailto:a.cerri@sussex.ac.ukmailto:a.cerri@sussex.ac.uk

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physics data analysis, would benefit from the interest of a student keen on detectorperformance and/or the statistical extraction of information from large amounts of data withtechniques not dissimilar from what used in several other areas (finance, market analysis,machine learning, language and gesture recognition, geological data analysis and mostareas where sifting of large amounts of data is a relevant technique).

The optimal use of information in the study of rare B decays in ATLAS

Statistical data analysis is a major part of experimental particle physics studies. A studentparticularly keen on mathematical/numerical methods with an interestin particle physics could become a major asset to one of the flagship analyses of the ATLASexperiment at the Large Hadron Collider. One of the challenging problems we are trying toeffectively address in this context is the extraction of the best possible limit on very raredisintegrations of known particles: the probability of these events could be affected by newphenomena and could be their first indication at the Large Hadron Collider.Depending on the assumptions, the physics insight and the treatment of "boundary"conditions, these analyses can be very significantly enhanced. The goal of this project is to

combine advanced statistical methods with the best physics insight into developing a smartand effective tool to extract limits on a very specific use case: the development of the mosteffective limit extraction tool in the search for Bs-> mu mu decays in the ATLAS experiment.Extracting a limit is a common statistical inference technique, aimed at deriving fromuncertain observations well defined boundaries on the existenceof a certain phenomena.Although this is a well assessed technique in abstract, its application - as it often happenswith statistics - presents a series of pitfalls and non-trivial aspects that require and stimulatethe development of insight in the problem itself.

This project can be approached by a student relatively new to the world of experimentalparticle physics. The use of numerical computing as a tool for statistical inference will be its

main theme, and proficiency in C++ programming and the use of the ROOT analysisenvironment is desirable or will need to be quickly gained at the early stages of this work.

Fast trajectory reconstruction and retina-like algorithms

We often learn how to better address a practical problem from the methods that nature hasselected in the biological world. The aim of this project is that of applying line-identificationtechniques known to exist in the human visual cortex to a very common problem in particlephysics: the identification of charged particle trajectories from the position of passageas detected by "tracking detectors" (devices capable of measuring with a given accuracy

the passage of particles through a sensitive plane or volume). This is a very innovativetechnique which is still not fully explored. Its application to the ATLAS detector at the CERNLarge Hadron Collider could prove to be a novel interesting inter-disciplinary applicationof the biology of human vision. The high parallelism and locality of this kind of algorithm iswell suited for devices like Graphics Processing Units, capable of "embarrassingly parallel"computations. The aim of this project is that of developing and testing prototype algorithmson such a platform, and evaluate their performances compared to other strategiescommonly used to address this kind of problems.

This project is more suitable for a student with a keen interest in low-level programming ofadvanced digital electronic devices, in particular advanced graphics processors (GPU) and

the CUDA platform. Familiarity with the linux operating system, C/C++ programming and the

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basics of particle detection techniques are a major asset.

In parallel, a student keen in learning advanced digital electronics techniques and the use ofhighly configurable digital electronic devices, such as Field Programmable Gate Arrays,could explore the implementation of this approach - as well as more standardpattern-recognition techniques - on FPGA devices.

Professor Antonella De Santo:A.De-Santo@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 4A12

Title: New Physics searches at ATLAS using LeptonsThe CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) physics program is in full swing, and preparations areunderway in view of future LHC luminosity upgrades. Following the long shutdown currentlyunderway, the LHC will resume operations in 2015, to reach design instantaneous luminositiesand centre-of-mass energies of up to 14 TeV. ATLAS is one of the two multi-purposeexperiments taking data at the LHC. The LHC luminosity upgrades are envisaged to happen intwo stages over the next decade, with expected integrated luminosities collected at ATLAS ofapproximately 300 fb-1 (Phase-1 upgrade) and 3000 fb-1 (Phase-2 upgrade), respectively. In

the very challenging experimental conditions expected at higher luminosities, leptonicsignatures will continue to play a key role for the selection of electro-weak signals, includingfrom "new physics". Triggering will also be a crucial aspect of the event selection. For thisproject, you will analyse ATLAS data, including from simulations, with the aim to optimisetriggering strategies as well as signal event selections for lepton-rich signals fromsupersymmetric scenarios.

