MUSICINNEILSHUBINVO/OCFromthebadlandsofEthiopiatothecoastsofFlorida…Whoa.Lookatthatlittleguygo.Inthebonesofancientcreatures,anddeepinsideyourownDNAliesanincrediblestory.Thestoryofyourbody,andwhyyou’rebuiltthewayyouare.Youareacutie.Theshapeofyourhands,yourrichcolorvision,thewayyouwalk,andeventhestructureofyourbrain…Imean,Ifindthatmind-blowing.…Canallbetracedbacktoancientprimateslivinginanancientforest.NEILSHUBINVO/OCMynameisNeilShubin.Asananatomist,Ilookathumanbodiesdifferentlyfrommostpeople.Withinus,Iseetheghostsofanimalspast.Distantancestorswhoshapedouranatomyinsurprisingways.Prepareyourselfforatripbacktoanancientworld.Ifyoureallywanttoknowwhyyoulookthewayyoudo,it'stimetomeetyourinnermonkey.MUSICOUTMUSICINNEILSHUBINVO/OCIfyougodowntoyourlocalicerink,youmightnotexpecttofindevidenceofyourancientevolutionarypast.Butifyouknowhowtolook,there’sastorywritteninthebodiesoftheseskaters,andeveryoneofus.Anyonewho’sfallenontheiceknowsthere’sonebitofyourbodyyoudon’twanttolandon.It’saremnantfromatimewhenourancestorslookedlikemonkeys,completewithtails.Eachofushaveavestigeofourtailinsideofus,wecallthatthecoccyx.Andthatsitsatthebaseofourspine.Whenwefallonthat,itreallycanhurt.Andthecoccyxisjustthebeginning.Insideallofusisarecordofourancientprimatepast,whatIliketocallaninnermonkey.Thewayweseetheworld,thewaywewalk,andeventhewaywethink,canallbetracedbacktoatimewhenourancestorslivedinthetrees.MUSICOUTMUSICINNEISHUBINVOIfyouhaveahardtimebelievingwehaveaninnermonkey,trymeetingmoderndaymonkeysfacetoface.Inasense,theseguys,squirrelmonkeys,areourdistantcousins.Thatissocool.Hey,bub.Imean,it'shardnottolookattheseguysandfeeladeepconnection,inawaythatyoudon’tfeeltofish.Whenyoulookintheireyes,whenyouseetheirhands,youseethelittlenailsandhowtheygrabthislittlenut,justlikeI'mholdingithere.Imean,it'shardnottofeelsomethingpowerfulconnectingyou.Butthepowerofthatisalsoscientific,thepowerofthatisintheanatomy,inthebones,andalsointhefossilsthatshowusthehistorywesharewiththem.We’reprimates,monkeysandapesandpeople.Butwe’reallpartofthesamebranchofthetreeoflife,andallprimatesaredifferentfromothermammals…MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINVO/OC

…inhavingcertainfeaturesthatothermammalsdon’thave.Wehaveacertainshapetoourskull,oureyesfaceforward.Wehaveaparticularkindofhandthatcangrasp.Weshareanevolutionaryrelationshipwiththem.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOToseewhatImean,imaginealllifethathaseverexistedonagiantfamilytree,fromthefirstmicroscopiclifebillionsofyearsago,toallanimalsalivetoday.Wedidn’tevolvefrommodernmonkeys.But,ifyoutraceourancestrybackintime,eventuallywereachapointwherethehumanlineandthelinesofallprimatesmeet.Thisiswhereourstorybegins.Ourcommonancestor.Theancestorofeverymonkey,apeandhumanalivetoday.Sowhatdidthatcommonancestorlooklike?Andhowhasitshapedourownbodies?MUSICOUTMUSICINNEILSHUBINVO1870.Asurgeonfromthecivilwarhasreturnedtohispre-warpassion:huntingfossilsintheWildWest.InWyomingterritory,hefindsajawbonehethinksmightbelongtosomethinglikeasmallraccoon.Infact,he’sfoundacreaturethatlivedsome50millionyearsago,andoccupiedaplaceonourfamilytreeveryclosetothefirstprimates.NEILSHUBINVOI’vecometomeetthiscreature,callednotharctus.Andascientistwhoknowseveryinchofitsbones,JonathanBloch.JONATHANBLOCHOCThisisa50million-year-oldprimateskeleton.Itgivesusawindowstraight…MUSICOUTJONATHANBLOCHOC/VO…intotheworldofwhattheearliestprimateswouldhavebeendoing,howtheywouldhavebeeninteractingwiththeirenvironment.NEILSHUBINVOWow.JONATHANBLOCHOCThat’stherealthing.NEILSHUBINVO/OCThisistherealdeal.MUSICINJONATHANBLOCHOCRight.NEILSHUBINVO/OCThatisabsolutelyexquisite.

NEILSHUBINVOLikemostmodernmonkeys,notharctuswasaclimber,adaptedtolifeinthetrees.Theevolutionofthiscreature,andotherslikeit,hadahugeimpactononeofthefeaturesthatmostdefinesus…NEILSHUBINVO…ourhands.JONATHANBLOCHVOOneofthethingsthat’sreallyniceaboutthishandisthatwedohaveallofthebonespreserved.NEILSHUBINVO/OCSoit'slikeajigsawpuzzle.Yougottoputitalltogethertoseehowthat…JONATHANBLOCHVOIt'sathree-dimensionaljigsawpuzzle.NEILSHUBINVOTosolvethepuzzleofnotharctus’shands,youhavetobeginevenfurtherbackintime.Over365millionyearsago,ancientfishusedtheirfinstocrawloutofthesea.Thosefinsevolvedintothefeetofreptiles,andlaterintothepawsofmammals,withshortfingersthatallpointedthesameway,andclaws.Earlyprimateslikenotharctustookthemammalianhandtoawholenewlevel,onethatseemsveryfamiliartous.JONATHANBLOCHVOWhenyouactually…MUSICOUTJONATHANBLOCHVO/OC…articulatealloftheseboneswhatyouseeisthat,thethumbisdivergent,thatisitformsananglewiththeindexfinger.Andsothatshowsyouthatitcouldbringitsthumbintooppositionwiththerestofthedigits.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVONotharctusalsohasunusuallylongfingersandnailsinsteadofclaws.Thisisoneofthefirsttimesinthefossilrecordthatweseeahandthatlookslikeourown,thehandofaprimate.NEILSHUBINVOIt’saturningpointinthestoryofthehumanbody,ananatomicalchangethatwouldeventuallyletusshapetheworldaroundus.Sowhatwereearlyprimatesdoingwiththesenewhands?JIMVOJustpullituplikethat.MUSICOUT

