msu.edu€¦ · Web viewThese range from dog sledding, fishing, and bird watching to sea and white water kayaking. Also, the popularity Also, the popularity of adventure activities,

117

13Interpretation, Museums, and Historic Preservation

Gail A. Vander Stoep Garth McHattie6

118 Recreation in Michigan: Great Professional Opportunities

Wooden shoe maker, Tulip Festival, Ottawa County. (Photo courtesy of the Michigan Travel Bureau.)

This chapter encompasses three interrelated fields—interpretation, museums, and historicpreservation. These fields are closely related to environmental education (see chapter 14).

6 Garth McHattie was responsible for the Historic Preservation sections and related materials.

Interpretation

So what is this thing called interpretation? Interpretation is a process, a process of communicating about nature, history and/or culture. Rather than simply communicating “facts,” interpretation attempts to reveal meanings and relationships about issues, objects or concepts, with a focus on making the information relevant to people. Information that does not have meaning to individuals is not effective interpretation.

Interpretation can be applied in many different settings, such as museums, nature centers, parks, historic sites, zoos, aquaria, environmental centers associated with schools, living history farms, arboretums, cultural centers, and planetariums. Effective interpretation uses many different techniques, both personal and non-personal, including tours, exploration activities, talks, slides or film or video productions, exhibits, audio messages, publications, theater, storytelling, music, puppets, interactive displays, computers, multimedia-media productions, and others.

While interpretive techniques, approaches and locations may change as demographics, technology and social structures change, there are some basic principles which remain consistent. Freeman Tilden (1977), sometimes called the “Father of Interpretation,” has identified six.

1. Interpretation must somehow relate what is being displayed or described or explored to something within the personality or experience of individuals participating; it must be relevant to them and their lives.

2. Information, while providing the basis for interpretation, is not interpretation by itself. Rather, interpretation should facilitate revelation (sort of the ah-ha! or light bulb idea) in the participants based on the information.

3. Interpretation, as an art, taps into a variety of media and methods which, when combined with the message, effectively communicates ideas.

4. The purpose of interpretation is to provoke, not simply to instruct or teach. This implies that the process is participant-oriented rather than instructor/interpreter-oriented.


5. Interpretation should present “whole” stories rather than lots of unconnected, irrelevant facts. These “whole” stories should focus on systems, interrelationships between objects, and relationships between the stories and the people.

6. Interpretation for children should be presented in ways appropriate for their learning styles and experience repertoires as well as their physical, social, cognitive and emotional development levels. It should not be simply a “watered down” version of adult interpretation.

Tilden’s principles provide guidelines for the interpretive process. The magic of learning and discovery should be the result. Do you have an interest in helping create opportunities for this magic to happen? Do you have an interest in sharing things that are fascinating to you with others? Do you like to help others (children or adults) discover new things? Do you have a passion for history, or culture, or the natural world that you would like to share with others? Are you interested in writing, or graphic design, or exhibit planning, or theater, or storytelling, or music? If so, then perhaps the field of interpretation, may be a career option for you.




Museums

Museums, while often involved with interpretive media and program development, have additional functions and responsibilities. They provide places where art objects, artifacts (e.g., cultural objects, historic objects, equipment), specimens (e.g., plants, animals, insects), documents, photographs and other objects are catalogued and stored safely. Museum collections provide not only archives of objects and records, but a storehouse of objects and information that can be used for all kinds of research. Consequently, they become repositories of history and culture. Museum interpretation (sometimes called public service or education), whether presented on-site or through outreach channels, provides the link between what is archived and people in the community. Media, methods and message topics are just as diverse for museums as they are for “interpretation.” Often, and mistakenly, museums are stereotyped as places where “lots of old things are crammed in glass cases, marked with yellowing labels,” that visitors can look at. But today many museums are much more vibrant and alive, responding to changes in museum philosophy that place increasing emphasis on education and public service, while maintaining intellectual rigor. Museum exhibits are designed to involve the visitors, to relate issues and information to people’s lives, to encourage personal exploration of ideas, and to facilitate dialogue among people about ideas and issues. Outreach programs—to schools, shopping malls, county and state fairs, community groups—extend the reach of museum messages. Additionally, many museums and cultural centers are involved with celebrating and sharing current culture, again making the messages come alive and have relevance for people and their communities.

How Did These Fields Develop?Interpretation and Visitor Services

Informal movies and campfire programs were first conducted by Michigan Department of Natural Resources (DNR) park rangers in the early 1950s. The first permanent interpreters (his torians and naturalists) were hired in the late 1950s. In the 1970s, the Youth Conservation Corps (YCC) was quite active in Michigan. This program involved youth in many different projects to protect the environment and provide facilities for outdoor recreation activities (e.g., trail building). An integral component of the program was environmental and conservation education.

Also in the 1970s, the State Parks joined hands with the 4-H program to hire youth activity leaders to conduct a variety of nature and outdoor activity programs with children. The Visitor Services Program peaked in the late 1970s, employing a total of 30 permanent and seasonal interpreters in parks throughout the state. Budget cuts in the early 1980s forced closure of most of the interpretive programs and facilities. Since that time, using the Sand Dune Visitor Center in P.J. Hoffmaster State Park as the core natural resource center, the State Parks and Recreation Division has been building a system of themed natural resource centers. These centers include: Sand Dune Visitor Center (Hoffmaster S.P.), Wilderness Visitor Center (Porcupine Mountains S.P.), Michigan Forestry Center (Hartwick Pines S.P.), Great Lakes Visitor Center (Ludington S.P.), Geology Center (Waterloo S.P.), Hunting and Fishing Visitor Center (Mitchell S.P.), the Saginaw Bay Visitor Center (Bay City S.P.). Under an operating agreement between the DNR and the Department of State’s Bureau of History, several historic sites provide tours, living

Interpretation, Museums, and Historic Preservation 119




history programs, exhibits and other interpretive programs. The types of collaborative arrangements and contributions of each agency vary from site to site.

Around 1960, the Association of Interpretive Naturalists (AIN) was established to provide a forum for interpretive training and sharing. Regions provided more local opportunities for Michigan interpreters. The Michiana (Michigan and Indiana) region was one of the strongest. In 1989, AIN merged with the Western Interpreters Association (WIA) to form a new organization, the National Association for Interpretation (NAI). Slightly more than 100 individuals in Michigan are members of NAI.

Museums

Museums have existed for a long time. Even many small communities have their own museums, most of them historical museums that collect and archive objects and artifacts of “town fathers” and residents throughout the area’s history. However, historic museums did not develop all at once. The Historical Society of Michigan in 1879 was given two rooms in the new capital building to display their collections. These two rooms were the birthplace of the Historical Museum of Michigan.

