MUSIC AND THE SOUL:

PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

by

Stephanie E. Kopecky

A SENIOR THESIS

in

GENERAL STUDIES

Submitted to the General Studies Council in the College of Arts and Sciences

at Texas Tech University in Partial fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

BACHELOR OF GENERAL STUDIES

Approved

AUGUST 2001

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank both co-chairs of my thesis committee. Dr. Gail Barber from

the School of Music and Dr. Margee from the Department of Neuropsychiatry, who were

gracious in helping me to complete my General Studies senior thesis project. Their

intuition, knowledge, and eagerness in their fields of study have greatly contributed to the

outcome of my paper. Also, their time spent on reviewing my thesis was much

appreciated because they are both busy people and their time is costly. Finally, I consider

their patience in seeing me get through this project as invaluable.

Dr. Barber's heart for music healing has already touched the lives of people

throughout the world, and I am lucky to know her personally. Dr. Margee has made a

name for herself and independent women alike in the fields of psychiatry and visual art.

Dr. Margee and Gail Barber contribute positive steps to define the female image as

women capable of full self-actualization, contributing back to the society.

I would also like to thank Jennifer Shirey, a Music Therapist of Lubbock, Texas.

The information and personal experiences she has shared with me about music therapy is

sincerely appreciated. It is comforting to know of people in the community that spread

the word about such an important subject as music in therapy and its uses.

Finally, I would like to thank the Director of General Studies, Dr. Michael

Schoenecke. His willingness to guide his students through this program is outstanding. 1

feel that often he has stepped up to and beyond the call of duty for his students and

always with a genuine glow in his persona.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

CHAPTER

1. THE SOUL 1

Music as an Affective Variable 1

Holism: Humans Comprised of Body, Soul, and Spirit 1 The Soul: Mind, Will, and Emotions 2

Cognition 2 Volition 3 Affect 3

Thesis Statement 4

n. COGNiriON AND MUSIC 5

The Mind and Music 5

Music to Facilitate Nonmusical Learning 6 Cognitive Benefits of Music 7

Music Education and Cognitive Growth 8

Cognitive Differences Between Musicians and Nonmusicians 8

The Mozart Effect 9

Cognitive Music Universals 11

III. VOLFIION AND MUSIC 13

The Will and Music 13

Differential Response Pattems to Music 13

Stimulative and Sedative Music 15

Music and Environmental Response 16

Heavy Metal Music and the Irresponsible Behavior Myth 17

Attention, Conditioning, and Priming Power of Music 18

111

IV. AFFECT AND MUSIC 21

The Emotions and Music 21

Affect and Music 22 Extrinsic Affect 23

Intrinsic Affect 24

Identification of Emotional States Represented in Music 26

Characteristic Moods and Their Related Music Types 26

V. MUSIC THERAPY 29

Music as a Therapeutic Healer 29

Aspects of Music Therapy 29

Music Therapy Practicalities and Commonalities 30

Music in Grief Therapy 31

The Rave: Spiritual Healing and Techno Music 32

Music Healing in Cultural Contexts 34

Music as Medicine: A Scientific Approach 34

Music Healing in the Lives of Real People 34

BIBLIOGRAPHY 36

IV

CHAPTER I

THE SOUL

Music as an Affective Variable

Music is a part of virtually everyone's life. Most cultures ascribe to music, and so

they usually have their own cultural styles and tastes for music. In this sense, music can

be and has been thought of as a universal language. Though there sometimes exist

communication barriers between races, music can serve as a common bond that enables

people when they interact.

Holism: Humans Comprised of Body, Soul, and Spirit

Music affects us as a whole: body, soul, and spirit. This idea of holism is defined

as "the whole and its constituent parts" (Camana vii). When this concept is applied to the

human makeup, the human is whole and its constituent parts are the body, soul, and

spirit, at least for the purposes of this thesis. However, the terms "body," "soul," and

"spirit" are commonly grouped as three aspects of what make a human whole. One

source for this thought is from the New Testament of the Bible. Constant references are

made to the three aspects of the person. In Romans 7:23, Paul refers to the conflict

between the flesh (our bodies) and the mind (an aspect of the soul) as a war: ". . .but I

discern in my bodily members a different law at war against the law of my mind and

making me a prisoner to the law of sin that dwells in my bodily organs" (The Amplified

Bible). An example of discerning between a soul and a spirit within a person comes from

evangelist Rod Parsley who once claimed that the spirit is saved when the life is given

1

over to Christ, but that our souls are in constant remission, striving for salvation.

Whether this is tme or not, there are countless references in the Bible to a human soul and

a human spirit. It may seem that the spirit and the soul are the one in the same, but they

are obviously different from the visible body. Biblical scripture constantly makes

references to the two as separate entities. The spirit is the part of us that is life, and the

soul is the makeup of who we are. The human being, made up of a body, soul, and spirit,

can be understood as a holistic system.

The Soul: Mind, Will, and Emotions

The soul is also a holistic system comprised of the mind, the will, and the

emotions. This idea about the three parts comes from a religious study called The

Cleansing Stream. In the Bible, many references are made to the mind, will, and

emotions, and psychology also uses these terms but use a different naming: the mind as

"cognition," the will as "volition," and the emotions as "affect."

Cognition

Cognition can be defined as "knowing or thought" (Balota 131). The

psychological study of cognition became popular when it was discovered that "distinct

mental operations" exist within the mind (131). Examples of these operations include the

differences between short and long-term memories, differences in thought pattems, and

differences in the acquired amounts of knowledge. Cognitive psychology can then be

defined as "the study of all processes by which a sensory input is transformed, reduced,

elaborated, stored, recovered, and used" (131). The brain, which creates thought and

knowledge, processes music as a sensory input. Cognition is the way in which we think

about what we know and learn.