For a successful completion of this project, you will need good computing skills (Linux, C++)and a willingness to develop them further as necessary. A solid knowledge of elementaryparticle physics is required. Willingness and ability to work efficiently in a team are alsoessential qualities for the success of this project.

Dr Simon Peeters:S.J.M.Peeters@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 4A5

1. The SNO+ neutrino experiment (http://snoplus.phy.queensu.ca/Home.html)The SNO+ experiment attempts to determine to discover the fundamental nature of neutrinosby looking at a process called neutrinoless double-beta decay, an extremely rare process thatis only possible in a limited amount of radioactive isotopes. This fundamental property is crucialin the understanding of why there is matter in the universe and no anti-matter. In this project,you will learn about and explore the fundamental physics involved with this experiment. You willbe looking at the calibration of this experiment, for which I am responsible, and contribute to a

detailed understanding of this extremely sophisticated instrument. This can be analysis ofcalibration data, or contributing to the development of a calibration system. You will then linkthis understanding to the physics performance of this instrument. Programming ability isrequired, but the work can be either analysis focused or lab based.

2. The DEAP direct dark matter experiment (http://deapclean.org) The DEAP-3600 experimentattempts to directly detect Dark Matter that should prevalent in the Universe. This fundamental,indirectly observed matter has not been observed yet and requires novel experiments to detectthis. DEAP-3600 follows a very promising and unique approach. In this project, you will learnabout and explore the fundamental physics involved with this experiment. You will be looking atthe optical calibration of this experiment, for which I am responsible, and contribute to a

detailed understanding of this extremely sophisticated instrument. This can be analysis

mailto:A.De-Santo@sussex.ac.ukmailto:A.De-Santo@sussex.ac.ukmailto:S.J.M.Peeters@sussex.ac.ukmailto:S.J.M.Peeters@sussex.ac.ukmailto:S.J.M.Peeters@sussex.ac.ukmailto:A.De-Santo@sussex.ac.uk

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of calibration data, or contributing to the development of a calibration system. You will then linkthis understanding to the physics performance of this instrument. Programming ability isrequired, but the work can be either analysis focused or lab based.

Dr Mike Hardiman:M.Hardiman@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 3A6

Instrumentation Development for the Cryogenic Neutron edm Experiment

CryoEDM is aparticle physics experiment aiming to measure the electric dipole moment(EDM) of theneutron to a precision of ~10-28ecm. The project follows the Sussex/RAL/ILLnEDM experiment, which set the current best upper limit of 2.910-26ecm. To reach theimproved sensitivity, cryoEDM uses a new source ofultracold neutrons (UCN), which worksby scattering cold neutrons insuperfluid helium. The experiment is located at theInstitutLaueLangevin inGrenoble.

The technique is essentially to perform magnetic resonance on stored ultra-cold neutrons,whilst exposing them to a very high electric field. There are stringent requirements on thestability of both the magnetic and electric fields. The project would be concerned withdevelopment of some part of the instrumentation used to monitor one of these fields. It

will involve considerable experimental work in the laboratory, for which some aptitude isdesirable.

Professor Philip Harris:P.G.Harris@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 4A6

The search for a permanent electric dipole moment (EDM) of the neutron is one of the UK'sthree top-priority particle-physics experiments: EDMs violate both parity and time-reversalsymmetries, and as such they are crucial in our quest to understand the dominance of matterover antimatter in the Universe. This project will use computer simulations to study thebehaviour of stored ultracold neutrons within the EDM experiment in order to understand betterthe observed features such as depolarization and energy-dependent losses.

