Mushroom

This article is about fungi. For use in food, see Ediblemushroom. For other uses, see Mushroom (disambigua-tion).Toadstool redirects here. For other uses, see Toadstool(disambiguation).

A mushroom (or toadstool) is the eshy, spore-

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as y agaric

bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically producedabove ground on soil or on its food source.The standard for the name mushroom is the culti-vated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hencethe word mushroom is most often applied to thosefungi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) that have a stem(stipe), a cap (pileus), and gills (lamellae, sing. lamella)on the underside of the cap. These gills produce mi-croscopic spores that help the fungus spread across theground or its occupant surface.Mushroom describes a variety of gilled fungi, with orwithout stems, and the term is used even more gener-ally, to describe both the eshy fruiting bodies of someAscomycota and the woody or leathery fruiting bodies of

some Basidiomycota, depending upon the context of theword.Forms deviating from the standard morphology usuallyhave more specic names, such as "bolete", "puball","stinkhorn", and "morel", and gilled mushrooms them-selves are often called "agarics" in reference to their sim-ilarity toAgaricus or their place Agaricales. By extension,the term mushroom can also designate the entire fun-gus when in culture; the thallus (called a mycelium) ofspecies forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms; orthe species itself.

1 Identication

Morphological characteristics of the caps of mushrooms

Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding oftheir macroscopic structure. Most are Basidiomycetesand gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores, are pro-duced on the gills and fall in a ne rain of powder fromunder the caps as a result. At themicroscopic level the ba-sidiospores are shot o basidia and then fall between thegills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mush-

1

2 3 ETYMOLOGY

rooms, if the cap is cut o and placed gill-side-downovernight, a powdery impression reecting the shape ofthe gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when thefruit body is sporulating). The color of the powderyprint, called a spore print, is used to help classify mush-rooms and can help to identify them. Spore print col-ors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and creamy, but almost never blue,green, or red.[1]

While modern identication of mushrooms is quickly be-coming molecular, the standard methods for identica-tion are still used by most and have developed into a neart harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era,combined with microscopic examination. The presenceof juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odors, tastes,shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all consid-ered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tast-ing and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards be-cause of poisons and allergens. Chemical tests are alsoused for some genera.[2]

In general, identication to genus can often be accom-plished in the eld using a local mushroom guide. Iden-tication to species, however, requires more eort; onemust remember that a mushroom develops from a but-ton stage into a mature structure, and only the latter canprovide certain characteristics needed for the identica-tion of the species. However, over-mature specimens losefeatures and cease producing spores. Many novices havemistaken humid water marks on paper for white sporeprints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamellaedges for colored spored prints.

2 ClassicationMain articles: Sporocarp (fungi), Basidiocarp andAscocarpTypical mushrooms are the fruit bodies of members of

Trametes versicolor, a polypore mushroom

the order Agaricales, whose type genus is Agaricus andtype species is the eld mushroom, Agaricus campestris.

However, in modern molecularly dened classications,not all members of the order Agaricales produce mush-room fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collec-tively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of theclass Agaricomycetes. For example, chanterelles are inthe Cantharellales, false chanterelles such as Gomphusare in the Gomphales, milk-cap mushrooms (Lactarius,Lactiuus) and russulas (Russula), as well as Lentinellus,are in the Russulales, while the tough, leathery gen-era Lentinus and Panus are among the Polyporales, butNeolentinus is in the Gloeophyllales, and the little pin-mushroom genus, Rickenella, along with similar genera,are in the Hymenochaetales.Within the main body of mushrooms, in the Agaricales,are common fungi like the common fairy-ringmushroom,shiitake, enoki, oyster mushrooms, y agarics and otheramanitas, magic mushrooms like species of Psilocybe,paddy straw mushrooms, shaggy manes, etc.An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom, which isa deformed, cooked-lobster-colored parasitized fruitbodyof a Russula or Lactarius, colored and deformed by themycoparasitic Ascomycete Hypomyces lactiuorum.[3]

