Nagarjuna Twelve Gate Treatise

7/29/2019 Nagarjuna Twelve Gate Treatise

1/100

.****************************************SIMPLIFIEDFORMATTINGTHATCANBEEXPORTEDTOATEXTFILEANDREADUSINGNOTEPADORANYOTHERTEXTEDITOR.****************************************.Nagarjuna'sTwelveGateTreatise.Translated,withIntroductoryEssays,Comments,andNotesbyHsueh-liCheng.Dept.ofPhilosophyandReligiousStudies,UniversityofHawaiiatHilo.Sub-sectiontitlesareintheform:L#:[].ThesecanbeusedtoregeneratethestructureusingaWordProcessor..*********************************************************************************************************************************************************************.

L1:[CONTENTS]:L1L1:[CONTENTS]:L1L1:[Introduction]:L1L3:[Madhyamika]:L3L3:[Vitanda]:L3L3:[Prasanga]:L3L3:[TwoLevelsofTruth]:L3L3:[Notes]:L3L1:[Preface]:L1L3:[1.Nagarjunaandthespreadofhisteachings]:L3L3:[2.San-lunapproachestoemptiness]:L3L3:[3.Thenatureandvalueofthetext]:L3L3:[Notes]:L3

L4:[Preface]:L4L4:[1.Nagarjunaandthespreadofhisteachings]:L4L4:[2.San-lunapproachestoemptiness]:L4L4:[3.Thenatureandvalueofthetext]:L4L1:[NAGARJUNASTWELVEGATETREATISE]:L1L2:[Tableofcontents[Seng-jui]]:L2L2:[Preface[Seng-jui]]:L2L2:[I.CausalConditions]:L2L2:[II.WithorWithoutEffect]:L2L2:[III.Conditions]:L2L2:[IV.Characteristics]:L2L2:[V.WithorWithoutCharacteristics1]:L2L2:[VI.IdentityorDifference]:L2

L2:[VII.BeingorNon-Being]:L2L2:[VIII.Nature]:L2L2:[IX.CauseandEffect]:L2L2:[X.Thecreator]:L2L2:[XI.Thethreetimes]:L2L2:[XII.Production]:L2L1:[Notes]:L1L3:[Tableofcontents[Seng-jui]]:L3L3:[Preface[Sheng-Jui]]:L3L3:[Chapter1:Causalconditions]:L3


2/100

L3:[Chapter2:Withorwithouteffect]:L3L3:[Chapter3:Conditions]:L3L3:[Chapter4:Characteristics]:L3L3:[Chapter5:Withorwithoutcharacteristics]:L3L3:[Chapter6:Identityordifference]:L3L3:[Chapter7:Beingornon-being]:L3L3:[Chapter8:Nature]:L3L3:[Chapter9:Causeandeffect]:L3L3:[Chapter10:Thecreator]:L3L3:[Chapter11:Thethreetimes]:L3L3:[Chapter12:Production]:L3L1:[Glossary]:L1L1:[The26Versesaddedsection]:L1L4:[I.CausalConditions]:L4L4:[II.WithorWithoutEffect]:L4L4:[III.Conditions]:L4L4:[IV.Characteristics4]:L4L4:[V.WithorWithoutCharacteristics]:L4L4:[VI.IdentityorDifference]:L4L4:[VII.BeingorNon-Being]:L4L4:[VIII.Nature]:L4L4:[IX.CauseandEffect]:L4L4:[X.TheCreator]:L4L4:[XI.TheThreeTimes]:L4

L4:[XII.Production]:L4.[i.e.Note:Chinesecharactersandwordsarenotreproducedinthisfile.IhaveaddedsomequotesfromanothertranslationoftheKarikasbyFrederikStreng.]..*********************************************************************************************************************************************************************.L1:[Introduction]:L1L3:[Madhyamika]:L3

.ThehallmarkofMadhyamikaphilosophyis'Emptiness',sunyata.Thisisnotaviewofreality.Infactitisemphaticallydeniedthatsunyataisaviewofreality.Ifanybodyfallsintosuchanerrorastoconstrueemptinessasreality(orasaview,eventherightview,ofreality),heisonlygraspingthesnakeatthewrongend(Mk,24.11)!.~[Anothertranslation:Mk24:11.~Emptiness,havingbeendimlyperceived,utterlydestroystheslow-witted.~Itislikeasnakewronglygraspedor[magical]knowledgeincorrectlyapplied.].

NagarjunainMk,24.18,hasreferredtoatleastfourwaysbywhichthesametruthisconveyed:.|Whateverisdependentorigination,|wecallitemptiness.|Thatis(also)dependentconceptualization;|thatis,tobesure,theMiddleWay..~[Mk24:18.~The"originatingdependently"wecall"emptiness";


3/100

~Thisapprehension,i.e.,takingintoaccount[allotherthings],istheunderstandingofthemiddleway..~24:19.~Sincethereisnodharmawhateveroriginatingindependently,~Nodharmawhateverexistswhichisnotempty.].Thetwoterms,pratityasamutpadaandupadayaprajnapti,whichIhavetranslatedhereas'dependentorigination'and'dependentconceptualization'needtobeexplained.Theinterdependenceofeverything(andunder'everything'wemayinclude,followingtheMadhyamika,allitems,ontologicalconcepts,entities,theories,views,thesesandevenrelativetruths),i.e.,theessentiallackofindependenceoftheorigin(cf.utpada)ofeverythingprovesorshowsthateverythingisessentiallydevoidofitsassumedessenceoritsindependent'ownnature'orits'self-existence'(cf.svabhava).Besides,ourcognitionofanythinglacksindependenceinthesameway.Ourconception(cf.prajnapti)ofsomethingaessentiallydependsuponsomethingb,andsoonforeverythingadinfinitum.Emptinessisthusshowninbothways,fromtheontologicalpointofviewandfromtheepistemicpointofview.Sometimes,thisisexpressedintheformofanargument:Thetruthofeverythingisemptinessbecauseofthedependentoriginationofeverything.(ComparetheintroductorycommentsofNagarjunainVigrahavyavartani.)Theabovedescription,shornofitsawkwardtechnicalitiesinheritedthroughtranslation,fromthestyleoftheoriginalSanskritformulation,canbere-statedformodernersasfollows.TheMadhyamikaarguesthatwhatwemightcall'theabsolut

econceptionofreality'shouldberegardedasentirelyempty.AnabsoluteconceptionofrealityarealitywhichallrepresentationsrepresentbutisitselfindependentofthemiswhatispresupposedbyourtraditionalnaturalscienceandalsoforceduponusbyourveryconceptionofKnowledge.Knowledge,understoodasdistinctfromerroretc.,ispresumablyknowledgeofarealitythatmayexistindependently.Itisknowingwhatisthereanyway,andwhatisthereanywayissupposedtobeunaffected,unmodified,byourknowingitinanyparticularway.Andknowwemustalwaysinsomeparticularwayorother..Assumingthatwewishtocombatsolipsismorsomeextremeformofidealism,wemayputthepointinanotherway.Weseemtohaveadeterminatepictureoftheworld,whatitislike,independentofanyKnowledge,i.e.,anyrepresentationofitinthought,anyconceptualizations,beliefs,experiencesandassumptions.But

thatpictureiseverelusivetous,forwehaveonlydifferent,endlessrepresentationsofit.Nomatterhowdeeplywemaythink,wemayonlyhaveanotherrepresentationofitinthought.Itseemsthateachrepresentation,barringgrossabsurditiesandincoherence,couldclaimtobe'knowledge',and,whatisworse,thereisnovantagepointfromwhichwehaveanabsoluterepresentationofreality.Ourconceptionofknowledgeunfoldstheimplicitparadox:itprojectstheconceptionofanindependentrealitybutalsoturnsitintoaneverrecedingpictureamirage.Norepresentationcanprovidefinallysufficientsubstancetothatpicture.Anabsoluteconceptionofrealityisthereforeemptya'truth'thatdawnsuponusasitdid,soitisclaimed,tothefinalmeditativeinsightoftheMadhyamikas..Emptinessorvacuityseemstobeattimeshorrifying,and,tobesure,attimes

attractiveandalluring.Themodernman,particularlytheWesternman,findsthisboldnesstoberatherintriguinganditevokestwoverydifferentsortsofresponseorreaction.TherearethosewhofindinsuchformsofBuddhismanescaperoutefromeverythingthattheyneedtogetawayfrom,dogmas,superstitions,irrationalbeliefs,faithandevenrationality!Foremptinessseemstochangetheverymeaningofrationality..LaoTzubeginsTaoTeChingwiththisverse:1.|TheWaythatwecantalkaboutordescribeisnottheWay.


4/100

.IamnotsurewhethertheTaoistandtheMadhyamikameantthesamething,butundoubtedlytheyusedverysimilarlanguagetosaywhattheywantedtosay.ThiscontributedtothecreationoftheWesternnotionof'Orientalmysticism'asthetake-offpointtotherealmofirrationality.ThosewhoboastofWesternrationality,therefore,findsuchBuddhismpositivelyrepulsiveandmaddening.Itis,theyclaim,therealmof'illogic',andtherefore,ofinsanity.BothoftheseattitudestowardsMadhyamikaphilosophyarewrongandmisleading.Bothofthemgrab,torepeatNagarjuna'sownimagery,emptinessatitswrongend..IdonotneedtorepeatNagarjuna'scynicalwarning:.|Emptinessgrabbedatthewrongendislikeasnakegrabbedatitstail;itisfatal..~[Mk24:11.~Emptiness,havingbeendimlyperceived,utterlydestroystheslow-witted.~Itislikeasnakewronglygraspedor[magical]knowledgeincorrectlyapplied.].Thephilosophyofemptinessisnotaregressintotheprimordialchaosofirrationality.ItistruehistoricallythatMadhyamikasuppliedthebroadphilosophicalbasisforvariousformsofBuddhistpracticesrangingfrompuremeditationto

exoticBuddhistTantraritualsforecstasy.Butthiswillbeasubjectforhistorians,notphilosophers.WhatshouldinterestthephilosopherstodayisthefactthatMadhyamikaphilosophicaltexts(andthepresenttextisagoodspecimen)constituteundoubtedlyanimportantcomponentofourglobalheritageinphilosophy.Madhyamikaisavaluableexpressionofhumanrationality.ThispointneedstobestressedinordertocounteractthewidespreadWesternmisconceptiontotheeffectthatMadhyamikaisofapiecewiththeso-calledirrationalOrientalmysticism.Madhyamika,forme,isphilosophy,i.e.,anintegralpartofwhatwecalltodayphilosophicactivity.Itisakintothepositionofradicalskepticismonlyifaradicalscepticcanbesaidtohaveapositionatall.Idonotseehowaradicalscepticcanconsistentlyholdtoapositionthatcanbeformulatedanddefended.AndtheMadhyamikawillsay'OM'(=Ditto)..

