Multivoicedness in Speech and Thought Representation

7/21/2019 Multivoicedness in Speech and Thought Representation

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/multivoicedness-in-speech-and-thought-representation 1/20

ELSEVIER Journal of Pragmatics 25 (1996) 207-226

M u lt ivo i ced n es s in s p eech an d t h ou gh t rep res en t a t ion

T h e c a s e o f s e l f - q u o t a t i o n i n J a p a n e s e

Senko K. Maynard

Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures Rutgers University Scott Hall 330

New Brunswick NJ 08903. USA

Received June 1993; revised version October 1994

Abs t r a c t

This paper explores the functions of self-quotation in Japanese discourse. The phenomena

under investigation include direct-style self-quotation, direct-style self-representation of

thought, as well as direct-style quotative explanation. Using the closely related concepts of

'multivoicedness', 'text population' and 'interdiscursivity', this paper argues that self-quota-

tion allows for manipulation of multiple voices in Japanese discourse. Also discussed is the

function of certain types of self-quotation from the perspective of speech act qualification. It

is pointed out that these functions are realized through the juxtaposition of semiotic contexts.

Despite the fact that the concept of context has occupied an important place in pragmatics, the

manipulation of the contexts for creating meaning has rarely been discussed. Although this

study discusses the case of Japanese only, the potentially universal nature of multivoicedness

in (self-)quotation and of the juxtaposition of semiotic contexts in language in general is

suggested.

1 . I n t r o d u c t io n a n d b a c k g r o u n d

Studies on speech and thought representation have primarily been concerned with

indirect and direct speech - i.e., reported speech, and what Tannen (1989) calls 'con -

structed dialogue'. While traditional linguistic studies have focused on the shift

between speech styles, more recent studies have revealed communicational functions

of various modes of speech. For example, Macaulay (1987) examines quoted direct

speech of southwest Scotland and proposes a variety of functions. They include indi-

rection, embedded evaluation, mimicry, taboo expressions, authenticity, and transla-

tion. Macaulay (1987: 22) also states that self-quota tion is used as a kind of dis-

~2 The data for this study was collected while I was a fellow under the Japan Foundation Professional

Fellowship Program in 1992. I wish to express my gratitude to the Japan Foundation for their generous

support. I also thank Jacob Mey, the editor-in-chief of

Journal of Pragmatics

for his encouraging words

and thoughtful editorial assistance.

0378-2166/96/$15.00 © 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0378-2166(94)00097-2



208 S.K. Maynard / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 207-226

t a n c i n g " w h e r e b y th e s p e a k e r p r e s e n ts h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f " a s a n a c t o r in a s c e n e " .

T a n n e n ( 1 9 8 9 ) a r g u e s t h a t ' r e p o r t e d s p e e c h ' i s a m i s n o m e r s i n c e i t i s n o t a c t u a l l y

' r e p o r t e d ' . I n s t e a d w h a t i s g e n e r a l l y m e a n t b y ' r e p o r t e d s p e e c h ' i s , i n f a c t , s p o n t a -

n e o u s s p e e c h c r e a t i v e l y c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e s p e a k e r a t t h e t i m e o f t a l k . T h e o v e r a l l

e f f e c t o f c o n s t ru c t e d d i a lo g u e , T a n n e n p o i n ts o u t , c r ea t es ' i n v o l v e m e n t ' . M a y e s '

( 1 9 9 0 ) d i s c u s s i o n o f d i s c o u r s e f u n c t i o n s o f d ir e c t q u o t a t i o n s i n E n g l i s h c o n v e r s a t i o n

i n c lu d e s d r a m a t i za t i o n o f e v e n t s, p r e s e n t a ti o n o f e v i d e n c e , b a c k g r o u n d i n g o f u n i m -

p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n , c l a r i f i c a t i o n a n d e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n . B e s n i e r ( 1 9 9 3 ) e x a m i n e s

r e p o r t e d s p e e c h o n N u k u l a e l a e A t o l l a s h e f o c u s e s o n a f f e c t i v e m e a n i n g . H e w r i te s

t h a t N u k u l a e l a e s p e a k e r s c o m m u n i c a t e a f f e c t t h r o u g h t h e p r o s o d y , d e i c t i c a d v e r b s ,

a n d p a r t i c u l a r r h e t o r i c a l s t y l e w h i c h o c c u r i n d i r e c t q u o t a t io n .

O f th e m a n y s t u d i e s o n q u o t a t i o n a v a i l a b l e i n th e f i e l d o f J a p a n e s e l i n g u i s ti c s ,

t h o s e r e l e v a n t to t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i n c l u d e t h e f o l lo w i n g . K a m a d a ( 1 9 8 8 ) a s s e r ts t h a t

t h e f u n c t i o n o f d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n i s n o t m e r e l y t o p a r r o t t h e q u o t e e ' s u t t e r a n c e , b u t

r a t h e r to o f f e r d r a m a t i c e f f e c t b y i n t r o d u c i n g o n e

b a

' p l a c e o r s i t u a t io n o f t a l k ' , i n t o

a n o t h e r . T h e n o t i o n o f a c l a s h o f ' p l a c e ' m a t r i x e s i s f u r t h e r p u r s u e d i n S u n a k a w a ' s

w o r k ( 1 9 8 8 , 1 98 9). S u n a k a w a e x a m i n e s t h e fu n c t i o n a l d i ff e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e q u o -

t a t iv e c l a u s e

t o

a n d n o m i n a l c l a u s e m a r k e d b y

k o t o

a l o n g w i t h t h e t y p e o f c o - o c c u r -

r i n g p r e d i c a t e v e r b s a n d c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e y d i f f e r in t e r m s o f t h e i r u s a g e i n e x p r e s -

s i n g t h e d u a l ' p l a c e s ' . A l t h o u g h t h e t o y u u c l a u s e r e a d i l y e m b r a c e s t h e d u a l n a t u r e

o f ' p l a c e s ' , t h e k o t o c lause i s r e s t r i c t ed to one - a r ep re sen ta t ion o f the even t tha t t he

q u o t e r h a s o b j e c t i f i e d a n d c o n c e p t u a l i z e d . I n a s i m i l a r a p p r o a c h , I d i s c u s s e d f u n c -

t i o n s o f

t o

a n d

k o t o - o

( M a y n a r d , 1 98 4) i n J a p a n e s e w r i t t e n d i s c o u r s e a n d p o i n t e d o u t

t h a t t o - q u o t a t i o n s u p p o r t s t h e s h i f t i n g o f p o i n t o f v i e w i n t h e J a p a n e s e l i te r a r y s t y l e.

M o r e r e c e n t l y K a m a d a ( 1 9 9 4 ) e x p l o r e s t h e s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f t h e q u o -

t a t io n a n d s t a t e s th a t s o c i a l l y m o t i v a t e d m a r k e r s - i .e ., ' s o c i a l d e i x i s ' - a p p e a r i n t h e

c r e a t e d q u o t a t i o n , a s t h e y a re a d j u s t e d t o t h e n e e d o f t h e q u o t i n g s i t u a ti o n . A l l o f t h e

a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d s t u d i e s a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d e x p l a i n q u o t a t i o n f r o m p r a g -

m a t i c a n d s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c p e r s p e c t iv e s .

T h i s s t u d y d e p a r t s f r o m p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s o n d i r e c t / i n d i r e c t s t y l e o f s p e e c h a n d

t h o u g h t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b y p l a c i n g p r i m a r y f o c u s o n w h a t I i d e n t i f y a s ' d i r e c t - s t y l e

s e l f - q u o t a t i o n ' , ' d i r e c t - s t y l e s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h o u g h t ' a n d ' s e l f - q u o t a t i v e

e x p l a n a t i o n ' i n J a p a n e s e . I w i l l l a r g e ly f o l l o w t h e d i r e c t io n o f t h e s t u d i e s m e n t i o n e d

a b o v e , b u t w i t h a c l o s e r a t te n t i o n g i v e n t o t h e e x p r e s s i v e n e s s o f th e s p e a k e r ' s a t ti -

t u d e t o w a r d t h e c o n t e n t a n d t o w a r d t h e s p e e c h a c t a s i t i s o b s e r v e d i n c e r t a i n c a s e s

o f J a p a n e s e s e l f - q u o t a ti o n .

I n t h e c o u r s e o f th i s s t u d y , I w i l l p o i n t o u t t h a t a l th o u g h t h e q u o t e e a n d t h e q u o t e r

m a y b e i n p h y s i c a l t e r m s t h e s a m e p e r s o n , t h e y a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l i n te r m s o f th e c h a r -

a c t er s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e d i s c o u r s e . S p e a k e r s a s s u m e d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c te r r o l e s a s t h e y

i n t e r a c t a c c o r d i n g t o a c o n t e x t w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r s t h e m s e l v e s h e l p c r e a t e . W h e n

a s s u m i n g t h e v o i c e o f a c h a r a c t e r, t h e s p e a k e r s a r e c a p a b l e o f e c h o i n g m u l t i p l e

v o i c e s m a n i p u l a t e d t h r o u g h , a m o n g o t h e r d e v i c e s , q u o t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . I w i l l a r g u e

t h a t w h a t m o t i v a t e s t h e s p e a k e r t o s e l f - q u o t e i s a d e s i r e t o m a n i p u l a t e a b r o a d e r

r a n g e o f e x p r e s s i v e n e s s i n i n t e ra c t io n . M o r e c o n c r e t e l y , s e l f - q u o t a t i o n f a c il i ta t e s d is -

c o u r s e f u n c t i o n s s u c h a s d r a m a t i z a t i o n a n d d i s t a n c i n g . S e l f - q u o t a t i o n a l s o s e r v e s t o



S .K . M ay nard / J ourna l o f Pragm at i c s 25 1996) 2 07 -226

209

q u a l i f y s p e e c h a c ts a s i t m i t ig a t e s, p a r o d i e s , a n d / o r e m p h a s i z e s t h e a c t o f ' s a y i n g '

i ts e lf . I t w i ll b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t th e s e d i s c o u r s e f u n c t i o n s o f s e l f - q u o t a t i o n a r e a t tr i b -

u t e d to t h e j u x t a p o s i n g a n d b l e n d i n g o f ' s e m i o t i c c o n t e x t s ' w h e r e m u l t i p le v o i c e s

e c h o .

G i v e n t h a t se l f - q u o t a ti o n is l i k e ly t o o c c u r w h e n s e l f -e x p r e s s i o n is h i g h l y e n c o u r -

a g e d , s e l e c t i n g d a t a s o u r c e s c i t i n g l iv e l y c o n v e r s a t i o n i n d r a m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s i s

e x p e c t e d t o b e u s e f u l . T h u s , I c h o s e d a t a i n c l u d i n g ( 1 ) p o l it i c a l d i s c o u r s e i n a J a p a n -

e s e D i e t h e a r i n g , r e c o r d e d f r o m t h e f o r m e r P r i m e M i n i s t e r N o b o r u T a k e s h i t a ' s t e s t i -

m o n y ( D e c e m b e r 7 , 1 9 9 2 ) ; ( 2) p u b l i s h e d t a i d a n , ' d i a l o g u e ' f o r m a t p r e s e n t a t i o n s ,

t a k e n f r o m t h e 1 9 9 2 is s u es o f K o o d a n s h a ' s

H o n ; ~

( 3 ) c a s u a l c o n v e r s a t i o n c o l l e c t e d

i n T o k y o ; 2 a n d ( 4 ) d i a l o g u e a n d t e x t in g i r ls ' c o m i c b o o k s . D a t a s a m p l e s t a k e n f r o m

t h e se a u t h e n t ic s o u r c e s a r e n u m b e r e d i n p a r e n t h e s e s ; t h o s e c r e a te d b y t h e a u t h o r ar e

m a r k e d b y n u m b e r s i n s q u a r e b r a c k e ts .