Other mushrooms are not gilled, so the term mushroomis loosely used, and giving a full account of their classi-cations is dicult. Some have pores underneath (andare usually called boletes), others have spines, such asthe hedgehog mushroom and other tooth fungi, and soon. Mushroom has been used for polypores, puballs,jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, and cupfungi. Thus, the term is more one of common applica-tion to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one hav-ing precise taxonomic meaning. Approximately 14,000species of mushrooms are described.[4]

3 EtymologyThe terms mushroom and toadstool go back cen-turies and were never precisely dened, nor was thereconsensus on application. The term toadstool wasoften, but not exclusively, applied to poisonous mush-rooms or to those that have the classic umbrella-likecap-and-stem form. Between 1400 and 1600 AD, theterms tadstoles, frogstooles, frogge stoles, tadstooles, todestoles, toodys hatte, paddockstool, puddockstool, pad-docstol, toadstoole, and paddockstooles sometimes wereused synonymously withmushrom, mushrum, muscheron,mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns.[6]

The word has apparent analogies in Dutch padde(n)stoel(toad-stool/chair, mushroom) and German Krten-schwamm (toad-fungus, alt. word for panther cap). InGerman folklore and old fairy tales, toads are oftendepicted sitting on toadstool mushrooms and catching,with their tongues, the ies that are said to be drawnto the Fliegenpilz, a German name for the toadstool,meaning ies mushroom. This is how the mushroom

3Amanita muscaria, the most easily recognised toadstool, is fre-quently depicted in fairy stories and on greeting cards. It is oftenassociated with gnomes.[5]

got another of its names, Krtenstuhl (a less-usedGerman name for the mushroom), literally translating totoad-stool.The term mushroom and its variations may have beenderived from the French word mousseron in referenceto moss (mousse). The toadstools connection to toadsmay be direct, in reference to some species of poisonoustoad,[7] or may just be a case of phonosemantic matchingfrom the German word.[8] However, delineation betweenedible and poisonous fungi is not clear-cut, so a mush-room may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable. Theterm toadstool is nowadays used in storytelling whenreferring to poisonous or suspect mushrooms. The clas-sic example of a toadstool is Amanita muscaria.Cultural or social phobias of mushrooms and fungi maybe related. The term fungophobia was coined byWilliam Delisle Hay of England, who noted a nationalsuperstition or fear of toadstools.[9][10] He describedthe fungus-hunter as being contemptible and detailedthe larger demographics attitude toward mushrooms asabnormal, worthless, or inexplicable.[10] Fungophobiaspread to the United States and Australia, where it wasinherited from England.[10][11] The underlying cause ofa cultural fungophobia may also be related to the exag-

gerated importance placed on the few deadly and poi-sonous mushrooms found in the region of that culture.[12]In these regions, mushrooms were also sometimes re-garded asmagic or satanic, their fruiting bodies appearingquickly overnight from underground. Some believed theywere the Devils fruit, and others that mushroom ringswere magical portals.

4 Morphology

Amanita jacksonii buttons emerging from their universal veils

The blue gills of Lactarius indigo, a milk-cap mushroom

A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, lessthan two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium,which is typically found on or near the surface of thesubstrate. It is formed within the mycelium, the massof threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The pri-mordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwo-ven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a button.The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universalveil, that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the eggexpands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain asa cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts orvolval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a uni-versal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or

4 5 GROWTH

volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the partialveil, covers the bladelike gills that bear spores. As thecap expands, the veil breaks, and remnants of the partialveil may remain as a ring, or annulus, around the middleof the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin ofthe cap. The ring may be skirt-like as in some speciesof Amanita, collar-like as in many species of Lepiota, ormerely the faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil com-posed of laments resembling a spiderweb), which is typ-ical of the genus Cortinarius. Mushrooms lacking partialveils do not form an annulus.[13]

