Multilingual Education (MLE) for All in Asia: What, why and how?

Kimmo KosonenSIL International & Payap University, Thailand

Source: Susan Malone, SIL International

Sustainable MLE programme

Key Concepts� First language / mother tongue / home language (L1)

� Non-dominant language (NDL) / Dominant language

� Ethnolinguistic community / Ethnolinguistic minority

� Multilingual education (MLE)

� First language (mother tongue)-based MLE (MTBMLE)

� Language (or medium) of instruction (LOI)

� Language of literacy

� Subject of study vs. language of instruction

� Oral use of a language (informal or officially endorsed)

• An auxiliary language used to help learners understand

Key Concepts� First language / mother tongue / home language (L1)

� Non-dominant language (NDL) / Dominant language

� Ethnolinguistic community / Ethnolinguistic minority

� Multilingual education (MLE)

� First language (mother tongue)-based MLE (MTBMLE)

� Language (or medium) of instruction (LOI)

� Language of literacy (L1 or L2 or Lx?)

� L1 as subject of study or language of instruction?

� Oral use of a language (even if formally endorsed use of NDL) is NOT multilingual education

First language (L1)

� Mother Tongue / Home language

Language: � that one has learnt first;� one identifies with or is identified as a native speaker of by others; � one knows best; and/or � one uses most (UNESCO 2003, Education in Multilingual World, 15)

� one speaks and understands competently enough to learn age-appropriate academic content

(Benson & Kosonen 2010)

Multilingual people can have several L1s

Dominant language (DL)

Language

� of a state for official use ,

� spoken by dominant ethnolinguistic communities

(Benson & Kosonen 2012)

Non-dominant language (NDL)

Language or language variety not considered the most prominent in terms of

� number ,

� prestige or

� official use by the government and/or the education system in a given state

(Kosonen 2010, 74)

2013

Some “big” languages generally not used in education

Source: Lewis (2009)

Javanese: 84 millionWu Chinese: 77 million Western Panjabi: 62 millionYue Chinese: 55 million Min Nan Chinese: 47 millionJinyu Chinese: 45 millionXiang Chinese: 36 millionHakka Chinese: 30 million

A group of people who:

share a culture and/or ethnicity and/or language that distinguishes them from other groups of people,

(Kosonen 2005a, 134; 2010, 73)

Ethnolinguistic community

Ethnolinguistic minority (ELM)

A group of people who:

a) share a culture and/or ethnicity and/or language that distinguishes them from other groups of people,

b) are either fewer in terms of number or less prestigious in terms of power than the predominant groups in the given state

(Kosonen 2005a, 134; 2010, 73)

Pressure on non -dominant languages & ethnolinguistic minority learners

GLOBALISATION(English)

REGIONALISATION (e.g. Mandarin)

NDLs &EL minority

learners

NATIONALISM(National / official

language)

Dominant languages

Concept by Kimmo Kosonen

Number of Languages spoken in Asia Country Languages• Indonesia 722• India 445• China 296• Philippines 181• Malaysia 145• Nepal 127• Myanmar 116• Vietnam 108• Lao PDR 89• Thailand 85• Iran 79• Pakistan 77 • Afghanistan 52• Bangladesh 46• Kazakhstan 43

Country Languages• Uzbekistan 39• Bhutan 35 • Tajikistan 33• Kyrgyzstan 32• Singapore 31• Turkmenistan 27• Cambodia 25• Timor-Leste 19• Brunei 19• Japan 16• Mongolia 15• Sri Lanka 7• Korea, South 4• Maldives 2 • Korea, North 1

TOTAL: ~ 2322Source: Lewis (2009)

(30 countries)

National / Official Languages in Asia• Assamese,• Bengali (Bangla) 2,• Bodo,• Dogri,• Dzongkha,• Eastern Farsi (Dari),• Eastern Punjabi,• English 4 (1),• Filipino,• Gujarati,• Gurung, • Halh Mongolian,• Hindi,• Indonesian,• Japanese,• Kannada,• Kashmiri,

Source: Lewis (2009)

• Kazakh,• Kirghiz,• Khmer,• Konkani,• Korean 2,• Lao,• Maithili,• Malay 3,• Malayalam,• Maldivian (Diwehi),• Mandarin Chinese 2,• Marathi,• Meitei,• Myanma,• Nepali 2,• Northern Uzbek,• Oriya,