T r a d i t io n a l l y , t h e q u e s t io n o f d ir e c t /i n d ir e c t s p e e c h h a s s u m m o n e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n

o f n a r r a t iv e a n d / o r n o v e l is t i c d is c o u r s e . L i t e r a r y d i s c o u r s e p r e s u p p o s e s a c o n c e p t o f

v o i c e e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h t h e a u t h o r ' s c h o i c e o f v i e w p o i n t i n c l u d in g ( 1 ) a u t h o ri a l,

( 2 ) n a r r a t i v e , a n d ( 3 ) c h a r a c te r . T h e s t r a t e g y o f q u o t a t i o n o f t e n s e r v e s t h e p u r p o s e o f

p r e s e n t i n g t h e s e v o i c e s . I n th i s c o n t e x t , w h a t i s i m p o r t a n t i s t h e a p p r e c i a t i o n o f

' p o l y p h o n y ' o r ' m u l t i v o i c e d n e s s ' i n l a n g u a g e . O f p a rt ic u l a r i n te r e st t o u s is t h e v i e w

d e v e l o p e d i n R u s s i a n p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s a n d s e m i o t i c s a s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e w o r k s o f

V y g o t s k y , B a k h t i n , a n d V o l o ~ i n o v i n p a rt ic u l ar . 3 U n l i k e t h e t ra d i ti o n o f S a u s s u r e a n

l i n g u i s t i c s , w h i c h h a s f a i t h f u l l y a d o p t e d t h e c l e a r - c u t s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n ' l a n g u e '

a n d ' p a r o l e ' - i . e ., ' l a n g u e ' ( o r s e n t e n c e ) a s a n a b s t r a c t s y s t e m a n d ' p a r o l e ' ( o r u t te r -

a n c e ) a s t h e a c tu a l s p e e c h a c t - B a k h t i n ( 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 6 ) i n s i st s t h a t t h e r e a l i ty o f

l a n g u a g e / s p e e c h d o e s n o t li e i n a n a b s t r a c t s y s t e m o f l a n g u a g e , b u t o r i g i n a t e s i n t h e

s o c i a l e v e n t o f v e r b a l i n t e r a c t io n . T h e n o t i o n t h a t l a n g u a g e i s i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m s o c i -

e t y e n c o u r a g e s t h e t h o u g h t t h a t l a n g u a g e r e f l e c t s m u l t i p l e v o i c e s . T h i s i s b e c a u s e

a c c o r d i n g t o t h is v i e w , l a n g u a g e o r i g i n a t e s , a n d i s g i v e n l if e , o n l y i n t h e d i a l o g i c

r e la t io n w i th t h e v o i c e o f t h e ' o t h e r ' . B a k h t i n ' s ( 1 9 8 6 ) w o r d s a r e r e l e v a n t h e r e :

"Any concrete utterance is a link in the chain of speech communication of a particular sphere. The very

boundaries of the utterance are determined by a change of speech subjects. Utterances are not indiffer-

ent to one another, and are not self-sufficient; they are awa re of and mutually reflect one another. These

mutual reflections determine their character. Each utterance is filled with echoes and reverberations of

other utterances to which it is related by the com munality o f the sphe re of speech comm unication. Every

utterance must be regarded primarily as a

response

to preceding utterances o f the given sphere (...). Each

Taidan is a two-person conversation ffmnat in which participants engage in intellectual talk-think.

Transcribed

taidan

is a frequently observed method of idea sharing/presentation in Japanese magazines

and scholarly journals.

2 The data used as casual conversation in this study consist of twenty videotaped dyadic conversations

taped in To ky o in M ay, 1985. Detailed information regarding the procedu re of data collection is avail-

able in Maynard (1989).

3 Som e researchers have maintained that Bakhtin also writes under other names such as Medvedev or

Volo~inov. The ev idence for this is, however, far from conclusive. See Morson a nd Em erson (1990:

1 O--115).




utterance refutes, affirms, supplements, and relies on the others, presupposes them to be known, and

somehow takes them into account." (1986: 91; original emphasis)

F r o m a c o g n i t i v e / p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c p o i n t o f v i e w a s w e l l , l a n g u a g e c a n b e s e e n a s

r e f l e c ti n g m u l t i p l e v o i c e s o f s o c ie t y . A c c o r d i n g t o V y g o t s k y ( 1 9 6 2 ) , th e c o g n i t i v e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c h i l d i s a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f i n te r n a l iz a t i o n o f l a n -

g u a g e - t h e re s u l t o f w h i c h i s ' i n n e r s p e e c h ' . L a n g u a g e i s fi rs t u s e d b y t h e c h i ld f o r

t h e p u r p o s e o f s o c i a l iz a t i o n w i t h o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s ; o n l y l a t e r i t b e c o m e s i n t e r n a l-

i z e d . I n f a c t , a l l t h e h i g h e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a g e s a n i n d i v i d u a l a t t a i n s d i r e c t l y r e f l e c t

t h e s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s i n w h i c h t h a t i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c i p a t e d a t a n e a r l i e r s t a g e o f h is o r

h e r d e v e l o p m e n t , p a r t i c u la r l y t h ro u g h t h e u s e o f l a n g u a g e . T h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s

f r o m V y g o t s k y s u p p o r t th is v i e w .

~... the very m echanism underlying higher me ntal functions is a cop y from soc ial interaction; all high er

men tal functions are internalized social relationships. Th ese higher me ntal functions are the b asis of the

individual's social structure. Their com position, genetic structure, and m eans of action - in a wo rd, their

whole nature - is social. Eve n when w e tu rn to m ental processes, their nature remains quasi-social.

In their own private sphere, hum an beings retain the fu nctions of social interaction." (Wertsch, 1981:

1 6 4 )

I t a k e t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t l a n g u a g e i s e s s e n t i a l l y s o c i a l , t h a t i s , i n t e r a c t i o n a l a n d d i a -

l o g i c , a n d t h a t l a n g u a g e c a n n o t h e l p b u t r e f l e c t m u l t i p l e v o i c e s . A f t e r a ll , o n e c a n n o t

c l a i m t o t a l o r s o l e o w n e r s h i p o f e v e n a s in g l e w o r d . T h e m e a n i n g o f a w o r d i s

s h a p e d a n d i s i n t e r p r e t e d d i a l o g i c a l l y w i t h t h e p e r s o n o n e a d d r e s s e s , a s w e l l a s w i t h

t h e s o c i e t y t h a t e n d o r s e s i t s v e r y e x i s t e n c e .

I n a d e e p e r s e n s e e v e r y u t t e r a n c e i s p o l y p h o n i c a s e x p r e s s e d i n B a k h t i n ' s w o r d s

q u o t e d e a r li e r. O r , a s W e r t s c h ( 1 9 9 1 : 1 3) a p t l y p u t s it, " h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i v e a n d

p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s a r e c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y a d i a lo g i c a l i t y o f v o i c e s " a n d t h e y

a l w a y s r e p r e s e n t ' m u l t i v o i c e d n e s s ' . A l t h o u g h m u i t i v o i c e d n e s s is e x p e c t e d to r e s-

o n a t e t h r o u g h o u t l a n g u a g e , d i r e c t / i n d i r e c t s p e e c h a n d t h o u g h t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ,

t h r o u g h v a r i o u s d e v i c e s o f q u o t a t i o n , o f f e r u n i q u e i n s t a n c e s w h e r e th e m a n y ' v o i c e s '

o f d is c o u r s e c o n v e r g e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , u n l i k e o t h e r l a n g u a g e d e v i c e s , q u o t a t i o n

o v e r t l y m a r k s d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s i n d i sc o u r s e . I n t e r m s o f a c tu a l u s e o f l a n g u a g e , q u o t -

i n g s o m e o n e ' s w o r d s , i n v o l v e s , b y d e f in i t io n , t h e v o i c e o f a n o th e r , w h i c h r e s u l t s in

a d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e . I t is r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e , t h e n , t h a t a n a l y z i n g t h e s t r a te -

g i e s o f q u o t a ti o n w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f m u l t i v o i c e d n e s s a s a g u i d e o f f e r s a d ir e c t

m e a n s f o r d i s c o v e r i n g t h e m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h e i r u s e .

C l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h B a k h t i n i a n m u l t i v o i c e d n e s s i s t h e c o n c e p t o f ' t i s s u e o f

v o i c e s ' i n t r o d u c e d b y T a l b o t ( 1 9 9 2 ). T a l b o t u s e s th e t e r m ' v o i c e s ' to r e p r e s e n t t h e

v o i c e s o f t h e ' t e x t p o p u l a t i o n ' - a c o n s t ru c t w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f (1 ) in t e r a c ta n t s , ( 2 )

c h a r a c t e r s , a n d ( 3 ) s u b j e c t p o s it i o n s . I n t e r a c t a n t s a r e p e o p l e a d d r e s s i n g o n e a n o t h e r ;

t h e y i n c l u d e t h e w r i t e r , t h e r e a d e r , a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r s c r e a t e d i n t h e t e x t . C h a r a c t e r s

a r e p e o p l e w h o s e w o r d s o r t h o u g h t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n a t e x t a n d " t h e s e w o r d s o r

t h o u g h ts m a y b e e m b e d d e d in a t ex t b y b e i n g q u o t e d , r e p o r t e d o r s i m p l y p r e s u p -

p o s e d " ( T a l b o t , 1 9 9 2: 1 7 7) . S u b j e c t p o s i t i o n s a re p o s i t i o n s re p r e s e n t e d b y th e c o n -

v e n t i o n a l k i n d s o f v o i c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p e r s o n ' s p o s i t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e ed i -



S.K. Maynard / Jour nal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 207 -226 211

torial voice in a girls' magazine could assume multiple roles including that of an

advertiser, facilitator, or the voice of a friend. Talbot's characterization of the 'text

population' offers a tangible means for attributing different voices to different popu-

lations engaged in text.

The study of quotation to date has in general concentrated on other-quotation,

while excluding the phenomenon of self-quotation. Obviously, self-quotation does

not involve the voice of the other in the traditional sense. Some readers may find my

focus on self-quotation contradictory and may argue that self-quotation presents a

poor example for studying the issue of multivoicedness. I claim the contrary; the

nature of multivoicedness is amply observed (as I will explore in the course of this

paper) in self-quotation. Precisely because of being seemingly unexpected as a place

for the phenomenon of many voices to appear, self-quotation may reveal the nature

of multivoicedness in its most crystallized form. This paper will demonstrate that

multivoicedness, though based on analysis of literary discourse, has broader impli-

cations and that everyday utterances are microcosms o f literary discourse. In fact, the

essential character of literary discourse, including the manipulation of multiple

voices, is inscribed in miniature within a single self-quoting utterance in ordinary

discourse.

2 . M u l t iv o i c e d n e s s a n d s e l f- q u o t a t i o n / s el f -r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f t h o u g h t

In this section, I explore the functions, first, of self-quotation and, second, of self-

representation of thought in Japanese. To facilitate the discussion, let us use the

structure [[X] to yuu omou] (where yuu and omou refer to 'say' and 'think' respec-

tively) for representing various forms of self-quotation and self-representation of

thought. Following Sternberg (1982), I refer to [X] as the ' inset' and the to yuu omou

portion as the 'frame'. Let us start our discussion of self-quotation by examining

data (1) taken from Takeshita's testimony.4

(1) Sonohoka no koto nitsuite wa/watashi wa an o/na i to

other LK things about T I T uhh BE-NEG QT

omotteorimasu ga/ ano/sakihodo/oyakusokushimashita yooni/choosashiro

think but uhh earlier promised as investigate

to/ yuu koto nitsuite wa/sunaoni / soo shimasu to/ koo kotaeteoru

QT say fact about T honestly so do QT this way answer

wake degozaimasu.

fact BE

4 Note t he fo l l owing abbr e v i at i ons : BE ( va r ious f o rm s o f the ve r b ' be ' ) , COM ( c om m a nd f o r m ) , IP

( inte rac t iona l par t ic le ) , LK ( l inking par t ic le ) , NEG (nega t ive morpheme) , NOM (nominal iza t ion) , O

(objec t marker ) , Q (quest ion marker ) , QT (quota t ive marker ) , S ( subjec t marker ) , T ( theme marker ) . In

the conversa t iona l da ta , l i s tener response i s provided in parentheses ; l i s tener response tha t occurs imm e-

dia te ly fol lowing the previous turn i s expressed by a co nnec t ing la tch mark. Simul taneou s ut te rances a re

marked by a la rge square bracke t connec t ing the i r s ta r t ing points .