Volition

Volition can be described as the ways in which we express our wants. Webster's

defines the term as "exercise of the will as in deciding what to do." The idea of volition

was introduced by the German social psychologist Kurt Lewin. Lewin proposed that

there are "two distinct aspects of being motivated to pursue a desired goal: goal setting

and goal striving" (Gollwitzer 211). Goal setting involves what we want to attain, and

goal striving is how we "exert will to attain" (211). Our will is what we want, and our

volition is how we exert our want. Both of these motivational factors are subject to

tension, systems that Lewin claims "try to elucidate the forces that move a person toward

a chosen goal" (211). In his Need Theory of goal striving, he says, "Goals, like needs,

assign a valence to objects and events in people's social and nonsocial surroundings"

(211). As with music, a strong and repetitive beat can entice a person to dance, relieving

the tension of wanting to move to the music. In short, volition is how we act to get what

we desire to relieve tension.

Affect

Affect has a double meaning: that of a noun and a verb. As an aspect of the soul,

affect here is used in the noun sense of affect. Affect includes feelings, emotions, and

moods. Defined meanings shared with psychology include "that which arouses emotion

rather than cognition or thought and the resulting diffuse mental condition" and "the

fundamental controlling element in an emotional state" (Izard 88). Feelings can be

perceived as those diffuse mental conditions, and moods perceived as the emotional

states of affect. Affect is the arousal of things that cannot be described as knowledge or

thought. The end result of such a condition, this arousal directs our emotional behavior,

the ways in which we act. Music, having ascribed emotions with perspective musical

types, is culturally related to affect. Also, it induces or provokes feelings in accordance

with these emotions, and results in a person having a particular mood or emotional state

of being. In other words, feelings and moods have emotional labels ascribed to them, and

feelings, moods, and emotion are a trio that makes up affect.

Thesis Statement

My proposal is that music affects the person holistically: body, soul, and spirit.

Specifically, music affects the soul, comprised of the mind (cognition), the will (volition),

and the emotions (affect). In other words, music affects the ways in which we think,

behave, and feel.

CHAPTER n

COGNmON AND MUSIC

The Mind and Music

The effect of music on the brain is becoming an increasingly popular study.

Scientists have discovered that "music trains the brain for higher levels of thinking"

("Music and The Brain," par. 1). An example of this is the use of music in the classroom.

Music is a stmcture, releasing a sense of order to the auditory system of the listener.

Psychologically, this sense of order may be applied subconsciously to the learning task at

hand. Likewise, studies have also found that "music increases spatial-temporal

reasoning— the reasoning used in learning higher forms of math and science" ("Music

and The Brain," par. 1). Thus it may be concluded that including music in the school

curriculum can enhance skills necessary to learn technological information. The ancient

Greeks included music in their curriculum, possibly to promote this transference of skills

or maybe just to ensure that the student had the opportunity to become a well rounded

individual that contributed to their society. The United States has adopted some of the

Greek philosophies of what should be included in school curriculum, but there is a

national wide threat of removing music to conserve funds and compete with other

countries' technology. These discoveries of transference of music skills to learning

higher forms of math and science supports this argument that "the American Math

Society wams that the United States is heading for a shortage of math capability that

could undercut its economic and military strength as we enter the 21^' century" ("Music

and the Brain," par. 1). It may be concluded that if studying music enhances students'

abilities necessary for national stability, then the United States may want to reconsider

cutting funds for music programs in the public school system.

Music has other ways of affecting cognition. "It connects and develops the motor

systems of the brain, improving eyesight and hearing, and enhances coordination,

concentration, and memory" ("Music and the Brain," par. 2). It has been found that

"college students who listen to classical music while studying absorb, retain, and retrieve

the informadon easier than those studying in silence" ("Music and the Brain," par. 2).

With this applied knowledge of the benefits of listening to classical music, study time can

become more productive, be of better quality, and cause the information learned to be

more easily accessible through enhanced memory for later use in the student's upcoming

profession.

"Rich experiences produce rich brains" can be applied with music for newborns

before, during, and after birth ("Music and the Brain," par. 2). Likewise, the complex

repetitive pattems of music can be applied to enrich greatly the cognitive experience in

many situations.

Music to Facilitate Nonmusical Learning

There are many ways that music can be used to facilitate nonmusical learning.

Radocy and Boyle suggest that one way is to "use music or musical activities as a reward

for having accomplished a given task" (59). Music can then be used as a reinforcer for

nonmusical change. Another way music can facilitate nonmusical change is through

General Leaming Transfer, which means "the study of music serves as a mental

discipline that expedites the leaming of other subjects" (59). So rather than just being a

mere enforcer, music itself creates stmcture in thinking that can then be transferred for

use to learn other subjects. The use of background music can contribute to the leaming

environment, as well as using music itself for "facilitating academic achievement" (60).

For example, singing the alphabet versus just saying the letters aloud gives students a

stmcture for memorization of the characters. Music education has a significant impact on

the "development of cognitive skills and understanding" (61). In conclusion, music

generally has a positive effect on leaming, and it is important for music education's

future and the technological development of our world to note, "School time spent on

music and other arts has no negative effect on academic achievement" (61).

Cognitive Benefits of Music

Music is cognitively beneficial in many ways. Great interest exists among

professionals and the general public as to "the value of music with regard to intelligence,

development, academic performance, and personality" (Wilcox, par. 1). Results of

experiments support that music makes better cognitive behavior. Children can audibly

hear music, even before they are bom. "Babies respond to sound stimuli by the third

trimester of pregnancy" (Wilcox, par. 4). Knowing this, parents can expose their children

to the many benefits of music at an early age, giving them a memory that the children's

later appreciation of music can relate to. Children are taught to produce their cultural and

linguistic sounds by means of music. "It will be much easier (and more enjoyable) to

understand such music and many other subjects later in life if the young child has built a

basic 'sound bank' on which to draw" (Wilcox, par. 5). The best time to socialize

children to accept a wide variety of music into their personal taste is during the preschool

and primary years because it is then that children "demonstrate very positive attitudes

toward many kinds of music" (Wilcox, par. 6). Also, music can be a means of expression

for their limited vocabulary. This concept can too be applied to people of other ages who

are limited in their verbal communication. For example, music can be used with patients

who are mute or who have speech limitations as a result of extreme paralysis to

communicate their emotions through playing or nonverbally agreeing to what a music

therapist may perform for them.