The history of museums in Michigan reflects the history of museum philosophy across the United States. Perhaps the easiest way to track changes in the philosophy of museums is to look at the language in the mission statements of the Michigan Historical Museums System. With the formation of the Bureau of History in 1913, the mission of the museums was to “collect, arrange, and preserve” historic objects, artifacts and documents. Museums became places where thousands of artifacts were collected, then placed on shelves or in display cases, leading to the stereotype of museums as only collections. Visitors could look at the collections, but no efforts were made to educate the public or make the artifacts and their stories relevant. By the middle of the 20th century, the mission statement dropped the word “arrange” and inserted “collect, protect and preserve.” The emphasis still was on collecting, researching and protecting objects. By the mid-1970s, the word “interpret” was added to the mission statement. At this time, museums began to organize information differently and to interpret the objects and their meanings to the public (still probably a relatively elite public). In the early 1990s, the mission statement was changed again to reflect an expanded philosophy for museums. The unique mission is to “preserve, interpret and help people discover, enjoy and find inspiration in their heritage.” The education and interpretation function is now solidly established. Emphasis now is on expanding outreach activities, creating connections with communities, and meeting the needs of (and telling the stories of) diverse cultural groups.

While many well-established museums are expanding their missions, and small museums previously operated by volunteers are hiring professional staff, new local museums operated by volunteers continue to “spring up” across the state. Each of them probably will follow a pattern of development and program offerings in their own growth stages that parallel development of museums throughout the 20th century.

Historic Preservation

In the realm of historic preservation, prior to 1966 most preservation work was being carried out by volunteers—people who had a special connection with a certain site, period of his tory, or artifacts. Preservation of Mount Vernon in the mid-l9th century may be perhaps one of the earliest, best-known historic buildings preserved in the United States. Despite scattered, private efforts to preserve this and similar structures, historic preservation was slow to “catch on.” In 1966, however, the United States Conference of Mayors produced a report entitled



With Heritage So Rich, which expressed the importance of preserving history as an important part of our national heritage. Shortly thereafter, the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 was passed and the Advisory Committee on Historic Preservation was established (Fitch, 1990).

Development of the automobile in the early 20th century allowed people to travel more easily and greater distances than ever before. Travel for pleasure became a leisure pursuit, allowing people to travel to natural and cultural resource sites, often just out of curiosity. In Michigan, auto travelers became curious about the old buildings of Fort Wilkins in Copper Har bor. As in many other places, these curiosity seekers prompted furnishing of the buildings’ interiors and mounting of signs to identify the sites. Another Michigan historic site receiving tourist visitation as early as the 1920s was the popular Walker Tavern, located in Lenawee County. At that time, this site was an intriguing combination of antique shop and tourist “trap.” Col lected within the buildings was a variety of objects, complete with accompanying stories, about anyone famous who had lived or visited in the area. Since then the philosophy for historic preservation and dissemination of historic information to visitors has changed greatly.

Michigan TodayMichigan is full of places where interpretive opportunities abound. Check out any “what’s happening this week” section of

your local newspaper and you will find a plethora of opportunities listed: museums, nature centers, folklife festivals, cultural celebrations, special displays at the mall, theme or seasonal programs at the local zoo or planetarium, special events at nature centers or parks, historic re-enactments, farm days, industrial tours (factories, microbreweries, hydropower plants, etc.), historic home tours. Many of the sites and/or services are owned, operated or managed by the public sector (local, county, state or federal government) or private non-profit organizations, or some combination of the two. While some private collections exist in Michigan, very few, if any, museums are commercial enterprises. Some institutions are small, such as most local nature centers (Chippewa Nature Center and Kalamazoo Nature Center) or county museums (Muskegon County Museum); others are large, with multiple divisions and profit centers (Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village). Still others are units of larger man agement systems, such as Sleeping Bear Dunes (National Park Service), Hartwick Pines Logging Camp Museum (Michigan Historical Museums Section of the Bureau of History and the State Parks and Recreation Division of the Michigan Department of Natural Resources), and the Gerald E. Eddy Geology Center (State Parks and Recreation Division of the Michigan Department of Natural Resources).

Many historic sites and organizations celebrate periods of history, military influence or specific industries that have shaped lifestyles and Michigan’s course of history. Examples include:

the mining industry (Michigan Iron Industry Museum, Iron Mountain Iron Mine, Coppertown USA Mining Museum, Arcadian Copper Mine Tours, Fayette Historic State Park),

the lumbering industry (Mill Creek Sawmill, White Pine Village, Hartwick Pines Lumbering Museum), the importance of Great Lakes shipping and fishing (Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum, Maritime and Harbor

Museum, Lake Michigan Maritime Museum), native cultures (Marquette Mission Park and Museum of O]ibwa Culture, Luckhard Indian Museum, Sanilac

Petroglyphs),




military history (Fort Mackinac, Colonial Michilimackinac, Fort Wilkins Historic Complex), the auto industry (Henry Ford Estate, Henry Ford Museum, R.E. Olds Transportation Museum,

Gilmore-Classic Car Club Museums), and agriculture (Selinsky-Green Farmhouse Museum, Kensington Farm Park).

Numerous historic homes and local historic museums, located across Michigan, supplement the historic and cultural stories of the state and personalize history for local residents. As local residents become involved with their history, a frequent result is growth of a sense of community and pride in their community.

Numerous local nature centers and several children’s museums (incorporating science, cul ture, music and theater topics) and science museums provide numerous opportunities for natural history interpretation and environmental education. Zoos, botanical gardens, planetariums, arboretums, outdoor education centers, camps and free lance interpreters provide additional types of nature-based recreation and learning opportunities. Many sites and free lance interpreters combine natural, historic and cultural messages, weaving the influence of many variables in people’s lives.

New museums are being designed as community meeting and resource centers as well as places to exhibit things. The intent is to make museums more integral parts of living communities. One example is the new public museum in Grand Rapids, the Van Andel Museum Center. The main exhibit, “Furniture City,” spotlights the development of Grand Rapids from a small trading post village to a booming furniture manufacturing city, thereby relating to the residents through their community’s historic roots. The museum design includes rooms where commu-nity groups can conduct meetings, workshops, and lectures, thereby making it truly a “community gathering place.”

AgenciesWithin the state of Michigan, numerous government agencies are involved with natural, cultural or historic

interpretation to some degree. A number of these have already been identified in the foregoing discussion. Some of the primary state and federal agencies are described briefly.