Dr Fabrizio Salvatore:P.F.Salvatore@sussex.ac.uk Room Pevensey II 4A4

1. Experimental Particle Physics: Search for susy partner of the top quark in decays to tauleptons with the ATLAS Detector at CERN

Supersymmetry (SUSY) introduces a new symmetry between fermions and bosons, resulting ina SUSY partner particle (sparticle) for each Standard Model (SM) particle, with identical massand quantum numbers except a difference by half a unit of spin. As none of these sparticleshave been observed with the same masses as their SM partners, SUSY must be a broken

symmetry if realised in nature, with the mass of the SUSY particles much higher than their SMpartners. One of the most important sparticles is the SUSY partner of the top quark (stop),given that the top is the quark with the highest mass and therefore the one that couples stronglywith the newly discovered Higgs boson. SUSY particles decay through cascades involvingother sparticles until the lightest SUSY particle (LSP), which is stable, is produced. Onepossible decay of the stop quark would be through the SUSY partner of the tau lepton (stau),resulting at the end in final states with taus and missing energy from the escaping tau neutrinosand LSPs. In this project the student will analyse newly simulated MC events produced by theATLAS experiment, where the decay chain stop--> stau is simulated. He/she will develop ananalysis strategy based on the generated events to estimate the sensitivity of an analysislooking for final states containing one or mote tau leptons. The student will be developing the

analysis program in the C++ programming language, using the ROOT analysis framework

mailto:M.Hardiman@sussex.ac.ukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics%22%20%5Co%20%22Particle%20physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_dipole_moment%22%20%5Co%20%22Electric%20dipole%20momenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron%22%20%5Co%20%22Neutronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultracold_neutrons%22%20%5Co%20%22Ultracold%20neutronshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluid%22%20%5Co%20%22Superfluidhttp://turnstone/HOME7/SJP40/Application%20Data/Cyrusoft/Mulberry/Temporary%20Files/View%20Attachments/%22http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_Laue%25E2%2580%2593Langevin%22%20/o%20%22Institut%20Lauehttp://turnstone/HOME7/SJP40/Application%20Data/Cyrusoft/Mulberry/Temporary%20Files/View%20Attachments/%22http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_Laue%25E2%2580%2593Langevin%22%20/o%20%22Institut%20Lauehttp://turnstone/HOME7/SJP40/Application%20Data/Cyrusoft/Mulberry/Temporary%20Files/View%20Attachments/%22http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_Laue%25E2%2580%2593Langevin%22%20/o%20%22Institut%20Lauehttp://turnstone/HOME7/SJP40/Application%20Data/Cyrusoft/Mulberry/Temporary%20Files/View%20Attachments/%22http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_Laue%25E2%2580%2593Langevin%22%20/o%20%22Institut%20Lauehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenoble%22%20%5Co%20%22Grenoblemailto:P.G.Harris@sussex.ac.ukmailto:P.F.Salvatore@sussex.ac.ukmailto:P.F.Salvatore@sussex.ac.ukmailto:P.G.Harris@sussex.ac.ukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenoble%22%20%5Co%20%22Grenoblehttp://turnstone/HOME7/SJP40/Application%20Data/Cyrusoft/Mulberry/Temporary%20Files/View%20Attachments/%22http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_Laue%25E2%2580%2593Langevin%22%20/o%20%22Institut%20Lauehttp://turnstone/HOME7/SJP40/Application%20Data/Cyrusoft/Mulberry/Temporary%20Files/View%20Attachments/%22http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_Laue%25E2%2580%2593Langevin%22%20/o%20%22Institut%20Lauehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluid%22%20%5Co%20%22Superfluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultracold_neutrons%22%20%5Co%20%22Ultracold%20neutronshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron%22%20%5Co%20%22Neutronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_dipole_moment%22%20%5Co%20%22Electric%20dipole%20momenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics%22%20%5Co%20%22Particle%20physicsmailto:M.Hardiman@sussex.ac.uk

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(root.cern.ch).

2. Experimental Particle Physics: Looking for Supersymmetry (SUSY) at ATLAS intau+leptons final states.

Many SUSY models predict the presence of leptons in the final states of the interaction.These leptons (electron/muon/tau) come from long cascade decays of the SUSY particles andcan be of the same flavour (ee/mumu/tautau) or of different flavour (emu/etau/mutau) and also

have the same or opposite charge. In this project the student will be using advanced analysisprograms to look for events in the ATLAS data and Montecarlo where 2 or more leptons areproduced, and study the kinematical properties of these events that can be used to separatethe signal event from the Standard Model background. In a second part of the project, thestudent will study events with 2 same flavour leptons + an additional lepton of different flavourin the final state, and study the increase in sensitivity to the SUSY parameter space withrespect to analyses where only 2 leptons are produced. The student will be developing theanalysis program in the C++ programming language, using the ROOT analysis framework(root.cern.ch).