Music Education and Cognitive Growth

In music education, benefits are gained through participation. "Significant

changes in children's spatial and cognitive development involve the child as an actor, not

spectator" (Wilcox, par. 9). In the spirit of leaming by doing, music education programs

provide a practical way for the application of musical leaming that produces cognitive

benefits. "It is the doing, in addition to the listening, that offers the greatest positive

benefit in all aspects of leaming, especially in music" (Wilcox, par. 8).

Cognitive Differences Between Musicians and Nonmusicians

Not only is listening to music good for the increasing of spatial-temporal skills,

but even better is music instmction. In fact, research shows that "musicians seem to have

differently stmctured brains than do nonmusicians" (Wilcox, par. 17). Some of these

cognitive findings include "increases in parts of the cerebral hemisphere and in the

thickness of neural fibers connecting the two sides of the brain" due to the use of both

hands that some instmmental playing requires, and "musician's brains, as they grow,

8

seem well equipped to process new pattems" allowing for "enhanced control over their

other brain waves" (Wilcox, pars. 18-19). Practical applications of cognitive

strengthening that those who study music have are "higher spatial scores in adolescence

and adulthood" (Wilcox, par. 19). Also, music students usually become "more confident,

more sensitive individuals, and they are usually better listeners," and characteristic too is

that "they are leaders in other areas, and they almost universally do well in other subjects

at school" (Wilcox, par.21). The cognitive effects of music at any age are beneficial, but

especially so in the younger years for the sake of leaming and neurological reasons.

Finally, leaming music is like leaming another language in that music teaches

technicality and incorporates styles:

A scale is like a pitch vocabulary for music. Just as a word vocabulary provides words for making sentences, a scale provides tones for creating music. Anyone who has studied a musical instmment in a traditional manner knows all about scales: they are used as technical leaming pattems, which help initiate the musician into a musical craft. In the repetitive act of playing scales, the student not only acquires technical skills, but also absorbs the tonal pattern of a particular musical tradition. In this way, scales both reflect and perpetuate musical style. (Manoff41)

The Mozart Effect

There has been much media exposure about music and the brain, in particular that

of the so-called "Mozart Effect." The concept of how music affects the person

holistically, body, soul, and spirit has been around since the beginning of time. Don

Campbell, author of the best-selling The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to

Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind, and Unlock the Creative Spirit, brought this idea of

music and its mostly cognitive benefits into present-day awareness. The Mozart Effect

was bom of an experiment:

. . .Conducted upon thirty-six UCI students. After ten minutes spent either listening to Mozart's Sonata in D Major for Two Pianos, K488, to a 'relaxation tape', or simply sitting in silence, the students were given a paper folding and cutting test. The students who listened to the Mozart Sonata showed an 8-9 point increase in their IQ scores over their scores when they took the test after either a period of silence or listening to the relaxation tape. The bump in IQ was temporary, not lasting beyond the time required to sit through the experiment. (Linton, par. 3)

Listening to music can be beneficial in many ways, but in terms of cognition, it is usually

only for the short term. However, for the person who studies music versus the

nonmusician who only listens to the product of composition, music can have long term,

lasting cognitive benefits, and this is why the study of music is so important to a

progressive society.

Although most musical stmcture is cognitively beneficial in some way, Mozart's

music was popularized because researchers thought that of all composers Mozart was

always "tapping into (this) inherent stmcture of pattems" (Linton, par. 4). The stmctural

pattems of music induce clearing thinking, therefore boosting IQ scores.

The Greeks defined divinity as the opposite of their world, which was a world of

change. Only astronomy, arithmetic, and geometry were considered then to be divine.

Music was considered to be divine by Pythagoras because "it was constmcted of musical

intervals that could be defined by mathematical ratios" (Linton, par. 8). This finding

contributes to the Mozart Effect in that music is made of a divisible stmcture: a stmcture

that when studied, has a clear and precise order which in turn creates a sense of order for

the listener. "The Pythagoreans believed that number was the core to the universe and

that because numbers do not change they were of divine origin. Since musical intervals

were an expression of number, they too were divine" (Linton, par. 9).

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Cognitive Musical Universals

When it comes to biology and music, the way we musically think is biological.

Carterette and Kendall write, "Musical universals must spring from a common biological

substrate on which the cognitive systems of language and music rest" (780). In this

sense, music itself becomes a language that is universal among humans. Although most

of this musical language is subject to cultural differences, some possible cultural

universals exist: "a deep-stmctural musical idea, elementary auditory grouping

strategies, the use of stable reference pitch, the division of octave into scale steps, the use

of reference pulses, the induction of rhythmic pattems by an asymmetrical subdivision

into time pulses" (780). Though cultures vary in their presentation of these universals,

the presentation itself can be traced back to the universals. A universal is defined as "a

feature or pattern or process that is induced or inferred from data" (780). Humans are

unique in their universal perception of music. Animals can perceive only one of the

universals, pitch relations. "There exist for humans as well as animals some musical

absolutes that elude us because our theories and experiments are designed to reveal

relations and differences rather than universals" (780).

Musical thinking, versus other subjects that require thought, has universals that

form completely the way we think about music. Better to say, these universals are the

difference between audible noise and audible music. Music has stmcture. Even the most

improvisational types of music have some sort of form. Musical parts can be grouped

together into a stmcture, in order to make literal sense. Pitch is relative in terms of a

starting note, a stable pitch that allows for the rest of the musical piece to have melodic

sense. In Westem music, we call this "key," which leads to the division of an octave into

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twelve steps, though an infinite number of notes exist between the steps like a continuum.

Once a tempo is begun, we make reference to it through rhythm and beat. Pulses provide

the basis for tempo and also serve to make music aesthetically pleasing.

Music has many benefits in the cognitive sense, and is a cognitive stmcture in

itself with recognizable universals. Cognitive enrichment can be achieved through

music, providing many positive rewards to the listener, and in turn to society as a whole.

12

CHAPTER m

VOLfllON AND MUSIC

The Will and Music

Music affects the ways we behave, resulting in decisions that we develop and then

execute. Jennifer Shirey, a music therapist of Lubbock, TX, sees music as a motivator.