212

S.K. Maynard/Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 207-226

' R e g a r d i n g o t h e r t h i n g s , I d o t h i n k t h e r e i s n o n e , b u t a s I s t a t e d e a r li e r , a b o u t t h e

f a c t t h a t y o u d e m a n d t h a t I i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m a t t e r , I a m a n s w e r i n g - I w i l l h o n -

e s t l y d o s o . '

I n ( 1 ) [ X] r e f e r s t o [ r ega r d i ng o t he r t h i ngs , I do t h i nk t he r e i s none , bu t a s I s t a t ed

e a r l i e r , a b o u t t h e f a c t t h a t y o u d e m a n d t h a t I i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m a t t e r , I w i l l h o n e s t l y

d o s o ] w h i c h i s f r a m e d b y t h e q u o t a t i v e m a r k e r to a n d t h e v e r b o f ' s a y i n g ' , i . e . ,

kotaeteoru ' I a m a n s w e r i n g ' . N o t e t h a t [ X ] i s a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h t h e v e r b shimasu

t h e f o r m a l f o r m o f

suru

' d o ' , w h i c h i s n o t e x p e c t e d n o r m a l l y t o o c c u r i n i n d i r e c t

q u o t a t i o n . W h y i s t h e d i r e c t s t y l e s e l f - q u o t a t i o n u s e d h e r e ? A n d m o r e s p e c i f i c a l ly ,

w h y d o e s T a k e s h i t a f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o o v e r t l y fr a m e h is a n s w e r w i th kotaeteoru ' I

a m a n s w e r i n g ' ? I n t e rm s o f c o n v e r s a t i o n a l s e q u e n c i n g , t h e q u e s t i o n - a n s w e r r e l a t io n

f o r m s a n ' a d j a c e n c y p a i r ' ( S c h e g l o f f a n d S a c k s , 1 9 7 3) . S i n c e (1 ), t h e s e c o n d p a i r-

p a r t , o c c u r s in t h e s e q u e n c e w h e r e t h e r e s p o n s e n o r m a l l y a p p e a r s - i .e . , s a t i s fy i n g

' c o n d i t i o n a l r e l e v a n c e ' ( S c h e g l o f f , 1 9 6 8 : 1 0 8 3 ) - ( 1 ) i s p e r c e i v e d a s a n a n s w e r i n g

r e s p o n s e u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e n o t e d . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l s e q u e n t i a l p r o t o c o l ,

o n e r e a l i z e s t h a t th e f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e D i e t h e a r i n g c o n d i t i o n s u s t o t a k e

T a k e s h i t a ' s w o r d s a s h i s a n s w e r . A f t e r a l l , T a k e s h i t a h a d b e e n s u m m o n e d t o g i v e

t e s t i m o n y b y a n s w e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d b y t h e D i e t m e m b e r s . G i v e n a l l t h i s , i s

it n e c e s s a r y f o r T a k e s h i t a t o o v e r t l y c h a r a c t e ri z e h is s p e e c h a c t a s a n ' a n s w e r ' ?

O n e a p p r o a c h t o a n s w e r i n g t h i s q u e s ti o n c e n t e rs a r o u n d a v i e w o f l a n g u a g e a s

o p e r a t i n g o n a t l e a s t t w o d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . T h e s e l f - q u o t a t i o n i n ( 1 ) s e r v e s t o p r e s e n t

t w o d i s t i n c t v o i c e s o n t w o s e p a r a t e d i s c o u r s e l e v e l s : T a k e s h i t a ' s d i r e c t v o i c e i n [ X ]

r e c i t in g a n a n s w e r , a n d T a k e s h i t a ' s v o i c e f r a m i n g [ X ] as a p r o p e r a n d f o r m a l r e p l y

t o t h e q u e r y , i . e . , o f f i c i a l t e s t i m o n y o f f e r e d i n t h e D i e t h e a r i n g . O n e o b s e r v e s t w o

d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f s p e e c h a c t s h e r e , a s t h e d i s c o u r s e m a i n t a i n s a d o u b l e f o c u s p e r -

f o r m e d b y t w o d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r s a n d e n a c t e d i n t w o d i s t i n c t s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s .

T h e i m a g e o f th is d o u b l e - v o i c e d n e s s , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t r e s id e o n t h e s p e a k e r ' s s id e

a l o n e . T h e d o u b l e - v o i c e a d d r e s s e s t w o d i f f e r e n t im a g e s o f t h e l is t e n e r ; f i r s t, th e

l i s t e n e r a s r e c i p i e n t o f t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e a n s w e r , a n d s e c o n d , t h e l i s t e n e r a s r e c i p i -

e n t o f a n o v e r t l y la b e l e d s p e e c h a ct . T h u s , t h e m u l t i v o i c e d n e s s o b s e r v e d h e r e

i n v o l v e s n o t o n l y t h e k i n d a t t r i b u t e d s o l e l y t o t h e s p e a k e r , b u t t h a t w h i c h i s c o n -

n e c t e d t o t h e l i s t e n e r a s w e l l .

T h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e h e r e i s d i a l o g i c i n t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s . F i r s t , i t i s

d i a l o g i c s i n c e i t t a k e s p l a c e b e t w e e n t w o p a i rs o f d i f fe r e n t t y p e s o f s p e a k e r / l i s t e n e r ;

a n d s e c o n d , i t i s d i a l o g i c i n t h a t t h e s p e a k e r c r e a t e s a d i a l o g i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

a n i n s e t a n d a f r a m e w i t h i n a n u t t e r a n c e . A l t h o u g h i n p h y s i c a l t e r m s o n l y o n e p e r s o n

s t a n d s b e h i n d t h e s t a t e m e n t o f ( 1 ), o n e c a n s a y t h a t t h e r e e x i s ts a c h a r a c t e r w h o

u t t e r s [ X ] a n d a s p e a k e r w h o f r a m e s a n d c o n t r o l s t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s v o i c e .

T h e d o u b l e - v o i c e d n e s s d e p i c t e d h e r e b e g s t h e q u e s t io n o f w h a t e f f e c t t h e v o i c e

m a n i p u l a t i o n b r i n g s t o d i s c o u r s e . P e r h a p s w e c a n a p p r o a c h t h i s q u e s t i o n f r o m t w o

d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s : ( 1 ) in t e r m s o f t h e f r a m i n g s t r a te g y , a n d ( 2 ) in t e r m s o f th e

r a t i o n a l e f o r p r e s e n t i n g t h e i n s e t in d i r e c t s t y le . I n a d d r e s s i n g t h e f i rs t p e r s p e c t i v e , I

a g a i n d r a w s o m e c l u es f r o m B a k h t i n ( 1 9 7 1 ).



S.K. Maynard / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 207-226 213

"The m os t typical and extensive variety of represented or o bjectified wo rd usage is the direct speech of

characters. Such speech has its own imm ediate referential object, yet it does not occu py a po sition on the

same plane w ith the direct speech of the au thor; instead, it stands at a certain remo ve from the author's

speech, as i f in perspective. It is m eant not only to be u nderstood in terms o f its own referential object,

but, by virtue of its character-definingcapacity, or its typicality, or its co lorfulness, t also appears as the

object of another (the author's) intention." (1971: 177)

A l t h o u g h t h e d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e o f [ X ] i s p h y s i c a l l y t r a c e a b l e t o t h e s p e a k e r , i t i s d i f -

f e r e n t f ro m t h e v o i c e o f th e s p e a k e r a s a q u o t e r . T h e q u o t e d [ X ] ' a p p e a r s a s t h e o b j e c t

o f a n o t h e r i n t e n t i o n ' . B y t h e t o k e n t h a t i t i s q u o t e d , [ X ] i s o n e s t e p f u r t h e r f r o m t h e

i m m e d i a t e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e s p e ak e r . U l t i m a t e l y , q u o t i n g [ X ] h a s a n o b j e c t i f y i n g a n d

d i s ta n c i n g e f f e c t, as s u g g e s t e d b y B a k h t i n ' s s t a t e m e n t q u o t e d a b o v e . T h e s a m e c h a r -

a c t e r i z a t io n ( o f d i s t a n c i n g ) w a s d i s c u s s e d b y M a c a u l a y ( 1 9 8 7 ) a s r e v i e w e d e a rl ie r .

I n o r d e r t o a d d r e s s t h e s e c o n d p e r s p e c t i v e , i . e . , t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r p r e s e n t i n g t h e

i n s e t i n d i r e c t s t y l e , l e t u s e x a m i n e a n o t h e r e x a m p l e t a k e n f r o m T a k e s h i t a ' s t e s t i -

m o n y .

( 2. 1) K o r e w a I k e d a- s en s e i m o / k o k k a i n o k o t o w a y o k u

t h i s T M r . I k e d a a l s o D i e t L K t h i n g s T w e l l

g o z o n j i d e a r u t o [- ( ? ) o m o i m a s u . /

k n o w Q T ~ t h in k

. 9 )

' U h , t h is , a s y o u k n o w M r . I k e d a , I a m s u r e th a t y o u , t o o , k n o w a l o t a b o u t

t h e D i e t . '

( 2 .2 ) I y a / an o i m a m a d e / T a k a h a s h i E i ic h i F s e ns e i n o k a n k e i

w e l l u h h n o w u n t il T a k a h a s h i E i i c h i [ M r . L K r e l a ti o n

( A a L A U G H )

m o y o k u / z o n j i t e o r i m a s u s h i / ] o h i s a s h i b u r i d e s u t o

a l so w e l l k n o w a n d [ l o n g t i m e n o s e e Q T

[. ( M a i tt a n a a L A U G H )

( Y o u g o t m e . )

i it ai k i m o c h i d e g o z a i m a s u g a . /

w a n t t o s a y f e e l in g s B E b u t

' W e l l , u n t i l n o w I h a v e a l so k n o w n a b o u t y o u r r e l a ti o n s h i p w i t h M r . E i i c h i

T a k a h a s h i , a n d I w a n t to e x c h a n g e g r e e t in g s w i t h y o u b y s a y i n g , " I t ' s b e e n a

l o n g t i m e , " b u t [ I s h o u l d n ' t ] . '

( 2 . 3) S e n s e i s o k o n t o k o w a d e s u n e / ] k o t o g o t o s a y o o n i

M r . t h e re N O M p l a ce T B E I P [ t h i n g s s u c h a s

( H a a )

( Y e a h . )

A o k i - k u n o w a t a k u s h i g a sh i n r a is h i te o t ta w a k e d e g o z a i m a s u k a r a /

M r . A o k i O I S t r u s t e d f a c t B E s i n c e

s o n o y o o n i g o r i k a i -o - i ta d a k i t a i m o n o d a t o o m o i m a s u .

t h a t w a y w a n t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d t h in g B E Q T t h i n k

' P l e a s e , a b o u t t h a t p o i n t , i t i s b e c a u s e I t r u s t e d M r . A o k i a l l t h e m o r e ; I h o p e

y o u w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d i t a s I s t a t e d . '



214

S.K. Maynard / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 207-226

I k e d a : H a i /

y e s

k a m o s h i r e I

m i g h t

g a a n o o / [

b u t u h h

e e / m a a / s o r e / m a a / s o r e s o r e d a t t a

u h w e l l t h a t w e l l t h a t t h a t B E

m a s e n

( L A U G H )

t s u i k y u u s h i m a s e n . / l

p u r s u e - N E G

( L A U G H ) ( L A U G H )

'Yes , uh , we l l , t ha t , we l l , t ha t migh t have bee n the ca se , bu t , we l l , I w i l l no t go

o n a s k i n g a b o u t t h i s a n y m o r e . '

I n ( 2 .2 ) T a k e s h i t a a d d s t h a t h e w a n t e d t o o f f e r a f r ie n d l y g r e e t in g s u c h a s ohisash-

iburi desu ' I t ' s b e e n a l o n g t i m e ' . A l t h o u g h T a k e s h i t a o v e r t l y s t a te s th a t ( g i v e n t he

s e r io u s s i t u a ti o n o f t h e D i e t h e a r i n g ) h e c a n n o t o f f e r s u c h a f r i e n d l y g r e e t in g , i t in

f a c t h a s t h e e f f e c t o f a c t u a l l y d e l i v e r i n g t h i s g r e e t i n g . T h e f o r m u l a i c g r e e t i n g o f

ohisashiburi desu ca r r i e s a d i s t inc t f l avo r o f a c tua l t a lk addre ssed to Ikeda . I t i s an i -

m a t e d w i t h p h o n o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s ( s u c h a s t o n e o f v o i c e a n d s p e e d ) t y p i c a l i n a c t u a l

g r e e t i n g ; T a k e s h i t a a d d r e s s e s I k e d a n o t a s a n o f f i c i a l q u e s t i o n e r b u t a s a c o l l e a g u e .