NEILSHUBINVOTofindout,I'mgoingupintothehabitatwheremyancientancestorsactuallylived,upinthetrees.Thankfully,I'vegotropes,myinnermonkey’snotwhatitusedtobe.Okay,ready?JIMVO/OCYeah.Areyou?Yougotit,natural.NEILSHUBINVOWhoo-hoo.Alittleknottyuphere.JIMVOJustpushyourhandjammerabithighersoyoucanpulltheropethroughyourcrawl.NEILSHUBINOC/VOWhoo-hoo.Thankyou,Jim.MUSICINNEILSHUBINOCThisisutterlywild.Imean,Iwasneverarealclimberasakid,andIhavetoadmitI'malittlescaredofheights,anduncomfortableintrees.Butthesecreaturesaresounbelievablyagileallthroughhere,thisistheirhome.Theyareabletoliveonsmallbranches,bigbranchesthroughoutthetree.Theycanjumpbranchtobranch.Youknowwhenyou’reinthetree,whatyouseeisthatthecanopyisnotoneplacetherearelotsofenvironments,lotsofnichesuphere,andonespecialoneisontheendsofthebranches,becauseit’stherewheretheflowersandthefruitsandtheinsectsare.Sotherewardsaregreattobeoutthere.Wecallitthe‘finebranchniche’.Andfortheearliestprimates,beingabletogetouttherewouldhavebeenreallyimportant.Andthatgivesusaclueastowhytheirhandsandfeetevolvedtobesodifferentfromwhatcamebefore.Creatureswithreallyshortfingersandclaws,they’rereallygreatatcrawlingthesebigthickbranches,butnotsomuchwhenyougettotheendsofthebranches.That’sbecausethissortofhandcan’tgrasp.Lengtheningthefingers,andbetterstilladdingadivergentthumb,meansyoucancurlyourfingersaroundeventhethinnestbranches,graspthemtight,andremainstable.Wethinkthat’swhythehandsandfeetofearlymammalschanged.Whatyouendupwithareprimatehands,wonderfullyadaptedtomovingaroundthefinebranchesoftrees.Embeddedinourbodiesisourdistantpast.ThehandIusetowritewith,totypeonthecomputer,tothrowabaseball,thathandhasalongevolutionaryhistory,andoneimportantpointinthathistory,washereinthetreesonthefinebranches,thatmadeahandwithlongerfingersandathumb.NEILSHUBINVOLifeinthetreeswouldleadtoanothercriticalchangeinourancestors’bodies.Achangedeepwithintheireyes,astheybegantoseetheworld,inrichcolor.MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINIfirstgotinterestedintheevolutionofcolorvisionbackin2009.IwaswatchingmytwokidsNathanielandHannah,playingagamecalledHisswheretheymatchedcardsofacertaincolortomakeasnake.NathanielisaboutthreeandahalfyearsolderthanHannah,soheshouldwhupher,right?Butheconsistentlylost.Andhewouldlosebecausehe’dmakemistakeswithonekindofcard,whichwaspurpleandblue.NATHANIELAw.

NEILSHUBINVOAndthenwerealizedNathaniel'slikelycolorblind.Inasense,heseestheworldlikeearlyprimatesdidbeforetheyevolvedourrichcolorvision.Nathanielcanonlyseealimitedrangeofyellowsandblues,andcan’ttellthedifferencebetweenreds,greensandpurples.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOThismeanshe’snotsogreatatgameslikeHiss.Butitdoesn’taffecthislifemuchmorethanthat,anditcertainlydoesn’taffecthisabilitytofindfood,ortosurvivetoadulthood.Thatwasn’t…NEILSHUBINVO…thecaseforourprimateancestors.Formillionsofyears,they’dbeenunabletotellthedifferencebetweenfineshadesofredandgreen.Then,about23millionyearsago,onegroupofprimatesevolvedtheabilitytoseemanymorecolors.Nowtheycouldtellthedifferencebetweenriperedfruits,andunripegreenfruitsandspotthemostnutritiousleaves.Intheevolutionarybattleforsurvival,thiswouldhavebeenabigadvantage.Sowhathappenedtotheeyesofourancestors?Howdidourrichcolorvisionevolve?NEILSHUBINVOTohelpmeanswerthosequestions,I'vecometoSeattle,tomeetoneoftheworld’sexpertsoncolorvision,JayNeitz.NEILSHUBINVOOh,hey.NeilShubinhere.JAYNEITZOCHey,greattomeetyou.MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINOCGoodtoseeyou,well,greattobeinthecolorlab.JAYNEITZOCWell,thankyou.NEILSHUBINOCWell,Ithinkwe’reofftoarockingstartwiththesewalls.Ohmy,thisisthecolorlab.JAYNEITZOCYesitis.NEILSHUBINVOSowhat’sthedrillhere?Jay’sbeenstudyingcolorvisionforthelast25years.Hecombinescuttingedgegeneticswithstudiesonhumansandotherprimates.JAYNEITZOCEverythingiscoolaboutcolor.JAYNEITZVO

It’sasilentlanguagethatspeaks……toouremotionsandit’sjustfascinating.NEILSHUBINVOThisistheplacehuh?JAYNEITZYup.Thisiswherewetestcolorvisioninthemonkeys.NEILSHUBINVOHisworkhelpedscientistsfigureoutthatmostmammals,includingmostprimates,seealimitedrangeofcolors.JAYNEITZVOThisisKramer.NEILSHUBINVOHiKramer.JAYNEITZVO/OCAndKramer'sredgreencolorblind,buthehasgoodblueyellowcolorvision.Inordertotrainthem,weusethecolorsthattheycansee,soasyoucanseethathere’sthisyellowblobagainstagraybackground.Kramer,canseethataswellaswecan.Iftheygetitright,theygetalittlereward,andtheyalsogetaclickingsound.NEILSHUBINVO/OCOhheclearly,hewastryingtokissitthere.Hereallydid,hewentbop.JAYNEITZVOYoucanseehowgoodheisatit.NEILSHUBINVO/OCYeah,heis.Krameracesthisfirsttest.You’vedonereallywellthereKramer.Butchangethecolorstoredandgreen,andit’sawholedifferentballgame.JAYNEITZVOIfyoudon’thaveanycolorvision,thisiscompletelyinvisible.Ifyoucan’tseeredorgreen,thisjustlookslikeatotallygraybackground.NEILSHUBINVOMosthumanscanclearlyseethisredblob,butKramercan’t.LikemysonNathaniel,hecan’ttellthedifferencebetweenredsandgreens.JAYNEITZVOOkay,Kramer,youwereastar.NEILSHUBINVOSowhyisthishappening?Whydoesn’tKramerseetheworldlikewedo?MUSICIN