Bureau of Michigan History (Michigan Historical Museums System)

The Michigan Historical Museums System is responsible for the management of and interpretation for the Michigan Historical Museum (Lansing) plus nine other sites throughout Michigan, including sites as diverse as the Mann House (Victorian house), Walker Tavern Historic Complex, the Michigan Iron Industry Museum, Hartwick Pines Logging Camp Museum, Civilian Conservation Corps Museum, Fort Wilkins, Sanilac Petroglyphs, and the Father Marquette National Memorial and Museum.

The Bureau maintains the State Archives, records of local and state government and related manuscripts. The State Historic Preservation Office is responsible for the state’s historical marker program and for collecting and maintaining information interpreting Michigan sites listed on the state and national registers. The Bureau is also the home of the State Archaeologist. The MSU Museum is the primary repository of Great Lakes artifacts for the State of Michigan. However, the Bureau, in cooperation with the Department of Natural Resources, coordinates





the Underwater Archeology Program (some 6,000 shipwrecks lie at the bottom of the Great Lakes), conducting research, producing books, and publishing information in their Michigan History Magazine.

MSU Museum

The MSU Museum is a partner with the State Bureau of History. The Museum has been designated as the state Museum of Natural and Cultural History, serving as the state repository for biological and archaeological collections. As part of its mission, the Museum staff train Department of Natural Resources staff.

Department of Natural Resources

The State Parks and Recreation Division, after many years of limited funding of park interpretive programs, now is increasing its emphasis on interpretive opportunities. Facilitating legislation includes the November 1994 passage of Proposal P, which will provide an additional source of funds for park maintenance, management and programs.

The Wildlife Division has been involved in the development of resource materials supportive of environmental education and has provided some in-service training for teachers. The WISE program (solid waste management), just one example of resource materials, is implemented by Michigan United Conservation Clubs (MUCC). The Wildlife Division also produces a variety of posters about Michigan flora and fauna.

The Fisheries Division manages the Michigan Fisheries Interpretive Center at its Wolf Lake Hatchery near Kalamazoo.

(See chapter 10 for further description of DNR areas.)

Mackinac State Historic Parks

This agency, which remains totally independent of DNR’s State Parks Division, is responsible for protecting, managing and interpreting three sites in Michigan: Mackinac Island State Historic Park (which includes Fort Mackinac), Colonial Michilimackinac, and Mill Creek. Interpretive opportunities within Mackinac State Historic Parks include re-enactments, costumed interpretation, music, reconstructed buildings, exhibits, tours, audio-visual programs and special events. (For history, see chapter 10.)

U.S. Department of the Interior

Isle Royale National Park, Keewenaw Historic Park, Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore and Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore are the four units in Michigan managed by the National Park Service (see chapter 10). On-site programs, tours, self-guided auto tours and exhibits as well as some off-site outreach programs and materials are provided by national parks and lakeshores.

The Fish and Wildlife Service administers three refuges in Michigan, the Seney National Wildlife Refuge, the Shiawassee National Wildlife Refuge, and the Kirtland Warbler Refuge (see chapter 10). The USFWS is increasingly becoming involved with interpretive programming, both on-site and with outreach programs.





US. Department of Agriculture

Four national forests (Hiawatha, Huron, Manistee and Ottawa) are located in Michigan (see chapter 10). They provide interpretive/education materials on forest ecology concepts. Some national forests in the United States have elaborate visitor information/interpretive centers (often targeted at tourists), while others are just beginning their involvement with interpretive programs.

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration

The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Marine Sanctuary program has been actively involved in the Great Lakes since 1991, when NOAA joined efforts with the State of Michigan to determine the feasibility of a sanctuary in Thunder Bay, Lake Huron. A primary goal of the National Marine Sanctuary program is education, in conjunction with research and resource protection.

Watchable Wildlife

While not an agency, Watchable Wildlife is a national program to encourage people to view wildlife across the country. Numerous federal agencies (e.g., National Park Service, US Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, US Fish and Wildlife Service) and conservation organizations are partners in this program which promotes conservation through wildlife-related recreation and tourism. The program’s focus is to promote non-consumptive wildlife recreation such as wildlife viewing and photography to increase appreciation and understanding of wild life. Interpretation and education are integral components of the program.

LinkagesThere are many linkages among interpretation, museums and historic preservation, particularly as related to

various settings. There also are linkages to environmental education (see chapter 14).

On-Site

Traditionally, much interpretation (both environmental and historic) has taken place on-site, based on the belief that people should visit the actual place having significant historic, natural or cultural values and get firsthand knowledge and experience with the site. Therefore, programming, whether delivered personally or through non-personal media, such as brochures and exhibits, where no live interpreters are available, tends to focus on the site.

Personal programs include talks, guided tours, demonstrations, live audio-visual programs, interactive programs, living history programs and costumed interpretation, re-enactments, hikes, campfire programs and informal discussions with visitors. Non-personal opportunities include museum exhibits (static as well as interactive), self-guided trails (by foot or vehicle, with brochures, signs-in-place, or audio devices), wayside (roadside) exhibits, historic structures, videos, films, slide shows, interactive computer programs, brochures and other publications.





Schools frequently take class field trips to sites. Often, special programs and materials are developed to focus on specific concepts of interest to schools or school districts. These materials usually include pre- and post-trip learning experiences that classroom teachers may use to prepare their students for the on-site experience and to follow up the trip with reinforcement and expanded learning opportunities. Some organizations also provide training for teachers, sometimes as a prerequisite for participation of their classes in programs.

Because many schools face transportation restrictions or do not have the budgets to take students to sites, increasing emphasis is being placed on developing outreach programs for schools (see Outreach Strategies).

Camps

Summer camps, both residential and day camps, often incorporate some elements of environmental education or nature study within their broader programs. A number of curricula exist that have been developed over the past 25 years or so. Some of these include OBIS (Outdoor Biological Instructional Services), Project Wild/Project Learning Tree/Project Wet, Acclimatization, Sunship Earth and related activity programs, materials developed by agencies such as the USDA Forest Service and the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), formerly the Soil Conservation Service, Cornell’s series (Sharing Nature with Children, and Sharing the Joy of Nature), and others. Many of these materials are used by camp staff to help campers explore and understand the natural world. (NOTE: All of these materials are used in environmental education and interpretation programs in many other contexts and settings in addition to camps.)

Tourism

While the most common reason for people to travel (other than business) is to visit family and friends, another major reason is to visit new places and see new things. Many travelers, even when traveling primarily for business or to visit family or friends, incorporate visits to “places.” See section Michigan Today for many of the sites tourist may visit.

Additionally, the tourism business often has group tours that require tour guides who can “interpret” both the destination sites and the landscapes through which they travel.