The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be centraland support the cap in the middle, or it may be o-centerand/or lateral, as in species of Pleurotus and Panus. Inother mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in the poly-pores that form shelf-like brackets. Puballs lack a stalk,but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms, suchas trues, jellies, earthstars, and birds nests, usually donot have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabularyexists to describe their parts.The way the gills attach to the top of the stalk is an im-portant feature of mushroom morphology. Mushroomsin the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Lepiota and Pluteus,among others, have free gills that do not extend to the topof the stalk. Others have decurrent gills that extend downthe stalk, as in the genera Omphalotus and Pleurotus.There are a great number of variations between the ex-tremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attachedgills. Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish thetypes of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarelyto the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where theyjoin the top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve up-ward to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions be-tween attached gills are sometimes dicult to interpret,since gill attachment may change as the mushroom ma-tures, or with dierent environmental conditions.[14]

4.1 Microscopic features

Morchella elata asci viewed with phase contrast microscopy

A hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells

that covers the surface of gills. In the nongilled mush-rooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubesof boletes and polypores, or covers the teeth of spinefungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota,spores develop within microscopic elongated, sac-likecells called asci, which typically contain eight spores ineach ascus. The Discomycetes, which contain the cup,sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi, develop an ex-posed layer of asci, as on the inner surfaces of cup fungior within the pits of morels. The Pyrenomycetes, tinydark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substratesincluding soil, dung, leaf litter, and decaying wood, aswell as other fungi, produce minute, ask-shaped struc-tures called perithecia, within which the asci develop.[15]

Austroboletus mutabilis spores viewed using electron microscopy

In the Basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on thetips of thin projections called sterigmata, which extendfrom club-shaped cells called a basidia. The fertile por-tion of the Gasteromycetes, called a gleba, may becomepowdery as in the puballs or slimy as in the stinkhorns.Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cellscalled paraphyses. Similar structures called cystidia of-ten occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota.Many types of cystidia exist, and assessing their presence,shape, and size is often used to verify the identication ofa mushroom.[15]

Themost important microscopic feature for identicationof mushrooms is the spores. Their color, shape, size, at-tachment, ornamentation, and reaction to chemical testsoften can be the crux of an identication. A spore oftenhas a protrusion at one end, called an apiculus, which isthe point of attachment to the basidium, termed the api-cal germ pore, from which the hypha emerges when thespore germinates.[15]

5Agaricus bitorquismushroom emerging through asphalt concretein summer

5 GrowthMany species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight,growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is thesource of several common expressions in the English lan-guage including to mushroom or mushrooming (ex-panding rapidly in size or scope) and to pop up like amushroom (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In re-ality all species of mushrooms take several days to formprimordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expandrapidly by the absorption of uids.The cultivated mushroom as well as the common eldmushroom initially form a minute fruiting body, referredto as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly ex-panded they are called buttons, once again because of therelative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, themushroom can rapidly pull in water from its myceliumand expand, mainly by inating preformed cells that tookseveral days to form in the primordia.Similarly, there are even more ephemeral mushrooms,like Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis), thatliterally appear overnight and may disappear by late after-noon on a hot day after rainfall.[16] The primordia format ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatchand after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions balloon tofull size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse.They mushroom to full size.Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow veryslowly and add tissue to their fruitbodies by growing fromthe edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae. For exam-ple, Pleurotus nebrodensis grows slowly, and because ofthis combined with human collection, it is now criticallyendangered.[17]

Thoughmushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the un-derlyingmycelium can itself be long-lived andmassive. Acolony of Armillaria solidipes (formerly known as Armil-laria ostoyae) in Malheur National Forest in the UnitedStates is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older,and spans an estimated 2,200 acres (8.9 km2). Most of

Yellow ower pot mushrooms (Leucocoprinus birnbaumii) atvarious states of development

the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dy-ing tree roots in the form of white mycelia combinedwith black shoelace-like rhizomorphs that bridge colo-nized separated woody substrates.[18]

It has been suggested the electrical stimulus of a lightningbolt striking mycelia in logs accelerates the production ofmushrooms.[19]