NEILSHUBINVOKramer’seyes,likealleyes,relyonspecialproteinscalledopsinstodetectcolor.NEILSHUBINVOThey’reheldinthousandsofspecialcellsintheretinainthebackoftheeye.Kramer’sgottwotypesofopsin,eachtunedtospecificwavelengthsoflight.Signalsfromtheseopsinsaretheninterpretedbythebrainwhichallowsustoperceivecolor.Buttoseecolorlikewedo,Kramerwouldneedathirdopsin,tunedtodifferentwavelengthsoflight.NEILSHUBINVOWethinkourearlyprimateancestorswerelikeKramer,theyhadjusttwoopsinsaswell.Sohowdidtheyevolveathirdopsin?TheanswerisinourDNA.NEILSHUBINVOEachopsinisencodedbyasinglegene.Andwhenscientistscomparedthesegenes,theyfoundthatthegenefortheneweropsinsitsrightnexttooneoftheoldones,andsignificantly,theyareincrediblysimilar.Bothfactsaretelltalecluesastohowtheextrageneevolved.Theoldopsingenemusthavebeenduplicated,andoneofthesecopiesthenacquiredasmallnumberofmutationsthatallowedittodetectdifferentwavelengthsoflight.Butthere’sonemorequestion.Couldourrichcolorvisionresultfromjustduplicatingagene,orwouldtherehavetobechanges…NEILSHUBINVO…tothebrainaswell?Tofindout,Jayhastriedtoreplicatewhathappenedinnatureinhislab.JAYNEITZVO/OCIt’sactuallyagreatevolutionaryquestion,howdidcolorvisionevolve?Howcansomethingsocomplicatedevolve?NEILSHUBINVOJayimplantedathirdopsingenefromahumandirectlyintotheretinasofacolor-blindsquirrelmonkeycalledSam.JAYNEITZOCWhatwedidisreallyatesttoseewhat’stheminimalthingyoucandoinordertogiveananimalcolorvision.NEILSHUBINVOTheresultswereincredible.LikeKramer,Samusedtofailthistest,nowhecaneasilytellthedifferencebetweenredsandgreens.Jayhasrecreatedevolutionaryhistory,andgivenSamhuman-likecolorvision.JAYNEITZVO/OCYoumightthink,ohitwouldtakehimalongtimetolearnthisnewpatterninthebrain,butassoonasthegenewasturnedon,theanimalbegantomakethesediscriminationsthattheycouldn’tmakebefore.Thebrainwasalreadyreadysomehow.Andsoinone,youknow,veryshortevolutionarystepitgoestothistotallydifferentworld.Yougofrom…JAYNEITZVO…justhavingstrictly,let’ssay,fivecolors,gray,black,white,blueandyellow,tohundredsofdifferentcolors,thatareallofthebluesandgreensandpurplesandoranges.NEILSHUBINOnesimpleshiftopensawholeuniverseofcolor.JAYNEITZVOYeah,that’stheamazingthing,it’slikethere’ssomethingalmostmagical.It’samultiplicativeeffect.

NEILSHUBINVOFortheearlyprimatesthatevolvedthisability…MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINVO…itwasahugeadvantageonethatwouldeventuallybepassedontous.NEILSHUBINVOAndcolorstillplaysahugepartinourlivestoday.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOColorhelpsuscommunicate,attractattention,andevenexpressemotions.Weoftentakeitforgranted,butitmassivelyenrichesourexperienceoftheworld.NEILSHUBINVOGoodboy.NEILSHUBINVO/OCButourfocusonvisionhascomewithsometradeoffs,namely,ourpoorsenseofsmell.LikemosthumansI'mexperiencingthiswonderfulvistaherewithmyeyes.Butthedog’sexperiencingthisinaverydifferentway.Hisisaworldofsmells.Wethinkthatadog’ssenseofsmellisanywherefromathousandtoamilliontimesbetterthanours.Likemanymammalsit’shismainwayofunderstandingtheworldaroundhim.ThisfundamentaldifferenceinoursenseofsmellisalsoreflectedinourDNA.Adoghasaboutathousandgenesthataredevotedtodetectingodors.Wehaveroughlythesamenumber,butabout600ofthemdon’tworkanymore,they’rerelics.It’sasimilarstoryinotherprimateswithcolorvision.Thesebrokengenesrevealanotherlegacyofourprimatepast.Asourdistantancestorsgainedthiswonderfullyrichsenseofcolorvision.Whathappenedwasoursenseofsmellbecamelessimportantandintheevolutionaryworldit’suseitorloseit.Andthat’sexactlywhathappenedtooursenseofsmell.Itdiminishedovertime.NEILSHUBINVOSowhilewecanthankourinnermonkeyforourwonderfulcolorvisionwecanalsoblameitforourlousysenseofsmell.NEILSHUBINVO/OCOfcourse,wehumanshavealsomadesomeradicalchangestotheancientprimatebodyplan.Unlikemonkeys,westanduponourowntwofeet.Youknowanimalshavebeenwalkingonthisplanetforover365millionyears,andforthemostpart,thatwalkinghasbeenonfourlegs.Walkingontwolegsisafundamentallystrangewaytogetaround.Nootherprimate,andveryfewothermammals,movethisway.It’sachangethathadprofoundeffectsonthehumanbody.Whichbegsthequestion,howonearthdidithappen?NEILSHUBINVO