H e r e o n e c a n i d e n t i f y t w o d i f f e r e n t ' s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n s ' , i . e ., t h a t o f s p e a k e r - a s - w i t -

n e s s a n d t h a t o f s p e a k e r - a s - f r i e n d l y - c o l l e a g u e . T h i s s o r t o f d i r e ct q u o t a t i o n - t h o u g h

c a m o u f l a g e d - a l l o w s t h e s p e a k e r to a n i m a t e h i s o r h e r t a lk , w h e n d i r e c t l y a d d r e s s -

i n g t h e h e a re r , w i t h o u t d i v e r ti n g f r o m t h e l a r g e r f r a m e w o r k o f t h e i n t e r a c ti o n - i n -

p r o g r e ss . I n a s e n s e o n e c a n b r e a c h t h e r u l e s o f a p p r o p r i at e s p e e c h b e h a v i o r p r o -

v i d e d s u c h u n e x p e c t e d b e h a v i o r i s p l a c e d w i t h i n a r u l e - s a t i s f y i n g f r a m e .

Th e e f fec t s o f d i rec t - s ty l e se l f -qu o ta t ion obse rv ed in (1 ) and (2) a re , f i rs t , f a c i l i t a -

t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t a t io n o f m u l t i p l e v o i c e s t h a t t r a n s m i t i n f o r m a t i o n o n d i f f e r e n t l ev -

e l s o f d i s c o u r s e , s e c o n d , a m o r e v i v i d d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f th e s p e a k e r ' s v o i c e , a n d

t h i rd , d i s t a n c i n g - a d e v i c e f o r s e p a r a t i n g t h e s p e a k e r f r o m t h e q u o t i n g s i t u a t io n . T h e

p o t e n t i a l f o r c o m b i n i n g d r a m a t i c v o i c e s , w h i c h a l s o c r e a t e s d i s t a n c i n g , g i v e s s e l f -

q u o t a t i o n i ts f l e x i b i l i t y a n d u s e f u l n e s s .

L e t u s n o w e x a m i n e e x a m p l e s o f d i r e c t - o r i e n t e d t h o u g h t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o d e t e r -

m i n e i f s i m i l a r o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n b e m a d e . D a t a ( 3 ) is ta k e n f r o m a taidan d i a l o g u e .

( 3 ) ( M i u r a a n d H a g i o d i s c u s s t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e g i rl s ' c o m i c g e n r e )

M i u r a : S h o o j o m a n g a n o s h i n k a w a h o n t o o n i h a y a i n a t o

g i rl s c o m i c s L K d e v e l o p m e n t T r e a ll y f a s t I P Q T

o m o i m a s u n e .

t h i n k I P

' I th ink - t he adv ance s (mad e ) in g i r l s ' co m ics a re r ea l ly f a s t . '

( K o o d a n s h a , 1 9 9 2 , S e p t e m b e r : 4 1 )

I n ( 3) w e f i n d i n s e t [X ] f r a m e d b y a v e r b r e p r e s e n t i n g t h o u g h t ,

omoimasu

' t h i n k ' .

H e r e a g a i n , a l t h o u g h t h e v o i c e o f th e q u o t e e a n d t h e v o i c e o f t h e q u o t e r a r e a t t r ib u t -

ab le to a s ing le ind iv idua l , t he in se t [X] i s pe r fo rmed on an in t e rac t iona l l eve l d i f -

f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e f r a m e . N o t e t h a t s i m i l a r ly t o ( 1 ), t h e i n s e t c a r r ie s f e a t u r e s n o r -



S.K. Maynard / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 207-226 215

m a l l y e x p e c t e d i n d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e , s u c h a s t h e p a r t i c l e na. This adds a d i s t inc t ,

c a s u a l f l a v o r t o t h e d i s c o u r s e . Na i s t h e s t y l e s u c h a s p e a k e r i s e x p e c t e d t o u s e i n

m o n o l o g u e s o r i n r e la x e d c o n v e r s a t i o n a m o n g i n ti m a t e s . T h u s , t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f

na

( o f t e n a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h e x p r e s s i v e t o n e o f v o i c e ) , t h e s p e a k e r s u d d e n l y s w i t c h e s

m a t r i x e s a n d ( f i g u r a t iv e l y ) l e ts h is h a i r d o w n ; h i s ' v o i c e ' s o u n d s f r e e f r o m i m p o s e d

l a n g u a g e c o d e s a n d s o c i a l r e s t r ic t i o n s .

M i u r a a d h e r e s t o t h e f o r m a l e n d i n g o f th e m a i n p r e d i c at e omoimasu ' t h i n k ' i n t h e

f r a m e i t s e l f , a n d y e t w i t h i n h i s s e l f - q u o t a t i o n h e i s f r e e t o ' t a l k ' i n a m o r e c a s u a l

f r i e n d l y s t y l e . A s w e o b s e r v e d i n th e c a s e o f (2 ) , th e m i x t u r e o f s p e e c h s t y l e s c a n b e

a t t r i b u t e d t o t w o s e p a r a t e ' s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n s ' t h e s p e a k e r p l a y s o n : t h e p e r s o n a w h o

r e v e a l s h i s p r i v a t e t h o u g h t s t o a c l o s e f r i e n d , a n d t h e p e r s o n a w h o c o n f o r m s t o t h e

r o l e a s s i g n e d t o a taidan ' d i a l o g u e ' p a r t i c i p a n t . I n s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a ti o n o f t h o u g h t ,

t h e n , w e w i t n e s s a p h e n o m e n o n s i m i l a r t o s e l f - q u o t a t i o n , n a m e l y , p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d

m a n i p u l a t i o n o f m u l t i v o i c e d n e s s .

T h e c a s u a l t o n e c r e a t e d b y c a s u a l s p e e c h s t y l e e m b e d d e d i n d i r e c t - s t y l e s e l f-

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n e n c o u r a g e s a m o r e c a s u a l i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s p e a k -

e r s . H e r e , l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n s i n p a r t t o a l t e r t h e s o c i a l r e a l i t y , r a t h e r t h a n m e r e l y

r e s p o n d i n g t o i t. P r e s e n t i n g p a r t o f t h e d i s c o u r s e a s d i r e c t v o i c e s o m e t i m e s m a k e s i t

p o s s i b l e t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n o t h e r w i s e u n a v a i l a b l e . F o r e x a m p l e , s o m e i n te r a c -

t i o na l p a r ti c le s c a r r y i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s p e a k e r ' s g e n d e r w h i c h h e l p s c o m m u n i -

c a t e f e m i n i n i t y o r m a s c u l i n i t y . D i r e c t d i s c o u r s e a l s o r e v e a l s th e s p e a k e r ' s i n n e r

s p e e c h i n a m o n o l o g u e , a n i n s i g h t u n a v a i l a b l e i f q u o t e d i n d i r e c t ly . T h i s p r e s e n t s t h e

l i s t e n e r w i t h t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o a c t u a l l y l is t e n i n o n t h e p r i v a t e ( a n d t h e r e f o r e m o r e

r e v e a l i n g ) c o n v e r s a t i o n o f t h e s p e a k e r ; t h e r e b y d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e e n c o u r a g e s a s e n s e

o f c l o s e n e s s a n d i n t im a c y .

I s h o u l d w a r n t h e r e ad e r t h a t t h e te r m s ' c l o s e n e s s ' a n d ' i n t i m a c y ' I a m u s i n g h e r e

d o n o t n e c e s s a r i ly m e a n c l o s e n e s s / i n t im a c y b a s e d o n m u t u a l a d o r a t io n . I t is p e r f e c tl y

poss ib le , fo r example , fo r someone . , t o u se d i rec t - s ty l e se l f -quo ta t ion in a conf l i c t o r

a r g u m e n t s i t u a ti o n a s s h o w n b e l o w .

[ 4] M a t t a k u h i t o o b a k a n i s u r u n a y o t t e y u u n d a .

r e al ly p e r so n O m a k e - f u n - o f - N E G I P Q T s a y N O M B E

' I s a y ( to y o u ) - r e a ll y , d o n ' t m a k e f u n o f m e . '

E x p r e s s i n g o n e ' s f e e l i n g s d i r e c t l y as i n [ 4] p r o d u c e s t h e e f f e c t t h a t th e l i s t e n e r h a s a

c l o s e r a n d m o r e i n t i m a t e a c c e s s t o t h e d i r e c t f e e l i n g s o f t h e s p e a k e r . T h e i n t i m a c y

p o i n t e d o u t h e r e a l s o i n c l u d e s a f e e l i n g o f ' s o l i d a r i t y ' d i s c u s s e d i n B r o w n a n d

G i l m a n ( 1 97 2 ) .

I f d ir e c t d i s c o u r s e d o e s n o t o c c u r i n a n i n s e t a n d t h e t h o u g h t i s e x p r e s s e d i n in d i -

r e c t d is c o u r s e , i t s u f f e r s f r o m w h a t V o l o ~ i n o v ( 1 9 7 3 : 1 30 ) r e f e rs t o a s " a c e r t a i n

d e p e r s o n a l i z a ti o n o f t h e r e p o r te d s p e e c h " , s in c e i n d i r ec t d i s co u r s e i s " m a n i f e s t e d b y

t h e f a c t t h a t a l l t h e e m o t i v e - a f f e c t i v e f e a t u r e s o f s p e e c h , i n s o f a r a s t h e y a r e

e x p r e s s e d n o t i n t h e c o n t e n t b u t i n t h e f o r m o f a m e s s a g e , d o n o t p a s s i n t a c t i n t o

i n d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e " ( 1 9 7 3 : 1 28 ). T h e m e t a m e s s a g e o f t h e s e l f - q u o t a t i o n w h i c h

m a k e s i t p o s s i b l e t o i n s e r t d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e w i t h o u t b r e a c h i n g t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t i s to



2 1 6 S .K . M a y n a r d / J o u r n a l o f P r a g m a t i c s 2 5 1 9 9 6 ) 2 0 7 - 2 2 6

e v o k e , i n pa r t, t h e s e " e m o t i o n a l a f f e c t iv e fe a t u r e s o f s p e e c h " t h r o u g h m u l t i p l e

vo ice s .

T h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e i n s e l f - q u o t a t i o n c a n a l s o b e t h o u g h t o f a s a

m i x t u r e o f g e n r e s . F a i r c l o u g h ( 1 9 9 2 ) , i n h is d i s c u s s i o n o f m e d i a d i s c o u r s e , r e f e r s to

t h e b l e n d i n g o f t h e v o i c e f r o m o n e s o u r c e d o c u m e n t i n t o t h e m e d i a ' s ( e d i t o r i a l )

v o i c e . H e c a l ls t h i s b l e n d i n g o f v o i c e s ' i n t e r d i s c u r s i v i t y ' , e m p h a s i z i n g t h e n a t u r e o f

d i s c o u r s e a s b e i n g " c o n s t i t u t e d t h r o u g h a p a r t i c u l a r a r t i c u l a ti o n o f d i s c o u r s e t y p e s "

a n d th r o u g h " p a r t i c u l a r p r o c e s se s o f tr a n s la t io n b e t w e e n t h e m " ( 1 9 9 2 : 1 1 3 ) . S e l f-

q u o t a t i o n b o r r o w s f r o m a n d e x p l o i t s t h is c o n v e n t i o n , c r e a t in g d i s c o u r s e a s i f i t w e r e

b l e n d i n g i n t o a t e x t o f a n o t h e r t y p e . F o r e x a m p l e , a s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e u s e o f i n t e r -

p e r s o n a l p a r t i c l e s s u c h a s n a i n ( 3 ) , t h e i n s e t i s p a r t o f t h e c a s u a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l

g e n r e , w h i l e t h e f r a m e r e p r e s e n t s t h e m o r e f o r m a l t a i d a n s t y l e . O n e c a n a l s o s e n s e

i n (3 ) t h e m i x t u r e o f p r iv a t e v e r s u s p u b l i c l a n g u a g e s t y l e s . T h e s p e a k e r ' s t h o u g h t

a d o p t s a p r i v a t e l a n g u a g e m o d e a c t i v a t e d i n t h e p e r s o n a l d o m a i n , w h e r e a s t h e f r a m e

p o r t r a y s a p u b l i c l a n g u a g e s t y l e e x p e c t e d i n t h e s o c i al i n s t i t u ti o n a l d o m a i n o f th e

t a i d a n d i a l o g u e .