• Portuguese,• Russian 2,• Sanskrit,• Santhali,• Sindhi 2,• Sinhala,• Southern Pashto,• Tajiki,• Tamil 2,• Telugu,• Tetun,• Thai,• Turkmen,• Urdu 2,• Vietnamese,• Western Farsi

(50 languages) (22 in India)

Many ethnolinguistic minority (and other) groups face a “ language barrier ” in education

‘Language barrier’ – AccessPrimary Level Net Enrolment Ratios in Lao PDR (Source: Lao National Literacy Survey 2001)

65.6

77.2

53.747.8 46.3

64.1

75.4

52.8

44.7 44.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

National average Thai-Kadai Austroasiatic Sino-Tibetan Hmong-Yao

Language Family

% Male

Female

National language - Lao

Upper Secondary Level Net Enrolment Ratios in Lao PDR (Source: Lao National Literacy Survey 2001)

10.8

13.4

7.2

1.6

6.5

11.1

15.0

6.0

1.3

2.8

0

2

4

6

810

12

14

16

18

20

National average Thai-Kadai Austroasiatic Sino-Tibetan Hmong-Yao

Language Family

% MaleFemale

‘Language barrier’ – Access

National language: Lao

‘Language barrier’ – QualityLao PDR - Tested "Secured Functional Literacy"

rate in the Lao Language (Lao National Literacy Survey 2001)

37.4

47.6

28.6

22.1

28.7

24.5

33.5

17.214.6

6.8

05

101520253035404550

National rate Tai-Kadai Austroasiatic Sino-Tibetan Hmong-Yao

Language Family

Per

cent

Male

Female

National language - Lao

60 Million Out-of-School Girls

• Lewis & Lockheed (2007): Nearly 70% of out-of-school girls belong to the ethnic , religious, linguistic , racial and other minorities ,

• Language of education is a reason for exclusion

• World Bank (2005): “50% of the world’s out-of-school children live in communities where the language of schooling is rarely, if ever, used at home.”

Two Types of Language Proficiency

Speakers of non-dominant languages (or L2 learners):

• master some aspects of dominant (second) language in 1-3 years =

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)

• master other aspects in at least 5-7 years, and sometimes never =

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)

(Cummins, 1986, 2000, 2001)

Two Types of Language Proficiency

BICS • Face-to-face interaction• Often in oral mode• Often used between familiar peers• Dialogical, with opportunity for “negotiation of meaning”

CALP• May feature separation of time and place between counterparts• Often in written mode• Often between unfamiliar interlocutors, or where there is a status imbalance• Monological, with little opportunity for “negotiation of meaning”• Low use of context to interpret meaning • Dense, complex, abstract

(Cummins, 1986, 2000, 2001)

Shifting Classroom Proficiency Demands: NDL-Speaking Child Starting Grade 1 in a Second Lang uage (L2)

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12

Primary Junior Intermediate Senior

CALPBICS

Risk of Inappropriate Instruction: Adequate BICS with Inadequate CALP

L1-speakers

L1 speakers

L2-speakers

Design by Stephen Bahry, University of Toronto

Lan

gu

ag

e p

rofi

cie

ncy

in l

an

gu

ag

e o

f in

stru

ctio

n (

LoI)

Learners whose home language (L1) is the language of instruction and the language of literacy.

Minority language learners who do notspeak the language used when they enter school or an education programme

Source: Kosonen, Malone, Young (2007)

”Language barrier”

First language use helps learning

� Learning in L1 doesn’t hinder, but helps learning of L2 (e.g. official, national or foreign language) and L3, L4 etc.,

� Learning to read in L1 is easier and faster,

� What is learned in L1 transfers to L2 (and vice versa),

� L1 allows students to learn curriculum content from the first day in school,

� Strong L1 helps students perform better in L2 academic work,

(1.)

(Kosonen 2005b)

� L1 allows parents to participate more in their children’s education,

� Multilingual education (in L1, L2, L3 etc.) improves thinking skills, creativity and flexibility of the learners

� L1 helps teachers in identifying what students have learned,

� Long-term use of relevant learning strategies support students to become multilingual and multiliterate.

(2.)