ThebestplaceintheworldtoanswerthisquestionisinAfrica.Asitewherethegreatriftvalley…NEILSHUBINVO…cutsdeepintoancientrocks,exposingfossilsfromourdistantpast.ThesearetheremotebadlandsofnorthernEthiopia.Lookatthoserocks.Boom,boom,boom,boom,boom,justtotallystretchedout.Asapaleontologist,thatiswhatIdreamabout.Thisistrulyinthemiddleofnowhere.DONJOHANSONVO/OCNowyouseethatvolcanicashcroppingout?That’s3.4millionyearsold.NEILSHUBINVOThatisincredible.MyguideisDonJohanson,oneofthefirstpeopletohuntforfossilsherebackintheearly‘70s,andachildhoodheroofmine.DONJOHANSONVOThere’sthecamp.NEILSHUBINVOThereonthefarsideoftheriverrightthere.DONJOHANSONVOFabulous.NEILSHUBINVOTwoofthemostimportantfossilsforunderstandingtheoriginsofbipedalismhavebeenfoundinthissmallregionofEthiopia.Don’stakingmetoseewherethefirsticonicfossilwasfound.A3.2million-year-oldhumanancestorknownasLucy.DONJOHANSONVO/OCItwasaSundaymorningbackin1974.SoIcameupherelookedatthishadnoideawhatwaswaiting.Iwasrightinthisarea,righthere.WhatIsawwasafragmentofbone,andIlookedatit,andalmostinstantaneouslysaid,"That’sahominid."NEILSHUBINVOWow.Lucymadeheadlinesaroundtheworld,becausealthoughshelookedlikeanape,shewalkedontwolegs.Shewasabiped,atthatstagethemostancientanyonehadfound.DONJOHANSONVO/OCOncewebrokethatthreemillionyearbarrieritwasawholenewpictureofwhatourearliestancestorslookedlike.Oneofthemostexcitingmomentsofmyentirecareer.NEILSHUBINVOSinceDonfirstcamehereinthe‘70s,scientistshaveorganizedexpeditionsheremostyears.They’vefoundover400individualfossilsfromLucy'sspecies.Butit’sLucyImostwanttomeet.Herbonesaresomeofthebestevidencewehaveforwhatearlybipedslookedlike.DONJOHANSONVO/OCNowofcourseifthiswereallarticulatedproperly,youknow,thevertebrae…MUSICOUT

DONJOHANSONOC…ontopofoneanother…NEILSHUBINVOYou'dseeit.DONJOHANSONOC/VO…she’dbeaboutthreeandahalffeettall.Youdon’tseethat.NEILSHUBINYeah,youdon’tgetthat.DONJOHANSONOCHere’sthefemur.NEILSHUBINOCThat’stheleft.DONJOHANSONOCTopendofthethighbone.NEILSHUBINVO/OCAndthisonealsowhenyouputitalltogether,nowyouhave,youknow,thisistellingbipedal,thisisgivingahintofbipedal.DONJOHANSONOC/VORight.Thiscertainlytellsitwasbipedal.Thatcantsinlikethat,whichisverycharacteristic.Ourkneesareclosetogetherandtheycomeuptotheside,chimpscomestraightup.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOHavingtheupperandlowerleginastraightlineisnogoodforabiped,itmakesforanawkward,waddlinggait.Lucy’slegsformedanangle,herkneeswereclosertogether,justlikeourownkneesthispositionsthefeetdirectlyunderneaththebody,makingwalkingeasier,andmoreefficient.DONJOHANSONVOThereweare.NEILSHUBINVO/OCTherewego.SoLucywalkedmuchlikeus.Butshewasn’thuman.Shehadmanyprimitivefeatures,too.Nowthisisarealmix,youknow.MUSICOUTDONJOHANSONOCThisisarealmix.

NEILSHUBINYeahit’samazing.DONJOHANSONOCYeah.NEILSHUBINOCThisisveryprimitive,right?DONJOHANSONOCApe.NEILSHUBINOCApelike,apelike.DONJOHANSONOCVerysmallbrain.Andveryapelikeproportions.NEILSHUBINApelike.Butbipedal.DONJOHANSONOCButbipedal.NEILSHUBINOCCool.DONJOHANSONOCAndthesehandswouldhavestretcheddowntoabouthere.NEILSHUBINOCSodown.Yeah,it'sthekneealmost.NEILSHUBINVOItisjustsoutterlyfabulous.DONJOHANSONVO/OCIsn’titinterestingtohavethepileofbones,youputherhere,andallofasuddenyoucanseethatitwasalivingperson.NEILSHUBINVOShe’sbeautiful.DONJOHANSONOCYep.Thankyou.MUSICOUTGROUPVO<Singing>.

DONJOHANSONVOWenamedherafterthepeopleandtheland.WenamedherAustralopithecusafarensis,fromtheAfarregion.GROUPVO<Singing>.NEILSHUBINVOSoimagineifLucywasherewithusrightnow,whatwouldshelooklike?DONJOHANSONOC/VOWellshe’dbeshort.Shewasonlyaboutthreeandahalffeettall.Andtheonethingthatwouldbefamiliartous,shewouldbewalkingupright.Withthoselongarms,reachingalmostdowntoherknees,she’dprobablyhaveaveryoddgait.Andasshegotcloserwe’dseethatshehadaveryapelikeface.Idon’tthinkyouwouldseemuchofaglimmerofphilosophicalthoughtinhereyes.Ithinkinmanywaysshe’dlookliketheapethatstoodup.NEILSHUBINOCYeah.DONJOHANSONOCYouknow?NEILSHUBINVOYeah,that’samazing.GROUPVO<Singing>.NEILSHUBINVOLucytellsusthatby3.2millionyearsago,ourancestorshadfullycommittedtowalkingontwolegs.Whatshecan’ttellus,ishowourancestorsfirststartedwalkingupright.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOToanswerthatquestion,weneedtomeetasecondiconicfossil,foundjust50milesfromtheLucysite.Thisfossil,calledArdipithecus,hasturnedourideasabouthowwebecamebipedalontheirhead.NEILSHUBINVOI’vecometoBerkeley,California,tomeettheguywholedtheteamthatdiscoveredArdi,anoldcolleagueofmine,TimWhite.NEILSHUBINVOTim’soutinthefieldinEthiopiamostyearsandhedocumentshisworkmeticulouslywithavideocamera.Theserarelyseenfield-tapesdatefromtheearly‘90s.TIMWHITEVOWhatwewantedtodowastoplumbtheunknown.TIMWHITEOC