I n s u m , t h e n , t h e t w o p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n s o f d i r e c t - s ty l e s e l f - q u o t a t i o n a n d s e l f - re p -

r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h o u g h t a re : ( 1 ) m u l t i v o i c e d n e s s e x p r e s s e d b y i n t e r a c t a n t s a n d c h a r -

a c t e r s w h o a r e a t t r i b u t a b l e i n p h y s i c a l t e r m s t o a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l , a n d ( 2 ) m u l t i -

v o i c e d n e s s s e e k i n g t o a c h i e v e d r a m a t i z a t i o n / a n im a t i o n , w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s a s e n s e o f

c l o s e n e s s w h i l e c r e a ti n g a d i s t a n c i n g e f f e c t .

3 . S e i f - q u o t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n a n d m u l t i v o i c e d n e s s

S o f a r , I h a v e d i s c u s s e d t o y u u a n d t o o m o u o f s e l f - q u o t a t i o n a s p r e d ic a t e s a s t h e y

a p p e a r i n c o n j u g a t e d f o r m s s u c h a s

t o k o t a e t e o r u

i n (1 ) and

t o i i t a i

i n (2 ) . I wou ld

l i k e t o b r o a d e n t h e s c o p e a b i t f u r t h e r h e r e a n d i n c l u d e a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d i r e c t -

s t y l e s e l f - q u o t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n . B y ' q u o t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n ' I m e a n t h e c l a u s e - n o u n

c o m b i n a t i o n o f [ c l a u s e + t o y u u + n o u n ] w h e r e t h e c l a u s e p r o v i d e s e x p l a n a t o r y

i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e n o u n . I n ( 5 ), t a k e n f r o m T a k e s h i t a ' s d i s c o u r s e , t h e q u o t e e

a n d t h e q u o t e r o f th e c l a u s e e x p r e s s d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s ; y e t b o t h a r e a t t r ib u t a b l e t o a

s i n g l e in d i v i d u a l , a n d t h e c l a u s e e x h i b i t s f e a t u r e s o f d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e . T h u s i n ( 5 ) w e

f i n d a c a s e o f t h e d i r e c t - s t y l e s e l f - q u o t a t iv e e x p l a n a t i o n .

( 5 ) ... s u k o s h i s a k i n i n a r i s u g i r u n a a t o y u u k e n e n g a a t t a n d e s u . /

a b i t l a te b e c o m e I P Q T s a y c o n c e r n S t h e re w a s N O M B E

' T h e r e w a s t h i s c o n c e r n - t h e v i s i t m i g h t b e d e l a y e d to o m u c h . '

C l o s e i n s p e c t i o n o f th i s s e n t e n c e r e v e a l s t h e d i r e c t n e s s o f th e u t t e r a n c e e x p r e s s e d i n

t h e q u o t e d c l a u s e . N o t e t h a t n a r i - s u g i r u i s i n c a s u a l /a b r u p t f o r m a n d i s f o l l o w e d b y

the in t e rac t iona l pa r t i c l e n a a - r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e k i n d o f u t t e r a n c e o n e m i g h t u s e i n

m o n o l o g u e o r w h e n a d d r e s s e d i n f o r m a l l y t o s o m e o n e c l o s e . A s I p o i n t e d o u t e ar l ie r

( M a y n a r d , 1 9 9 2, 1 9 9 3) , in J a p a n e s e t h e r e is a n o t h e r c h o i c e w h e n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e

c l a u s e - n o u n c o m b i n a t i o n a s s h o w n i n [ 6 ] .




217

[ 6] . .. s uk os h i s ak i n i na r i s u g i r u ke ne n ga a t t a n de s u .

a b i t l at e b e c o m e c o n c e r n S t h e re w a s N O M B E

I n [ 6 ] t he i n t e r ac t i ona l pa r t i c l e naa n o l o n g e r m a r k s t h e u t t e r a n c e a n d to yuu is

a b s e n t .

I n M a y n a r d ( 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 3 ), b a s e d o n th e

to yuu

c l a u se - n o u n c o m b i n a t io n o b s e r v e d

i n d a ta t a k e n f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y J a p a n e s e l it e ra r y t e xt , I p r o p o s e t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e

i n p r a g m a t i c e f f e c t o f o p t i o n a l

to yuu

as obs e r ved i n ( 5 ) and [ 6 ] l i e s i n t he r e l a t i ve

d e g r e e o f f o r e g r o u n d i n g e f f e c t - i n (5 ) , t h e c o n t e n t o f th e q u o t e d c l a u s e i s f o r e -

g r o u n d e d , w h e r e a s i n [ 6 ] t h e h e a d n o u n

kenen

' c o n c e r n ' i s f o r e g r o u n d e d . A d d i t i o n -

a l l y , I p r o p o s e t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e o f o p t i o n a l

to yuu

i n t h e c l a u s e - n o u n c o m b i n a t i o n

o r i g i n a t e s i n t h a t

to yuu

c o n n e c t s d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e a n d f u n c t i o n s t o b r i d g e t w o d i s -

t in c t n a r r a t iv e m o d e s , ' s a y i n g ' a n d ' d e s c r i b i n g ' . B y m a r k i n g t h e c la u s e a s c o n t e n t

a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e i n t e r a c t a n t ' s o r c h a r a c t e r ' s ' s a y i n g ' ( o r ' t h i n k i n g ' ) , to yuu fac i l i -

t a te s t h e c r e a t i o n a n d m a n i p u l a t io n o f m u l t ip l e v o i c e s .

A l t h o u g h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n m a d e i n M a y n a r d ( 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 3 ) i s b a s e d o n t h e l i t e r a r y

t e x t a l o n e , I b e l i e v e a s i m i l a r o p e r a t i o n i s a t w o r k i n o t h e r g e n r e s ( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e

t h a t I e x a m i n e i n t h i s s t u d y ) . T h e s e l f - q u o t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o b s e r v e d i n ( 5 ) i s a c a s e

i n p o in t . T a k e s h i t a m a r k s t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e q u o t e d c l a u s e b y

to yuu

a n d e x p r e s s e s

t h e s e l f ' s v o i c e d i r e c t l y i n s e l f - q u o t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n . H e f u r t h e r f r a m e s i t w i t h

a n o t h e r p r e d i c a t e , t h r o u g h w h i c h p r o c e s s T a k e s h i t a e c h o e s t w o v o i c e s w i t h i n a s e n -

t e n c e . T a k e s h i t a ' s c h o i c e o f d i re c t - s ty l e q u o t a t iv e e x p l a n a t i o n h e r e m a k e s t h e d is -

c o u r s e m o r e r e a li s t ic , d i re c t , i m m e d i a t e , a n d t h e r e f o r e m o r e a c c e s s i b l e . A g a i n , a s in

t h e c a s e o f s e l f -q u o t a t i o n , t h e q u o t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n a d d s a f e e l i n g o f c l o s e n e s s ,

b r i n g i n g t h e s p e a k e r i n t o m o r e i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e d i s c o u r s e t h a n i n t h e c a s e o f

n o m i n a l m o d i f i c a t i o n .

S o m e t i m e s t h e l e v e l o f d i re c t n e s s e x p r e s s e d i n th e s e l f- q u o t a t iv e e x p l a n a t i o n

c l a u s e g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f re a l - l if e c o n v e r s a t i o n . S u c h a s t r u c t u r e re a l i z e s a

h e i g h t e n e d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a r e a l is t ic , d i re c t , a n d i m m e d i a t e l y a c c e s s i b l e i m a g e . F o r

e x a m p l e , o b s e r v e t h e f o l l o w i n g s a m p l e t a k e n f r o m o u r c a s u a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l d a t a .

(7 ) (A

A :

a n d B d i s c u s s p r a c t i c i n g t h e J a p a n e s e a r t o f a r c h e r y )

S o r e d e k o n o s a k i d o k o n i i t ta r a i i n o t te y u u n o m o

s o t hi s a h e a d w h e r e t o g o g o o d I P Q T s a y N O M a ls o

w a k a n - n a k u t e n e /

u n d e r s t a n d - N E G I P

' W e d i d n ' t e v e n k n o w - ( th e f a c t r e g a rd i n g ) " W h e r e s h o u ld w e g o f r o m

h e r e ? " '

( c a su a l c o n v e r s a t i o n )

S p e a k e r A u s e s d i r e c t s e l f - q u o t a t i o n ( d e l i v e r e d i n a n a s - i f - c o n v e r s i n g t o n e ) . I n t h i s

c o n v e r s a t i o n s e g m e n t , A r e p o r t s to B t h e d i f fi c u l ti e s f a c e d w h e n a t te n d i n g a n

a r c h e r y p r a c t ic e w h e r e s h e c o u l d h a r d l y f i n d th e t a rg e t. W h e n A m o d e l s t h e q u e s t i o n

i n a v o i c e a s i f s h e w e r e t h e r e a g a i n a t t h e p r a c t i c e , sh e e n h a n c e s t h e d r a m a t i c v i v i d -

n e s s . I t i s a s i f A w e r e a c h a r a c t e r i n a p l a y . B y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n th e i m a g i n e d r e e n -




a c t e d s c e n e , A a t t e m p t s t o r e c r e a t e t h e e v e n t f o r B ( a s i m i l a r p o i n t w a s m a d e b y

M a c a u l a y ( 1 9 8 7 ) r e g a r d i n g t h e E n g l i s h s e l f - q u o t a t io n ) . O f c o u rs e , A m a y n e v e r h a v e

a c t u a l l y v o i c e d t h i s q u e s t i o n a t t h e t i m e s h e w a s p r a c t i c i n g a r c h e r y . W h e t h e r o r n o t

A ' s q u e s t i o n i s r e p r o d u c e d v e r b a t i m i s n o t r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t . W h a t i s i m p o r t a n t h e r e

i s th a t b y e m p l o y i n g t h e s t r a t e g y o f d i r e c t - s t y l e s e lf - q u o t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n , s p e a k e r A

i n c o r p o r a t e s m u l t i p l e v o i c e s i n a s i n g l e u t t e r a n c e , c o m b i n i n g a d r a m a t i c e f f e c t

t h r o u g h h e r a n i m a t e d q u o t e e ' s v o i c e .

4 . S e l f - q u o t a t i o n / s e lf - r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f t h o u g h t a n d s p e e c h a c t q u a l i f ic a t i o n

I n a d d i t i o n t o v o i c e m a n i p u l a t i o n d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , s e l f - q u o t a t i o n a n d s e l f - r e p r e -

s e n t a t i o n o f t h o u g h t a l s o f u n c t i o n o n t h e m e t a l i n g u i s t i c l e v e l . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e y

a c h i e v e t h i s t h r o u g h a t e c h n i q u e c a l l e d ' q u a l i f i c a t i o n ' ( i n t h e s e n s e o f w h a t L a k o f f

[ 1 98 0 ] r e f e r s t o a s s p e e c h a c t q u a l if i c a t io n ) . C i t i n g E n g l i s h h e d g e s ( s u c h a s

I t h in k ) ,

L a k o f f n o t e s t h at p e r f o r m a t i v e s m a y b e q u a l i f ie d b y t h e u s e r. O n e e x a m p l e i s a s m i t -

i g a t io n . I u s e t h is t e r m i n a b r o a d s e n s e ; a m o n g s p e e c h a c t q u a l i f i c a ti o n , I i n c l u d e

n o t o n l y m i t i g a t i o n o f s p e e c h a c t s b u t a l s o i n d i c a t i o n o f e m p h a s i s o r s t r e n g t h e n i n g

o f t h e i l l o c u t i o n a r y f o r c e . I m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e c a s e s o f s e l f - q u o t a t i o n w h i c h f u n c t i o n

p r i m a r i l y a s s p e e c h a c t q u a l i f i c a t i o n a r e s p e c i a l c a s e s - o r c a s e s w i t h e x t e n d e d a p p l i-

c a t i o n - o f t h e s e l f- q u o t a ti o n p h e n o m e n o n d i s c u s s e d s o f ar . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h e s p e e c h

a c t q u a l i f ic a t i o n i s a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e v o i c e s - m e t a l i n -

gu i s t i c vo ice s , i n pa r t i cu la r .