First language use helps learning

(Kosonen 2005b)

Bilingual Programs - Comparison of Achievement on Standardized Tests

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Grade Level

NC

E (

Per

cent

ile)

1 - Two-way developmental

2 - One-way developmental

3 - Transitional + content ESL

4 - Transition + standard ESL

5 - ESL through academic content

6 - Traditional ESL Pullout

61

52

40

35

34

24

Final NCE

Average performance of native-English speakers

from Thomas and Collier 1997, p. 53

Nor

mal

cur

ve e

quiv

alen

t

Results of study of 42,000 learners over 11 years: the US

Strong Foundation in L1 and Good Bridge to L2 essential:

“The most powerful factor in predicting educational success for minority learners is the amount of formal schooling they received intheir L1.”

“Only those language minority students who had 5-6 years of strong cognitive and academic development through their L1 – as well as through [L2] – did well in Grade 11 assessments”

(Thomas and Collier, 1997, 2002)

Multilingual Education (MLE)

Using several languages as:• Language (or medium) of instruction (LoI)• Language of literacy (initial and recurrent)• Subjects of study

(Kosonen & Benson 2013)

Multilingual Education (MLE)

� Young children (pre-school age) � School-aged children� Youth and adults (women and men)� Non-formal and formal systems of education

(Kosonen & Benson 2013)

What do they look like?

Strong programmes of first language -based multilingual education …

Multilingual Education for building a strong foundation and good bridge

Source: SIL International Chart concept by Dennis Malone

A strong foundation in the L1 and good bridge to the L2 build successful, life-long learners in both languages

L2

L1

‘Ideal’ approach to L1 -based multilingual education

(ECCD and PE levels, 3 langs)

L1 (LoI)ECE1

L2SL(oral)L1 (LoI, literacy)ECE2

Pre-primarylevel

L2SL (oral)L1 (LoI, literacy)G1

L2SL (oral + written)L1 (LoI)G2

L2SLsL1 (LoI)G3

L2 (LoI) + L2SLL1 (LoI + subject)G4

L2 (LoI + subject)L1 (LoI + subject)G5

L2 (LoI + subject)L1 (LoI + subject)G6

PrimaryLevel

(From Kosonen 2006)

L3

L3

L3

L3

Multilingual education for adults (Non-formal education, non-L2 speaking, 2 langs)

L2SL (oral + written)L1 (LoI, literacy)Time3

L2SL (oral + written)L1 (LoI)Time4

L2 (LoI)L1 (LoI)Time5

L2 (LoI)L1 (LoI)Time6

Life-longlearning

L1 (LoI, literacy)Time 1

L2SL (oral + written)L1 (LoI, literacy)Time2

Initial literacy

x x xx x Life-long learning in 2 or more languages xx x x

First Language -based MLE

• Learning starts in a language the learner already speaks (L1) (known -> unknown)

• Initial literacy in the first language (L1)

• Other languages (e.g. L2, L3) learned as ‘second’ languages with appropriate methods

• Later both L1 and L2 used as the languages instruction and languages of literacy

• Both L1 and L2 are studied as school subjects

• New languages can be added later

• L1 & L2 remain means for lifelong learning

Multilingual Education: How?

• Paradigm shift in the way society understands language and education issues (which languages important and why, how different languages (L1/L2/L3) are learned etc.)

• Supportive language and education policies

• Latitude for NDL use in society and education

• Government agencies, education officials, NDL community members and parents – understand andsupport MLE principles

• Technical expertise available (on various aspects of MLE), local trainees willing and available to be trained

• Time and funds for piloting and experimentation

Source: Susan Malone, SIL International

Sustainable MLE programme

Recent policy developments on first language-based education

Southeast Asian Experiences

Cambodia, Thailand, the Philippines,

Vietnam

Country Official / national languageBrunei Darussalam Standard Malay, English

Cambodia Khmer

Indonesia Indonesian

Lao PDR Lao

Malaysia Standard Malay

Myanmar Burmese (Myanmar, Bamar)

Philippines Filipino, English

Singapore English, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil

Thailand Thai (de facto national language ?)

Timor-Leste Portuguese, Tetun (Eng. & Indon. working langs)

Vietnam Vietnamese

Southeast Asia

85

?