TofigureoutwhatcamebeforetheLucyspecies.TIMWHITEVOWejustliterallydidn’tknowwhatwewouldfind.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOSince1992,theteamhasrunannualexpeditionstoaremotesitecalledtheMiddleAwash.SomeoftherockshereweremillionsofyearsolderthanthenearbyLucysite.TIMWHITEVOYouseethetworesistantbands,upthereonthehill…NEILSHUBINVORight.TIMWHITEVO…they’rediggingintothelowerband,bothofthesearedatedto4.4million.NEILSHUBINOCThiswasreally…TIMWHITEOC/VOWenailedit,soanythingbetweenthatis4.4millionyears.NEILSHUBINVOThisbandofancientrockyieldedsometantalizingfragments.Sotheyscouredthislayerformonthsonend.Thebreakthroughfinallycamein1994.AnEthiopiangraduatestudent,YohannesHaile-Selassie,foundafragmentofhandboneinthatsamelayer.TIMWHITEVOHepickedup…TIMWHITEOC…andsaidthislookslikeahominid,TIMWHITEVO/OC…sowescrapedandbrushedthatsurfaceandwefoundsomeofthesehominidhandandfootbonesinplace.Andsowefocusedonthatlittlehill.Andweturnedthevideocameraonanddug.NEILSHUBINOhwow.TIMWHITEVOThisisthewaywetookitoffvirtuallyamillimeteratatime.Yougottobereallycareful.Youknow,youscratchthatyouputyoursignatureonitforever.Herecomesthemandible,caninesoffonthelefthandsiderightthere,herearetheteethcomingout.NEILSHUBINOC/VO

Youknow,soasapaleontologist,you’rethefirstpeopleintheentireplanettoseethat.TIMWHITEOCThat’sbeenburiedfor4.4millionyears.NEILSHUBINOC/VOThiswasahugelysignificantfind,anewspeciesofhominidatacriticalmomentinhumanevolution.Atimewhenourancestorswerejustbeginningtowalkontwolegs.Sowhiletheywerestillinthefield,MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINVO…TimwantedtocollectasmuchinformationashecouldaboutArdi’sworld.MUSICINTIMWHITEVOWhatwe’reout…TIMWHITEOC…todoistounderstandeverythingwecanaboutthattimeslice,andat4.4millionyears,anythingwelearnisnew.TIMWHITEVOAndsothatmeansbringinginsedimentologistswhounderstandwhatkindofasetting,wasitariver,wasitafloodplain.Bringinginpaleontologistsexpertintheplants,inthebirds,intheshrews.NEILSHUBINVOWherevertheyfoundArdi’sspecies,theyfoundwoodlandcreatures–parrots,monkeys,andpeacocks,aswellaswoodlandplants.TIMWHITEVO/OCItwasawoodland,notanopensavannahsetting.NEILSHUBINOC/VONowthat’sasurprise.TIMWHITEThesewerewoodlandanimals.NEILSHUBINVO/OCThatrunscountertosomuchofwhatpeopleexpected.TIMWHITEVO/OCItrunscounterallthewaybacktothe1800s.NEILSHUBINVOForoverahundredyearsthere’sbeenonemaintheoryofhowourancestorsstartedtowalkontwolegs.Thetheorygoeslikethis:westartedoutasapesthatlivedinthetrees.Welookedlikechimpanzees,andwalkedonallfoursusingtheknucklesofourhands.Buttheclimatechanged,andonlyafterforesthadturnedtosavannah,didwestart

walkingontwolegsinsteadoffour.Arditellsaverydifferentstory.Shewasalreadywalkinguprightwhilelivinginthewoodlands.NEILSHUBINVOArdi’sskeletonrancountertotheoldtheorytoo.Itwasunlikeanythinganyonehadseenbefore.Ittookateamofexperts15yearstofullypiecehertogether.Sohowdoweknowshewasbipedal?ThemaninchargeoffiguringouthowArdimighthavemovedwasanatomistOwenLovejoy.MUSICOUTC.OWENLOVEJOYVO/OCThecriticalthinginbipedalityisthestructureofthepelvis.Andatfirstwhenyoulookatthisboneyoumightthinkthatthere’snotmuchinformationhere,butactuallythere’sanenormousamountofinformationthattellsyouagreatdealaboutwhattheoriginalbonelookedlike.NEILSHUBINVOUsinginformationfromthisdeformedbone,theteamwasabletoreconstructArdi’sentirepelvis.C.OWENLOVEJOYVOThisisaplasticstructurethat’sproducedbyathreedimensionalprinter.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOThetoppartofArdi’spelvislooksmorehuman.Thehip-boneisshortandbroad,akeyindicatorofbipedalism.Butthelowerhalfismuchlongerthanahumanpelvis,moreusefulforclimbing.TIMWHITEVOWhenyou…TIMWHITEOC…gottothatdetail,yourealizeditwasamosaicofanatomythathadneverbeenencounteredbefore.NEILSHUBINVOItsuggeststhatArdicouldwalkontwolegs,butnotaswellaslaterhominidslikeLucy.Andtherestofheranatomyheldsurprisestoo.TIMWHITEVO/OCNeitherLucynorhumanshavetheabilitytograspwiththeirbigtoe,butthisthinghadfullgraspingability.NEILSHUBINOCSoshehasagraspingfootthatcanwalk.C.OWENLOVEJOYOCYes.MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINVO

Eventhehandswereamosaic,incrediblylongfingers,goodforclimbing,butashorter,humanlikepalm.Andthebonesshownoneofthetelltalesignsthatshewalkedonherknuckleslikeachimpanzee.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOSowenowhaveadetailedpictureofthecrucialtimewhenourancestorshadjuststartedwalkingontwolegs.NEILSHUBINVOArdiwassmall,aroundfourfeettall;agoodclimber,shemovedonallfourswheninthetrees,butshewalkeduprightwhenontheground.Sheblowstheoldtheoryofhowwebecamebipedaloutofthewater.Notonlydidourancestorsstartwalkingontwolegswhenstilllivinginthewoods,theyneverlookedormovedlikeourclosestlivingrelative,thechimpanzee.Somescientistsdon’tacceptthisinterpretation.TheythinkArdiisn’tahumanancestoratall,buttherelicofanextinctape.NEILSHUBINVOButTim’sspentyearsstudyingmanyspecimensofArdipithecus.MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINVOAndhethinkstheevidenceisclear.TIMWHITEVOWhenwelookedattheArdicraniumwesawverysmallcanines.Nootherape,livingorfossil,hassuchreducedcanines.TIMWHITEOCThat'sagoodindicatorshe'scomeinourdirectionabit.Gotothepelvis.MUSICINTIMWHITEVOSamething.AuniqueadaptationsharedbyhumansandLucy.NEILSHUBINVOWe’restillnotsureexactlywhyawoodlandclimberneededtowalkontwolegs.ButthankstoArdiwenowhaveasnapshotofoneofthemostdramatictransformationsinthehistoryofourspecies;thetransitionfromwalkingonfourlegs,towalkingontwo.Thismajorchangetoourancestralbodyplanhasseriousconsequencesforustoday.MUSICOUTMUSICINNEILSHUBINVOTheseconsequencescanbeseenwithinourownbodies,andthey’renotallgood.ThisvaultinthebowelsoftheClevelandMuseumOfNaturalHistoryistheplacetogoifyouwanttofindoutwhatcangowrongwiththehumanskeleton.Dr.BruceLatimerisananthropologistandanatomistwhowasacuratorhereformanyyears.BRUCELATIMERVO/OC