6 Nutrition

Mushrooms are a low-calorie food eaten cooked, raw oras a garnish to a meal. In a 100 g (3.5 ounce) serving,mushrooms are an excellent source (higher than 20% ofthe daily value, DV) of B vitamins, such as riboavin,niacin and pantothenic acid, an excellent source of theessential minerals, selenium (37% DV) and copper (25%DV), and a good source (10-19%DV) of phosphorus andpotassium. Fat, carbohydrate and calorie content are low,with absence of vitaminC and sodium. There are 27 calo-ries in a typical serving of fresh mushrooms (table).When exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light even afterharvesting,[20] natural ergosterols in mushrooms producevitaminD2,[21] a process now used to supply fresh vitaminD mushrooms for the functional food grocery market.In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vita-min D in fresh mushrooms, researchers showed that ar-ticial UV light technologies were equally eective forvitamin D production as in mushrooms exposed to natu-ral sunlight, and that UV light has a long record of safeuse for production of vitamin D in food.[22]

7 Human use

Further information: Ethnomycology

6 7 HUMAN USE

The Agaricus bisporus, one of the most widely cultivated andpopular mushrooms in the world

7.1 Edible mushroomsMain articles: Edible mushroom, Mushroom huntingand Fungiculture

Mushrooms are used extensively in cooking, in manycuisines (notably Chinese, Korean, European, andJapanese). Though neither meat nor vegetable, mush-rooms are known as the meat of the vegetable world.[23]

Most mushrooms sold in supermarkets have been com-mercially grown on mushroom farms. The most popularof these, Agaricus bisporus, is considered safe for mostpeople to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilizedenvironments. Several varieties of A. bisporus are growncommercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello.Other cultivated species now available at many grocers in-clude shiitake, maitake or hen-of-the-woods, oyster, andenoki. In recent years, increasing auence in developingcountries has led to a considerable growth in interest inmushroom cultivation, which is now seen as a potentiallyimportant economic activity for small farmers.[24]

Mushroom and true output in 2005

A number of species of mushrooms are poisonous; al-though some resemble certain edible species, consum-ing them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gatheredin the wild is risky and should only be undertaken byindividuals knowledgeable in mushroom identication.Common best practice is for wild mushroom pickersto focus on collecting a small number of visually dis-tinctive, edible mushroom species that cannot be eas-

ily confused with poisonous varieties. A. bisporus con-tains carcinogens called hydrazines, the most abundantof which is agaritine. However, the carcinogens are de-stroyed by moderate heat when cooking.[25]

More generally, and particularly with gilled mushrooms,separating edible from poisonous species requires metic-ulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by whichall toxic mushrooms can be identied, nor one by whichall edible mushrooms can be identied. Additionally,even edible mushrooms may produce allergic reactions insusceptible individuals, from amild asthmatic response tosevere anaphylactic shock.[26][27]

People who collect mushrooms for consumption areknown as mycophagists,[28] and the act of collecting themfor such is known asmushroomhunting, or simply mush-rooming.China is the worlds largest edible mushroomproducer.[29] The country produces about half ofall cultivated mushrooms, and around 2.7 kilograms (6.0lb) of mushrooms are consumed per person per year byover a billion people.[30]

7.2 Toxic mushrooms

Main article: Mushroom poisoningMany mushroom species produce secondary metabolites

Young Amanita phalloides, death cap mushrooms

that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, orbioluminescent. Although there are only a small numberof deadly species, several others can cause particularlysevere and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely playsa role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: themycelium has expended considerable energy and proto-plasmic material to develop a structure to eciently dis-tribute its spores. One defense against consumption andpremature destruction is the evolution of chemicals thatrender the mushroom inedible, either causing the con-sumer to vomit the meal (see emetics), or to learn toavoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to thepropensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals, includ-

7.4 Medicinal properties 7

ing those that are radioactive, European mushrooms may,to date, include toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disasterand continue to be studied.[31][32][33][34][35]

7.3 Psychoactive mushrooms

Psilocybe zapotecorum, a hallucinogenic mushroom

Mushrooms with psychoactive properties have longplayed a role in various native medicine traditions in cul-tures all around the world. They have been used as sacra-ment in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, andto facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the veladaceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use isthe shaman or curandera (priest-healer).[36]