NagarjunasaysinVigrahavyavartani(v.29):.|Ihavenopratijna(=proposition,position)todefend..~[Vg.29.~IfIwouldmakeanypropositionwhatever,thenbythatIwouldhavealogicalerror;~ButIdonotmakeaproposition;thereforeIamnotinerror.].Madhyamikaisscepticalofallphilosophicaldoctrines,tenets,categories.ItcouldbearguedthatMadhyamikaisthereforenotphilosophy,itisanti-philosophical.Iconsiderthisargumenttobefallacious.If'philosophy'isunderstoodtomeanbroadlyrationaldiscourseondemonstrableanswerstosomemeaningfulque

stions,Madhyamikacertainlyfallsintothiscategory.Philosophyisoneofthefewdisciplineswhichturnstoitself.Acomparisoncomestomymind.Itisacomparisonwiththedisciplinecalled'naturaltheology'..AnthonyKennyhasrecentlywritten(TheG0dofthePhilosophers):2.|...IfwetakenaturaltheologytobephilosophicalanalysisoftheconceptsusedinthinkingandtalkingaboutG0d,thenadisproofofG0d'sexistence,orademonstrationthattheverynotionofG0dwasincoherent,woulditselfbeasuccessfulpieceofnaturaltheologizing,(p.4,Oxford,1979).


5/100

.TheMadhyamikaattempttoshowthatallphilosophical(orevencommon-sensical)viewsofrealityarebasicallyincoherentwould,Iassert,bealsoasuccessfulpieceofphilosophizinginthesamemanner..**************************************************************************************************************.L3:[Vitanda]:L3.AfewwordsaboutthenatureofthephilosophicalargumentsusedbytheMadhyamikasmaybeinorderhere.Theirmethodofargumentbelongedundoubtedlytothetraditionofphilosophicdebate(vadaorvivadatradition)thatevolvedoutoftheearliertraditionofsophistryanderistic.Inaphilosophicdebate,thegeneralstrategyistorefute(cf.dusana)therivalpositions,andestablishanddefend(sthapana)thephilosopher'sownposition.AscepticoraMadhyamikaexcelledinthefirst(dusana).Infact,thesecondwasthoughtbysomeeitherunnecessary(e.g.,onemightformulateone'sownpositionbutnotthinkitnecessarytoestablishordefendit,cf.theAdvaitaVedantaofSriharsa)orimpossibleorboth(e.g.,atruesceptic,orevenaMadhyamika,inordertobeconsistent,hadtosaythathewasunabletoformulatehispositionfortherewasnopositionheheldto).Thistypeofdebatewhererefutationwastheonlygamethatcouldbeplayedwascalledvitanda(cf.Nydyasutra,1.2.3).3.

VitandawasobviouslyusedinapejorativesenseasisevidentfromthecommentsoftheNaiyayikaslikeVatsyayana.Adebaterwhoindulgedinvitandawaspicturedgenerallyasaniconoclast,whohadnothingatstake,orwasamotiveless,maligningsortofperson.ButthiswasbothincorrectandunfairwhenwethinkofsuchphilosophersasNagarjuna,Sahjaya(anagnostic),Jayarasi(asceptic)andSriharsa(aVedantin),whorestrictedtheirphilosophicactivitytothe'refutationonly'kindofdebate(vitanda).ElsewhereIhaveshownthatthelaterNyayatraditionacknowledgedthisfactandsaidthatthe'refutationonly'kindofdebatecanalsoclaimphilosophicalrespectability.4.**************************************************************************************************************.

L3:[Prasanga]:L3.Theargument-patternusedbytheMadhyamikasaswellasotherdebaterswascalledprasanga.Itliterallymeansanimplicationoraconsequence,butitisusedinthetechnicalsenseofanargumentthathasundesirableandunacceptableimplications,orleadstoabsurdconsequences.Infact,aposition(or,aphilosophicconcept)ishereexaminedinthelightofoneorseveralalternative(andmutuallyexclusive)interpretationsorformulationsanditisshownthatineachcaseweendupwithsomeabsurdityorother.Hencethepositionisrefuted,forotherwisetheargumentwillleadtoanabsurdsituation.Inthisgeneralsense,therefore,wecancallitareductio..Howcanonerefuteallpositions?Isitnotitselfaposition:refutationofall

positions?Ifwesaythatthereisnofactofthematter,isitnotanotherfactofthematter?Howcanweavoidthisobviousparadox?IhavediscussedelsewherehowaMadhyamikacanavoidtheparadoxorhowaradicalformofscepticismcanbemadeconsistent.5Brieflyspeaking,adebatercangoonrefutingallpossible,andformulable,positionseachatatimeandthen,whennopositionisforthcoming,canstopwithoutmakingtheobviousclaimthatallpositionshavebeenrefuted,forthemerestatementofthatclaimwouldengenderanewpositionthatneedstoberefutedagain.Obviouslywecannotmakenoisecryingout'Silence!'whenallnoise-makingshavealreadystopped,forifwedid,anothershoutof'Silence!'wouldindeedbeneededtosilencethefirstshouting.Andthenanother


6/100

andanother.Nagarjunahimselfusesthisanalogyofsilenceandnoise-makinginhisVigrahavyavartani(verses3,4,25)tomakethesamepoint..~[Vg3.~Shouldyouropinionbethat[yourstatement]islike"Donotmakeasound,"thisisnotpossible;~Forinthiscasebya[present]soundtherewillbea[future]preventionofthat[sound]..~4.~If[yourstatement]werethat:"Thisisadenialofadenial,"thatisnottrue;~Thusyourthesis,astoadefiningmark(laksanata)-notmine-isinerror..~25.~[Regarding]"Donotmakeasound"thisexampleintroducedbyyouisnotpertinent,~Sincethereisanegationofsoundbysound.~Thatisnotlike[mydenialofself-existence].].Thesecondpointthatneedstobemadeinthisconnectionisthatrefutationhereneednot,andshouldnot,beconstruedasthestandardlogicalnegationofapositionorproposition.Itseemsbettertoviewsucharefutationasanillocuti

onaryactinthemannersuggestedbySearlewheresomeillocutionaryforceisnegatedratherthanaproposition.6Ifthisisdone,thenalsotheairofparadoxicallyinvolvedintheMadhyamikaargumentsseemstodisappear..Toexplainbriefly:whenaMadhyamikarefutessomepositioninadebate,itshouldbeconstruedaswhattheSanskritphilosopherscallprasajyapratisedha,orsimplypratisedha.Iamnowinclinedtodescribeitasanactofillocutionarynegation,wherethespeakerorthepersonwhonegates,assumesprovisionally(cf.prasajya)somethingtobethecaseandthen'negates'itorrejectsit.Thisnegatingactneednotcommithimtoanythingelseexcepttherejectionofwhatwasassumedtobethecase.Adistinctionbetweenrejectionanddenialmaybeunderstoodasfollows:denialofsomethingtobethecaseamountstoassertionofsomethingnotbeingthecase,i.e.,assertionofthefalsityofthatcase.Butrejec

tionisnon-assertiveinwithholdingassenttosomethingbeingthecase,andthiswillthenleaveitopenforustowithholdassenttothesamethingnotbeingthecase.WemayconsiderSearle'sexampleinthislight."Idonotpromisetocome"doesnotobviouslyconstituteanother'negative'promise,andhenceitispossibletosaythatIdonotpromisetocomenordoIpromisenottocome.(Infact,IshouldsaythatIdonotpromiseanythingjustastheMadhyamikasays,"Idonotassertanything.").**************************************************************************************************************.L3:[TwoLevelsofTruth]:L3.

AMadhyamika,strictlyspeaking,isnotaradicalsceptic,butaBuddhist.BeingaBuddhist,hemustmakeaskilfuluseofthedoctrineofthetwolevelsoftruth:theconventionalor'concealing'truthandtheultimatetruth.ForNagarjunahimselfhaswarned:.|Thosewhodonotunderstandthedistinctionbetweenthesetwotruths,donotunderstandthedeepsignificanceoftheBuddha'steaching.(Mk.24.9).~[Mk24:8.~TheteachingbytheBuddhasofthedharmahasrecoursetotwotruths:


7/100

~Theworld-ensconcedtruth(T1)andthetruthwhichisthehighestsense(T2)..~9.~Thosewhodonotknowthedistribution(vibhagam)ofthetwokindsoftruth~Donotknowtheprofound"point"(tattva)(T3)intheteachingoftheBuddha..~10.~Thehighestsense[ofthetruth](T2)isnottaughtapartfrompracticalbehavior(T1),~Andwithouthavingunderstoodthehighestsense(T2)onecannotunderstandnirvana(T3).].Inaway,itcanbesaidthatthedoctrineofthetwolevelsoftruthisimplicitinalmosteverymetaphysicalinquiry.Aphilosopherlooksfortherealitybehindappearance,adoctrineofphenomenaiscircumscribedbyapostulateofnoumena,areductionisttriestoreachthebasicelementsoutofwhichthegrossworldhasbeenconstructed,ananalysisofphysicsmakesroomfortheentranceofmetaphysics.ButtheMadhyamikauseofthisdoctrineofthetwolevelsoftruthisverydifferent.TheMadhyamikadoesnotaskustopenetratethroughtheseemingreality,theappearance,toreachtherock-bottomrealityintheusualsense.Forthereisnorock-bottomrealitytobeginwith(ortoarriveat,asthecasema

ybe)exceptwhatourinherenttendencytomisconceiveandtomisconstrue(cf.,avidya)createsforusforthetimebeing.Realityisemptiness,void,vacuity;or,toputthematterdifferently,theseemingrealityortheappearanceisallthatthereisanditisexactlyasitissupposedtobe,i.e.,devoidofany'ownnature',ofanyessence,anyvalueitisempty.The'concealing'realitydoesnot,infact,concealanything,orwhatamountstothesamething,itconcealsEMPTINESS.Therefore,accordingtotheMadhyamika,thephilosophers'searchfortheultimaterealitymustendupinaquagmireofconfusion,unlessitleadshimtoEmptiness.Tosaythatemptinessistheultimaterealityisagainliketheattempttoshout'Silence'whenallnoiseshavealreadydieddownandhenceitwillonlydestroysilence.Ifthephilosophersarelookingforanultimatereality,besideswhatiscalledtheAppearance,arealitywhichisbetterandmoresecurethantheAppearance,thenthetruthisthatthereisn'tanysuchthing.TheAp

pearanceistherealitywhenitisproperlyunderstood..Thesamsaraisthenirvana,saysNagarjuna(Mk.25.19).7.~[Mk25:19.~Thereisnothingwhateverwhichdifferentiatestheexistence-in-flux(samsara)fromnirvana;~Andthereisnothingwhateverwhichdifferentiatesnirvanafromexistence-in-flux.].Thisrealizationofthevacuity,iftheBuddhawasright,isnot,andshouldnotbe,horrifying,foritistheveryessenceofpeace,itisbliss,itissantaandsiva.Itisthecessationofallourdiscursivethoughts,allmisguideddrive

sandmisconceivedpropensitiesandtheirattendantfrustrations.Itisprapancopasama,8'acompleterecoveryfromthemaladyofmanifoldness'..~[Mk18.9.~"Notcausedbysomethingelse,""peaceful,""notelaboratedbydiscursivethought,"~"Indeterminate,""undifferentiated":sucharethecharacteristicsoftruereality(tattva).].ProfessorHsueh-liChenghaspreparedthisannotatedtranslationoftheChinese


8/100

versionoftheDvadasa-dvarawhichwillunearthfurthermaterialsoftheMadhyamikaphilosophyformodernscholars.ThiswillcertainlystimulatefurtherresearchinthehistoryofIndianphilosophy.Moreimportantly,this,wehope,willalsoshowtherelevanceofthestudyoftheMadhyamikatextsinthepresent-daycontext.OneoftheexpressaimsofourserieshasbeentoprovideannotatedtranslationsofimportantphilosophicaltextsofclassicalIndia.WehavealreadypresentedtwosuchvolumesoneonSriharsaandtheotheronUdayana(seeVolumes1and4).ThepresenttextisattributedtoNagarjuna.Iamsurethescholarlyworldingeneral,andBuddhologistsinparticular,willwelcomethisvolume..BIMALKRISHNAMATILALAllSoulsCollege,Oxford.**************************************************************************************************************.L3:[Notes]:L3.1Wing-tsitChan,TheWayofLaoTzu,NewYork,1963..2AnthonyKenny,TheG0dofthePhilosophers,Oxford,1979,p.4..3Nyayasutra1.2.3.sapratipaksa-sthapana-hinovitanda.Here"sa"canreferto,accordingtoSanatani,eitherto"jalpah"in1.2.2or"vadah"in1.2.1.

.4B.K.Matilal,Nyaya-Vaisesika,OttoHarrassowitz,Wiesbaden,1977,p.92.

.5B.K.Matilal,TheLogicalIlluminationofIndianMysticism,Oxford,1977,PP-10-14,andNotes12and13..6J.Searle,Speech-Acts:AnEssayinthePhilosophyofLanguage,Cambridge,1969,pp.32-33.MypointisfurtherdiscussedinB.K.Matilal:LogicalandEthicalIssuesinReligiousBelief,CalcuttaUniversity,1978,StephanosLectures(forthcoming)..7Mr.Cheng,however,doesnotagreewiththiscommentofmine..

8Nagarjuna,Madhyamaka-karika(Mk.),Ch.18,verse9...*********************************************************************************************************************************************************************.L1:[Preface]:L1.SincethebeginningofthetwentiethcenturytherehasbeenagrowinginterestinBuddhismintheWest.ManyOccidentalscholars,philosophersandpsychologistsareengaginginthestudyofBuddhistthought,andyoungpeoplearereadingBuddhistliteratureandpracticingmeditation.Themajorpurposeofthisbookisto

facilitateunderstandingofBuddhism,especiallyofNagarjuna'sthought,bypresentinghisTwelveGateTreatiseinEnglishtranslation..NagarjunalivedinthesecondcenturyA.D.andfoundedMadhyamikaBuddhism.HeisconsideredoneofthegreatestthinkersofIndiaandhisphilosophyisthoughtofas"thecentralphilosophyofBuddhism"1.ScholarshavedoneextensivestudiesandsystematicpresentationsofNagarjuna'swritingssinceearlyinthecentury.However,certainaspectsofhisteachingshavenotbeenadequatelytreated.ThisispartlyduetothefactthatsomeimportanttextsofMadhyamikaBuddhismarestillunknowntoscholars;oneoftheseistheTwelveGateTreatise.Forin


9/100

stance,T.R.V.Murti,awell-knowncontemporaryMadhyamikascholar,wrote,"NowheredoestheMadhyamikaconcernitselfdirectlywithissueslikeG0d,soul,matter,creation,etc."2.Butactually,theMadhyamikadoesdiscussthoseissuesintheTwelveGateTreatise.NagarjunadoesnotexplicitlyclaimthatheisaMahayanaBuddhistintheMiddleTreatiseortheMulamadhyamikakarika,whichdoesnotmentiontheterm.ThishasledsomescholarstowonderwhetherNagarjunaisreallyaMahayanist.A.K.Warderoncestated,.|Modernstudentshavesometimessupposedthathe(Nagarjuna)iscriticizingearlyBuddhism,ortheearlyschools,inordertosetupMahayanainstead.Isthereanytruthinthissupposition?|WehavealreadypointedoutthatthereisnothingovertlyMahayanist...3.ItseemstomethattheproblemofwhetherNagarjunawasaMahayanaBuddhistwouldberesolvedifonehadjustreadonlythefirstfewparagraphsoftheTwelveGateTreatise,whereNagarjunaclearlystatedthatthetreatisewasgiventoexpoundtheessentialteachingsofMahayana..InChina,KoreaandJapan,Nagarjuna'sschoolofthoughtisknownastheSan-lunTsung(theThreeTreatiseSchool)foritisbaseduponthreemaintexts;namely,theMiddleTreatise,theTwelveGateTreatiseandtheHundredTreatise.

.AccordingtoChineseSan-lunmasters,oneshouldstudythesethreetextstogetherinordertogainabroadphilosophicalunderstandingofBuddhistthought.TheseworkscomprisethecanonicalliteratureofmanyotherBuddhistschools.NagarjunabecamethereveredpatriarchofvariousMahayanasects.Unfortunately,theTwelveGateTreatise,whichisaconcisesummaryofNagarjuna'sphilosophy,existsonlyinChinese.ThisbookintroducestheTwelveGateTreatisetoEnglishreadersandpresentsMadhyamikateachingsfromChinesesources..InthetranslationIhaveattemptedtobeascloseaspossibletotheoriginaltext.However,whentheliteralChinesewouldconveylittleornomeaninginEnglish,IhaveexpressedtheChinesefreely.InChinesegrammarthesubjectorpredicateofasentenceisoftenunderstoodandthereforenotincluded.Soinsomei

nstancesIhavetakenthelibertyofprovidingthesubjectorpredicateinthetranslationforthesakeofreadabilityinEnglish.Toassistthegeneralreaderaswellasthespecialistinunderstandingideasandtechnicalterms,IhavegivenabriefintroductiontoeachchapterandincludedparagraphsofexplanationinthebodyofNagarjuna'sarguments;thesearelabeledCOMMENT.Wordsenclosedinbracketsareadditionsnotcontainedintheoriginal.Expressionsinparenthesesarealternativetranslations,principallybySanskrittermsorromanizedChinesecharacters..AlistofChinesetermshasbeenprovidedforthosewhowanttorefertotheChineseoriginalsofcertainkeytermsinthetext.TheglossarywillserveasabriefBuddhistdictionaryofimportantSanskrit,Pali,Chinese,JapaneseandEnglishwordsusedinthebook.Throughoutthework,theabbreviation"T"isgivento

indicatetheTaishoShinshuDaizokyo.4.IwishtogratefullyacknowledgetheassistanceoffacultiesoftheCenterforBuddhistStudiesattheUniversityofWisconsinMadison,andUniversityofHawaiiatHilo.AspecialwordofappreciationisduetothelateDr.RichardRobinson,Dr.M.KiyotaandDr.MartinHuntleyfortheirgreathelpinmyresearchonBuddhistreligionandphilosophy.IalsowishtoacknowledgemyindebtednesstoDr.TimothyWoo,Dr.KennethK.Inada,Dr.PaulMcCarthy,JohnPaxson,MarcCohen,WalterWestcott,Mrs.JackHoesandJudyGrahamwhoreadthemanuscriptandofferedsuggestions.Theencouragementofmycolleagues,Dr.EvynAdams,Dr.Donald