Well,thisistheHamann-ToddCollection,whichisthelargestcollectionofitstypeintheworld.Thereareover3,000skeletonsinthisroom.Ineachoneofthesedrawersisacompletehumanskeleton.NEILSHUBINVOTheycomefromunclaimedbodiesataClevelandmorgue,datingfromtheearly1900s.Ifyoustudytheseskeletons,onethingbecomesclearprettyquickly.Thehumanbackgoeswrong.Alot.BRUCELATIMERVOThere’sanenormousamountofbackproblems.Thepainmusthavebeenphenomenal,andyoujustseethatalloverthiscollection.NEILSHUBINVOTurnsout,ourbadbacksareanunwelcomeinheritancefromourinnermonkey.MUSICOUTBRUCELATIMERVO/OCWetookaskeletonlikethisthatwasessentiallyhorizontal,westooditupright,we’vehadtochangeessentiallyeverybonetoallowustodothat,andwe’veforceditintothisnewposition.Wehaveaproblemgoingfromthiskindofanimalintothatkindofanimal…MUSICINBRUCELATIMEROC/VO…andourmainproblemisbalance.NEILSHUBINVOOnallfours,theweightofourbodyhangsdownfromourspine.Butturnthisbodyupright,andtheweightisalloutfront,itputsusoutofwhack.Totallyoutofbalance.BRUCELATIMEROC/VOInordertobalancewehadtocreatethiscurveinyourback,andthenyourheadwouldbebackherewouldn’tit,sowehadtocreate…MUSICOUTBRUCELATIMEROC/VO…anothercurvehereinthemiddleofyourchest,andthenyourheadwouldbestickingoutofthefrontsowehadtocreateanothercurveinyourneck.AndsowehavethisS-shapedcurveinourspine,andweexpectthattoholdusup.Thatisanengineeringnightmare.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOOurS-shapedspineisuniqueamongmammals,anditcausesallsortsofproblems.Thevertebraethatmakeupthebonesofyourback,andthediscsbetweenthem,areputunderalotofpressure,particularlytheonesattheveryapexofthebiggestcurve,thethoracicvertebra.BRUCELATIMERVO/OC

Ifyoutakethosethoracicvertebraeandyoupushonthemfromtheendstoohard,whathappensisthis,youendupwithwhat’scalledawedgefracture.Thatcurvehascrunchedit.Nootheranimalhasanythingevenremotelylikethis.It’saconsequenceofhowwewalk.NEILSHUBINVOAndit’snotjustfracturedvertebrae,fromslippeddiscstosciaticaourspinesgowronginallkindsofways.80percentofallAmericanswillcomplainofbackproblemsatsomepointintheirlives.Ourinnermonkeyhasalottoanswerfor.NEILSHUBINVOButIdon’twantyoutogetthewrongidea.Standingupontwolegswasn’tallbad,oritneverwouldhavehappenedinthefirstplace.Itfreedourhands,ananatomicalchangethat,combinedwithouramazingbrains,wouldeventuallyallowustomaketoolsandreshapetheworldaroundus.ThiskeymomentinourevolutionaryhistoryisonceagainvisibleintherocksofnorthernEthiopia.Sogeologicallyoneofthethingsthat’sspecialaboutthisisithaslotsoflayers.Lucy’sfromonepartofitandwe’regoingtoanother,right?BILLKIMBELVO/OCThat’sright.Wehavejustjumpedaboutsixor700,000yearsintime.NEILSHUBINVOAndthatiskindofmind-blowing.BILLKIMBELVOYeah.NEILSHUBINVOPaleontologistBillKimbelhasbroughtmetoasitewhereyoucanfindstonetoolsthatareovertwomillionyearsold,ifyouknowwhatyou’relookingfor.SowhatdoIlookfor?BILLKIMBELOCWell,youlookforflakesontheground.NEILSHUBINVOWow,isthatbone?BILLKIMBELVO/OCThatisapieceoffossilboneandhereisanotherone.NEILSHUBINOCSeeIcan’tfindtool,butIcanfindbone.BILLKIMBELOCYeah.NEILSHUBINOC/VORight.Theimportantthingabouttoolsisit’sthehandandthebrainright,it’sbothtogether.BILLKIMBELOCAbsolutely.

NEILSHUBINVOYougotone?BILLKIMBELVOOh,yeah.Yougotaniceone.DONJOHANSONWell,thisisverytypically,NEILSHUBINOCThat’saniceone?Idon’tgetthisatall.DONJOHANSONOCYeah,Iknow,itlookslikesomethingfromyourdriveway.NEILSHUBINOC/VORight.ThetoolDon’sfoundwasmadebyhumanancestorscalledHomohabilis,wholivedamillionyearslaterthanLucy.DONJOHANSONOC/VOClearlysomeearlyhumantookastone,ahammerstoneandstruckitrightthere,andgotthis.NEILSHUBINVOOhyeah.Thatstriation,yeah.DONJOHANSONVO/OCAndyouseeithasthis.Feelthatedge.Youcoulduseittostripoffmeatorwhatever.NEILSHUBINOC/VOSofromthisrockyoucantellwheretheyhitit,howtheyhitit.It’salmostlikeatimemachineyouhave.BILLKIMBELVO/OCItis.It’satimemachinethattakesusbacktoaperiodwhenthefaintestglimmersofwhatitmeanstobehumanarebeginningtoemerge,theuseofthehand,thecognition,therepeatedbehaviortoproduceastylizedtool.DONJOHANSONOCIt’smind-blowing.NEILSHUBINVO/OCWow.Canwelookfortools?Iwanttofindatool.No,that’snatural.BILLKIMBELOC/VONo,thisisone.You’vefoundone.NEILSHUBINVOMakingtoolstakesexcellentvision,finemotorskills,andabrainthatcanintegratethetwo.Wehumansonlyhavethissortofbrainbecauseit’sbeenshapedbyourancientprimatepast.NEILSHUBINVO