Theoretically Sound LiE Policy

• No explicit policy or practice: Brunei, Laos, Myanmar (?), Singapore

• Enabling policy, little implementation:Indonesia, Malaysia, Timor-Leste (?), Vietnam (?)

• Some policy support, some action:Cambodia & Thailand

• Strong policy support, some action (post 2013?):Philippines

which includes non-dominant languages

Theoretically Sound LiE Policy

• No explicit policy or practice: Brunei, Laos, Myanmar (?), Singapore

• Enabling policy, little implementation:Indonesia, Malaysia, Timor-Leste (?), Vietnam (?)

• Some policy support, some action:Cambodia & Thailand

• Strong policy support, some action (post 2013?):Philippines

which includes non-dominant languages

Cambodia

• Education Law, 2007 - local authorities right to choose the language(s) of instruction in areas where Khmer Lue languages are spoken

• “Guidelines on implementation of bilingual education [MLE] programmes for indigenous children in highland provinces”, 2010 -> expansion of bilingual education

Recommended Cambodian formula of “bilingual education”

L2 (20%)L1 (80%)G1

L2 (40%)L1 (60%)G2

L2 (70%)L1 (30%)G3

L2 (100%)G4

PrimaryLevel

Thailand

• First ever language policy drafted over the past 5 years – academics & Thai Royal Institute

• Policy gives strong support for NDLs / learners’ first language (in society; in education)

• Prime Minister signed the policy in 2010 (2012)

Thailand

“ --- various ethnic groups … have the right to use their mother tongues in their homes, in their communities, and in public places. This includes the use of their mother tongue in the education system for their young people.”

“ --- support the use of the ethnic languages, or the mother tongue, as the first language of children in the educationsystem”.

“It is the policy of the government to promote bilingual or multilingual education for the youth of the ethnic groups whose mother tongue is different from the national language (Thai) … in order to strengthen the study of the Thai language and to support the cognitive developmentand education of children.”

Thailand

“ --- various ethnic groups --- have the right to use their mother tongues in their homes, in their communities, and in public places. This includes the use of their mother tongue in the education system for their young people.”

“ --- support the use of the ethnic languages, or the mother tongue, as the first language of children in the educationsystem”.

“It is the policy of the government to promote bilingual or multilingual education for the youth of the ethnic groups whose mother tongue is different from the national language (Thai) --- in order to strengthen the study of the Thai language and to support the cognitive developmentand education of children.”

Philippines

Department of Education Order 74 in 2009: Institutionalization of L1-based multilingual education

New Education Law (Jan 2013): K to 12 Programme L1-based education in Kindergarten and up to Grade 6 at the primary level (first only in 16 larger languages)

Vietnam

• Numerous positive policy statements on the role of NDLs in education over the years – constitutions, laws, decrees and decisions

• NDL use supported by INGOs, UN agencies and some local communities

Vietnam“Vietnamese is the official language to be used in schools and

other educational institutions. --- The State shall enable ethnic minority people to learn their spoken and written languages in order to preserve and develop their ethnic cultural identity, helping pupils from ethnic minorities easily absorb knowledge.” (Education Law, 2005: Article 7)

“Ethnic minority languages are taught as a subject in general and continuing education institutions.”

(Decree 82/ 2010/ND-CP on teaching and learning ethnic minority languages in general and

continuing educational institutions: Article 6)

“All the previous regulations which conflict with the Decree will be abrogated.” (Ibid: Article 14)

“Primary education shall be compulsory and free of charge. In local primary schools, citizens of ethnic minorities shall have the right to be educated in their own language.”

(Article 15)

1946 Constitution –Democratic Republic of Vietnam

Country Languages of InstructionBrunei Darussalam Malay, English

Cambodia Khmer, 5-8 NDLs (pilots)

Indonesia Indonesian

Lao PDR Lao

Malaysia Malay, English, Tamil, Mand., NDLs (pilots)

Myanmar Burmese

Philippines Filipino, English, all NDLs (?) (20+ ?)

Singapore English (main), other OLs (some subjects)

Thailand Thai, some NDLs (pilots) (15+ ?)