10/100

WellsandthelateDr.HideoAokihasbeenapowerfulstimulustothecompletionofthiswork.AsincereappreciationisextendedtoDr.DavidC.PurcellJr.,DeanoftheCollegeofArtsandSciences,UniversityofHawaiiatHilo,forprovidingsecretarialassistanceintypingandcopyingthemanuscript.IamgratefultoProf.BimalK.MatilalofOxfordUniversityandProf.J.MoussaieffMassonofUniversityofToronto,whoreviewedthemanuscriptatthefinalstageandgavevaluablecomments.Specialacknowledgementisduethefollowingpublishers,fortheirpermissiontousecertainmaterials:CambridgeUniversityPress,FordhamUniversityPress,UniversityofWisconsinPress,andDialoguePublishingCompany.Ihaveusedsomematerialsfrommyownarticlesinthefollowingjournals:'Nagarjuna,KantandWittgenstein:TheSan-lunMadhyamikaExpositionofEmptiness',ReligiousStudies(March,1981),and'TruthandLogicinSan-lunMadhyamikaBuddhism',InternationalPhilosophicalQuarterly(September,1981).FinallyIthankmywife,AliceChiong-hueiCheng,forheracutecriticism,enlightenedadviceandwholeheartedsupport..**************************************************************************************************************.L3:[1.Nagarjunaandthespreadofhisteachings]:L3.Itisdifficultandevenimpossibletoarriveatacompletelyaccurate,historicalaccountofNagarjuna'slifebecauselaterBuddhistshavetendedtoembellishandfictionalizehim.Thereareoftendifferentandconflictingaccountsofthe

lifeandworkofMadhyamika'sfounder.SomesourcesconfuseAryaNagarjuna(Lung-shu:c.113213),thefounderofMadhyamikaBuddhism,withSiddhaNagarjunawholivedsomefourhundredyearslater.Andtwobirthplaces,VidarbaandKanchi,aregivenforNagarjuna..Almostallaccounts,however,agreethatNagarjunawasborninSouthIndia,camefromtheBrahmancasteandreceivedaBrahmanicaleducation.Also,thathenearlydiedwhilestillayouth.AccordingtoTibetansources,astrologershadpredictedthatNagarjunawoulddieprematurelyattheageofseven.Hisparentsbelievedtheastrologersandsenthimawaybecausetheycouldnotbeartowitnesshisdeath.ThissourceoftraditionallegesthatheescapeddeathbyenteringtheBuddhistorder.AccordingtohistranslatorKumarajiva,Nagarjunawasoverpoweredwithsensuousdesireandpassioninhisearlydays.Heandthreefriendsentere

daroyalpalace,bymakingthemselvesinvisible,andseduceditswomen.ButroyalguardssoondiscoveredandslewNagarjuna'sthreefriends.Thisexperiencestirredhimdeeplyandawakenedhimtothetruththatlustisanoriginofsufferingandmisfortune.Hevowedtobecomeasramana,aBuddhistmonkorascetic,ifhecouldescapealive.Hedidescape,enteredtheBuddhistorderandstudiedalltheBuddhistscripturesthenavailabletohim.HerecitedandmasteredtheHinayanaTripitakainninetydays,butwasnotsatisfiedandsoughtfurther.NagarjunaissaidtohaveobtainedtheMahayanascripturesfromaNaga(dragon,elephantorserpent)andtohavebeensatisfiedwiththeteachingsofthetexts.HedevotedhislifetoexpoundingandpropagatingtheMahayanamessage.HespenthislaterdaysatBhramaragiri(Sriparvata)inamonasterybuiltforhimbyaSalavahanaKing.1.

ManyworkshavebeencreditedtoNagarjuna,butitisdifficulttoknowexactlyhowmanyareauthentic.However,ifweaccepttheMulamadhyamakakarikaasauthentic,wecanaccepttheauthenticityofDvadasa-dvara-sastra(theTwelveGateTreatise),Vigraha-vyavartaniandYukti-sastika,forthecontentsofthesearesimilarandexhibittheessentialsofNagarjuna'sphilosophy.2MadhyamikaBuddhismwasfurtherdevelopedbyAryadeva(T'i-p'o:c.163-261).He,too,wasanativeofSouthIndiaandcamefromtheBrahmancaste.Generallyspeaking,NagarjunauseddialectictoattackHinayanaBuddhism.AryadevabelievedthatNagarjuna'sdialecticcouldalsobeusedtorefuteallotherphilosophies,andheusedittocriticizeBrahmanism.HedebatedpubliclywiththeBrahmanistsandconvertedthem;


11/100

healsoproselytizedahostileSouthIndianKing..Aryadeva'smainteachingsarefoundinCatuhsataka(CatuhSatikaorsimplySataka),hismostimportantwork.AlthoughtheSanskritoriginalhasbeenlost,thetextispreservedinitsentiretyinTibetan.TherearealsothreedifferentChineseversions:(1)Sata-sastra(HundredTreatise),(2)Sata-sastra-vaipulya(BroadHundredTreatise)and(3)acommentarybyDharmapalaontheSata-sastra-vaipulya.TheAksara-sataka,falselyattributedtoNagarjunaintheTibetansource,isprobablytheworkofAryadeva.ItsSanskritoriginalisalsolost,butitispreservedintheChinese.Inaddition,Aryadevacomposedfourotherworks..Afterthefifthcentury,IndianMadhyamikaBuddhismwasdividedintotwoschools,thePrasangikaandtheSvatantrika.ThefounderofthePrasangikaSchoolwasBuddhapalitaanditsmosteminentphilosopherwasChandrakirti(600650).Accordingtothisschool,therealandonlymethodofNagarjunaandAryadevawasprasanga(reductioadabsurdum)whereinthetrueMadhyamikadoesnotandshouldnottakeanypositionofhisown.Hischiefandsoletaskistoreducetocontradictionorinconsistencythesystemsandargumentsofopponentsproceedingfromprinciplesacceptedbythem.ForthePrasangika,allmentalactivityproducesillusion,andwhatwecallexistenceissimplyafabricationofimagesanddoesnothavereality.TherealandtruelanguageofBuddhistemptiness(Sunyata)issilence.ChandrakirtiwroteseveralimportantandauthoritativecommentariesonNagarjunaandAryadeva'sworks;ofthesethePrasannapadaisthemostvaluable.ItisacommentaryontheMulamadhyamakakarikaandprovidesthechiefSanskritsourcefor

thestudyofNagarjuna'sphilosophyamongcontemporaryscholars..BhavavivekawasthefounderoftheSvatantrikaSchool.HeheldthattheBuddhistdoctrineofemptinessdoesnotassertthenon-existenceofthingsbutonlydeniestheerroneousassertionofexistence.Forthisschool,empiricalthingsarenotrealfromthestandpointofultimatetruth,buthaveempiricalreality.SvatantrikaMadhyamikascriticizedPrasangikaMadhyamikasforengaginginmerenegationandrefutationwithoutofferingapositiveviewpoint.TheyevenseemedtoholdthatitisnotnecessarytorealizeSunyatainordertoenterintonirvana..Inexpoundingtheirteachings,theSvatantrikashadmadecertaincompromiseswithearlierIndianSautrantikaandYogacaraphilosophicalthought,andsubsequentlydividedintotheSautrantikaSvatantrikaandtheYogacaraSvatantrika.Thefir

stschoolwasintroducedtoChinaintheseventhcenturyandthesecondschooltoTibetintheeighthcentury.YogacaraSvantantrikaMadhyamikahascontinuedtobethemajorphilosophyinTibetandMongoliatothisday..Nagarjuna'sMiddleTreatiseandTwelveGateTreatiseandAryadeva'sHundredTreatisehavebeenemphasizedbyChineseMadhyamikaBuddhists,devotedtothedoctrineofemptiness.SoMadhyamikaBuddhismiscalledtheSan-lunTsung(ThreeTreatiseSchool)inChina..ThespreadoftheSan-lunSchoolinChinabeganwithadventofKumarajiva(344413),themostimportantpersoninthehistoryofSan-luninChina,KoreaandJapan.HearrivedatCh'ang-anabout401wherehetranslatedandhandeddownNagarjuna'sworksandotherBuddhistscripturesuntilhisdeathin413.Itissaidthat

Kumarajivahadthreethousanddisciples,butmostwerenotintellectualsanddidnottrulyunderstandMadhyamikaphilosophy.EvenKumarajivacomplainedaboutthepoorqualityofhisdisciples;"IfIappliedmywriting-brushandwroteaMahayanaAbhidharma,IwouldsurpassKatyayaniputra.ButnowinthelandofCh'in(China)theprofoundlyintelligentarerare.Mywingsarebrokenhere,andwhatwouldIdiscourseabout?"3.Nevertheless,afewstudentswerewelleducatedandmadeagreatcontributiontoKumarajiva'swork.TheyhelpedhimtranslateBuddhisttextsandwroteprefacestotheimportanttranslationswhichareinvaluablesourcesforunderstandingMad