T h e s p e e c h a c t q u a l i fi c a ti o n o f t he s e l f -q u o t a ti o n o c c u rs m o s t p r o m i n e n t l y w h e n

t h e v e r b s r e f e r r i n g t o ' s a y i n g ' a n d ' t h i n k i n g ' a r e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e s p e a k e r a t t h e

m o m e n t o f s p e e c h , i . e . , ' I ' s a y ( o r t h i n k ) s o m e t h i n g i n t h e p r e s e n t ( o r , n o n - p a s t )

t e n s e . T h u s , b e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e k i n d o f s p e e c h a c t q u a l i f i c a t io n p e r f o r m e d b y s e l f -

q u o t a t i o n a n d s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a ti o n o f t h o u g h t , l e t u s tu r n t o s o m e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c h a r-

ac te r i s t i c s o f the se spec i f i c c a se s .

4 . 1 . D i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s

L e t u s e x a m i n e ( 8 ) , t a k e n f r o m T a k e s h i t a ' s t e s t i m o n y , a n d c o m p a r e i t s e n d i n g

wi th tha t p re sen ted in [9 ] .

( 8) ... c h o o s a o m e i z u r u t o y u u y o o n a / s h i n k y o o n i n a k a t t a / t o

i n v e s ti g a t io n O o r d e r Q T s a y s u c h a s st a te o f m i n d a s B E - N E G Q T

y u u k o t o d a k e w a / k o r e w a j ij it s u d a k a ra m o o s h i a g e n a k y a n a r a n t o

s a y f a c t o n l y T t h is T t ru t h B E b e c a u s e m u s t s a y Q T

o m o i m a s u .

t h i n k

' . .. t he ve ry fa c t t ha t I d id no t f ee l l i ke o rde r ing the inve s t iga t ion , t h i s ve ry ( fac t ) ,

because i t i s t he t ru th , I t h ink I mus t t e l l (you) . '

[ 9] ... m o o s h i a g e n a k y a n a r a n t o o m o i m a s h i t a .

m u s t s a y Q T t h o u g h t

' | t h o u g h t t h a t I h a d t o t e l l y o u . .. '





220 S.K. Maynard / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 207-2 26

( 1 1 .1 ) K a i r i: # < O o i / o m a e / k u m a n o k o t o b a / w a k a r u n o k a ? / >

o h y o u b e a r L K l a n g u ag e u n d e r st a n d N O M Q

' O h , y o u , c a n y o u u n d e r s t a n d t he l a n g u a g e o f b e a r s ? '

( 1 1 .2 ) A i r a : < W a k a r u t te y u u k a / d a t t e k i k o e / - r u n d a m o n / >

u n d e r st a n d Q T s a y Q b u t h e a r N O M B E b e c a u s e

' I ' m n o t s u r e i f I s h o u l d s a y I u n d e r s t a n d , I c a n j u s t h e a r i t. '

( I keno , 1992 : 11 )

I n ( 1 1. 2 ), A i r a c o m m e n t s o n h e r s e le c t io n o f w o r d s - w h e t h e r o r n o t s h e s h o u l d

a p p r o p r i a t e l y u s e t h e p h r a s e w a k a r u ' u n d e r s t a n d ' . S h e m i t i g a t e s h e r o w n s t a t e m e n t

b y e x p r e s s i n g d o u b t t o w a r d h e r a c t o f s p e a k i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e w e a k e n s t h e i l lo c u -

t i o n a r y f o r c e h e r e x p r e s s i o n h o l d s.

A l t h o u g h s p e e c h a c t q u a l i f i c a t i o n i s o f t e n r e a l i z e d b y t h e u s e o f

y u u ,

t h e v e r b

o m o u c a n a l s o b e u s e d t o m i t i g a t e o n e ' s w o r d s . L e t u s r e t u r n t o o u r d a t a s e t ( 2 ) a n d

f o c u s o n ( 2 . 3 ) w h e r e w e f i n d g o r i k a i -o - i ta d a k i t a i m o n o d a to o m o i m a s u ' (L i t . I

t h in k ) I h o p e y o u w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d i t ' . W h y f r a m e t h e p h r a s e w i t h o m o i m a s u w h e n

i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d q u o t a t i o n c o m p l e t e l y a n d u s e t h e e x p r e s s i o n g o r i k a i - o - i t a d a k -

i ta i m o n o d e g o z a i m a s u ' ( I ) h o p e y o u w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d i t ' ?

T h e v e r b o m o u ' t h i n k ' f r a m e s I X ] as th e c o n t e n t o f o n e ' s t h o u g h t . W h e n u s i n g

g o r i k a i -o - i t a d a k it a i m o n o d a t o o m o i m a s u ' ( L i t. I th i n k ) I h o p e y o u w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d

i t ', t h e m e s s a g e i s p a c k a g e d a s i f r e p r e s e n t i n g o n e ' s p e r s o n a l i n n e r t h o u g h t , r a th e r t h a n

a s t r a i gh t f o r wa r d s t a t em en t d i r ec t l y add r e s s ed t o t he l is t ene r , a s in t he ca s e o f the

e x p r e s s i o n g o r i k a i - o - i t a d a k i t a i m o n o d e g o z a i m a s u . O b v i o u s l y i n ( 2 ), T a k e s h i t a ' s t es ti -

m o n y i s a d d r e s se d ' t o ' t h e li s te n e r , b u t th i s a d d r e s s i n g i s a c h i e v e d o n l y in a s o m e w h a t

r o u n d a b o u t a n d i n d ir e c t w a y . T h e s tr a te g y o f f r a m i n g o n e ' s e x p r e s s io n b y o m o u

' t h i nk ' c r ea t e s t he i m pr e s s i on t ha t t he s peake r i s no t t oo b r a s h , t a c t l e s s , o r dom i nee r -

i ng . Ra t he r , o m o u s o f t e n s th e f o r c e o f t h e a s s e r ti o n a n d c r e a te s f o r t h e s p e a k e r t h e k i n d

of pe r s ona l i t y t ha t i s l i ke l y t o be , g i ven t he s pec i f i c s i t ua t i on , f avo r ed and r ead i l y

a c c e p t e d b y t h e li s te n e r . T h e s a m e a r g u m e n t c a n b e m a d e f o r t h e c a s e c it e d in ( 8 ) .

L e t u s i n s p e c t t h e s e c o n d t y p e o f s p e e c h a c t q u a l i f i c a t i o n , t h a t i s , p a r o d y i n g o n e ' s

o w n w o r d s . ( 1 2 ) i s t a k e n f r o m o u r c o n v e r s a t i o n a l d a t a .

( 1 2 ) ( A e n c o u r a g e s B t o s p e a k l o u d e r )

A : M o o su k o s h i k o e o o o k i k u s h i t a r a ./

m o r e a b i t v o i c e O m a k e l o u d e r

' W h y d o n ' t y o u s p e a k a b i t l o u d e r ?

B : Y a p p a s h i . / ]

a s e x p e c t e d

' T h a t ' s w h a t I t h o u g h t . '

( A : k U n )

( Y e a h . )

A n o o to k a i t te . / L A U G H /

u h h Q T Q s a y s o

' U h h . . . ( I s h o u l d s a y ) ( L A U G H ) S o . '

( c a s u a l c o n v e r s a t i o n )

D a k a r a . /





222


H o s h i n a q u a l if ie s h i s o w n s p e e c h b y a d d i n g naan chatte na, a c o l l o q u i a l b l u n t m a l e

v e r s i o n o f nante itteshimatte ne ' ( L i t . ) I e n d e d u p s a y i n g s o ; I s h o u l d n ' t b e s a y i n g

t h i s ' w h i c h r e s u l ts i n m i t i g a t i n g p a r o d y . H e r e a g a i n t h e s p e a k e r c a t c h e s h i m s e l f

e x p r e s s i n g h i s f e e l in g o f lo v e ; h e f e e ls e m b a r r a s s e d a n d v u l n e r a b l e . P e r h a p s t o a v o i d

b e i n g t a k e n t o o s e r i o u s l y a n d t o c i r c u m v e n t p o s s i b l e r e j e c t i o n , h e m o c k s h i s o w n

s p e e c h a c t b y u s i n g s e l f -q u o t a t i o n . I n t h is w a y h e r e t a in s t h e p o s s i b i l i ty o f b a c k i n g

o u t f r o m h i s c o n f e s s i o n o f l o v e w i t h o u t l o s in g f a c e . I t s e e m s , t h e n , t h a t an o v e r t r e f -

e r e n c e t o th e s p e e c h a c t o f s a y i n g o f f e r s p o t e n t ia l f o r t h e d i s c o u r s e t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d

i n c o m p l e x , o f t e n i r o n i ca l w a y s . 6

S o f a r w e h a v e o b s e r v e d c a s e s o f m i t i g a ti o n a n d p a r o d y o f s p e e c h a c t q ua l if ic a -

t io n . T h e t h ir d t y p e i s th e c a s e o f e m p h a s i s a s s h o w n i n (1 5 ) .

( 1 5 ) ( T e a c h e r g iv e s a p o p q u i z t o s t u d e n ts , o n e o f w h o m i s N o n o h a r a , t he h e r o i n e

o f t he c o m i c )

( 15 .1 ) T e a c h e r: # < N o n o h a r a >

N o n o h a r a

' M s . N o n o h a r a '

( 15 .2 ) N o n o m u r a : G i k u #

( s u r p r i s e d )

' O o p s . '

( 1 5 .3 ) T e a c h e r : # < M i s e n a s a i >

s h o w i t

' S h o w it to m e '

< I m a K o b a y a s h i g a / t s u ku e n o u e n i / o i t e i t t a /

n o w K o b a y a s h i S d e s k L K o n l e ft

k a m i k i r e o > #

p i e c e o f p a p e r O

' T h e p i e c e o f p a p e r t h at M r . K o b a y a s h i l e f t o n y o u r d e s k j u s t n o w . '

( 1 5. 4) N o n o h a r a : # < A .. .> < A n o . .. >#

a h u h h

' U hh . . . We l l . . . '

( 1 5 .5 ) T e a c h e r : # < M i s e n a s a i t o / i tt e ir u n d a > #

s ho w Q T s ay N O M B E

' I ' m t el li ng y o u , " s h o w i t t o m e " '

( M i z u s a w a , 1 9 9 2 : 4 9 )

T h e d i r e c t - st y l e s e l f q u o t a t i o n u s e d b y t h e t e a c h e r i n ( 1 5 .5 ) q u a l i f i e s h i s o w n p r i o r

s p e e c h b u t n o w w i t h s t r o n g e m p h a s i s . N o t e t h a t i n (1 5 ) , n o t o n l y t h e f a c t t h a t

mise-

6 It is also interesting to note that the interactions presented in (12) and (13) are accom panied by laugh-

ter. The self-quoting persons in both (12) and (13) laugh at themselves - perhaps due to em barrassment

and/or self-amu sem ent. In (13 ), laughing is expressed by the facial expression of Ho shina in two con-

secutive frames, one sm iling with eyes and the other laughing with his mo uth open. Thi s serves as fur-

ther evidence that self-quotation for speech act qualification is used at awkw ard mom ents in conversa-

tion for the purpose of 'lightening up' the atmosphere.