Psilocybin mushrooms possess psychedelic properties.Commonly known as magic mushrooms or "'shrooms,they are openly available in smart shops in many partsof the world, or on the black market in those coun-tries that have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mush-rooms have been reported as facilitating profound andlife-changing insights often described as mystical experi-ences. Recent scientic work has supported these claims,as well as the long-lasting eects of such induced spiritualexperiences.[37]

Psilocybin, a naturally occurring chemical in certainpsychedelic mushrooms such as Psilocybe cubensis, is be-ing studied for its ability to help people suering frompsychological disorders, such as obsessive-compulsivedisorder. Minute amounts have been reported to stopcluster and migraine headaches.[38] A double-blind study,done by the Johns Hopkins Hospital, showed psychedelicmushrooms could provide people an experience with sub-stantial personal meaning and spiritual signicance. Inthe study, one third of the subjects reported ingestionof psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritu-ally signicant event of their lives. Over two-thirds re-ported it among their ve most meaningful and spirituallysignicant events. On the other hand, one-third of thesubjects reported extreme anxiety. However, the anxietywent away after a short period of time.[39][40] Psilocybinmushrooms have also shown to be successful in treating

addiction, specically with alcohol and cigarettes.[41]

A few species in the Amanita genus, most recogniz-ably A. muscaria, but also A. pantherina, among oth-ers, contain the psychoactive compound muscimol. Themuscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of Amani-tas contains no amatoxins or phallotoxins, and as such arenot hepatoxic, though if not properly cured will be non-lethally neurotoxic due to the presence of ibotenic acid.The Amanita intoxication is similar to Z-drugs in that itincludes CNS depressant and sedative-hypnotic eects,but also dissociation and delirium in high doses.

7.4 Medicinal properties

Main article: Medicinal mushroomsSome mushrooms or extracts are used or studied as

Ganoderma lucidum

possible treatments for diseases, such as cardiovasculardisorders.[42] Some mushroom materials, includingpolysaccharides, glycoproteins and proteoglycans are un-der basic research for their potential to modulate immunesystem responses and inhibit tumor growth,[43] whereasother isolates show potential antiviral, antibacterial,antiparasitic, anti-inammatory, and antidiabetic proper-ties in preliminary studies.[44] Currently, several extractshave widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as ad-juncts to radiation treatments and chemotherapy,[45][46]even though clinical evidence of ecacy in humans hasnot been conrmed.Historically, mushrooms have long been thought tohold medicinal value, especially in traditional Chinesemedicine.[47] They have been studied in modern medicalresearch since the 1960s, where most studies use extracts,rather than whole mushrooms. Only a few specic ex-tracts have been tested for ecacy in laboratory research.Polysaccharide-K and lentinan are among extracts bestunderstood from in vitro research, animal models such asmice, or early-stage human pilot studies.[46]

Preliminary experiments show glucan-containingmushroom extracts may aect function of the

8 8 REFERENCES

innate and adaptive immune systems, functioning asbioresponse modulators.[46] In some countries, extractsof polysaccharide-K, schizophyllan, polysaccharidepeptide, or lentinan are government-registered adjuvantcancer therapies.[45][48]

As of June 2014, whole mushrooms or mushroom in-gredients are being studied in 32 human clinical trialsregistered with the US National Institutes of Health fortheir potential eects on a variety of diseases and normalphysiological conditions, including vitamin D deciency,cancer, bone metabolism, glaucoma, immune functionsand inammatory bowel disease.[49]

7.5 Other uses

A tinder fungus, Fomes fomentarius

Mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool and other naturalbers. The chromophores of mushroom dyes are organiccompounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and allcolors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroomdyes. Before the invention of synthetic dyes, mushroomswere the source of many textile dyes.[50]

Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mush-rooms, have been used as re starters (known as tinderfungi).Mushrooms and other fungi play a role in the develop-ment of new biological remediation techniques (e.g., us-ing mycorrhizae to spur plant growth) and ltration tech-nologies (e.g. using fungi to lower bacterial levels in con-taminated water).[51]

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[28] Metzler V, Metzler S. (1992). Texas Mushrooms: a FieldGuide. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 37.ISBN 0-292-75125-7. Retrieved 2010-08-04.