12/100

hyamikaBuddhism.Kumarajiva'smostbrilliantdiscipleseemstohavebeenSeng-chao(374414),borninthevicinityofCh'ang-an.Sengchaogrewupinapoorfamily,butdeterminedtopursuehisstudiesunderadversityandreceivedagoodeducation.HewroteseveralessaysandtreatisestopropagateBuddhism.TheyshowthathehadmasteredtheMadhyamikatheoryofknowledge,ontologyandphilosophyoflanguage.Kumarajivareadthewritingsandwrote,"Myunderstandingdoesnotdifferfromyours,andinphrasingwemightborrowfromeachother"4.WithSengchao,BuddhismentereduponanewstageinChina.ForthefirsttimetherewasasystematicBuddhistphilosophypresentedbyaChinese.HisphilosophicalessayshelpedtoroottheMahayanaphilosophyfromIndiainChinesesoil..NexttoKumarajiva,Chi-tsang(549623)wasthemostimportantSun-lunmasterinestablishingtheSan-lunMadhyamikaSchoolandexpoundingSan-lundoctrine.AnativeofNanking,heheardaboutBuddhistteachingswhileattendinglecturesbyParamartha(500569)andjoinedtheBuddhistorderattheageofseven.Hereceivedspecialtrainingfortwenty-fiveyearsandeventuallybecameanoutstandingChinesecommentatoraswellasoneofthegreatsystematizersofChineseBuddhistphilosophy.HeworkedintheChia-hsiangMonastaryandwasknownastheGreatMasterChia-hsiang.ThroughouthiscareerhewashighlyesteemedandhonoredbybothSuiandT'angemperors..Chi-tsangwrotecommentariesontheMiddleTreatise,theTwelveGateTreatise,theHundredTreatise,otherworksbyNagarjunaandotherBuddhisttexts.PerhapshismostimportantbookistheProfoundMeaningofThreeTreatises(San-lun-hsua

n-i)5inwhichheexpoundedthedoctrineofemptinessastheteachingofp'o-hsieh-hsien-cheng.Theso-calledp'o-hsieh-hsien-chengmeansthattherefutationoferroneousviewsistheilluminationofrightviews.ForChi-tsang,toseethatallthingsareemptyistounderstandthatallviewsareerroneousandoughttoberejected.Andtorefuteerroneousviewsneitherimpliesnorentailsthatonehastoestablishortakeanyview.Itsimplymeanstheabsenceofviews.TheBuddha'steachingofemptinessdoesnotaimtopresentanyview,buttobe'empty'ofconceptualspeculations.Inanotherimportantwork,theMeaningoftheTwofoldTruth,6Chi-tsangexaminedthenatureandfunctionoftruth,andpointedoutthatNagarjuna'sideaoftheBuddhisttwofoldtruthdoesnotstandfortwofixedsetsoftruthnorrefertotworealities.Itismerelyatacticaldeviceusedtoshowthatnotruthisabsolutelytrue,andtherebytohelpridpeopleofdogmaticviews.

.Chi-tsangpresentedseveralreasonsforassertingthattheMiddleTreatise,theTwelveGateTreatiseandtheHundredTreatiseshouldbegroupedtogetherforstudy,andduetohimtheChineseSan-lunSchoolwasfirmlyestablished.TheSan-lunphilosophyhepresentedwasauthenticIndianMadhyamikathought.However,thephilosophybecametooabstractfortheChinese,andconsequentlytheschooldeclinedafterChi-tsangdied..AlthoughtheSan-lunSchoolhasnotbeenasectarianschoolinChinasincetheeighthcentury,ithasbeenrequiredasanacademicdisciplineanditsteachingshavebeenacceptedbymanyBuddhiststhroughoutEastAsia.Nagarjuna'sphilosophyhasinspiredBuddhiststocreatevariousphilosophicalandreligiousmovements.DifferentBuddhistschoolsselectedcertainaspectsofMadhyamikateachingsan

dregardedthemasessential,theoriginalteachingsoftheBuddha,andtherefromdevelopedtheirowndoctrinesandreligiouspractices.SomeusedNagarjuna'sthoughttosupportanontologicalcommitmentsoastoestablishanewmetaphysics;thisiswellillustratedintheformationanddevelopmentofT'ien-t'aiandHua-yenBuddhism.OtherBuddhistsemployedNagarjuna'steachingtosupporttheviewthatonehastodiscardnotonlyintellectbutalsotheentirehumanefforttoobtainsalvation;thiscanbeseeninPureLandBuddhism.MadhyamikathoughthasledsomeBuddhiststoembracenihilismandturnedotherstomysticism..Hui-wen(550577),thefounderofT'ien-t'aiBuddhism,attributedhisunderstandin


13/100

gofBuddhismtoNagarjuna.HeissaidtohavebeenawakenedtothetruthbyNagarjuna'sstatement,"Emptinessiscalledthemiddleway.Foritisaprovisionarynameforthefactthatallthingsarecausallydependentuponeachother."7Theverseseemstoassertthatdependentco-arising(allthingsarecausallyrelated)issynonymouswithemptiness(k'ung)andthetemporaryname(chia-ming)ofthemiddleway(chung-tao).Readingthis,Hui-wenatonceperceivedthetripletruth:.,namely,thetruthofemptiness,thetruthoftemporarinessandthetruthofmean.ForHui-wen,(1)allthingsordharmasareemptybecausetheyareproducedbycausalconditionsandhencearedevoidofself-nature;but(2)theydohavetemporaryexistence;and(3)beingemptyandtemporaryisthenatureofdharmasandisthemean.Thesethreeemptiness,temporarinessandmean-penetrateoneanotherandarefoundperfectlyharmonizedandunited.Athingisvoidbutexiststemporarily.Itistemporarybecauseitisvoid,andthefactthateverythingisvoidandatthesametimetemporaryisthemiddletruth.Oneshouldnotconsiderthethreetruthsasseparatebutastheperfectlyharmoniousthreefoldtruth..AccordingtotheT'ien-t'aiSchool,thethreetruthsare,inreality,three-in-oneandone-in-three.Theprincipleisone,butthewayofexplanationisthreefold,andeachofthethreetruthshasthevalueofall.Ifwearguefromthestandpointofemptiness,wemaydenytheexistenceofthetemporaryandthemiddle,forweconsideremptinessastranscendingall.Thethreewouldbeempty.Thesamewillbethecaseifwearguefromthestandpointsoftemporarinessormean.Sowhenoneisempty,allwillbeempty;whenoneistemporary,allwillbetempor

ary;whenoneismiddle,allwillbemiddle.Theyareotherwisecalledtheidenticalemptiness,identicaltemporarinessandidenticalmean;andalsotheabsolutethreefoldtruth.8AlthoughT'ien-t'aidoctrinemaynotbeacorrectinterpretationofNagarjuna'steaching,itdevelopedoutofMadhyamikathought..Hua-yenBuddhistsdevelopedthesomewhatsimilarone-in-allandall-in-onephilosophy.Fa-tsang(643712),thefounderofHau-yenBuddhism(knownastheKegonSchoolinJapan),wasonceaMadhyamikadisciple.HeseemedtohavebeenfondoftheTwelveGateTreatiseandwroteabookonit(Shih-erh-men-lun-tsung-chih-i-chi).Oneofthemostimportantmessagesinhisbookisthatifonethingisempty,allwillbeempty.Fa-tsangseemedtohavebeeninspiredtoanideaofaworldinwhichallthingsareinterwoveninperfectharmonybymutualpenetrationandmutualidentification.AccordingtoFa-tsangandhisfollowers,trueBuddhismis

notmerelyacriticismofallviews,butshouldaimatestablishingaharmoniouswhole,havingtheperfectlyenlightenedBuddhaastheessenceatthecenter.Hua-yenBuddhistsmadeanontologicalcommitmenttotheBuddhaasinfinite,all-pervadingandomnipresent.Everythingintheuniverse,animateandinanimate,performstheworkoftheBuddha,andinspiredbyhisspiritualinfluence,eveninanimatethingsleadustothestateofenlightenment.9.WhileT'ien-t'aiandHua-yenBuddhistswereengagedinestablishingcertainmetaphysicalsystems,otherBuddhistsattendedtoNagarjuna'scriticismofmetaphysics.TheMadhyamikateachingofemptinessastherejectionofspeculativetheoryseemedtosuggestthatreason,intellectorotherhumaneffortcouldnotbeusedtoknowthemysteryoftheworldortofindtruewisdomandobtainnirvana.ThislaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofPureLandBuddhismandtheformatio

noftheanti-intellectual,irrationalandunconventionalteachingsandpracticesinCh'an(Zen)Buddhism,10.PureLandBuddhistsholdthatonecannotachievethegoalofnirvanabyeffort,butmayattainitbythegraceorhelpofAmitaBuddha.AccordingtotheseBuddhists,NagarjunadiscoveredtheBuddha's'original'teachingoftheWayofFaith.Nagarjunaisreportedtohavesaid,"AlthoughthereareinnumerablewaysintheteachingsoftheBuddha,theycanbeclassifiedroughly:theDifficultWayandtheEasyWay"11.Theso-calleddifficultwayistoapproachAvaivartika(astateofnoreturntothedelusiveworld)bythepracticeoftheeightfoldpathort


14/100

hesixparamitas(thesixvirtuesofperfection);theeasywayteachesusfaithinAmitaBuddha.T'an-luan(476524),agreatPureLandmasterinChina,heldthatintheDasabhumi-vibhasa-sastraNagarjunarecommendedtous,withpoorspiritualcapacity,thewayoffaith.T'an-luanclaimedtofollowNagarjunawhenhedistinguishedbetweentheteachingsofself-power(jirikiinJapanese)andother-power(tariki).Thefirstmeans"tobealampuntoyourself';oneachievespersonalsalvationorenlightenmentbyoneself.ButthesecondtellsusthatwearesavedbytheBuddha'scompassionandpower,notourown.AlthoughNagarjuna'steachingsboreonlyaremoterelationtothelaterpopularPureLanddoctrine,hewasgiventhegreathonorbyShinran(11731262),thefounderoftheShinsectofPureLandBuddhisminJapan,ofbeingtheFirstPatriarchinthetransmissionofAmitaBuddha's"GospelofPureGrace"12..TheMadhyamikateachingthatallthingsaredevoidofnature,characteristicandfunctionledotherBuddhiststotakeanihilisticview.Infact,theSan-lunSchoolandtheCheng-shitSchool,whichholdsthatnothingexistsatall,weresometimestreatedasthesamesectinChinaandJapan.TheSatyasiddhi,themaintextofCheng-shinnihilism,wasstudiedalongwithMadhyamikaworksbymanyofKumarajiva'sdisciplesandotherBuddhists.13Nagarjuna'scriticismofrealismgavesomestimulustotheacceptanceofCheng-shihBuddhismamongChineseandJapanesemonks.ItalsoturnedBuddhiststomysticism;MadhyamikaemptinessseemstosuggestthatDharmaorthetruestateofthingshastobeknownnotbydiscursivereasoning,butthroughmysticalintuition.MysticalBuddhistssuchastheChen-yen(knownastheShingoninJapan)attributedtheirunderstandingoftheBuddh

a'steachingstoNagarjunaandacceptedhimastheirpatriarch,oneofthemostimportantlinksinthetransmissionofDharmasinceSakyamuni.KoboDaishi,thefounderoftheShingonSchoolinJapan,wasnamedafterthedoctrineofemptinessandcalledKukai,whichmeansliterally"theemptyocean"..InviewofitsimportanceinBuddhism,Nagarjuna'sthoughtcanwellbereckonedasthefoundationofMahayanareligion.OnecannotadequatelycomprehendBuddhistteachingsandpracticeswithoutatleastindirectlyknowinghisphilosophy..**************************************************************************************************************.L3:[2.San-lunapproachestoemptiness]:L3

.Thewordk'ung(emptyoremptiness),whichisthemainthemeofNagarjuna'sTwelveGateTreatise,seemstohavemultipleusagesandmultiplemeaningsinChineseSan-lunliterature.AvarietyofimplicationsarewelldevelopedintheChinesemasterChi-tsang'sProfoundMeaningofThreeTreatises(San-lan-hsuan-i)andhisTheMeaningofTwofoldTruth(Erh-ti-i).BothwerearesultofyearsofstudyofNagarjuna'swork,includingtheTwelveGateTreatise..Byitselfthetermhasnodefinitemeaning,butacquiresvariousmeaningsondifferentoccasions.ItisoftenusedbySan-lunBuddhiststomeantheabsenceofsomething.San-lunBuddhistsmayclaimthatallthingsareemptyinthesensethatthingsaredevoidofdefinitenature,characteristicandfunction..