"It directs and promotes ideas and [solicits] awareness, [resulting in positive] change or

[negative] destmction" (personal interview, 2001). A great example of this is the current

and popular argument in our society that the types of music that in particular adolescents

listen to can be directly reflected in their behaviors. Music that is high in stmcture and

considered "easy listening" can cause them to excel at school, such as tuning in to the

works of the classical composer Mozart. On the other hand, music such as heavy metal

by Metallica is popularly thought to encourage rebellion and destmction of self and

property. Shirey also states that in therapy music can cause us to "choose to feel,"

hopefully resulting in our "[choice] to heal" (personal interview, 2001). It can be

concluded then that music motivates us to choose and that it has a healing effect. Also,

music can promote active participation in the therapeutic process. Shirey points out by

example, "Children wanted to participate in therapy [because the music] is aesthetically

pleasing" (personal interview, 2001). In other words, music can make therapy an

attractive choice for the human will, encouraging cooperative and constmctive behavior

in the therapeutic setting. Music can be a motivator and reinforcement (reward) for many

situations and instances that are controlled or uncontrolled. As with psychology's

behavioral operant conditioning procedures, "with positive reinforcement, the behavior

13

increases because it is followed by the presentation of a reward" (Burger 397). In the

case of music in therapy, music is the positive reinforcement procedure resulting in

aesthetic pleasure, with the purpose of increasing the behavior of active participation in

therapy, resulting in moving towards healing.

Differential Response Pattems to Music

According to Rudolf E. Radocy and J. David Boyle, both professors of Music

Education and of Music Therapy, most music is composed with the purpose of soliciting

a desired response, depending on the culture of the music. They propose that music has

"stmctural characteristics that enable it to stimulate or suppress" behavioral reaction (31).

Though these differential responses also depend on "people's previous experiences with

particular musical stmcture" (31), the "pattems are real, regardless of the degree of

influence coming from leaming or from the stmctural characteristics themselves" (32).

Music has a direct effect on the way we choose to act, evoking a stimulative or sedative

response, depending on the social settings and environments in which the particular types

of music were leamed. For example, a military march by Richard Wagner will elicit a

different response from a person of German heritage than from a person of Jewish

heritage, considering the shared history of their opposing cultures. However, the march

will elicit shared stimulative response pattems, again with respects to their different

experiences, because of the march form or stmcture of the music. At the time of World

War II, this may have included feelings of pride and acts of marching for the Germans

and feelings of anxiety and acts of hiding for the Jewish people.

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Stimulative and Sedative Music

Radocy and Boyle also suggest that music is stimulative or sedative, depending

on its stmcture and the culture it came from, which ascribes meaning to a particular

musical form within its social context. "Energy and stmcture in music are experienced as

forms of activation or arousal," so music therapists may then use music to stimulate or

sedate activity, choosing music that desirably "reflects different stmctural characteristics"

and will therefore result in those differential responses of activadon or arousal (32).

"Music that stimulates or arouses listeners has a strong energizing component"

(32). Radocy and Boyle have gathered information illustrating that rhythm and tempo are

components in differential responses to music. In the case of stimulative music, in at

least Westem forms of music, increased tempo is considered to be energizing. An

example of this is the current and popular trend of raves. Though illegal substances may

be a variable contributing to an individual's hyperactivity at a rave, fast techno music

provides an atmosphere for the majority of the energy at the party. From personal

experience, and having a strong liking for techno music, I have found new energy that I

was not aware of possessing before the party started to develop while dancing to fast

techno music at a rave; it is like the music is personified, taking control of me when I

allow it to do so. As with choice, I go from having a tiresome physical state of mind and

body to an energetic euphoria at the moment I hear and begin to move to the fast techno

music. As Radocy and Boyle have observed, "Rhythm characterized by detached,

percussive sounds tends to stimulate muscular activity" (32). Many factors can

contribute to the stmcture of music, but dynamics is one of the more important ones to

15

explore, just as rhythm and tempo. The louder the music, the greater the listener's

response is to the stimuli, whether that response is verbal or physical.

Sedative music tends to use "nonpercussive and legato sounds" (32). There is

little rhythmic activity and what does exists "is usually monotonously regular but

subdued" (33). Radocy and Boyle point out lullabies as an example, and just as babies

take naps, adults sometimes need them also. Soft music with a slow tempo can provide a

tranquil setting for a mid-aftemoon nap. Likewise, sedative music in the therapeutic

setting can provide for an atmosphere of relaxation, allowing for feelings of peace and

safety or promoting the use of what psychology calls "free association."

Music and Environmental Response

Music can affect the ways in which we respond to our environmental

surroundings. Social psychologists of music Adrian C. North and David J. Hargreaves

have investigated "whether the arousal-evoking qualities of music can be used to explain

responses to other stimuli in the environment" and have determined that they can (97).

One example is "the effect of music on consumer responses to commercial

environments" (97). In other words, these two researchers and their colleagues have

studied and found that music can play a distinctive role in determining whether or not a

product will be purchased. Whether this is a monetary purchase or simply buying an

idea, background music can affect the outcome of whether or not something is sold. In

two investigations. North, Hargreaves, and colleagues used moderate and high

complexity music to advertise. They found that "moderate rather than high complexity

music led to the highest ratings of liking for the advertisement" as well as the "estimated

16

probability of buying" (97). It has been shown that the level of complexity of music

played in the environment when selling a product or idea, whether on television or in

person, will have a positive effect on the purchasing of the product being sold. Also, it

has been found that "only moderate complexity music led to responses that were more

positive than those obtained in a silent, no music condition" (98). Some music is better

than no music in the environment for advertising, and moderate music sells products

better than complex music. From a study conducted by North and Hargreaves:

Responses to music seemed to become associated with responses to the listening environment: the strength of antipathy toward the environment when low and high complexity music was played is perhaps best demonstrated by one diner who threatened to punch one of us unless [we] agreed to 'turn that ******* music off!' (98)