Timor-Leste Portuguese, Tetun, 3 NDLs (pilots)

Vietnam Vietnamese, some NDLs (pilots)

Southeast Asia

Trends and issues

in multilingual education

Regional Trends in the Use of NDLs in Education

� Increased interest in the use of NDLs by govt and inter-govt agencies SEAMEO, UN agencies, INGOs, local NGOs -> Asia MLE Working Group

� MLE mapping throughout Asia-Pacific – classroom language practices (http://www.unescobkk.org/education/multilingual-education/mle-mapping-data/)

� NDLs used more in non-formal than formal education

� Informal oral use of NDLs quite common, even without official endorsement

� NGOs provide more education in NDLs than governments (likely to change soon)

� Policies on paper vs. implementation & practice

Prioritizing Dominant Languages

• Myths are alive in Southeast Asia:

– “the more dominant language, the better”

– “the earlier, the better”

– “mother tongue interferes in second language learning”

• Only the dominant / official language seen as important

• Goal: Mastery of the national (international) language -> block initiatives to use learners’ first languages in learning

• Strategies: teaching dominant language as L2, ”strengthening” of L2, boarding schools

Kiitos!

Thank you!

kimmo_kosonen@sil.org

References:Benson, Carol & Kosonen, Kimmo (2012). Language-in-education policy and practice in Southeast Asia in light of the findings from Ethiopia. In Multilingual education works: From the periphery to the centre, ed. K. Heugh and T. Skutnabb-Kangas, 134–163. New Delhi: Orient Black Swan.

Cummins, Jim (1980). Psychological assessment of immigrant children: Logic or intuition? Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1, 97-111.

Cummins, Jim (1981). Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada: A reassessment. Applied Linguistics, 2(2), 132-149.

Cummins, Jim (1986). Minority students and learning difficulties: Issues in assessment and placement. In J. Cummins & M. Swain (Eds.), Bilingualism in Education (pp. 183-204). London & New York: Longman.

Kosonen, Kimmo (2005a). Education in local languages: Policy and practice in South-East Asia. In First Language First: Community-based Literacy Programmes for Minority Language Context in Asia, 96–134.

Kosonen, Kimmo (2005b). The Role of Language in Learning: What Does International Research Say? In First Language First: Community-based Literacy Programmes for Minority Language Context in Asia (pp. 87-95). Bangkok: UNESCO.

Kosonen, Kimmo (2006). Multigrade Teaching among Ethnic Minority Children: the Language Issue. In Cornish, Linley (ed). Reaching EFA through multi-grade teaching: Issues, contexts and practices. Armidale, NSW Australia: Kardoorair Press, 239-258.

Kosonen, Kimmo (2010). Ethnolinguistic Minorities and Non-Dominant Languages in Mainland Southeast Asian Language-in-Education Policies. In MacLeans A. Geo-JaJa & Suzanne Majhanovich (Eds.) Education, Language, and Economics: Growing National and Global Dilemmas(pp. 73-88). Rotterdam, Boston, Taipei: Sense Publishers.

References:Kosonen, Kimmo & Benson, Carol (2013, in press). Introduction: Inclusive teaching and learning through the use of non-dominant languages and cultures. In Benson, Carol & Kosonen, Kimmo (Eds.) Language Issues in Comparative Education: Inclusive teaching and learning in non-dominant languages and cultures (pp. 1-16). Rotterdam, Boston, Taipei: Sense Publishers

Kosonen, Kimmo and Young, Catherine (eds). (2009). Mother tongue as bridge language of instruction: policies and experiences in Southeast Asia. Bangkok: SEAMEO.

Kosonen, Kimmo, Young, Catherine, & Malone, Susan (2007). Promoting Literacy in Multilingual Settings. Bangkok: UNESCO.

Lewis, M. Paul (ed) (2009). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.

Lewis, Maureen A. & Marlaine E. Lockheed, (2007). Inexcusable Absence: Why 60 Million Girls Still Aren't In School and What to do About It. Washington: Center for Global Development.

Thomas, Wayne P. and Collier, Virginia (1997). School effectiveness for language minority students. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education

Thomas, Wayne P., & Collier, Virginia (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students' long-term academic achievement. Santa Cruz, CA: Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence, University of California-Santa Cruz.

UNESCO (2003). Education in a Multilingual World. UNESCO Education Position Paper. Paris: UNESCO.

World Bank (2005). In their own language, Education for All. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.