AsNagarjunawroteintheTwelveGateTreatise,.\[TGTIV:1]\Allthingsareempty.Why?\Neithercreatednornon-createdthingshavecharacteristics.\Sincetheyhavenocharacteristicstheyareempty.1.Thetermemptyisalsousedtodiscountanddiscreditthingsorconcepts.Peopletendtoemployconceptualschemestodescribethenatureofthings.Tosaythatallthingsareemptyistosuggestthatconceptsorcategoriesthroughwhichon


15/100

econstructsexperienceareunintelligible.Inarguing,forexample,thattherealityofthingscannotbeexplainedbytheinterplayofconcepts,suchasbeingandnon-being,orexistenceandnon-existence,Nagarjunaclaimed,.\[TGTVII]\"Again,allthingsareempty.Why?\Beingandnon-beingareneitherobtainableatthesametimenoratdifferenttimes."2.Emptyoremptinessissometimesusedtodevaluethingsandtodesignateweakness.Emptythingsareworthlessandshouldbediscarded.Asaresult,torealizeemptinessistoeliminatedisaster,theSan-lunmasterChi-tsangsaid..|"Theessenceofthesage'steaching(emptiness)consistsintheeliminationofdisaster."3.Onoccasion,toemptyone'smindistochangeone'smind.4Oremptinessisregardedasamedicine(yao)5for"curingthediseaseofallsentientbeings"6.Emptiness,accordingtoSan-lunmasters,ismainlyasoteriologicaldeviceorpedagogicinstrument(chiao-ti)7-atoolusedtohelppeopleobtainenlightenment.8.Thewayofemptinessisessentiallythewayofnirvana,andinvolvesmental,physical,intellectualandspiritualaspects.

.Religiously,emptinessconnotesmoksa,atotalfreedomorliberationfromignorance,evilandsufferinginthisworld.9.Psychologically,emptinessisnon-attachment.Itrequiresthatemotionalandintellectualattachments,whicharesourcesofevilandsufferinginlife,shouldbepurged.Thedoctrineofemptinessadvocatesthatoneemptythemindofpassionsandillusions.10.Ethically,thisnegationofcravings,especiallyofegoisticdesire,willenableonetoloveallmenequally.Nirvanaisforallpeople.11Themanofemptinessisthemanofkaruna(compassion),whohelpsallsentientbeingsobtainnirvana.12

.Epistemologically,emptinessisprajna,anunattachedinsightthatnotruthisabsolutelytrue.Theso-calledultimatetruth(chen-ti,paramartha-satya)andworldlytruth(su-ti,samvrti-satya)arerelativetoeachother(hsiang-taiorhsiang-chi).13Suchwisdomisapositiveforceintheeliminationofextremesandignorancesothatonemaybeenlightened.14.Metaphysically,emptinessmeansthatallthingsaredevoidofnature,characterandfunction.Itteachesthatanontologicalentity(orentities)givenbymetaphysiciansisnotrealintheuniverse,butamentalfabrication.Metaphysicalspeculationshouldbediscardedasoneseeksnirvana..ForSan-lunBuddhists,thedoctrineofemptinesssuggestsawayoflife.Ordinar

ymendesiresensualpleasureandoftenbelieveit'isoneofthemostvaluablethingsinlife.Ontheotherhand,religiouspersonswholovespiritualvaluesmaylookdownuponsensualistsandthinkthatthespirituallifehasnothingtodowithpleasure.FortheMadhyamikas,thehedonisticwayoflifeisoneextremeandtheasceticwayoflifeisanother.Thedoctrineofemptinessisgivento"empty"apersonoftheseextremesandpreparehimtolive"themiddleway".Henceitisregardedasthesameasthedoctrineofthemiddleway(chung-tao-kuari).Thisteachingofemptinessasthemiddleway,accordingtoSan-lunBuddhists,wastheBuddha'soriginalteaching.ItwasexpressedintheBuddha'sFirstSermon15tofivemedicantsasfollows:


16/100

.|Todevoteoneselftoasceticpracticewithanexhaustedbodyonlymakesone'smindmoreconfused.Itproducesnotevenaworldlyknowledge,nottospeakoftranscendingthesenses.Itisliketryingtolightalampwithwater;thereisnochanceofdispellingthedarkness.....|Toindulgeinpleasuresalsoisnotright;thismerelyincreasesone'sfoolishness,whichobstructsthelightofwisdom.....|Istandabovethesetwoextremes,thoughmyheartiskeptintheMiddle.Sufferingsinmehavecometoanend;havingbeenfreedoferrorsanddefilements,Ihavenowattainedpeace.16.FortheMadhyamika,theBuddha'steachingaimsatrejectingdualisticthoughtandfeeling.Philosophersmayusepolarconceptssuchasoriginationorextinction,permanenceorimpermanence,samenessordifference,andarrivalordeparture,todescribethenatureofevents.Theseconceptualviewsareextremeandshouldberefuted,Nagarjunawrote..|IsalutetheBuddha,|Theforemostofallteachers,|Hehastaught|Thedoctrineofdependentco-arising,|[Therealityofthingsismarkedby]

|Noorigination,noextinction;|Nopermanence,noimpermanence;|Noidentity,nodifference;|Noarrival,nodeparture.17.~[MkIntroductoryverse:~"Isalutehim,thefully-enlightened,thebestofspeakers,~whopreachedthenon-ceasingandthenon-arising,~thenon-annihilationandthenon-permanence,~thenon-identityandthenon-difference,~thenon-appearanceandthenon-disappearance,~thedependentarising,~theappeasementofobsessionsandtheauspicious."]

.Nagarjuna'sideaofemptinessasthemiddlewayofeightfoldnegation(pa-pu-chung-tao)doesnotimplyeightnegationsmerely,butthetotalnegationofallextremeviews,aprocessofpurifyingthemind.Negationhastobeemployeduntilintellectualandemotionalattachmentsareeradicatedfromone'slife.Thisprocessisdialecticalincharacter.Thedenialoftheconceptisdoesnotentailtheaffirmationoftheconceptisnot,becausethelatterisshowntobeascontradictoryorabsurdastheformer.Madhyamikadialecticaimsnottoestablishathesis,butmerelytoexposetheabsurdityorcontradictionimpliedinanopponent'sargument.Itispurelyanalyticinnatureuntilthereisnopositionlefttobeproved.Chi-tsangwrote,.|Inordertomakethispointclear,San-lundoctrineteachesthateach

thesisthatmaybeproposedconcerningthenatureoftruthmustbenegatedbyitsantithesis,thewholeprocessadvancingstepbystepuntiltotalnegationhasbeenachieved.Thustheideaofexistence,representingworldlytruth,isnegatedbythatofnon-existence,representingultimatetruth.Inturntheideaofnon-existence,whichnowbecomestheworldlytruthofanewpair,isnegatedbytheideaofneitherexistencenornon-existence,andsoforthuntileverythingthatmaybepredicatedabouttruthhasbeennegated.18.ThisdialecticalmethodiswellillustratedintheChineseSan-lunanalysisoftheconceptsyu(Being)andwu(Non-being).PhilosophersmaydisputewhetherBein


17/100

gorNon-beingistherealityoftheuniverse.MetaphysiciansmayassignwhatisrealorwhatistotherealmofBeing,andwhatisunrealorisnottotherealmofNon-being.AndtheymaymakeontologicalcommitmentstoNon-beingaswellastoBeing.Nothingornon-being,asthenameofsomething,mayberegardedasmorerealthanBeingitself.ThusLao-tzuclaimedthat"beingcomesfromnon-being"19.ButsinceSan-lunBuddhistscontendedthatallmetaphysicalviewsaredogmatic,theconceptsofbeingandnon-beingarebothunintelligible.TosaythateitherBeingorNon-beingistherealityoftheuniverse,andhaspriorityovertheother,isanextremeview.Buddha'sDharma,accordingtoSan-lunmasters,isgivento"empty"theconceptsofisandisnot.Nordoesthisteachingofthemiddleway(chung-tao),forwhichMadhyamikaisnamed,20implythatrealityisbeyondBeingandNon-being,but,again,thatmetaphysicalorconceptualspeculationsshouldbeeliminated..Takinganotherapproach,San-lunBuddhistspointedoutthatwhatisrealmusthaveitsownessentialnature,andcannotbedependentuponotherthingsorcomefromcausalconditions.Buttoclaimthatanythingisultimatelyrealwouldcontradictthefactthatallphenomenaareboundbytherelationsofcauseandeffect,unityanddiversity,anddurationanddestruction.FortheMadhyamikas,theperceivedobject,theperceivingsubject,andknowledgearemutuallyinterdependent.Whateverwecanknowthroughexperienceisconditioned,soitcannotbeultimatelyreal.21.Alternatively,San-lunBuddhistsarguedthatthatwhichisunrealcannevercome