Heavy Metal Music and the Irresponsible Behavior Myth

Many people believe that listening to heavy metal music results in destmctive

behavior. Gowensmith and Bloom indicate that "Concerned groups contend that heavy

metal often encompasses themes of aggression, anger, rebellion, violence, suicide, dmgs,

sex, Satanism, hopelessness, and antisocial behavior" and therefore encourages these acts

of destmction to self and others ("Arousal and Anger," par. 3). Heavy metal is merely a

type of music, defined by the researchers Gowensmith and Bloom as "rock and roll with

an especially overpowering beat, extreme amplification of guitars and other instmments,

and lyrics that are often screamed rather than sung" ("Arousal and Anger," par. 2). In a

study conceming the effects of heavy metal music on arousal and anger, it was found

that:

17

Subjects who identified themselves as heavy metal fans did not show higher levels of anger than subjects who were not heavy metal fans. It is suggested that the effects of heavy metal music are mediated by subjects' individual differences and that examination of the effects of heavy metal music should take individual factors of the listeners into account. ("Arousal and Anger," journal abstract)

This principle of taking the listeners' individual differences into consideration in

terms of music and resulting behaviors or feelings thereafter can be applied not only to

heavy metal music but also to all kinds of music. For example, ravers or people who

enjoy techno music are stereotyped as dmg users, and some believe that listening to this

electronic music encourages the behavior. Instead, it may be typical for pre-existing dmg

users to attend a rave, not that the techno music in itself provokes all who are involved at

the party to use dmgs. As far as blame and musical preference are concerned, the study

concludes:

Perhaps the lives of individuals attracted to heavy metal music should be examined more fully instead of placing primary responsibility on the music. Factors relating to friends, family, school, home, recreation, dmg and alcohol use, temperament, and past history are probably more accurate predictors of anger and violence that are musical preferences. ("Arousal and Anger," par. 36)

Music as a stmcture is not inherently evil, but often then lyrics of a song can promote

destmcdve behavior.

Attendon, Conditioning, and Priming Power of Music

Music itself can induce various moods within a person, as well as provoking

outward behaviors from a person, though the result of the behavior is not necessarily

destmctive. One way is through "influencing attentional processes" (Crozier 78). If

there is slow music in the person's environment, then the person's actions may become

more deliberate, well thought out, and carefully executed. But if fast music exits in the

background, then these attentional processes may become more distracted, causing a

18

person's behaviors to become accidental, thrown together, and pooriy made. For

example, it was found that "the tempo of background music influenced customer's

behavior: they walked more slowly through the store and made, on average, more

purchases when the music was slower than faster" (78).

Conditioning, defined as "where a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired

with an (unconditioned) stimulus that already elicits a positive affective response," is

another way in which music can affect choices in our behavior (78). In this case of

conditioning, music is that unconditioned stimulus that already elicits a positive affective

response, depending on its type and commonly correlated mood. Music as an

unconditioned stimulus can become a powerful motivator in behavior. For example,

music in church is often played to elicit certain responses. In the average church service,

there is music for welcome, worship, prayer, and even offering. Music can help to draw

the desired responses in a given situation, such as church settings, which counts as the

previously neutral stimulus.

Priming is another way in which music can influence nonmusical behavior.

Defined as "where a network of associations that are linked by shared mood connections

is activated by music," priming with music can influence the way a person feels by

creating an impression (78). In an advertisement of cigarettes, combined with appealing

visuals, a likeable setting for the smoking community, and encouraging music, the

average cigarette can be transformed into a serious need to comply with such an image.

The power of music to influence decision-making may be mood induced.

Specifically, music that induces a positive mood might lead to more simplified, heuristic processing. This might be more likely when differences between decision altematives are small, when the individual is not clear about his or her

19

preferences, or there is so much information available that the costs of detailed processing are high. (79)

Music can then be the influential, deciding factor in many choices, even though the

listener may not be aware of the music's influence on decision-making, at least until after

the decision has been made. Also, music can be involved in "self-perception processes,

where the person imagines him or herself in the post-decision situation in order to

estimate how happy they would feel" (79). Music in this part of the decision-making

process can induce mood, thereby resulting in positive associations. Attention,

conditioning, and priming are only three of the many ways in which music can influence

volition, our will, and the choices that we make.

20

CHAPTER rV

AFFECT AND MUSIC

The Emotions and Music

Music Therapist Jennifer Shirey states, in relation to music and the emotions, that

music can "elicit a certain response" (personal interview, 2001). At wakes and funerals

in most of American culture, hymns are played quiedy in the background to elicit

feelings of the need to be mournful and to support the quiet array of emotions that are felt

in such an event, like sorrow. For the recognition of individual cultures, it is important to

note that "Music consists of physical sounds whose organization and patterning can be

explained in terms of precise stmctures, but theses stmctures only acquire musical

meaning as a result of the social and cultural context in which they exist" ("Social

Psychology," par 1).

Music then also is a way of "socially demanding behavior without being

intmsive"; it serves as a way to set a certain mood standard (personal interview, 2001).

At a dinner party, soft jazz may be played to give an air of sophistication as well as to

induce feelings of relaxation to "break the ice" in this scenario. In therapy, she points out

the music can be used "to teach facial effect and emotion" (personal interview, 2001).

Music seems to have the power to cause us to feel a certain way; as a result, it

provides an outlet for the expression of feelings. When one gets ready to go dancing, a

person may play a particular type of music to provide the mood for preparation in such an

event. From the angry college student who cannot figure out a mathematic problem and

blasts music from her car stereo on the way home from class to the lonely fellow who

21

listens to the mellow music of Marvin Gaye with tears in his eyes after a serious breakup,

music and emotions are an inseparable duo.

Affect and Music

According to Groves, people have strong emotional reactions to music, and it is

this characteristic feature of music that "creates questions of central concern to

psychologists" ("Affect," par. 1). Music stirs more than just intellect, causing us to feel

deeply. Groves says that the eliciting of strong emotions occurs more in music than in

other forms of art ("Affect," par. 2).