Monkey,apeorhuman,ourbrainsshareabasicarchitecturethat’sdifferentfrommostothermammals.Weallhaveaspecialregioninvolvedwithhand-eyecoordination.Andagreatlyexpandedvisualsystem,withasmuchas40percentofthebraininvolvedinseeing.NEILSHUBINVOOurinnermonkeyhasn’tjustshapedourbodies,it’sshapedourbrainsaswell.NEILSHUBINVOButifyoulookatthemodernworldaroundus,andeverythinghumanshavebeenabletobuild,fromsatellitestoskyscrapers,there’snodoubtwe’remoreintelligentthanmonkeys.Sowhatchanged?Whatmadeourbrainssodifferentfromthoseofotherprimates?MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINVOHi,NeilShubin.TOMBURBACHEROCHiNeil,it’sTomBurbacher,welcometotheInfantPrimateLab.NEILSHUBINOCGoodtoseeyou.Sothisisthemonkeyplace,huh?TOMBURBACHEROCThisisthemonkeyplace.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOTomBurbacherstudiesmonkeysinordertoanswerquestionsaboutourownbrains.He’sgoingtoshowmeanexperimentthatdemonstratesanimportantdifferencebetweenourbrains,andthebrainsofamonkey.Butthedifferencesaren’twhatyoumightexpect,especiallywhenwe’reyoung.Monkeyontheset.KIMVO/OCMonkeyontheset.Neil,thisis“C.I.”she’sathree-month-oldpig-tailedmacaque.NEILSHUBINVOThisexperimenttestssomethingcalledobjectpermanence.Inotherwords,whetherthismonkeyknowsanobjectstillexistswhenshecan’tseeit.It’sadevelopmentalmilestoneforbothmonkeysandhumans.MUSICOUTKIMVO/OCYou’regoingtoputapieceoffruitonthetoyitself.You’llplaceitinthewell.NEILSHUBINVO

She’slookingatit.There.KIMVOAndyou’llmovethattocompletelyhidethattoy.NEILSHUBINVOOkay.Ohwow.TOMBURBACHERVOThereyougo.Thereyougo.NEILSHUBINVOWow.Thatisimpressive.TOMBURBACHEROCObjectpermanence.NEILSHUBINOCJustboom,boom.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVO/OCThreemonthsold,andalready“C.I.”understandsobjectpermanence.“C.I.”youaregood.NEILSHUBINVOHiGeneva,howareyou?Youareacutie.Genevaisthesameageasthebabymonkey.I’mgoingtodotheexactsametestonher,undertheexperteyeofchilddevelopmentspecialist,ProfessorSusanSpieker.SUSANSPIEKERVOSheneedstoreachforthem,showthatshe’sinterested.NEILSHUBINVOOhIthinkwe’vegotinterest.SUSANSPIEKERVOOhshe’sgotagoodreach.NEILSHUBINVO/OCYoudo.Lookatyou.OhGeneva,youlikethose.Hello.SUSANSPIEKERVONow,Neil,canyougetthemaway?NEILSHUBINVO/OCOh,I'manexpertatthis.CanItakethatforasecond?Sorry,it’llbetemporary.Youaresogoodthatway.I’llpopitin.SUSANSPIEKERVOMakesureshe’swatching.

NEILSHUBINOC/VOShe’swatching.Nowwe’llcoveritup,watchthis.SUSANSPIEKERVOAndshewonders,"Whatdidyoudo,Neil?"NEILSHUBINVOWhattoys?SUSANSPIEKERVOIdon’tknowwheretheywent.NEILSHUBINVO/OCWow.Thatisamazing.SUSANSPIEKERVOWheredidtheygo?NEILSHUBINOCItisincredible.Ifit’snotthereitdoesn’texist.SUSANSPIEKEROCRight.Right.NEILSHUBINOCThatisamazing.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVO/OCSohowcomeababymonkeybeatsababyhumaninthistest?Thesetestsareshowingushowrapidlyaparticularregionofourbrainiswiringupindevelopment.Andit’sshowinguscomparativelythatwewireupmuchslowerinthispartofthebrainthandomonkeys.NEILSHUBINVOComparedtootherprimates,wehumanshaveanunusuallylongchildhood,evenifyoutakethedifferentlifespansintoaccount.Thisshouldbeanevolutionarydisadvantage.Butinfact,it’soneofourgreateststrengths.Duringchildhood,ourbrainsarebeingshapedbyourenvironment,andbyourexperience.Extendingthisphasegivesuslongertolearn,andpickupnewskills.Somethinkthatthisisakeypartofwhatmakesussosmart.NEILSHUBINVOButthereareotherfactorstoo.Thebrainismadeupofvastnetworksofnervecells,calledneurons,thatcarry,processandstoreinformation.Thepartofthehumanbrainresponsibleforhigherthought,thecortex,containsmoreneuronsthanthatofanyotheranimalontheplanet,anastonishing16billion.Theseneuronsareorganizedinauniquelypowerfulway,they’reunusuallyinterconnected.Thismeanswecandothingsthatotherprimatescan’t,buildcomplextools,composesymphonies,andeveninvestigatehowourownbrainswork.NEILSHUBINVO/OC

Butbeforewegettoocarriedawaywithourowncleverness,Iwanttoinjectabitofhumility.Thatmeansleavingmonkeysbehind,andgoingbacktowherethisseriesbegan,myanatomylabinChicago,andmyfavoritesubject,fish.Thebrainofafishandthebrainofahumanhavemoreincommonthanyoumightthink.Thisisatriptothebeginning,thisisasbasicasitgets,we’regoinghuman,fish,representedbyacartilaginousfish,asharkontheright.Andwhatyouhaveisyouseethemusclesandnervesandorgansinsidethesharkhead.Butimportantly,youseethisyellowtissue,thisisthefrontendofthespinalcord,it’sthebrain,itdoesn’tlooklikemuch,butit’sthesharkbrain.Thisisthehumanbrain.Thisiswhereitallhappensforus,whereourmemoriesreside,whereyouknowourfears,ourloves,ourhatesit’sallinhere.Thehumanbrain,reallyatthesurfacelevel…MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINOC/VO…looksnothinglikewhat’ssittinginsidethesharkhead.Yet,whenyouknowhowtolook,youfindaveryprofoundsimilarityandthatsimilarityliesintheoverallarchitectureofthebrainitself.Inthehumanwehaveaforebrainandthatforebrainconsistsofthisfoldedtissuehere,wheremuchofourconsciousthoughthappens.Andthenthere’samidbrain,thiswalnutsizedareinthemiddle.Andthenahindbrain.That’safundamentaldivision,weseethatindevelopmentandweseethatbasedonwherethenervesexitthebrain.Well,ifyoufollowthesimilarnervesinasharkwhatyouseeissharkstoohavethatsamestructure–aforebrain,amidbrainandahindbrain.There’safundamentalarchitecturalsimilarityamongallbrains–thebrainsofpeople,thebrainsofdogs,thebrainsofcats,thebrainsofmonkeys,lizards,frogs,salamanders,trout,bass,evensharksandfisharesimilar.Eachoneofthemhasaforebrain,andamidbrainandahindbrain,despitethefactthatthosebrainsareoftenverydifferentinfunctionandform.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVOButthat’snottheendofthestory.Thefundamentalarchitectureofourownbrainscanbetracedbackevenfurtherthanfishtoasurprisinglyprimitiveanimalthatdoesn’tevenreallyhaveabrain.ButI'vegottofindthesetinycreaturesfirst.PETERHOLLANDOCRight,okay.Well,wecanstarttryingaroundhere.NEILSHUBINOCXmarksthespot.PETERHOLLANDOCXmarksthespot.Let’sgiveitago.NEILSHUBINOC/VOThisisPeterHolland,aworld-renownedgeneticist,andHeadofZoologyatOxfordUniversityinEngland.Okay,sowhatdoIdo?PETERHOLLANDVOJustshakeit.NEILSHUBINOCShakeandbake,huh?I'llmakeitlooksoeasy.Likethat?No?PETERHOLLANDOC/VO