intoexistence.Ifitexists,itmusthavecertaincharacteristicsthroughwhichweknowitsexistence.Butthatwhichisunrealhasnocharacteristics,soitisabsurdtosaythatsomethingisunreal.ThereforeBeingassomethingunrealcannotbeestablished.ThusBeingcannotbedefinedordescribedasrealorunreal.HenceitisunintelligibletouseBeingtoexplainthetruenatureoftheuniverse;thisview,too,isuntenableandshouldberuledout..ForSan-lunBuddhists,thedenialofBeingdoesnot,further,entailthatNon-beingcanbeusedtoexplainanddescribethetruenatureoftheuniverse.TosaythatNon-beingisrealisacontradictionintermsandhencemakesnosense.Forso-calledNon-beingiswithoutcharacteristics,whilethatwhichisrealhascharacteristics.So,tosaythatNon-beingistherealityoftheuniverseisthesameassayingthatthatwhichhasnocharacteristicshascharacteristics;thisi

scontradictory.So,theassertionoftherealityofNon-beingisunintelligibleandshouldberefuted.22.AccordingtoSan-lunmasters,Non-beingcannotbedefinedordescribedasunrealeither.Forthatwhichisunrealcannevercomeintoexistenceandhencecannotbeperceived.Ifitcanneverbeperceived,itcannotbedescribedanddefined.Ifitisindescribableorindefinable,howcanitbedescribedordefinedasNon-being?.AccordingtoChi-tsang,metaphysicalspeculationaboutBeingandNon-beingisattherootoferroneousorpervertedviews.23Itinvolvesanattachedwayofthinking.Whenpeoplehaveanontologicalcommitmenttosomething(whetherBeing,Non-being,orotherthings),theyascribeadeterminateorownnature(svabhava,

ting-hsingortzu-hsing)toit.Thethingisbelievedtopossessanessenceorqualityofbeingitself.24.ForChi-tsang,thisattachedwayofthinkingisakindofdisease(ping),25whichleadspeopletoobjectifyvariousconceptsoftheworldandmultiplyrealitiesorontologicalentitiesbeyondnecessity.Unfortunately,San-lunBuddhistsargued,peoplefailtoseethisandcontinuetomakeontologicalcommitmentstothingsandbecomeattachedtothem.26EarlyscholasticBuddhistphilosophy,accordingtoNagarjunaandhisfollowers,wasagoodexampleofthis..


18/100

FortheearlyscholasticBuddhists,itwaserroneoustoaffirmtherealityofabsoluteBeing,atman.Butitwasnoterroneoustoaffirmtherealityofmomentarybeings,dharmas(fa).Thereal,accordingtothem,isnotpermanent,universalandunitary,butmomentary,particularandmultiple.Theworldiscomposedofanunceasingflowofparticularmomentaryentities.Thoseentitiesaretheconstituentsofourexperienceandarethetrulyrealeventsintheuniverse.Eachdharmaexistsforonlyaninstant,27andyetisself-sufficientandpossessesitsownmarkorcharacteristic,whichdefinesitsessentialnatureasdifferentfromallothers.Forexample,consciousnessisthestateof"beingaware',andignorance,of'lackofcognition'.Thoughdistinctandseparatedfromoneanother,thedharmasarelinkedtogetheraccordingtotheprincipleofcausation.Theyarenotsupportedorattachedtoanysubstanceorself.28.TheMadhyamikascounteredthatalthoughitwascorrectforearlyscholasticBuddhiststorepudiatetheconceptofatman,theysufferedfromthesamediseaseasHinduphilosophers:bothhadmadeanontologicalcommitmenttosomethingandbecameattachedtoit(orthem).FortheMadhyamikas,theconceptofdharmasisasunintelligibleasthatofatman.Theyarguedthattheclaim,"dharmasexist",isacontradictoryorabsurdstatement.Toprovethis,theyexaminedthemeaningofexistence,observingthat"toexist"means"tobecaused","tobeconditioned","tobeproduced",or"tobedependentonsomething".29Butadharma,asanontologicalentity,isbydefinitionathingwhichhasessentialorownnature(svabhava).30Theso-calledownnatureissomethingwhichisindependentandwhichmakesanobjectwhatitisandnotsomethingelse.Thereforetosaythatadhar

ma.existswouldbethesameassayingthatathingwhichisindependentofeverythingelseisdependentonsomething.Thisisacontradictionintermsandhencemakesnosense.31.~[Mk15:1.~Theproductionofaself-existentthingbyaconditioningcauseisnotpossible,~[For,]beingproducedthroughdependenceonacause,aself-existentthingwouldbe"somethingwhichisproduced"(krtaka)..~2.~How,indeed,willaself-existentthingbecome"somethingwhichisproduced"?

~Certainly,aself-existentthing[bydefinition]is"not-produced"andisindependentofanythingelse.].AccordingtotheMadhyamikas,otherontologicalentitiescanberefutedinasimilarway.Theyareonlyhumanconceptsandoneshouldnotbeattachedtothem.However,philosopherscontinuetomanufactureentitiesandrealities,andprojectthemontotheworld.FortheMadhyamikas,thismetaphysicalspeculationisadisease,andthecureofthediseaseliesnotsomuchindevelopinganewmetaphysicaltheoryasinunderstandingthenatureandfunctionofconceptualizationandlanguage.Nagarjunaclaimedthattheverylanguagemencreateanduseplaystricksonthemanddestroystheir"eyesofwisdom"32..~[Mk22:15.

~ThosewhodescribeindetailtheBuddha,whoisunchangingandbeyondalldetaileddescription~Those,completelydefeatedbydescription,donotperceivethe"fullycompleted"[being].].Enlightenedmenshoulddiscardconceptualizationsoastoavoidbeingtakenin.Emptiness,forSan-lunmasters,isamedicineforcuringthe"philosophicaldisease"33.Oneofthechiefsourcesofconfusioninphilosophicalreasoning,San-lunBuddhi


19/100

stscontended,isthatphilosophersoftenfailtoseetheemptinessofwordsandnames.Peopletendtothinkthatwords,namesandconceptsareattachedtoobjectsandbelongtotheminherently.Theybelievethatwordsnameordenoteobjects,andthatsentencesarecombinationsofsuchnames.Meaningisthethingforwhichawordstands.Iftheworddoesnotdenoteanordinaryobject,itmaystandforatranscendentalornon-empiricalentity,andifoneknowssomething,theremustbe"something"whichoneknows.Mentendtolookforarealobjectforaword,arealdistinctionbehindalinguisticdistinction,arealessenceforalinguisticclass,atruerealityforknowledge.Thustheyareledunsuspectinglyintometaphysicaldilemmasoftheirownmaking.Philosophersindulgeinmetaphysicaldisputesaboutquestionssuchas:Whatisthetruestateoftheuniverse?IsitBeingorNon-being?IsBeingoneormany?Isitpermanentorimpermanent?DoesNon-beingstandforsomething?DoesithavepriorityoverBeing?Suchmetaphysicalquestionsseemgenuine,andthechieftaskofphilosophyistoanswerthem..AccordingtoSan-lunmasters,Buddha'sDharmaisanawarenessthatmetaphysicianshaveintellectualattachment.Theyaremisledbyhumanconceptsandfailtoseethatmetaphysicalquestionsarenotgenuine.So-calledorthodoxBuddhistphilosophyis,fortheSan-lun,justanotherdogmaticview.Itdoesnoteliminatemetaphysicalspeculationbutmerelyshiftspositionfromamonisticview(Beingisone)toapluralisticview(Beingismany).Sothesamekindofmetaphysicalconcernsrepeatedlyoccur.ForNagarjunaandhisSan-lunfollowers,onecannotsolvetheproblembypresentinganewmetaphysicaltheory.Thecompletesolutionlie

sratherintakingallmetaphysicalproblemsasconceptualconfusionwithoutexplainingtheinitialmetaphysicalmistakebyanothermetaphysicaltheory..Inhiscritiqueofallviews,Nagarjunawrote,.|"Ihavenoview"34(TGTVI)..AccordingtoSan-lunmasters,therefutationoferroneousviews(p'o-hsieh)isthesameastheilluminationofrightviews(hsien-cheng).Thismeansthatacritiqueofaviewdoesnotaimtopresentanotherviewbutsimplytodiscardtheview.Nagarjuna'sdialecticisnotmerelytolimitthevalidityofintellectandlogic;itisalsotodeclarethatreasoningandconceptualspeculationareabsurd.Accordingtothisideaofemptinessas"noview",tolookforprajna(wisdom)

isnottolookforsomething,butrathertoknowthat"something"isempty.Wisdomisnottheattainmentofatheorybutanabsenceofit.Notruthis"reallytrue"35..Inexpoundingonthis,NagarjunaandhisSan-lunfollowersanalyzedthenatureoflanguageandpointedoutthatthemeaningofatermdoesnotlieinanobjectiveorextra-linguisticentitytowhichthattermcorresponds,butliesinthecontext.Ifthecontextchanges,themeaningofthewordchangesorevendisappears.Inthestrictsense,meaningisnotpartofanobjectorthingitself,butahumanprojection.Thosewhoinsistthattheremustbesomeextra-linguisticrealityoressencetowhichwordsrefer,are"likeamanwho,perceivingthebodyofa.womancreatedbymagicasreallyexistent,feelsdesireforher"36..