In Michigan, areas of growth within the tourism business include expanded emphasis on nature-based tourism (to take advantage of the popularity of ecotourism), agri-tourism and heritage tourism. All of these incorporate various elements of interpretation, both to enhance the tourists’ travel experiences and to help manage and protect the natural and historic sites being visited. (See also chapter 4, Travel and Tourism Industry.)

Historic Preservation

A people’s history and culture are integral components of their identity. Historic records and objects, if preserved, can help provide a link with both our past and our culture. A variety of agencies, organizations and support legislation promote the importance of identifying nationally, state wide and locally significant sites associated with history, tradition or cultural heritage that merit preservation or restoration. These sites, when combined with interpretive messages, facilitate awareness, understanding and connections with our past and our cultural traditions. It is the messages that make the sites and stories come alive. Michigan has numerous




preserved and restored sites (e.g., Greenfield Village, Fort Wilkins, Fort Michilimackinac) which provide a variety of interpretive experiences for visitors. Historical markers placed throughout the state supplement the stories told by restored sites. Even the state highway map produced by the Michigan Department of Transportation encourages travelers to read the markers:

Official State Historical Markers have been placed by the Michigan Bureau of History, Department of State, at over 700 historic sites and areas. Commemorated are such points as the arrival of British, French, and other groups who helped settle the state, missionary activities, forts, water-ways, mining, lumbering, historic highways, Lincoln’s only public appearance in Michigan, the beginnings or growth of education institutions, conservation, Great Lake commerce and the automobile. Markers are placed at or near historic sites, in buildings and in state and local parks (Michigan Department of Transportation, 1991).

Outreach Strategies

Outreach interpretation is becoming increasingly important as interpreters and museum educators attempt to reach urban audiences, multi-cultural audiences, and those who do not generally choose to visit museums or nature centers, or who do not travel great distances to visit unique cultural, historic and natural sites. The new philosophy is, “If they don’t come to us, we’ll just have to go to them.” Often this means rethinking interpretive approaches, seeking appropriate places where underserved audiences tend to go already, and looking for more effective ways to communicate the messages.

A number of strategies are being used. Traveling interpreters take their “show on the road,” traveling to schools or other meeting places where youth gather (organized youth groups, after-school programs, etc.).

Museums and interpretive centers often are involved in developing traveling exhibits on special topics. When students can’t visit an interpretive site or the interpretive staff cannot meet the outreach travel demands, special curricula, often incorporating teaching kits, can be produced. Adult training workshops often are held in conjunction with such teaching kits. Many times teachers (or youth leaders) are required to attend a training session in order to be eligible to check out a teaching kit.

Programs, booths, and displays are often used at community events, such as county fairs, the state fair, ethnic festivals, cultural festivals, music festivals and other special events which attract many community residents. Shopping malls also provide an excellent place to reach people.

Free-Lance Interpreters and Consultants

Free lance interpreters are people who offer their interpretive services “for hire.” Usually they are not associated with any particular organization or agency (though many may have started their careers as agency interpreters or educators). Some are storytellers or folk singers. Some provide interactive programs for teaching environmental, historical or cultural messages. Some create characters who then become the “teachers” of history or nature messages.

In addition to providing free lance interpretive program services, many people are establishing their own businesses to provide other interpretive consulting services—in planning, exhibit design and fabrication, desktop publishing, writing, curriculum development, marketing and other areas previously handled by in-house staff.




Career OpportunitiesAs illustrated in the previous section, interpreters are a diverse lot. They get their education from many different

departments, and their experience from many different places. They work in extremely diverse settings and have various job titles and descriptions. Depending on the size of the organization or institution, a person may have a very focused job (specialist within a large organization) or may be a jack-of-all-trades (within a small organization or site, doing program development, administration, maintenance, fundraising, marketing and public relations as well as conducting programs and designing exhibits). With greater emphasis within the museum world on education and interpretation, the lines between interpreters and museum education specialists are becoming more blurred.

In the natural history/environmental education realm they may be called interpreters, naturalists, environmental educators, outreach specialists, resort naturalists, shipboard interpreters, school program coordinators, extension agents or educators, or environmental education and outreach coordinators. For a more comprehensive discussion of careers in education and interpretation related to the environment, see The New Complete Guide to Environmental Careers, published by Island Press for The Environmental Careers Organization. This book discusses how to job hunt in the environmental field, describes education needs, volunteer and internship programs, and presents a wide range of career options, including communications, education and interpretation.

In the history and museum arena, they may be interpreters, living history interpreters, reenactors, heritage communicators, tour guides, park technicians (with interpretive responsibilities), or education specialists. Additional career opportunities include curators, collections managers, development directors, publications specialists, registrars, conservators, graphic artists, carpenters, maintenance mechanics, visitor services staff, directors, associate or assistant directors, exhibit designers and public relations specialists.

Interpretive and museum jobs are available in public, private, and private nonprofit sectors. Private exhibit and design companies hire exhibit designers, writers, artists, graphic designers, computer specialists, audio-visual specialists and exhibit fabrication specialists. People with theatrical skills, music skills, storytelling expertise, electronics knowledge, and computer skills all can find application for their skills and knowledge within the fields of interpretation and museum sciences. Increasingly more people are providing contract services, both in interpretive programming and in planning and design.

Most job descriptions in the foregoing paragraphs focus on direct program providers and planners/designers of nonpersonal interpretive media. However, job positions also are available in management and supervisory roles. Skills needed for these upper level career positions include marketing, budgeting, personnel management, volunteer management, public relations, computer applications, research and evaluation techniques, and abilities to work with boards and develop partnerships with other organizations, corporations and community groups. Increasing reliance by museums and interpretive centers on grants and other non-government funding is providing job opportunities in fundraising, grant writing and other funds develop-ment. As museum and interpretive staffs begin to work more often in teams, there are needs for skilled group facilitators and project managers.

In the museum field, additional skills include historic preservation, artifact preservation, curatorial skills, cataloging skills, and facility management. Job descriptions unique to museums are curators, registrars and conservators. Curators usually have an advanced degree in a specialty area (such as ornithology, botany, zoology, archaeology, etc.). They conduct research in their respective areas, as well as have ultimate responsibility for the care of objects and artifacts in museum collections. Registrars must have strong record-keeping skills as well as


accessioning and research skills. Conservators must have the technical skills and knowledge associated with preserving and protecting a wide variety of artifacts, specimens and documents.