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[40] Weil A. (2006-10-16). Looking forMushroomMagic?".Retrieved 2010-08-04.

[41] Clinical Sunday. maps.org.[42] Guillamn, E; Garca-Lafuente, A; Lozano, M; d'Arrigo,

M; Rostagno, M. A.; Villares, A; Martnez, J. A.(2010). Edible mushrooms: Role in the prevention ofcardiovascular diseases. Fitoterapia 81 (7): 71523.doi:10.1016/j.tote.2010.06.005. PMID 20550954.

[43] Borchers, A. T.; Krishnamurthy, A; Keen, C. L.; Meyers,F. J.; Gershwin, M. E. (2008). The immunobiology ofmushrooms. Experimental Biology andMedicine 233 (3):25976. doi:10.3181/0708-MR-227. PMID 18296732.

[44] Lull, C.; Wichers, J.; Savelkoul, F. (Jun 2005).Antiinammatory and Immunomodulating Properties ofFungal Metabolites. Mediators of Inammation (Freefull text) 2005 (2): 6380. doi:10.1155/MI.2005.63.ISSN 0962-9351. PMC 1160565. PMID 16030389.

[45] Mushrooms in cancer treatment. Cancer Research UK.2013. Retrieved 25 June 2014.

[46] Borchers AT, Krishnamurthy A, Keen CL, Meyers FJ,Gershwin ME. (2008). The immunobiology of mush-rooms. Experimental Biology and Medicine 233 (3):25976. doi:10.3181/0708-MR-227. PMID 18296732.

[47] Khan, M. A.; Tania, M; Liu, R; Rahman, M. M. (2013).Hericium erinaceus: An edible mushroom with medic-inal values. Journal of Complementary and Integra-tive Medicine 10. doi:10.1515/jcim-2013-0001. PMID23735479.

[48] "Coriolus Versicolor". American Cancer Society. 1November 2008. Retrieved 2011-03-01.

[49] Clinical trials, mushrooms as search term. Clinical-trials.gov. US National Institutes of Health, Clinical TrialRegistry. June 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2014.

[50] Mussak R, Bechtold T. (2009). Handbook of Natural Col-orants. New York: Wiley. pp. 183200. ISBN 0-470-51199-0.

[51] Kulshreshtha S, Mathur N, Bhatnagar P. (2014).Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremedi-ation. AMB Express 4: 29. doi:10.1186/s13568-014-0029-8. PMC 4052754. PMID 24949264.

8.1 Literature cited Ammirati JF, Traquair JA, Horgen PA. (1985). Poi-sonousMushrooms of Canada: Including other Ined-ible Fungi. Markham, Ontario: Fitzhenry & White-side in cooperation with Agriculture Canada and theCanadian Government Publishing Centre, Supplyand Services Canada. ISBN 0-88902-977-6.

10 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

Hall IR, Stephenson SL, Buchanan PK, Yun W,Cole ALJ. (2003). Edible and Poisonous Mush-rooms of the World. Portland, Oregon: TimberPress. ISBN 0-88192-586-1.

Stuntz DE, Largent DL, Thiers HD, Johnson DJ,Watling R. (1978). How to Identify Mushroomsto Genus I. Eureka, California: Mad River Press.ISBN 0-916422-00-3.