Dr Elisabeth Falk: E.Falk@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 4A8

Neutrinoless double beta decay with the SNO+ experiment

Can the neutrino, one of the least understood building blocks of matter, be its own antiparticle?The existence of an extremely rare form of radioactive decay called neutrinoless double betadecay would give the answer "yes". This in turn would help us understand why the universe ismade up of matter and no anti-matter.

The SNO+ experiment is an exceedingly sensitive instrument located in a nickel mine 2 kmunderground in Canada. Its main scientific goal is to search for neutrinoless double beta decayin a particular radioactive isotope. A positive result would be a major scientific discovery.

The isotope will be dissolved in a liquid that emits light when electrically charged particles giveup energy to it. One of the calibration systems will inject light from LEDs into the liquid in order tohelp determine the precision of the physics measurements. You will use simulated data and datafrom a preparatory data-taking phase to study and optimise aspects of the calibration andanalysis of neutrinoless double beta decay data. There may also be opportunities to makelaboratory measurements as part of the optimisation of the calibration system.

Programming skills will be required; experience with Linux/C++ is an advantage.

Theoretical Particle Physics

Dr Xavier Calmet:X.Calmet@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 5A9

1. Models of dark matterThe LHC at CERN has just confirmed the Standard Model by finding the Higgs boson whichwas the last missing ingredient of that model. However, theorists know that this cannot be theend of the story as there is no viable dark matter candidate within that model. You will studyextensions of the Standard Model which include a dark matter candidate taking into account therecent data from the LHC. You will review the literature learning about the different indicationswe have for dark matter, abundance calculations and study the different proposals on the

market to describe dark matter (axion, susy dark matter, primordial black holes etc.). You will

mailto:X.Calmet@sussex.ac.ukmailto:X.Calmet@sussex.ac.uk

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then formulate an effective field theory to describe dark matter and study bounds on itsparameters coming from particle physics measurements as well as cosmological observations.

Dr Stephan Huber:S.Huber@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 5A13

1. Extra dimensions:It is possible that there are more than three space dimensions in nature. These extra

dimensions could be responsible for observed properties of particles, e.g. their masses andcouplings. In this project you will study a higher dimensional version of the Standard Model andinvestigate its consequences for particle colliders, such as the LHC.

2. Electroweak symmetry breaking in the early universe:In the very early universe the electroweak symmetry of the Standard Model was unbroken, i.e.there was no Higgs field present. Extensions of the Standard Model predict that the breaking ofthis symmetry occurred via a first-order thermal phase transition (EWPT). This process couldbe the origin of the cosmic baryon asymmetry, and generate an observable signal ofgravitational waves. You will study the properties of the EWPT (i.e. the jump in the Higgs field,the latent heat, etc.) in a model with extra Higgs fields, and derive consequences for particles

physics and cosmology. This will be done by analysing the thermal potential of the Higgs fields.One aim is to test if the model is capable of generating the baryon asymmetry.

3. SupersymmetrySupersymmetry is one of the leading ideas for new physics. In the supersymmetric StandardModel each known particle obtains a partner of different spin. These so called superpartnersare supposed to have masses around the electroweak scale and to date are intensivelysearched for at LHC. In the project you will analyse the supersymmetric particle spectrum of aspecific realization of supersymmetry and draw conclusions on the possible signals at the LHC.

Dr Sebastian Jaeger:S.Jaeger@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 5A15

New physics models at the LHCAn exciting new era in particle physics has begun with the LHC experiments at CERN takingdata. Physicists expect ATLAS, CMS,and LHCb to discover new particles related to thedynamics explaining the electroweak mass scale (supersymmetry, extra spacetime dimensions,ore more 'exotic'), and explore their interactions.In this project, you will learn to make theoreticalpredictions for LHC experiments and use these to constrain or identify new physics models.

Dr Daniel Litim:D.Litim@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 5A12

1. Quantum gravity in higher dimensionsMany particle theory models assume that the fundamental theory for gravity involves more than4 dimensions. In this project, you explore higher-dimensional gravity and it's connections withthe 4- dimensional theory using the renormalisation group.