Settings in which individuals in the foregoing positions work may include:

zoos aquaria planetariums nature centers nature preserves conservation areas parks arboretums horticulture gardens camps science centers science museums resorts historic homes historic towns (or re-

constructions)

forts battlefields living history sites

(often specific historic periods)

historic farms (living history, costumed history, demonstra-tions)

some types of museums mills (water, saw, grist) lighthouses maritime museums industrial museums factories (tours) cultural centers

power plants & dams technology museums

(e.g., aviation muse-ums, Henry Ford Museum)

children’s museums tour companies local, state, federal

agencies schools art, culture museums festivals community events

Professional Organizations

Numerous professional organizations provide opportunities for professional networking— for colleagues to interact with each other, share ideas, debate issues, and get additional training. Most provide publications (newsletters, journals, magazines), training sessions, technical support and advice, conferences and other professional development opportunities for members. Among Michigan organizations are:

Michigan Archival Association (MAA)Michigan Museum Association (MMA)Michigan Science Teachers Association (MSTA)Midwest Museums Conference (regional organization associated with AAM)Region 4, National Association for Interpretation (NAI)

Find out how to contact these organizations through your local nature or environmental center or museum.

Other Organizations

Other organizations provide a variety of training opportunities, program materials, and other resources. These organizations include: the Michigan United Conservation Clubs (MUCC), the Michigan Humanities Council and the Michigan Council for the Arts and Cultural Affairs, the Great Lakes Lighthouse Keepers Association, and the Michigan Historic Preservation Network.


Trends and Future PotentialIn the environmental area, many programs are shifting focus from simple information dissemination to

development of skills for problem solving, critical thinking, participation in decision-making, and developing a land stewardship ethic.

New technology incorporated within museums and interpretive programs includes the following:

internet and World Wide Web; CD ROMs; touch screen and other interactive computer programs; satellite broadcast of interpretive and training programs; and closed-circuit television.

A paradoxical trend in the field is an increased interest in environmental issues (in some sec tors), while there is a corresponding apathy and skepticism about environmental issues by others who may associate “environmental education” and “environmental messages” with “extremist environmentalists” or “environmental doom-sayers.” This has created quite a politically and emotionally charged context for use of the word “environmental.” Some evidence of interest in environmental messages is increased participation in and development of businesses focusing on:

ecotourism—”responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well being of the local people” (Ecotourism Society);

agri-tourism—travel which takes visitors to observe, participate in, and/or buy products from agricultural areas and businesses,

nature-based tourism—travel which takes visitors to natural resource areas with the intent of viewing wildlife, birds, flora and other natural resources, often incorporating programs focused on natural resource history, and

adventure travel—travel which combines visits to and interpretation of exciting places with outdoor recreation activities, such as hiking, canoeing, rafting, climbing, backpacking.

Additional trends and future potential may be found throughout this chapter.

NOTE: For more complete listings of museums, interpretive facilities, and conservation associations and resources, see the following:

Michigan Museum Guide(jointly published by the Michigan Museums Association and the Michigan Travel Bureau)available through Michigan Travel BureauPOB 30226Lansing, MI 48909(800) 5432-YES

The Conservation Catalog:A Resource Guide for Michigan Environmental and Conservation Educatorsavailable through Michigan United Conservation ClubsPOB 30235Lansing, MI 48909(517) 371-1041




Interpretive Facilities Inventory: 1992available through National Association for Interpretation, Region IVcheck for current regional contact through NAL National OfficePOB 1892Fort Collins, CO 80522(303) 491-6434

ReferencesAmerican Association for State and Local History. (1989). National Register of Historic Places

1966-1988. Nashville, TN: AASLH.

Cullingworth, J.B. (1993). The Political Culture of Planning. New York, NY: Routledge, Inc.

Fitch, J.M. (1990). Historic Preservation: Curational Management of the Built World (2nd ed.). Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia.

Grinder, Alison and E. Sue McCoy (1985). The Good Guide: A Sourcebook for Interpreters, Do-cents, and Tour Guides. Tucson, AZ: Ironwood Press.

Ham, Sam H. (1992). Environmental Interpretation: A Practical Guide for People with Big Ideas and Small Budgets. Golden, CO: North American Press.

Hendee, J.C., G.H. Stankey, and R.C Lucas (1990). Wilderness Management. Golden, CO: North American Press.

Knudson, Douglas M., Ted T. Cable, and Larry Beck (1995). Interpretation of Cultural and Natural Resources. State College, PA: Venture Publishing.

Lewis, William J. (1980). Interpreting for Park Visitors. Eastern National Park and Monument Association. Philadelphia, PA: Eastern Acorn Press.

Mills, Enos. (1990). Adventures of a Nature Guide and Essays in Interpretation. Friendship, WI:New Past Press, Inc.

Sharpe, Grant W. (editor). (1982). Interpreting the Environment, (2nd ed.). New York, NY:Macmillan.

Tilden, Freeman (1977). Interpreting Our Heritage. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Vander Stoep, Gail A. (1990). Interpretation: A Resource and Curricula Guide for the United States and Canada. Fort Collins, CO: National Association for Interpretation.




131

14Outdoor and Adventure

EducationPeter Hatlestad

Donald Freed

Programs in MichiganMichigan, a National Leader

Michigan has a rich history of outdoor education, especially as related to the schools, dating back to the 1940s, when Michigan programs were considered in the national forefront. The

131

Rock climbers. (Photo courtesy of Roger D. Antilla, Jr.)

first year-round program in the United States was made possible by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation in 1940 at Clear Lake Camp. During the decade 1947—1957, many leaders from colleges and universities throughout the U.S. visited Clear Lake Camp, which now was operated by the Battle Creek schools. Many of the Clear Lake Camp staff became prominent school camping leaders in other parts of the U.S.; and, thus, the Michigan influence was great in developing the national outdoor education movement (Smith, et al., 1963).

At the same time the program was being developed in the Battle Creek area, a statewide program was being carried on by the Michigan Department of Public Instruction. In 1945, an act was passed by the legislature which enabled school districts to acquire camps and operate them as a part of the regular education and recreation program of the schools. Over a period of seven years (1946—1953), under the leadership of Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction Dr. Julian Smith, more than 100 school districts in Michigan developed programs in camps. In 1948, a special experimental program, which was conservation-centered, was initiated for secondary school students. It was so successful that the next spring, 9 of 13 high schools in the pilot program conducted their own programs. The Dearborn program, conducted for many years, became nationally known (Hammerman, 1980; Smith, et al., 1963).

Outdoor education was given impetus by the National Outdoor Education Project of the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. The Project, established in 1955, was directed by Dr. Smith, who had been appointed in 1953 to the faculty at Michigan State University. The Project encompassed boating, casting and fishing, archery, firearms instruction and other outdoor sports, and was financed by sports equipment manufacturers. Beginning in the late ‘70s and with Dr. Smith’s death in 1980, programs declined extensively and environmental education in the schools cycled to a low (Hammerman, 1980).