9 External links

9.1 Identication Mushroom Observer, a collaborative mushroomrecording and identication project

An Aid to Mushroom Identication, Simons RockCollege

Online Edible Wild Mushroom Field Guide

9.2 Research associations North American Mycological Association Pacic Northwest Fungi Online Journal

11

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses10.1 Text

Mushroom Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom?oldid=690199181 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Magnus Manske, VickiRosenzweig, Tarquin, Mark, Enchanter, Kip~enwiki, Merphant, Ellmist, Heron, Patrick, DopeshJustin, Dante Alighieri, Shyamal, Menchi,Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Tango, Cyde, Gbleem, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Andrewa, Julesd, Ugen64, Tristanb, Jeandr du Toit, Evercat, Smack,Nikola Smolenski, GeShane, Marknen, Timwi, Janko, Dino, David Latapie, ARog, Tpbradbury, Marshman, Taxman, Rei, Phoebe,Xevi~enwiki, Sandman~enwiki, Wetman, David.Monniaux, Pollinator, Garo, PuzzletChung, Chuunen Baka, Donarreiskoer, Bearcat,Astronautics~enwiki, YahoKa, Goethean, Altenmann, Naddy, Lowellian, Rfc1394, Academic Challenger, Texture, Ojigiri~enwiki, An-drew Levine, Sunray, UtherSRG, JesseW, Wikibot, Avij, Mushroom, Cordell, Carnildo, Dusik, Enochlau, Fabiform, Giftlite, Wolf-keeper, Abigail-II, Tom harrison, Fastssion, Ausir, Everyking, Moyogo, Wouterhagens, Curps, Sik0fewl, Pparadox, FriedMilk, Sum-merbellrc, Horatio, Solipsist, Foobar, SoWhy, Traumerei, Antandrus, MistToys, Annom, Rdsmith4, Mzajac, Kesac, Vbs, Bumm13,TonyW, Aramgutang, Urhixidur, Joyous!, Ukexpat, Ratiocinate, Adashiel, ELApro, Mike Rosoft, Dr.frog, Haiduc, Discospinster, Pak21,Cacycle, Vsmith, Smyth, Bender235, Swid, MBisanz, Pjrich, Simonfairfax, Shanes, Zegoma beach, EmilJ, Mairi, Adambro, Bobo192,Circeus, Meggar, Smalljim, Viriditas, Elipongo, Chirag, Forteanajones, Bdamokos, Ben@liddicott.com, Pschemp, Krellis, Nsaa, Bjornkri,Stephen G. Brown, Alansohn, Karlthegreat, Keenan Pepper, Mykej, Sjschen, Jonegn, M7, AzaToth, Yamla, SlimVirgin, Bart133, Caesura,Wtmitchell, Velella, Rafti Institute, Pappa, RainbowOfLight, Mikeo, Cheyinka, Bsadowski1, GabrielF, Ringbang, HenryLi, Yurivict, Lui-gizanasi, Kenyon, Alex.g, Billfromhk, Stemonitis, Kelly Martin, Pekinensis, Woohookitty, TheIguana, TigerShark, Scriberius, Camw,LOL, MONGO, Bkwillwm, Ejrs, DonIncognito, SCEhardt, Plowboylifestyle, Toussaint, Prashanthns, MarcoTolo, Radiant!, Stevey7788,Dysepsion, Mandarax, Ashmoo, Blisco, BD2412, Search4Lancer, Canderson7, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Astropithicus, Dontbeakakke, Chi-rags, Crazynas, Tdowling, Titoxd, SchuminWeb, Crazycomputers, RexNL, Gurch, Wowbobwow12, Alphachimp, Diza, Lemuel Gulliver,Snailwalker, CJLL Wright, DVdm, Gwernol, Flcelloguy, The Rambling Man, Sceptre, Hairy Dude, Jimp, Peter G Werner, AVM, Mycos,Chuck Carroll, Lucinos~enwiki, Kirill Lokshin, IanManka, RadioFan, Stephenb, Wimt, Wikimachine, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Veledan,Test-tools~enwiki, Grafen, Dforest, Badagnani, NickBush24, Selena17, Howcheng, Tokachu, Snowfalcon, Dogcow, Lexicon, Pyrotec, Re-tired username, Anetode, Raven4x4x, Semperf, Natkeeran, Aaron Schulz, Amphis, Blowdart, Cinik, Wknight94, Tetracube, Sandstein,NorsemanII, Theda, Closedmouth, E