No.They’llbeprettyobviousbecausethey’llstart,they’llreallyswimaround.Thewatermakesthediggingslightlyharder.NEILSHUBINVOItdoes.PETERHOLLANDVO/OCYougotone.There’sanamphioxus.NEILSHUBINVOWegotan.Whoa.Lookatthatlittleguygo.Hey.PETERHOLLANDVOJustdipitinthewateragain,andyou’llseeit’llflickaround.NEILSHUBINVOBoy,theyreallyflick.PETERHOLLANDVOThere,yousee?Thereheis.NEILSHUBINOC/VOHey,that’sbeautiful.Lookatthat.Whichisthefront?Itdoesn’tlooklikemuch,butthistinycreature,calledamphioxus,hasmuchtotellusaboutourownbrains.Thatiscool.Okay,thatranksascool.PETERHOLLANDVOOkay,solet’stakealookatacoupleofthese.MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINVO/OCSoI'vebroughtthisfromtheanatomylabinChicago,thisisahumanbrain.AndwhenIlookatthisIdon’tfindanyobvioussimilaritiestothat.MUSICINPETERHOLLANDVO/OCDeepinthegenesofthisanimal,inthedevelopmentofthisanimal,anddeepinthegenesofusandthedevelopmentofustherearethesimilarities.They’repretty,they’reprettyactive.NEILSHUBINOC/VOHolycow!Ohthatisbeautiful.God,they’resoclear,too.Youcanseerightthroughthem,youknow,it’samazing.PETERHOLLANDVOYeah,yeah,yeah.NEILSHUBINVOAmphioxuslivesinthesandoftheoceanfloor,filteringalgaeoutofthewater.It’sfromanincrediblyancientgroupofanimals.We’vefoundfossilsthatlookalotlikethisinrocksthatareover500millionyearsold.Theyareawindow

intowhatcamebeforethefirstfish.Andcruciallytheydon’thaveanythinglikewhatwe’dcallabrain.Thesimplenervechordthatrunsthelengthoftheirbody,endswithjustatinyswellinginvisibletothenakedeye.PETERHOLLANDVO/OCIfyoulookatthefrontendofthisanimalyoudon’tseeitallexpandedintoalargeskullorbrainregion.It’sjustpointed.NEILSHUBINVOButifyoulookatthegeneticmakeupoftheseancientcreatures,youfindsomethingtrulyremarkable.NEILSHUBINVOTomaketheforebrain,midbrainandhindbrainthatwesawinourlab,youneedaseriesofcontrolgenestotellthecellswithinthedevelopingbrainwheretheyare,they’relikeazipcode.Thosesamecontrolgenesthatmakeourownbrains,areactiveinamphioxus,butherethey’resimplybuildingtheprimitivenervechord,andthetinyswellingatitsfront.Thismeansthatthegenetic…NEILSHUBINVO…rootsofourcomplexprimatebrainsexistedinmuchsimplercreaturesthatfirstaroseover500millionyearsago.PETERHOLLANDVO/OCIthinkitgivesusaglimpseintowhereourbrainscamefromintothebasicorganizationofthebrainofourancestors.NEILSHUBINOCImean,Ifindthatmind-blowing.PETERHOLLANDOCIt’sjustanexcitinganimal.MUSICOUTNEILSHUBINVOHeknowsyou’retalkingabouthim.See?He’sgoing.PETERHOLLANDOCThat’sright.He’sgoing.Youcanseethemuscleblock’sreallyworkingthere.NEILSHUBINVOExactly.PETERHOLLANDOCYouknow,andIthinktoanevolutionary.Whoa.He’sjumpedoff.NEILSHUBINVOOh,hehopped.PETERHOLLANDOCSorry.

NEILSHUBINVO/OCHe’sgoingTiktaalikonus.He’sgoingland-living.He’sgonearound.PETERHOLLANDVOHe’sgoneforthenexttransition.NEILSHUBINOCExactly.He’sintheDevoniannow.MUSICINNEILSHUBINVO/OCThesearchforourinnerfishhastakenmefromhighinthearctic…Herewasthesnoutofexactlythecreaturewewerelookingfor.…totheplainsofAfrica…Yeah,Ijustwanttorundownhereandstartcollectingfossils.DONJOHANSONOCLet’sgo.NEILSHUBINVO/OC…aswellasdeepinsideourownDNA.Andtodaywesawalittletinywormlivinginthemudhereinthebaythatcontainsgenesthatwehavethatsculptourownbrains,theorganthatgivesusmanyofouruniqueproperties.We’veseenhowourdistantrelatives,fromwormstofish,fromreptilestoearlyprimateshavedefinedourbodies.Ateachnewstageofourjourneyalongthetreeoflife,ourancientanimalancestorshavereconfiguredwhat’sgonebefore.Andthat’showweendedupastheintelligent,creatureswithallourquirkyflaws,thatdominatetheplanettoday.There’ssomethingincrediblyprofound,andIthinkbeautifulintheideathatinsideeveryorgan,cellandgeneofourbodyliedeepconnectionstotherestoflifeonourplanet.MUSICOUTMUSICINMUSICOUT