Present Status

In the mid-1980s, two Michigan professional associations (the Michigan Outdoor Education Association and the Michigan Environmental Education Association) merged to form the Michigan Alliance for Outdoor and Environmental Education (MAEOE). The new organization now has about 400 members. Many of these members are public school educators who incorporate outdoor and environmental education in their curricula.

In 1987, efforts were made to pass legislation (Public Act 147) for environmental education. However, by the time it passed, the language was weakened so much that there was only verbal support for districts who might want to develop nature study areas or centers for their schools or districts; no money was appropriated. However, many people in the state believed that there still was a great need in Michigan for environmental education, both in the school system and for adults. The Relative Risk Analysis Project, commissioned by Governor John Engler, identified general lack of environmental awareness as a major risk factor for the future welfare of Michigan’s environment. This project report was followed by a report in 1993, distributed by the senate majority policy office, presenting an overview of options available for implementing environmental education in Michigan. Included with the report was a report of the Environmental Education Citizens’ Advisory Committee (EECAC), written in early 1992, which presents an overview of the history, issues, challenges and possible actions related to environmental education in Michigan. Finally, in response to this series of reports, a new bill was passed in the summer of 1994—the Environmental Education Act of 1994. The purpose of the Act is to “facilitate an understanding by citizens of the state of the connection between themselves, air, land, water, and other living things, as well as how these systems relate to the global environment, thus making it possible for them to make informed decisions regarding protection and conservation of their environment and utilization of their natural resources in a




wise and prudent fashion” (Senate Bill No. 927). To this end, the bill provides for a state envi ronmental education coordinator (created within the Department of Natural Resources) and encourages creation of an environmental education advisory committee.

The adventure education/recreation programs have developed extensively in Michigan the past decade. The Association for Experiential Education Directory and Handbook lists as current organizational/institutional members in Michigan: Bay Area Adventure School, Breakthrough, Eagle Village, Inc., Evergreen National Empowerment Center, Ferris State University, The Lodge at Yarrow, Miniwanca, Northern Michigan University—Adventures in Growth Program, Teen Ranch, Inc., University of Michigan, Wolverine Human Services, and Wylie Groves High School. Other programs not listed with AEE include Nokomis Challenge Program, Northern Waters, and Side Treks.

Relationship of TermsOutdoor education, the title of this chapter—what is meant? Outdoor education is being used as an “umbrella” term for

adventure education, adventure recreation, outdoor education, environmental education, experiential education and outdoor recreation. Often these terms have been used interchangeably and there is little consensus on one definition, even by profes-sionals in the field. Thus, for purposes of a basic understanding of what is involved in and meant by the terms, Priest’s distinguishing definitions are presented. Priest (Miles & Priest, 1990) categorizes the field as a whole (see Fig. 6) under the term “outdoor education,” defining it as:

an experiential method of learning with the use of all senses. It takes place primarily, but not exclusively, through exposure to the natural environment. In outdoor education, the emphasis for the subject of learning is placed on relationships concerning people and natural resources (p. 113).

“Environmental education” and “adventure education” are presented as sub-fields of outdoor education.

Environmental Education

Environmental education is defined into two areas: ecosystemic and ekistic relationships. Ecosystemic relationships refer to the interdependence of living organisms in an ecological microclimate. Ekistic relationships refer to the key interactions between human society and the natural resources of an environment. In short, environmental education is concerned with relationships between humans and the natural environment and also between living organisms in the natural environment and the natural environment itself.

Environmental education is often misperceived as that education about the environment which occurs primarily within schools. While the formal school setting is one place where environmental education can occur, the setting is not the defining characteristic for environmental education, nor are schools the only venue for it. Like interpretation, environmental education can occur in formal, nonformal and informal settings, each having its own set of contextual attributes which influences how information is presented (Tamir, 1991). Additionally, environmental education is not restricted to youth; rather, it can be directed at people of

Outdoor and Adventure Education 133


Figure 6. Relationship of Terms

all ages. The more defining characteristic is the goal of environmental education. The superordinate goal of environmental education is “to aid citizens in becoming environmentally knowledgeable and, above all, skilled and dedicated citizens who are willing to work, individually and collectively, toward achieving and/or maintaining a dynamic equilibrium between quality of life and quality of the environment” (Hungerford and Volk, 1990, p. 19). This definition adds the components of decision making and action to knowledge and awareness. Therefore, environmental education seeks to work with people at multiple levels, including promotion of awareness and sensitivity to environmental issues, development of attitudes of concern and skills for identifying and solving environmental problems, and ultimately active participation to resolve environmental problems.Environmental education sometimes is considered synonymous with interpretation, particularly in nonschool settings. (See chapter 13 for discussion of interpretation.)

Adventure Education

Adventure education also is divided into two types of relationships, interpersonal and intrapersonal. Interpersonal relationships refer to how people get along in a group (two or more people). Intrapersonal relationships refer to how an individual gets along with self. So, adventure education deals more specifically with human interactions in relation to the definition of outdoor education.





Outdoor/Adventure Recreation

Outdoor recreation is activity done in the outdoors dependent on a natural resource (see chapter 12). Adventure recreation also is activity utilizing the natural environment, but has the added dimension of uncertainty. It could be defined as any activity “entered into voluntarily and of free choice; it must be intrinsically motivating in and of its own merit; and the outcome must be uncertain” (Priest, p. 115). Thus, for the activity to be adventure recreation, the activity must involve an element of uncertainty or “risk,” whether it is physical, mental, social, financial or any combination, and it must be entered into by choice and not for external reward. It should be noted that “risk” does not mean unsafe, but challenge to the person.

Risk, or challenge to the individual, is the key element for an activity to be classified as an adventure. There must be some element of uncertainty in the outcome or process of the activ ity in which there is potential for losing something of value. This could be external loss (physical or material) or intrinsic loss (emotional or psychological) or any combination thereof. It is this condition that heightens the participant’s investment in the process of the activity. If little or nothing is lost at the end, it heightens the value of the intrinsic reward. This also is a key element in adventure education. Adventure education has desired outcomes or goals in which the participants are to achieve through participating in a unique activity that is new and stimulating, involving some element of risk.

Experiential Education

In addition to the foregoing terms, a term that crosses a variety of disciplines and has a variety of applications is “experiential education.” This term has become a “buzz word.” Experiential education has some of the same basic components as the definition given for outdoor education, although some practitioners may object to the inclusion of outdoor or natural environment.