2. Infrared behaviour of gravityIn this project, you will explore the modifications to gravity as induced by long-distance quantumeffects. You will develop a code to study renormalisation group equations for gravity. We wantto understand whether infrared effects will lead to a modification of the gravitational force law.

3. Phase transitions and the renormalisation group

mailto:S.Huber@sussex.ac.ukmailto:S.Huber@sussex.ac.ukmailto:S.Huber@sussex.ac.ukmailto:S.Jaeger@sussex.ac.ukmailto:D.Litim@sussex.ac.ukmailto:D.Litim@sussex.ac.ukmailto:D.Litim@sussex.ac.ukmailto:S.Jaeger@sussex.ac.ukmailto:S.Huber@sussex.ac.uk

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Phase transitions in Nature are either continuous (second order) or discontinuous (first order).In this project, you apply the techniques of the renormalisation group to analyse first orderphase transitions as relevant for eg. the QCD phase transition.

4. Large-N limit in field theoryThis project deals with the large-N limit in field theory, where N is the number of fields. We wantto understand whether phase transitions and critical behaviour change in this particular limit, or

not. As an application, we will look into the seminal Bardeen, Moshe and Bander phenomenonin 3d scalar theories, which we want to understand using modern renormalisation grouptechnique

5. Black holes, quantum gravity and non-commutative geometryThis project aims at a comparison of salient features of black hole physics modified either byquantum gravity or by effects from non- commutative geometry. You will learn the basics ofeither set-up and evaluate similarities and differences of these two approaches when applied toblack holes.

Prof Mark Hindmarsh:M.B.Hindmarsh@sussex.ac.uk Room: Pevensey II 5A11

Numerical Simulations of Phase Transitions in the Early Universe

Modern particle physics predicts that the very early Universe went through a series of phase

transitions, which may have produced extended objects called topological defects. In this

project the student will study phase transitions using numerical simulations: specific problems

include the propagation and collision of phase boundaries, the formation and evolution of

domain walls or cosmic strings. Basic knowledge of C is essential, and some familiarity with Unix

would be useful. Recommended courses: General Relativity, Quantum Field Theory, C++.

Production of Gravitational Waves in the Early Universe

Violent processes in the early universe - such as phase transitions - would have generated

gravitational waves. In this project, the student can examine possible sources from new physics

at very high energy, calculate the amplitude and frequency spectrum of the resulting

gravitational waves, and assess the possibilities for detection by a future space-based

gravitational wave observatory. Recommended courses: General Relativity, Quantum Field

Theory, Early Universe.

Dr Andrea Banfi:a.banfi@sussex.ac.uk Room Pevensey II 5A16

Jet physics at the LHC

Hadronic jets, highly collimated bunches of energetic hadrons, are ubiquitous in today's particle

physics. The student will learn Quantum Chromo-Dynamics (QCD), the theory underlying jet

physics, and will be able to compute an observable involving jets, relevant either for precision

studies or new physics searches at the LHC. During the project the student will also

become familiar with various technical tools, like methods for numerical analyses, and

programming in various languages (Fortran, C++,Perl, Python).

Dr Veronica Sanz:v.sanz@sussex.ac.uk Room Pevensey 2 5A14

mailto:M.B.Hindmarsh@sussex.ac.ukmailto:M.B.Hindmarsh@sussex.ac.ukmailto:M.B.Hindmarsh@sussex.ac.ukmailto:a.banfi@sussex.ac.ukmailto:a.banfi@sussex.ac.ukmailto:a.banfi@sussex.ac.ukmailto:v.sanz@sussex.ac.ukmailto:v.sanz@sussex.ac.ukmailto:v.sanz@sussex.ac.ukmailto:a.banfi@sussex.ac.ukmailto:M.B.Hindmarsh@sussex.ac.uk

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1. Warped Extra-dimensional models. In this project the student will learn about theories with

new dimensions of space-time, and implement in Feynrules (a Mathematica package) the

interactions of a very attractive model for the Large Hadron Collider, the bulk Randall-Sundrum

model.

2. Higgscouplings fits. The student will learn the basic concepts of the Higgsmechanism and

use data coming from the Large Hadron Colllider to produce a fitof the Higgscouplings.

The fitwill be done in Mathematica, and then used to constrain new physics, such as

Supersymmetry.