"Music unfolds over time and so is cable of engaging the emotions of

expectation" ("Affect," par. 2). Especially in Westem European forms of music that we

enjoy in the United States (content referring to its musical stmcture versus a cultural

style), a song can leave the listener hanging like an unfinished thought or incomplete

sentence. For example, Westem European music has a chord stmcture that resolves back

down to the tonic note at the end of a song. Our scale is "arranged in a certain pattern of

whole and half steps" that starts on the tonic note and end on the tonic an octave higher

than the starting note (Barber, 2001). The tonic note "can be described as 'home base,'

which creates a feeling of closeness and stability" (Barber, 2001).

The use of mbato tempo holds one note in tone suspension and then releases the

note into tone resoludon towards the next note. In Eastern music, the majority of music

is improvisational and lacking form, yet still engages the emotion of expectation. Music

itself, regardless of its culture, elicits affect: "feelings, emotions, and moods" ("Affect,"

par. 1).

22

"Music uses direcdy, and often mimics, the most emotionally important signal of

the human species: the voice" ("Affect," par. 2). Hearing the human voice in the form of

song and listening to the voices and timbres of the different instmments can produce a

psychological correlation between the human voice and music, resulting in feelings of

familiarity and security. For example, a crying baby laid down to sleep in its crib may

associate the musical voice of a wound mobile to its mother's voice, a soothing human

voice.

Emotion can sometimes cloud meaning, but the Groves finds "instead of

distracting a listener from a proper understanding of the music, certain types of affect are

proof that a listener has indeed understood it" ("Affect," par. 3). From this perspective,

affect is essential to the understanding of a musical piece, especially when performing.

In the case of musical performance, it is sometimes helpful to know the story behind the

music, including information about the composers and the underlying meanings of their

musical creations, as to accurately portray the intended musical meaning to the listener.

Extrinsic Affect

There are two identified types of affect associated with musical stmcture and

affective responses: extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic affect deals with associative

processes of affect. "Certain types of sdmulus (including music, smells, and tastes) seem

to become associated in human memory with particular contexts or events in earlier life,

and provide a trigger to the recall of these events" ("Affect," par. 5). It is interesting to

note in this quote that music can be categorized with two of our five senses, indicating

that music is nearly a sense in itself Of course it is actually a sound stimulus, but is

23

powerful in triggering memory as are the senses of smell and taste. Music can then be a

powerful tool, for example, in working with the elderiy, particularly with those who have

Alzheimer's disease or those who refuse to interact emotionally or at all with other

people. Especially with past events that contain strong emotion, "such emotions

generally lead attention away from the present music to the remembered past event"

("Affect," par. 5). By using music therapy, a particular music can elicit strong emotion

and cause the patient to remember what it was like to feel and the personal importance of

expressing those emotions. Or the reverse, music can lead a person away from a memory

and to another thought. "Even when music does not directly trigger past experiences,

many of the affective mental processes are self-referring in some way" ("Affect," par. 5).

For example, knowing what types of music do and do not appeal to you depends on these

affecdve mental processes, but music serves as the stimuli necessary in association or

extrinsic affect.

Intrinsic Affect

Intrinsic affect deals with expressive processes of affect. "There are two distinct

types of relationship between musical stmctures and emotional responses; these may be

called ionic and symbolic" ("Affect," par. 6). Ionic relationships of music and affect

have "some formal resemblance between a musical stmcture and some event or agent

carrying emotional 'tone'" ("Affect," par. 6). These ionic relationships in music create a

sort of formula: music (times energy) plus an event (times energy) results in an emotion

(of energy). For example, slow music, such as a serenade, shared with events of low

energy, such as a candlelit dinner, result in a low energy emotion, such as tranquility.

24

This ionic, intrinsic affect can be used in musical performance by mediating affective

conmiunication from the performer to the listener.

Symbolic relationships of music and affect are "where the listener's response is

determined by an appreciation of formal and syntactic properties of the musical

sequence" ("Affect," par. 7). Music has "sequences [that] set up powerful expectancies

in listeners for what will follow these sequences" ("Affect," par. 7). For example, when

hearing a scale in ascending order, one tone will follow another, creating momentary

expectation for the next tone to be played. These expectancies can be based on Gestalt

laws of perception and his principles of organization: "proximity, similarity, common

direction, simplicity or good continuation, and closure" (Hodges 146). Other

expectancies are derived from "familiarity with musical styles and genres" ("Affect," par.

7). In reference to culture, the type of music a person is familiar with, mainly categorized

into Westem and Eastem, will reflect in their expectancy for what is to come next in

terms of musical sequence and stmcture. "Confirmadons and violations of these

expectancies, often operating at an subconscious level, are held responsible for some

emodonal responses to music" ("Affect," par. 7). It is also intrinsic that music can cause

a listener to idendfy an emotion without necessarily feeling so, and then relate that

emotion to the feeling of that emotion. An equation for this concept would be that

hearing music, plus ascribing an emotional label to that music, would result in feeling

that emotion itself For example, the listener can perceive swing music as "happy"

music; therefore, the listener adopts the emotion of happiness and then feels happy.

Music can attach an emotion to the feeling of it and place a person in a musical mood

through ionic tone and symbolic sequence.

25

Identification of Emotional States Represented in Music

It is also interesting to note that identifying states of emotion, such as happy or

sad, with compositional aspects of music, such as musical mode, occurs with the mature

age of the listener. A study found that "children during the preschool years learn to

identify the emotional states represented in music, and this ability improves during the

school years" (Dowling 618). It is of concern to music psychologists "whether responses

to the affective connotadons of major and minor appear earlier than the specific cognitive

recognidon of the difference" (Dowling 619). Music can either cause us to feel when we

hear music, or we just audibly hear music first and then cognitively associate what we

just heard with an emotion. If the latter is the case, it may depend on cultural aspects and

the society in which we live as to when we learn to associate music with feeling.

Nonetheless, listening to music often results in some sort of idendfied emotional state.

The results of such a study involving age maturity as a base for emotion identification

with music "found that 8-year olds and adults, but not 5-year olds, applied 'happy' and

'sad' consistently to excerpts in the major and minor [modes], respecdvely. Only adults

consistently chose 'happy' for ascending contours and 'sad' for descending" (Dowling

619).