S.K. Maynard / Journ al o f Pragmatics 25 1996) 207-2 26 2 2 3

n a s a i ' s h o w i t t o m e ' i s r e p e a t e d i n th e i n s e t b u t a l s o t h e e x p r e s s i o n a p p e a r i n g i n t h e

f r a m e i t s e l f a n d e x c l a m a t i o n m a r k s a s w e l l a s o t h e r v i s u a l c u e s i n t h e c o m i c a l l

e n h a n c e t h e e m p h a t i c e f f e c t o f th e t e a c h e r ' s w o r d s .

A s w e h a v e o b s e r v e d i n t h e th r e e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f s p e e c h a c t q u a l i f i c a ti o n , v ar i -

o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f s p e e c h a c t q u a l i f i c a t i o n - i n c l u d i n g s o m e t h a t w e r e n o t d is -

c u s s e d i n t h i s p a p e r - a r e l ik e l y to e m e r g e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n t e x t . A t t h is p o i n t

t w o q u e s t i o n s m a y b e r a i s e d . F i r s t is th e q u e s t i o n o f w h y o v e r t r e f e r e n c i n g t o th e a c t

o f s p e e c h p r o d u c e s v a r y i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h e s e c o n d i s h o w o n e i d e n t i f i e s w h i c h

t y p e o f s p e e c h a c t q u a l i f i c a t i o n i s c o n v e y e d b y s e l f - q u o t a t i o n . A p a r t i a l a n s w e r t o

t h e f ir s t q u e s t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d b y L a k o f f ( 1 98 0 ). D i s c u s s i n g ' i n t e n s i v e ' , o n e o f h e r

s p e e c h a c t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s tr a t e g ie s , a n d h o w i t d i f f e r s f r o m t h e i m p l i c i t n o n - i n t e n s i v e

s t a t e m e n t , s h e s t a t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g .

" I f I m u s t e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e th a t x i s s o , t h a t is [ b e c a u s e I h a v e ] g r o u n d s t o s u s p e c t t h a t x i s n o t s o , o r t h a t

I a m n o t s u r e t h a t it is s o . . . a n y t h i n g t h a t r e q u i r e s e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t i s

i p so fac to

o p e n t o d o u b t , a n d t h e

m o r e s t r o n g l y t h a t e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t m u s t b e m a d e , t h e m o r e u n c e r t a i n i t s c l a i m a n t . ' " ( 1 9 8 0 : 4 5 ; w o r d s

i n [ ] a d d e d f o r g r e a t e r c l a r it y , S M )

T h e e m p h a t i c s e l f - q u o t a t i o n w e o b s e r v e d i n ( 1 5 ) i s a c a s e i n p o i n t .

A f u l l a n s w e r t o th e q u e s t i o n a t h a n d m a y l i e in t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f th e g e n -

e r al t e n d e n c y o b s e r v e d i n th e u s e o f l a n g u a g e . A s L a k o f f h e r s e l f d o e s , I i n c lu d e t h e

f o l l o w i n g t h o u g h t u n d e r t h e G r i c e a n ( 1 9 7 5 ) m a x i m s o f i m p l i c a t u r e . I r o n i c a l l y ,

i m p l i c i t i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f a s t a t e m e n t i s t h e d e n i a l ( o r a t l e a s t t h e d o u b t ) o f t h a t

s t a t e m e n t . T h a t i s to s a y , b y v i r t u e o f s o m e t h i n g n e e d i n g t o b e s t a te d , th a t s o m e t h i n g

c a n n o t m e r e l y b e a s s u m e d t o b e t h e c a s e ( b e c a u s e i t m u s t b e s t a te d ) . W h e n a s p e a k e r

m a k e s a n e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t o f ' s a y i n g ' b y r e f e r r i n g t o h i s o r h e r o w n a c t i o n , i t i s

r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t s o m e n e e d f o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n ( s u c h a s p e r h a p s , d i s c o m f o r t ,

e m b a r r a s s m e n t , n e e d f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o r e m p h a s i s ) e x i s t s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e n e e d

f o r la b e l in g o n e ' s o w n a c t i o n a ri s es a s a r e s u lt o f t he s p e a k e r ' s n e e d t o c o m m e n t o n

t h e v a l i d i t y o r t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e a c t i o n i t s e l f . T h e m e t a l i n g u i s t i c v o i c e o f t h e

s p e e c h - a c t - q u a l i f y i n g s e l f - q u o t a t i o n e x p r e s s e s t h i s d o u b l e - v o i c e d c o m p l e x i t y o f

h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n . O n e n o t o n l y c o n v e y s i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h l i n g u is t ic e x p re s -

s i o n , b u t a l s o e v a l u a t e s o n e ' s s p e a k i n g a n d d i s p l a y s o n e ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d i t .

A s f o r t h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n o f h o w o n e i n t e r p r e t s a s p e c i fi c t y p e o f s p e e c h a c t q u a l -

i f i c a t i o n , I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d e p e n d s o n t h e k i n d o f m e a n i n g a n d i l l o -

c u t i o n a r y f o rc e a t t a c h e d to o r s u g g e s t e d b y t h e e x p r e s s io n o f ' s a y i n g ' o r ' t h i n k i n g '

i n t h e f r a m e . W h e n o n e s e l f - q u o t e s , t h e f r a m e p r o v i d e s c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n c u e s f o r t h e

i n t e r p r e t a ti o n o f th e i n s e t. F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n o n e d o u b t s t h e s e l e c t io n o f w o r d s , t h a t

d o u b t i s e x p r e s s e d , a s s h o w n i n ( 1 1 .2 ) b y t h e u s e o f th e m e t a l i n g u i s t i c p h r a s e

y u u

a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e q u e s t i o n m a r k e r k a W h e n o n e p a r o d i e s o n e ' s o w n s p e e c h a c t ,

t h e e x p r e s s i o n t a k e s t h e g e r u n d i v e f o r m

i t t e

f o r t he p u r p o s e o f m a r k i n g t h e p a r o d ic

n a t u r e o f t h e f r a m e , a s s h o w n i n ( 1 2 ) , ( 1 3 ) a n d ( 1 4 ) . I n t h e c a s e o f e m p h a s i s , t h e r ep -

e t i t i o u s n a t u r e o f s e l f - q u o t a t i o n i s e n h a n c e d b y

i t t e i r u n d a

' I ' m t e l l i n g y o u ' a s i n

( 1 5 .5 ) . B e y o n d t h e s e l in g u i s t i c f e a t u r e s , p h o n o l o g i c a l a s w e l l as o t h e r a c c o m p a n y i n g

n o n - v e r b a l s i g n s a l l p r o v i d e t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e i n s e t is i n t e r p re t e d .



224


I n s u m , p u t t i n g o n e ' s o w n a c t i o n o f s p e a k i n g i n t o t h e f r a m e o f ' s a y i n g ' a n d

p l a c i n g i t in a d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t i s a s t r a t e g y t h a t r e f l e c t s a h e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s o f

t h e a c t o f s p e a k i n g i t se l f , o n e o f w h o s e i n t e r p r e t a t io n s m a y l e a d t o a m i t i g a t i n g , p a r -

o d i c , o r e m p h a t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S e l f - q u o t a t i o n , b y d i r e c t i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e a c t o f

s a y i n g i t s e lf , o f f e r s a p l a c e f o r t h e s p e a k e r t o q u a l i f y o n e ' s s p e e c h a c t i n a v a r i e t y o f

w a y s . O n e o f th e r e a s o n s w h y s o m a n y q u o t a t i v e to a r e o b s e r v e d i n J a p a n e s e s p o k e n

d i s c o u r s e m a y b e p r e c i s e l y t h i s . B y r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s p e e c h a c t , w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s

o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n , t h e s p e a k e r c a n e x p r e s s h i s o r h e r e v a l u a t i o n t o w a r d h i s o r h e r o w n

s p e e c h b e h a v i o r . U s i n g d i r e c t - s ty l e q u o t a t i o n , p r e s e n t i n g t h e i n s e t a s i f i t r e p r e s e n ts

s o m e o n e e l s e ' s v o i c e , a n d t h u s i n t r o d u c i n g i n t e r d i s c u r s i v i t y , a r e u s e f u l w a y s o f

a c h i e v i n g t h is .

5 . A f t e r t h o u g h t s - M u l t i v o ic e d n e s s a n d j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f se m i o t ic c o n t e x t s

I n t h is p a p e r , s o m e c a s e s o f s e l f - q u o t a t i o n i n J a p a n e s e w e r e i n v e s t i g a t e d f r o m t h e

p e r s p e c t i v e o f m u l t i v o i c e d n e s s , ' t e x t p o p u l a t i o n ' , a n d i n t e r d i s c u r s i v i t y . B u t w h e r e

d o e s t h i s l e a d ? A s I h a v e a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d , t h e e f f e c t r e s u l t in g f r o m t h e m a n i p u l a -

t i o n o f s e l f ' s m u l t i p l e v o i c e s w e h a v e o b s e r v e d s o f a r c a n b e t h o u g h t o f a s r e s u l t i n g

f r o m t h e s h i f t i n g o f m u l t i p l e c o n t e x t s. I n f a c t , t h e s p e a k e r ' s s w i t c h i n g t o s e l f - q u o t a -

t i o n a n d t h e n b a c k t o t h e h e r e - a n d - n o w i n t e r a c t i o n - i n - p r o g r e s s w i t h i n a s i n g l e s e n -

t e n c e b r i n g s a n e f f e c t t h a t in t e r w e a v e s i m a g e s o f d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s . A s w e h a v e s e e n

i n t h e e x a m p l e s , t h e a n i m a t e d v o i c e p o r t r a y e d i n t h e i n s e t h e l p s d r a m a t i z e t h e d i s -

c o u r s e b y p l a c i n g i t in o n e c o n t e x t ; a n d y e t th e f r a m e f o l l o w s t h e e x p e c t e d t o n e a n d

t h e s t y l e o f i n t e r a c ti o n - i n - p r o g r e s s w h i c h a c t i v a t e s a n o t h e r c o n t e x t .

A l t h o u g h t h e i d e a o f c o n t e x t h a s p l a y e d a m a j o r r o l e i n p r a g m a t i c s i n g e n e r a l , th e

p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t s p e a k e r s p u r p o s e f u l l y c r e a t e , j u x t a p o s e a n d b l e n d c o n t e x t s h a s b e e n

d i s c u s s e d l it tl e , i f a t a l l. W h a t d i r e c t - s t y l e s e l f - q u o t a t i o n a c h i e v e s i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n

s e e m s t o b e p r e c i s e l y t h is . B y o p e n i n g t h e d o o r f o r a c h o i c e a m o n g d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s

i n d i f f e r e n t s t y le s - o n c e w i t h i n a n i n s e t , a n d a s e c o n d t i m e w i t h i n t h e f r a m e , a n d

t h r o u g h p o s s ib l y c o m b i n i n g a n d r e p e a ti n g th e s e p r o ce s s e s - l a n g u a g e b e c o m e s m o r e

t h a n j u s t s o m e t h i n g t h a t is d e f i n e d b y , a n d l i m i t e d to , it s p r o p e r c o n t e x t ; m o r e i n t er -

e s t i n g l y e v e n , i t b e c o m e s a t o o l f o r t h e c r e a t i o n a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n o f c o n t e x t s ,

t h e r e b y c r e a t i n g n e w m e a n i n g s . G i v e n t h a t s p e a k e r s e x p l o i t t h i s ' c o n t e x t u a l b l e n d -

i n g ' , t h i s k i n d o f s p e a k e r - c r e a t e d s e m a n t i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d c o n t e x t m a y b e c a l l e d a

' s e m i o t i c c o n t e x t ' . E a r l i e r in s e c t i o n 1 , I r e v i e w e d t h e c o n c e p t o f d u a l p la c e s . T h e r e ,

' p l a c e s ' w e r e l a r g e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t w o s e p a r a t e e v e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t w o d i f f e r e n t

i n d i v i d u a l s ( i . e . , t h e q u o t e r a n d t h e q u o t e d ) . T h e s e m i o t i c c o n t e x t I a m r e f e r r i n g t o

i n r e f e r e n c e t o s e l f - q u o t a t i o n d o e s n o t s o m u c h r e f l e c t t h e ' p l a c e s ' o f t h e r e l e v a n t

e v e n t s , b u t r a t h e r i t i s c r e a t e d a n d m a n i p u l a t e d b y t h e s i n g l e s p e a k e r p r i m a r i l y f o r

c r e a t i n g a t ti t u d i n a l m e a n i n g . N o t e a l s o t h a t ' s e m i o t i c c o n t e x t ' i n c l u d e s t h e n o t i o n o f

a m e t a l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t , w h i l e t h e t ra d i t i o n a l n o t i o n o f c o n t e x t d o e s n o t . Q u o t i n g i s

a m e t a l i n g u i s t i c d e v i c e t h a t r e f l e x i v e l y re f e r s to o n e ' s o w n a c t i o n . A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e r e la t i o n b e t w e e n t h e l i n g u i s ti c a n d m e t a l i n g u i s t i c a s p e c t s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , I

b e l i e v e , w i l l u l t i m a t e l y s h e d l i g h t o n h o w w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e s p e a k e r a s a c o n v e y e r



S.K. Maynard / Jour nal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 207-2 26 225

o f in f o r m a t i o n a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s a c o m m e n t a t o r w h o r e m a r k s o n h is o r h e r v e r y

a c t o f c o n v e y i n g i n f o r m a t i o n .