Wing, Pb30, JuJube, Petri Krohn, Tevildo, JoanneB, Curpsbot-unicodify, Kungfuadam, Jungle-cat, PietrzakL, Erri wan, Mejor Los Indios, DVD R W, CIreland, Luk, Sardanaphalus, Iorek85, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Moeron,Am, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Martinp, David.Mestel, Blue520, Stephensuleeman, Delldot, Jab843, Virgilrm, Abbeyvet, Can-thusus, Wakuran, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Xaosux, Gilliam, DividedByNegativeZero, Anwar saadat, Jgavigan, SlimJim, Persian PoetGal, Jon513, Ghemesh, Fluri, Jamidwyer, SchftyThree, Victorgrigas, Deli nk, TheFeds, Ravens326, Baa, Ryan O'Rourke, Kostmo, Hon-gooi, Para, Darth Panda, Reaper X, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Eliezg, Onorem, Nixeagle, Yidisheryid, Ww2censor, Sweet-iepetie, Rrburke, Addshore, Edivorce, Squamate, Alton.arts, Adamantios, Smooth O, Kingdon, Nakon, Akulkis, T-borg, Akral, A.J.A.,Weregerbil, James084, DMacks, Wizardman, Scharks, Ck lostsword, ComSpex, Kukini, Vidioman, Turpin, Andrew Dalby, JLogan, The-jerm, Kuru, John, Carnby, Scientizzle, Kipala, Gobonobo, Hanachan01, Thegathering, Evenios, Johndavidson, Cbaer, IronGargoyle, Si-mon France, Cvoz, Tominator~enwiki, Werdan7, Beetstra, SQGibbon, Bendzh, Optakeover, Waggers, Plattler01, Me2NiK, Hogyn Lleol,Jose77, Dodo bird, Sasata, BranStark, Nehrams2020, HisSpaceResearch, Dead3y3, Iridescent, Kaarel, Wjejskenewr, Nfutvol, Courcelles,Gilabrand, Anger22, MoleculeUpload, Billy Hathorn, Tauolunga, Tawkerbot2, Yashgaroth, Daniel5127, Rouseaubade, J Milburn, JFor-get, Porterjoh, Triage, Van helsing, RebornSentinal, Scohoust, CWY2190, Basawala, GHe, ThePirate, AshLin, Casper2k3, Neelix, KeyahGurl, Edwing~enwiki, Peripitus, Besieged, Mato, SyntaxError55, Gogo Dodo, Cult-p, Red Director, Adolphus79, Wikipediarules2221,Damifb, Dancter, Delta Spartan, Luccas, DumbBOT, 15chris1234, Optimist on the run, Daven200520, Argymeg, Pellucid, JodyB,Casliber, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, O, Kablammo, Pcu123456789, N5iln, Lanky, Sanchezzzzzzzzzz, Nedia1234567, Mojo Hand,Marek69, West Brom 4ever, John254, James086, Ackatsis, Picus viridis, Karamell, Dfrg.msc, CharlotteWebb, Dawnseeker2000, NatalieErin, Northumbrian, Escarbot, Mentisto, KrakatoaKatie, WikiSlasher, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Mvjs, Opelio, Tchoutoye, Jj137,Zweifel, Reishidave, Gdo01, Ozgod, Hellsop, Senergy, Steambadger, Larrybot3000, ShadowKinght, Pieman1, JAnDbot, Chaitanya.lala,Leuko, MER-C, Andonic, Dkurt, Xeno, Kirrages, Papa LimaWhiskey, Acroterion, I80and, Richardsonmcphillips, Fuzzybyte, Connormah,Jaysweet, Theunicyclegirl, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Videogamer!!!, Videogames FTW!, Gamerpedia, Videogames are t3h best, Gamesare-fun, BenRain, JNW, The videogamer!, Mbc362, Ling.Nut, CTF83!, Judd Smith, Rugops, Aka042, Suez Canal, Chunkylefunga, RomanticCookie, Gameguy1, Adrian J. 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IdentificationClassificationEtymologyMorphologyMicroscopic features

GrowthNutritionHuman useEdible mushroomsToxic mushroomsPsychoactive mushroomsMedicinal propertiesOther uses

ReferencesLiterature cited

External linksIdentificationResearch associations

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