The Association for Experiential Education (AEE) is developing a definition for experiential education, and has begun with this definition: “Experiential education is a process through which a learner constructs knowledge, skill, and value from direct experiences.” The important component in this definition is the process that the learner goes through, not necessarily the environment in which the experience/learning takes place. There are well supported reasons for putting participants in a situation having perceived risk. These reasons relate to developing or increasing the participant’s self-image/concept, locus of control, trust, problem-solving and decision-making skills, leadership skills, etc. Much of what takes place in outdoor or experiential education is based upon learning theory. This theory indicates that individuals learn best through experiencing, rather than observing or hearing, phenomena (Freed, p.2).

Opportunities and Resources in MichiganOpportunities for outdoor education abound in Michigan through its wide variety of natural resources

and seasons. A growing number of programs and organizations are offering such outdoor experiences to individuals and groups. There are specific adventure education programs for groups. Groups include service clubs and organizations, corporate training and development teams, public school groups, at-risk youth, etc. Many outfitters, guides, and organizations offer adventure/outdoor recreational opportunities for individuals. These range from dog sledding, fishing, and bird watching to sea and white water kayaking. Also, the popularity




of adventure activities, like high ropes courses, rock climbing and indoor climbing walls, has increased the public awareness of adventure recreational and educational applications, as well as the number of facilities offering adventure experiences. A number of public schools have begun to incorporate indoor climbing walls into their physical education programs. Such walls have hand-holds and foot-holds “built into” walls. Hardware fittings in the ceilings allow safety ropes to secure climbers from falling while they learn skills and build confidence. Climbing walls also have become a new feature for many health/fitness clubs and the number of private indoor climbing clubs is increasing (e.g., Inside Moves, Grand Rapids, MI). There are also numerous environmental education opportunities available through public schools, state and national parks and private programs.

Michigan’s natural resources offer a wide variety of outdoor educational opportunities dur ing many different seasons. Michigan’s access to the Great Lakes offer opportunities for a variety of water-based activities. There also are large tracts of forested land available for outdoor adventure activities. Michigan’s Upper Peninsula offers many unique opportunities for outdoor education and recreation. Winter adventure opportunities, such as dog sledding, cross-country and downhill skiing, snow shoeing and winter camping, are virtually endless (see chapter 12, Outdoor Recreation). There are many large tracts of state and federal lands for programs and individuals to recreate and seek adventures, including the Porcupine Mountain State Park, Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Isle Royale National Park, Hiawatha and Ottawa National Forests, Seney National Wildlife Refuge, McCormick Wilderness Area, and Sleeping Bear Sand Dunes National Lakeshore (see chapter 10, State and Federal Recreation Areas).

ApplicationsThree major categories of application in outdoor education are general recreation and leisure, educational-based

programming, and therapeutic and outcome-based programming. In each of these categories, there is a certain degree of cross-over. All involve personal challenge and development as underlying motivators or activity-goals for participating in an outdoor education experience.

Recreation

Recreation and leisure programs include activities in which people participate just for pure enjoyment or for individual skill development. These participants do so on their own initiative, usually in informal groups or on an individual level. The activity is intrinsically motivating. These activities may be classified as a hobby for the individual(s) and as a recreational pursuit. They may include biking, fishing, canoeing, rock climbing, etc. (see chapter 12). This category also may include adventure tourism and ecotourism.

Education

Educational-based applications include traditional classrooms, as well as specialized educational programs. Traditional settings, such as universities, colleges, and secondary and primary schools, have incorporated experiential learning and activities utilizing curricula like Project Wild, Project Learning Tree, and others. Also, specialized instructional programs (e.g., National Outdoor Leadership School and Earthwatch) and associations (e.g., the Wilderness Education Association) have been developed. Some programs are solely for educating participants



on environmental inter- and intra-relationships and humankind’s responsibilities in those relationships. While others are for training potential leaders/facilitators in the necessary “hard and soft skills” for wilderness leadership and travel. Other programs focus on research and developing curricula. Many programs do all three. Some colleges and universities may accept a course taken from one of these programs for applied college/university credit. (See also chapter 13.)

Therapy

The third category includes programs that incorporate interpersonal and intrapersonal goals for change as a major component of the curriculum/program. This would include any therapeutic-based program involving participants with emotional, behavioral, or physical impairment(s) or difficulty. It also would include any program involving corporate training and development, professional development, or any outcome-based program. For these types of programs, client’s/participant’s needs are usually assessed and then programmed. A needs assessment may be very extensive, involving numerous interviews and questionnaires or other instruments, or the assessment simply may be a short phone interview, perhaps supported by a one-page questionnaire. In this application category, it is the practitioner’s responsibility to assess the group’s needs, determine if his/her ability and training match the desired outcomes and needs of the group, and finally, program specifically for the identified group. Often times the process that participants go through during the program or activity is more important than the activity/program itself. Groups utilize a specific program for its uniqueness, captivating activities, and the abilities of the leaders to facilitate the desired attitudinal or behavioral outcomes. Many times the designing of an activity to meet the group’s needs, the framing or ver -bal introduction of the program/ activity, and the debriefing process of the experience become crucial for the success of the program. These programs also may incorporate written evaluations or instruments to help document or assess changes. (See also chapter 15, Therapeutic Recreation.)

Career Perspectives and TrendsProfessional job outlooks and education/experience required for each of the three general categories will vary depending

upon the program organization and the environment in which it is based. In general, there continues to be a growing interest in ropes courses, climbing walls, and other outdoor/experiential activities. Thus, there are a number of job opportunities for qualified “line staff” and facilitators, but supervisory and management positions are less available. There is a relatively high turn-over rate for line staff, since few remain in the field for more than two to three years. They either take other related positions or move up into supervisory, administrative, or planning positions.

Usually education, experience, and certification are necessary. On-the-job experience and a sound understanding of the philosophical foundations of the field seem to be the most important criteria to obtain a position as a leader/teacher/facilitator. For college and university students, this means taking full advantage of summer job opportunities, fieldwork and intern-ships. Qualities that are desirable in a potential employee for any experiential/outdoor education position include initiative and adaptability to a variety of circumstances and environments. Good communication skills, high level of motivation, and the ability to motivate others are




important. Employees need a willingness to challenge others and to be challenged, and have an excitement about learning and should want to encourage others to learn.

Most programs that use outdoors and adventure activities require that staff possess current CPR training and standard first aid as a minimum for any type of job. Many programs are beginning to require advanced first aid, or some type of wilderness “first responder” certification or equivalent, for any leadership position. Water-based programs often will require current lifeguard certification or WSI training. Additional certifications and training may be necessary or advantageous for specific activities (e.g., American Canoe Association certifications, rock climbing training, ropes course facilitator certification, etc.). There are several organizations and programs offering specific training and courses for certification.