T r a d i t i o n a l l y in t h e s t u d y o f l an g u a g e , t h e c o n c e p t o f c o n t e x t h a s b e e n t r e a te d a s

a p r i m a r i l y ( s o c i o ) l i n g u i s t i c e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h t h e ( i n t e r ) a c t i o n o c c u r s . H y m e s '

( 1 9 7 2 ) c l a ss i c c o m p o n e n t s o f th e c o n t e x t o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n - p a r ti c ip a n t s , s e t ti n g ,

e n d s , k e y , i n s tr u m e n t a l it ie s , n o r m s a n d g e n r e - r e v e a l th a t th e m a i n f o c u s o f c o n t e x t

w a s c e n t e r e d w i t h in t h e c o m m u n i c a t io n e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e i m a g e o f c o n t e x t e m e r g -

i n g i n t h i s s t u d y , a s s t a t e d a b o v e , d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t .

I f i n d t h a t th e s t r a t e g i e s f o r m a n i p u l a t i n g s e m i o t i c c o n t e x t s f a ll i n t o a n i m p o r t a n t

p r a g m a t i c c a t e g o r y o f l a n g u a g e a n d a s s u c h d e s e r v e m o r e a t te n t i o n fr o m s c h o l a rs i n

f u t u r e s t ud i e s .

T h e a c t u a l p r o c e s s b y w h i c h o n e a c h i e v e s t h e c r e a t io n o f c o n t e x t s e e m s t o b e

s o m e w h a t i n d ir e c t. O n l y t h r o u g h t h e t o n e a n d s t y le e x p r e s s e d i n t h e in s e t c a n t h e

s p e a k e r a n d l i s t e n e r e v o k e a c o n t e x t i n w h i c h s u c h s p e e c h o c c u r s . O n e i m a g i n e s t h e

c o n t e x t w h e r e s u c h a n i n t e r a c t i o n i s n o r m a l l y e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r , a n d a s a r e s u l t a

n e w i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p ( w h i c h p r e s u m a b l y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c e r t a i n c o n -

t e x t ) i s c r e a t e d a n d v i c a r i o u s l y e x p e r i e n c e d . I t i s t h i s u s e o f s e l f - q u o t a t i o n , I b e l i e v e ,

t h at m a k e s i t p o s s i b l e t o e x t e n d o n e ' s s e l f -e x p r e s s i o n f a r b e y o n d m e r e r e f e r e n t i a l

m e a n i n g .

I m u s t w a r n t h e r e a d e r t h a t t h i s s t u d y i s n o t m e a n t t o b e e x h a u s t i v e o r c o m p l e t e .

T h i s p a p e r a c c o u n t s o n l y f o r s e l e c t c a s e s o f s e l f - q u o t a ti o n in J a p a n e s e ; o t h e r c a s e s

m u s t a w a i t f u t u r e s t u d y. O b v i o u s l y , m a n y q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n u n a n s w e r e d . F o r e x a m -

p l e, h o w m u c h o f t h e m e c h a n i s m o f s e lf - q u o t a t io n d i s c u s s e d i n th i s p a p e r i s t o b e

c o n s i d e r e d u n i v e r s a l t o h u m a n l a n g u a g e i n g e n e r a l ? T h e r e f l e x i v i t y o f l a n g u a g e , i .e .,

s e l f - re f e r e n c i n g o n e ' s o w n s p e e c h a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g it i n o n e ' s o w n d i s c o u r s e m a y

b e e x p e c t e d t o b e f a i rl y u n i v e r sa l . A l t h o u g h i t i s b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f th i s s t u d y t o

a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f in w h a t w a y s , a n d h o w f r e q u e n t l y , su c h r e f l e x i v e b e h a v i o r i s

o b s e r v e d i n o t h e r la n g u a g e s , i t is m y h o p e t h a t w h a t i s r e v e a l e d i n th i s s t u d y w i l l a d d

t o o u r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f h o w J a p a n e s e s e l f -q u o t a t i o n o p e ra t e s . A n d I h o p e t h a t m y

s t u d y w i l l s e r v e a s a s ta r t in g p o i n t f o r a f u r t h e r u n c o v e r i n g o f t h e i n n e r w o r k i n g s o f

( s e l f - ) q u o t a t i o n a s i t o p e r a t e s i n m a n y o t h e r l a n g u a g e s .

R e f e r e n c e s

Bakht in , Mikhai l M. , 1971 . Di scourse typo logy in p rose . In : L . Mate ika and K. Pomorska , eds . , Read-

i n g s in R u s s i a n p oe t i cs , 1 76 - 1 9 6 . C a mb r i d g e : M I T P r e s s.

Bakh t in , Mikhai l M. , 1981 . The d ia log ic imag ina t ion , ed . by M. Holqu i s t and t rans , by C. Emerson and

M. H o l q u is t . A u s t i n , T X : Un i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s P r e s s .

Bakh t in , Mikhai l M. , 1986. Speech genres and o ther l a t e es says , ed . by C. Emerson and M. Holqu i s t ,

t r a n s, b y V . W . M c Ge e . A u s t i n , T X : T h e Un i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s P r e s s .

Besn ier , N iko , 1993 . Repo r t ed speec h and a f fec t on Nu ku lae lae A to l l . In : J .H . H i l l and J .T . I rv ine , eds . ,

R e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d e v i d e n c e i n o r a l d i s c o u r s e , 1 61 - 1 8 1 . Ca mb r i d g e : Ca mb r i d g e Un i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

B r o w n , R o g e r a n d A l b e r t G i l ma n , 1 9 72 . T h e p r o n o u n s o f p o w e r a n d s o l i d a r i t y . I n : J . F i s h ma n , e d . ,

R e a d i n g s i n th e s o c i o lo g y o f la n g u a g e , 252 - 27 5 . T h e H a g u e : Mo u t o n .

Fa i rc lough , Norman , 1992. Di scourse and soc ia l change . Cambr idge : Po l i ty Press .

Gr ice , Pau l H . , 1975. Log ic and conversa t ion . In : P . Co le and J .L . Morgan , eds . , Syn tax and semant i cs ,

Vo l . 3 : Sp e e c h a c t s , 4 1 - 58 . N e w Y o r k : A c a d e mi c P r e s s .



226 S .K . M a y n a r d / J o u r n a l o f P r a g m a t i c s 2 5 1 9 9 6 ) 2 0 7 - 2 2 6

Hym es, Del l , 1972. Mo dels of the inte rac tion of language and soc ia l l if e . In: J . Gump erz and D. Hy mes,

eds . , Di rec t ions in soc iol inguis t ics : The e thnography o f comm unica t ion, 35-71. New York: Hol t .

Kamada , O samu, 1988 . Nihon go no dentatsu hyo ogen (Repo r t ive express ions in Japanese). Nihon -

goga ku 7 , Se p t e m be r : 59- 72 .

Kamada , Osamu, 1994. Denta tsu to mohoo to soozo o: In 'yoo ni okeru soosharu da ikushisu no a raware

(Reporting, imitat ing and creation: The expression of social deixis in quotation) . Manuscript .

Lakof f , Robin, 1980. How to look as i f you a ren ' t doing anything wi th words: Speech ac t qua l i f ica tion.

In: U. Eco e t a l . , Versus 2 , 29-47. Mi lan: Bompiani .

Macaulay, Ron ald K.S., 1987 . Polyph onic mono logues: Qu oted di rec t speech in ora l nar ra tives . IPrA

Papers in Pragm atics 1(2) : 1-34.

Maynard, Sen ko K. , 1984. Funct ions of

t o

and

k o to - o

in speech and thought representa tion in Japanese

writ ten discourse. Lin gua 64: 1 -24.

Maynard, S enko K . , 1989. Japanese conv ersa t ion: S e l f -contextua l iza tion through s truc ture and inte rac-

t iona l management . Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Maynard, Senko K . , 19 92. W here textua l voices prol i fe ra te : The t o y uu c lause-noun combina t ion in

Japanese . Poe t ics 21: 169-189.

Maynard, Senko K . , 19 93. Discourse mod al i ty: Sub jec t ivi ty , emo t ion and voice in the Japanese lan-

guage . Amsterdam: Benjamins .

Mayes , Pa t r ic ia , 1 990. Quota t ion in spoken Engl ish. S tudies in Langu age 14(2): 325-363 .

Morson, G ary S . and Caryl Emerson, 1990. Mikhai l Bakht in: The c rea t ion of a prosa ics . S tanford, CA :

Stanford Universi ty Press.

Scheglof f , Emanuel , 1968. Sequencing in conversa t iona l openings . Amer ican Anthropologis t 70:

1075-1095.

Scheglof f , Emanuel and Harvey Sacks , 1973. Opening up c los ings . Semiot ica 8: 289-327.

Sternberg, Meir , 1982. Proteus in quota t ion- land: Mim esis and the forms of repor ted discourse . Poe t ics

Today 3: 107-156.

Sunakawa, Yur iko, 1988. In 'yoo bun ni okeru ba no ni juuse i nit sui te (On the dua l ity of ' p lac e ' in quota-

t ion) . Nihongogaku 7, September: 14-29.

Sunakawa, Yur iko, 1989. In 'y oo to waho o (Quota t ion and repor t ive speech). In: Y. Ki tahara , ed. , Kooza

n ihongo to n ihongo kyoo iku , Vol. 4 : 35 5 - 387 . T okyo: M e i j i Shoin .

Talbot , Mary, 1992. The con st ruc t ion o f gender in a teenage magaz ine . In: N. Fa i rc lough, ed. , Cr i t ica l

language awareness , 174-199. Lond on and New York: L ongm an.

Tannen, D eborah, 1989. Ta lking v oices : R epet i tion, dia logue , and imagery in conversa t iona l discourse .

Cambr idge : Cambr idge Univers i ty Press .

Vologinov, V.N. , 1973 [1929]. Marxism and the phi losophy of language , t rans, by L. M ate jka and I .R .

Ti tunik. New York: Sem inar Press .

Vy gotsky, L.S., 1962 [1934 ] . Thoug ht and language . Cambr idg e : M IT Press.

Wer tsch, James V . , ed. and t rans. , 1981. The concep t of ac t ivi ty in Sov ie t psychology . Armo nk, N Y:

Sharpe.

Wer tsch, James V. , 1 991. Vo ices of the mind: A soc iocul tura l approach to media ted act ion. C ambr idg e :

Harvard Universi ty Press.

D a t a r e f e r e n c e s

Ikeno, Ko i, 199 2. To kim eki tunaito (Heart- thr i l l ing night) . To ky o: Shuueisha.

Koodansha , 1992. Hon (Book) . Tok yo: K oodansha .

Makino, M ichiko, 1992. Sora yor i mo se tsunaku (More sent imenta l than the sky) . Toky o: Koodansha .

Mizusawa, Meg umi , 1992. Hime-cha n no r ibon (Li t t le Him e ' s ha i r ribbon). Vol . 5 . Tok yo: Shuueisha .

Documents

Multivoicedness in Speech and Thought Representation