Characterisdc Moods and Their Related Music Types

Certain types of music appear to induce particular human moods. For instance,

"rainy day" and "sunshine" music are common examples that produce a musical state of

feeling, or musical moods. Music can support affect by relative emotions, which can lead

to the feelings of those emotions, which can result in or uphold a particular mood.

26

In a study with college students, the faculty and staff, and noncollege adults, the

relationship between characteristic moods and most commonly listened to types of music

was measured. Stratton and Zalanowski report that "among the college students,

listening to rock was [positively] correlated with anxiety, depression, and sensation

seeking, and negadvely correlated with posidve affect" ("Types of Music," par. 13).

These results suggest that listening to rock music had an unhealthy effect on their

feelings, emodons, and mood. This may be because of the somedmes-unhealthy lyrics

contained in these songs or the melodic stmcture of minor modes that are often used in

rock music. But with uplifdng lyrics and a brighter sound of major modes, rock music

can provide for a good experience. Also, the negadve views that society has ascnbed to

rock may affect the listeners' expectadons as to how they should feel after hearing rock

music. "Among the facuhy and staff, classical music listening was posidvely correlated

with depression, anxiety, and hosdlity, while total music listening was posidvely

correlated with depression and negadvely correlated with positive affect" ("Types of

Music," par. 13). So overall, any music promoted feelings of depression, possibly

indicating that the faculty and staff are depressed with or without hearing music; the

music only served as a prelude to the behavior of feeling depressed, not that the music

itself was depressing. The last study with noncollege adults found "only a small

correladon between classical music and posidve affect" ("Types of Music," par. 13).

Though little affect was found after listening to classical music, there was positive affect

nonetheless. The type of music may have played a factor, or maybe just the music itself

induced posidve feelings, emodons, and mood.

27

This study points out that "a large body of research and clinical work, as well as

personal experiences, support the connecdon between music and mood" ("Types of

Music," par. 1). Most people would agree with this statement, because most of us have

experienced this musical mood phenomenon. Pracdcally every music store carries mood

music, such as Time Life Records "Musical Moods" collecdon. Music can represent the

good dmes, but also the bad, "commonly employed to elicit unpleasant emotions, such as

using music in movies to establish fear" ("Types of Music," par. 1). Controversy over

whether "aggressive and antisocial rock music is responsible for various misdeeds

including murder and suicide" has become a major argument in America's crime ridden

society, but whether music is to blame is inconclusive.

It is more likely that individuals with higher levels of negative affect listen to music more frequently. People may have different reasons for choosing to listen to music when experiencing negative emotions—to change their mood to a more posidve one, the seek understanding and empathy from music which matches the mood, or to actually enhance and enjoy their misery more. Regardless of the reason, people would be most likely to choose to listen to music, which is emodonally meaningful and moving. ("Types of Music," pars. 1 and 3)

The stmcture of music in itself is not to blame for destmctive behaviors of the listener,

but certainly the lyrics can contribute towards violent acts.

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CHAPTER V

MUSIC THERAPY

Music as a Therapeutic Healer

Music has an effect on our mind, will, and emodons or the ways in which we

think, behave, and feel. Music therapy strives to use the effects of music holistically,

body, soul and spirit, but especially on the parts of the soul- cognition, volition, and

affect. Music therapy can be defined as "the prescribed use of music and musical

interventions in order to restore, maintain, and improve emodonal, physiological, and

spiritual health and well-being" (Lindberg, n.pag.). Music can be used in therapy as a

healing anddote to achieve physical, emodonal, and spiritual well-being. It can be a

partner in a moming mn or a means of praise and worship. Music can strengthen the

mind, foster decision-making, and elicit emodons in feeling and mood.

Aspects of Music Therapy

Actual music therapy is a licensed profession, though it can be practiced without

licensure. "Music therapy is prescribed by members of the client's treatment team"

(Lindberg, n.pag.). For example, the common trio of psychiatrist, clinical psychologist,

and social worker may see fit that their client receive music therapy as a means of

altemadve medicine. In music therapy, music is what is used to reach healing and to

establish report: "Using music to establish a tmsting relationship, the music therapist then

works to improve the client's physical and mental functioning through carefully

stmctured activities" (Lindberg, n.pag.). Stmctured activities are important to use in

29

therapy to establish a sense of consistency for the client, a sense that they may or may not

have in their own life. Such acdvides can include, "singing, listening, playing

instmments, composidon, moving to music, and music and imagery" (Lindberg, n.pag).

Music therapy is given by a trained music therapist "based on his/her knowledge of the

music's effect on behavior, the client's strengths and weaknesses, and the therapeutic

goals" (Lindberg, n.pag.). The client's attribudons, shortcomings, and goals in therapy

will of course have an effect on how far the therapy does and does not progress, but the

therapist's knowledge of the effects of music will positively contribute to the therapeudc

process. Music therapy is for people of all ages, especially the elderly, children, and

adults with and without disabilities. Music is not only used to help come to an

understanding of a problem, but can be used for personal growth purposes within an

individual or group setting. Music therapy "works towards specific therapeudc goals and

objectives" but produces many other benefits along the path to healing, such as the

development of musical skills (Lindberg, n.pag.).

Music Therapy Practicalities and Commonalities

Though music has been used therapeutically since its origins to better the body,

soul, and spirit, "music therapy did not emerge as an organized profession until 1950 with

the establishment of the National Associadon for Music Therapy and the American

Associadon for Music Therapy in 1971" (Lindberg, n.pag.). The two associadons

merged in 1998 to form the American Music Therapy Associadon , whose goal is to

"advance public awareness of the benefits of music therapy and increase access to quality

music therapy services in a rapidly changing worid" (Lindberg, n.pag.). Music therapists

30

work in all therapeudc setdngs, including "hospitals, nursing facilides, schools, treatment

centers, hospices, group homes, as well as in private pracdce" (Lindberg, n.pag.). Music

therapists have many of the same goals of any mental health therapists with clients.