There is a trend toward a higher degree of professionalism, including specific standards for programming, staffing, facilities, equipment, research, and accreditation. With the growing number of programs, facilities, and legal concerns, there is a move to establish and validate the profession. Proposals have been made for conducting research, establishing guidelines and standards, developing a set of professional ethics, and creating an accreditation process. The Association of Experiential Education (AEE) has developed a set of standards and initiated an accreditation process for adventure/challenge programs.

Professional OrganizationsOne organization that is specific to the field of outdoor education and covers a broad range of

applications is the Association for Experiential Education (AEE). It has its roots in adventure education and is committed to the development, practice and evaluation of experiential learning in all settings. This international organization has a number of professional interest groups, including schools and colleges, experienced-based training/development, therapeutic adventure, Native, African, Asian, Latino Americans of AEE, and women in experiential education. AEE has developed an accreditation program with standards and guidelines for facilitating and operating adventure programs and activities. AEE is divided into regions, several of which have established a peer review process for programs. These programs allow peers within the region to review a program (by request of that program/agency), at a minimal cost, and give objective feedback on all aspects of program operation. In addition, some professional interest groups have developed a set of ethical standards for their respective field.

In Michigan, an active organization is the Michigan Alliance for Outdoor and Environmental Education (MAEOE). (See section Present Status at beginning of chapter.)

Two other organizations include the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) and the American Camping Association (ACA). The AAHPERD has a specific subgroup for outdoor/adventure-based related programs, the Council on Outdoor Education (COE). The COE centers especially on school-related programs. The ACA is an organization dealing mostly with organized residential and day camping and conference centers. Adventure/challenge programs are one aspect of camp programs. The ACA has an accreditation program for camps.

The Wilderness Education Association (WEA), founded in 1977 by Paul Petzolt, is a nonprofit organization that promotes national wilderness education and preservation programs. The WEA founders

set out to develop an organization which could train outdoor leaders, instill a sense of stewardship toward the wild outdoors, and provide the skills and




knowledge necessary to lead and teach the public in the appropriate use of wilderness areas (WEA, 1994).

The WEA offers a range of courses to develop outdoor leaders. Many of these courses may be taken for college/university credit or may be offered as part of a college/university curriculum.

An association of the 1990s is the Association for Challenge Course Technology (ACCT). The ACCT is the first trade organization in the world for challenge course builders. Its purpose is to promote the use of challenge courses and to set minimum standards for the installation of courses, as well as other related builder services. Professionals, organizations or individuals involved in operating or facilitating challenge courses and related activities may join the association as an associate member. The ACCT has a published set of standard for challenge course construction.

There are other organizations that deal with specific outdoor pursuits. For example, the American Canoe Association (ACA) offers training, certifications, publications and memberships for a variety of boating venues. Another organization is the Outdoor Recreation Coalition of America (ORCA). The ORCA is the trade association for the “human-powered” outdoor recreation industry. Its members represent a wide spectrum of organizations, from retailers to manufacturers, and from education providers to the media. The mission of ORCA is

to promote participation in, and protection of, human powered outdoor activities; to promote environmental awareness and minimum impact use; to support wilderness access efforts; and to act as a voice for the Outdoor Industry while creating a forum for dealing with current and future issues that affect it (ORCA, p.1).

The ORCA has a variety of specialty groups including backpacking, nordic skiing, scuba diving, outdoor industry retailers council, paddlesports, climbing sports, and others. Some of these interest groups have developed standards for the installation and operation of related facilities, e.g., the Climbing Wall Industry Group (CWIG) is in the process of developing standards for the construction of climbing walls.

Organizations


American Camping Association5000 State Road 67 NorthMartinsville, IN 46151-7902(317) 342-8456

Association for Challenge Course TechnologyP.O. Box 970Purcellville, VA 22132

Association for Experiential Education2885 Aurora Avenue #28Boulder, CO 80303-2252(303) 440-8844

Outdoor Recreation Coalition of AmericaP.O. Box 1319Boulder, CO 80306(303) 444-3353

The Wilderness Medical AssociatesRFD 2 Box 890Bryant Pond, ME 04219(207) 665-2707

The Wilderness Medicine InstituteP.O. Box 9Pitkin, CO 81241(303) 641-3572


Wilderness Education Association SOLO (offers wilderness medical, rescue20 Winona Avenue, Box 89 and leadership training)Saranac Lake, NY 12983 RFD 1 Box 163(518) 891-9999 Conway, NH 03818

(603) 447-6711

ReferencesAssociation for Experiential Education. Brochure. AEE.

Ewert, Alan W. (1989). Outdoor Adventure Pursuits: Foundations, Models, and Theories. Columbus, OH: Publishing Horizons.

Ford, Phyllis M. (1981). Principles and Practices of Outdoor/Environmental Education. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Freed, Don. “Experiential Training Programs.., are they right for your organization?” Unpublished manuscript.

Gass, Michael A. (1993). Adventure Therapy: Therapeutic Applications of Adventure Programming. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.

Hammerman, William M. (ed.) (1980). Fifty years of Resident Outdoor Education: 1930-1980. Martinsville, IN: American Camping Association.

Hungerford, Harold R., and Trudi Volk (1990). Changing learner behavior through environmental education. Journal of Environmental Education, 23(3), 8—20.

Hunt, Jasper. (1990). Ethical Issues in Experiential Education: Second Edition. Dubuque, IA:Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.

Journal of Experiential Education. Boulder, CO: Association for Experiential Education.

Kraft, Dick, and Mitch Sakofs (1985). The Theory of Experiential Education. Boulder, CO: Association for Experiential Education.

Kraft, Dick, and Jim Kielsmeier (eds.) (1986). Experiential Education and the Schools. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.

Miles, J.C. and S. Priest (eds.) (1990). Adventure Education. State College, PA: Venture Publishing.

Outdoor Recreation Coalition of America. Brochure. Boulder: ORCA.

Priest, 5. (1990). The Semantics of Adventure Education. In Miles, J.C. & S. Priest (eds.). Adventure Education (pp. 113—117). State College: Venture.




Roland, Christopher C., Richard J. Wagner, and Robert J. Weigand (1995). Do ft... and Understand. (The Bottom Line on Corporate Experiential Learning). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.

Smith, Julian, Reynold Carolson, George Donaldson, and Hugh Masters (1963). Outdoor Education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Smith, T.E. (1992). The Theory and Practice of Challenge Education. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.

Tamir, Pinchas (1991). Factors associated with the relationship between formal, informal and nonformal science learning. Journal of Environmental Education, 22(2), 34—42. Wilderness Education Association. Brochure. Fort Collins: WEA.


Documents

msu.edu€¦ · Web viewThese range from dog sledding, fishing, and bird watching to sea and white water kayaking. Also, the popularity Also, the popularity of adventure activities,