Some are musical goals, but most are nonmusical in nature: "improving communication

skills, decreasing inappropriate behavior, improving academic and motor skills,

increasing attention span, strengthening social and leisure skills, pain management and

stress reduction" (Lindberg, n.pag.). The techniques used in music therapy are very

pracdcal, ranging from the therapist and client playing music together, the client listening

to music and guiding the performance to express difficult to portray emotions. One

important way that music is used in therapy that cannot go without mention is the use of

the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music (GIM): "It is a music-centered

therapeudc process to access the human psyche [soul: mind, will, and emotions] and lead

to self-actualization and healing" through the use of music and guided imagery

(Lindberg, n.pag.). GIM can be used to modvate the client to unveil emodons, which in

turn will "sdmulate creative insights" cognidvely (Lindberg, n.pag.).

Music in Grief Therapy

Music can be used in all forms of mental health therapy, and even some physical

therapy. A therapy not too often thought about, grief therapy, could be very affective

with the help of music. Any person who has sat through a wake or a funeral can probably

relate to the importance of having subtle music in the background for psychological and

spiritual relief In the therapeutic setdng, music can be used "to establish a non-

judgmental atmosphere of tmst in which the therapeutic reladonship can develop" (Bright

31

127). For instance, a person may feel guilty or selfish about wandng counseling for

bereavement, but music can establish the report necessary for the client to begin the

healing process and to move on with life. Another way music can be useful in grief

therapy is "to give permission to acknowledge the difficuldes of the past" (Bright 128).

Music may have been important between the bereaved and the deceased, making ease for

disclosure, whether dancing to music or listening to the radio together expressed it.

Music can help "to deal with the difficuldes, past and present, by assisdng insight into the

manner in which others have contributed to the present situadon" (Bright 128). In other

words, music can provoke thought into all aspects and reladonships involved in the

grieving process, helping the emodons felt by the client. Music in grief therapy can

promote forgiveness of self, others, and even the deceased. Also, music can help the

grieving client to move on and "look realisdcally into the future, discussing the

possibilides for change" (Bright 128). Here, music has a voladle, moving effect. Lasdy,

music can serve as a form of communicadon when it is hard to find the right words to

say, especially in a grieving situadon.

The Rave: Spiritual Healing and Techno Music

Much is said about the ever-emerging rave scene, a subculture that is woridwide.

Scott Hutson writes, "At raves, young men and women dance to electronic music from

dusk undl dawn" ("The Rave," joumal abstract). Not only is this not an overstatement or

exaggeradon, but what other regular form of entertainment would cause a person to

physically exert themselves beyond the point of exhaustion into complete oblivion into

physical euphoria and emotional release? Hutson reports the realizadon of a raver, post-

32

party: "Ever had an experience that makes you sit up and re-evaluate all your ideas,

thoughts, and incidents in your life?" ("The Rave," par. 1). The rave hype first went

public in the early 1980s in Great Britain. An interesdng fact displays the power of

electronic music and the rave scene: "Combined attendance at dance events in Great

Britain in 1993 reached fifty million, which was substandally more than at sporting

events, cinemas, and all the live arts combined" ("The Rave," par. 2). Before long, the

rave culture had reached all parts of the worid, including the United States.

The elements of a rave include "dance music, long duration, and ecstatic

experience" ("The Rave," par. 3). The music itself is categorized into its own subcultures

called "sub-scenes", such as dmm and bass, house, trance, jungle, and hip-hop. Based on

stmcture, it is also like classical music, which includes but is not limited to sonatas,

concertos, symphonies, and the like. Though merely a dance with forms of music like

any other party event with music, raves get a bad reputadon as being hedonistic.

However, this neoconservadve, postmodem perspecdve ignores a valid point of Hutson:

It [the cridcal view of raves] ignores the poignant and meaningful spiritual experiences that ravers say they get from raves. Ravers claim that raves are therapeudc. Based on these testimonials, the rave can be conceptualized as a form of healing comparable both to shamanic, ecstatic healing documented in ethnographies of small-scale non-western sociedes, and to spiritual experiences in modem westem subcultures. ("The Rave," par. 5)

In conclusion, raves and their techno music provide an atmosphere for enlightenment and

to experience spirituality for its subculture, despite the negativity that it receives from

critics. It is then sufficient to say that what may be considered bad for some is not bad at

all for others. Musical preference is a matter of taste, and it is the nature of music to

allow for being open-minded, encouraging positive and spiritual opportunities for the

consumer.

33

Musical Healing in Cultural Contexts

Different cultures, with their comparadvely different schools of thought, have

contributed significantly to the power of music healing. Penelope Gouk, author of

Musical Healing in Cultural Contexts, recognizes the importance of culture in music

therapy "to introduce those who are experts to some altemadve models of practice" (2).

Just as it is important to introduce new ideas to the progressive music therapist, it is

always important that the therapeudc setdng address the cultural differences, beliefs, and

needs of the client.

Music and Medicine: A Scientific Approach

Both musical composers and medical sciendsts break down and evaluate music

for its therapeutic effects. A first step in figuring out how to use music in treatment is by

"dissecdng music into its fundamental elements" (180). Next is to "determine how each

of these fundamental elements or their combinations affect people's behavior and

emodons, by means of rigorous experimental testing." Finally, "apply this knowledge to

create new works which are designed to produce particular emotional effects." Using this

scientific method of research and evaluadon, musicians and sciendsts alike apply music

for use in the therapeutic setting. Because therapy has a scientific basis, it is necessary to

apply science to music for the art of altemadve healing.

Music Healing and the Lives of Real People

It is nearly impossible to escape the effects of music in a world that places

significant importance on music as a part of culture and life. Music is everywhere, from

34

elevators to the concert halls, from the club to home stereos. The power of music to heal

is far from ordinary. Though other arts can touch our lives, music causes our audible

sense to surrender in its own special way to that which is healing. Music encompasses

our body with dance, our soul with improvement, and our spirit with elation. In a real

account with the power of music, music therapist Deforia Lane states:

Music has the unique power to do what often seems impossible: to open us precisely where we had shut down; to touch us where nothing had ever moved; to heal us with a blood-red choms in an approaching dusk; to sear us with a beauty or a longing that mns up and down the spine. This, for me, is certain: music is a window where once was only a solid wall. (Lane, book cover)

35

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