Whenmenhavetheattachedwayofthinking,theymakeontologicalcommitmentstotruthandfalsityaswellastoontologicalentities.AccordingtoChi-tsang,oneshouldalsoeliminateattachmentstorightandwrong,trueandfalse,oraffirmationandnegation.Forhim,so-calledrightandwrong,trueandfalseareequallyempty;theydonotstandforanyessenceorself-existingthing.The"right"viewisnotaviewinitselfbutmerelyanabsenceofviews.Arightviewiscalled"right"becauseallviewshavebeenabandoned.Ifitwereacceptedasaview,itwouldbecomeawrongviewwhichoughttoberejected.37.Aswehaveseen,inSan-lunphilosophytheilluminationofrightviewsandther


20/100

efutationoferroneousviewsarenottwoseparatethings.Thus,whentheBuddhadeniedthatadharmaisexistent,hedidnotholdanotherviewthatadharmaisnon-existent.Ifsomeoneweretoholdthatadharmaisnon-existent,thisviewwouldbeanotherextremetoberefuted.AlthoughtheBuddhasometimesusedthewordnon-existenceinhisdialogues,oneshouldknowthat"theideaofnon-existenceisbroughtoutprimarilytohandlethediseaseoftheconceptofexistence.Ifthatdiseasedisappears,thenuselessmedicineisalsodiscarded"38..Chi-tsangfurthersaid,.|"Originallytherewasnothingtoaffirmandthereisnotnowanythingtonegate"39..San-lunmastersmaintainedthatnotruthisabsolutelytrue.40Everytrueclaimwhichisso,issoforaparticularobserverorismadefromaparticularstandpoint.Itstruthvalueisnotpurelyobjective.Inthestrictsense,alltruthsareconventional;theyarehumanprojections.Ourmindsareoftendeludedbyallsortsofillusions,prejudicesandattachments.Thetruthvalueofthestatementswemake,accordingtotheMadhyamika,liesinwhethertheyinvolveattachmentornot.Thosewhichinvolveattachmentormakemenclingingarecalledsu-ti(worldly,relativeorlowtruth),andthosewhichdonotinvolveattachmentormakemennon-clinging,arechen-ti(ultimate,transcendentorhightruth).However,ifultimatetruthisregardedassomethingfixedorstandingforanabsoluteorself-existingthing,itbecomesanewattachmentandworldlytruth.Onehasto

re-examineitfromyetanother,higherstandpointandseethatalltruthsareempty..Ultimately,torealizethisemptynatureoftruthisprajna.Truewisdomisknowingnothingsubstantial.Inastrictsense,ithasnoknowingorknowledge.Prajnaisaninsightthattheactofknowing,theknower,theobjecttobeknown,thedistinctionbetweenthesubjectandtheobject,truthandfalsity,areallempty.Thisisawisdomwithoutattachment;itissynonymouswithsunyata..Thisno-knowingandemptynatureofprajnaiswellstatedbySeng-chao:.|Thusinprajnathereisnothingthatisknown,andnothingthatisseen....Itisevidentthatthereisamarklessknowingandunknowingilluminatio

n....Realprajnaisaspureasemptyspace,withoutknowing,withoutseeing,withoutacting,andwithoutobjects.Thusknowledgeisinitselfwithoutknowing,anddoesnotdependonanythinginordertobewithoutknowing.41.Unfortunately,thedoctrineofemptinessinMadhyamikaBuddhismisofteninterpretedasabsolutismornihilism;thewordemptyoremptinessisregardedasadescriptivenamereferringtoAbsoluteBeingorAbsoluteNon-being.42Actually,theSan-lunBuddhistteachingofemptinessasthemiddlewayisthedenialofbothextremes.Theclaimthatallthingsareemptymeansthatallthingsareneitherabsolutelyexistentnorabsolutelynon-existent..ThispointwassuccinctlydrawnbySeng-chaoasfollows:.

|Forwhatreason?Ifyouwouldsaythat[things]exist,theirexistencearisesnon-absolutely.Ifyouwouldsaythattheydonotexist,theirformshavetakenshape.Sincetheyhaveformsandshapes,theycannotbethesameas"inexistent".So,thisexplainstheideaoftheemptinessofthenon-absolute.43.Iftheexistenceofathingwereabsolutelyreal,itwouldthenbeself-existentandindependentofcausesandconditions.Butallthingsaredependentoncausesandconditions.Soathingcannotbeself-existentandabsolutelyreal.Ontheotherhand,iftheuniversewerenon-existentandabsolutelynothing,itwouldbemotionlessanditsphenomenawouldnotarise.Butweseethatmyriadthingsd


21/100

oarisefromvariouscausesandconditions,sotheycannotbeabsolutelyunreal.ThusthedoctrineofemptinessinSan-lunMadhyamikathoughtisamiddleway,andshouldnotbeidentifiedwithabsolutismorwithnihilism.44.Actually,thewordk'ung,emptiness,accordingtoSan-lunBuddhists,ismerely"aconvenientmeanstoleadsentientbeingsandtoenablethemtobefreefromvariousattachments"45.Thistoolhasmultiplefunctionsanduses.TheBuddhawasconsideredbySan-lunmasterstobeasoteriologistatheartandhisteachingtobepracticalhicharacter.Hismainconcernwasthenirvanaofmankindfromevilandsuffering,andhisteachingswereupaya,skillfulmeans,usedtoachievethisgoal.TheBuddhafoundthatthemindsofordinarypeoplewerealwaysattachedandboundtoviews,difficulttoemancipatefrombirth,oldage,sufferinganddeath.Heintendedtohelpthemgainenlightenment,yetherealizedthattheycouldunderstandonlymundanethingsandordinarylanguage.Inordertosavethem,heusedcommonwords,suchascauseandeffect,existenceandnon-existence,rightandwrong,affirmationanddenial,andemptyandnot-empty,toexplainhisteachings.Infact,allthewordsusedarenothingmorethantoolstoaidinpurifyingthemind..Thoughlanguagemayplaytricksonus,theMadhyamikasdonotdenyitspracticalvalue.Theyacknowledgethatlanguageisusefulandevennecessaryindailylife,forwithoutlanguagewecouldneitherspeaknorwrite.AccordingtoNagarjuna,ultimatetruthhastobeexplainedbyspeech,andspeechisconventionalandconditional.Languageasworldlytruthisessentialfortheattainmentofultimat

etruthandnirvana..Nagarjunawrote,.|"Withoutworldlytruth,ultimatetruthcannotbeobtained.Withoutobtainingultimatetruth,nirvanacannotbeobtained."46(SeealsoTwelveGateTreatise,VIII&:).~[Mk24:8.~TheteachingbytheBuddhasofthedharmahasrecoursetotwotruths:~Theworld-ensconcedtruth(T1)andthetruthwhichisthehighestsense(T2)..

~9.~Thosewhodonotknowthedistribution(vibhagam)ofthetwokindsoftruth~Donotknowtheprofound"point"(tattva)(T3)intheteachingoftheBuddha..~10.~Thehighestsense[ofthetruth](T2)isnottaughtapartfrompracticalbehavior(T1),~Andwithouthavingunderstoodthehighestsense(T2)onecannotunderstandnirvana(T3).].Inordertocommunicatewithothers,weneedconceptualizationandpredication.

Themistakeliesinidentifyingmeaningwithobject,andconceptwithreality.Toavoidthis,oneshouldknowthatwordsandnamesareempty.Whenourwordsarenotregardedasstandingforanyessenceorself-existingobject,theycanbeusedtoexposetheabsurdimplicationsofmetaphysicalspeculations.Thefunctionoflanguagecanbelikenedtoaraft.Amanintendingtocrossarivertogettotheotherbank,whereitissafeandsecure,makesaraft.Withitshelphesafelyreachestheothershore.Buthoweverusefultheraftmayhavebeen,hewillnowleaveitasideandgohiswaywithoutit.Soalsolanguage,includingthetermDharma,isliketheraft,tobediscardedafternirvana..


22/100

ClingingtoorlongingforthingsorideasisalsolikenedbySan-lunBuddhiststofire,andassuchasourceofsuffering,delusionandignorance.Inthisanalogy,emptinessasasoteriologicaldevicebecomeslikewater.Buttheanalogyiscomplex.Chi-tsangwrote,Ifwatercouldextinguishfireandthenagainproducefire,whatwouldweusetoextinguishit?Theviewthatthingscometoanendorareeternalisthefireandemptinesscanextinguishit.Butifonestillclingstoemptiness,thenthereisnomedicinethatcaneliminatethedisease.47.Onewhoknowsthepropernatureandfunctionofthewordemptinessandothertermscanneverthelessusetheseconceptstoresolvephilosophicalconfusion.Chi-tsanghimselfusedthetermsbeingandnon-being,toclearawayaprobleminhisteachingofTwofoldTruthonthreelevels(san-tsung-erh-tiorerh-ti-san-kuan).48.Ordinarypeopleusuallybelievethattheuniverseisrealandwhatappearstothemthroughthesensesisconsideredtrue.Theyaffirmtherealityofappearancesandholdthattheybelongtotherealmofbeing(yu).Butsaintsorenlightenedmen,Chi-tsangpointedout,wouldnotacceptthisrealism,andwouldrealizeinsteadthatallthingsareempty.Whatappearstousthroughthesensesbelongstotherealmofnon-being(wu)ratherthanbeing.RealismistreatedbyChi-tsangasworldlytruth(yu-wei-su-ti)andthedenialofitasultimatetruth(wu-wei-chen-ti).Thisisthefirstlevelofspiritualgrowth..Onthislevel,onemaybeattachedtotheconceptofbeing.Thisattachmentcan

beeliminatedbyknowingthatthetruestateofthingsismorelikenon-beingthanbeing.However,menmaystillhaveanattachedwayofthinking.Nowtheymakeadistinctionbetweenbeingandnon-beingandholdthatthetermsbeingandnon-beingaredescriptivenamesstandingfortwocompletelydifferentstatesofaffairs.Thedenialofbeingisbelievedtoentailtheaffirmationofnon-being.Thisdualisticwayorreasoningisanattachment,akindofworldlytruth(yu-wu-erh-wei-su-ti).Toknowthatbothbeingandnon-beingareemptyisultimatetruth(fei-yu-fei-wu-pu-erh-wei-chen-ti).Thissecondlevelofspiritualgrowthletspeoplerealizethatthetruestateoftheuniversecannotbedescribedasbeingornon-being..Butmencontinuetolongforsomething.Theymaythinkthatifrealityisneitherbeingnornon-being,itmustbesomethingbeyondbeingandnon-being.ForChi-

tsang,thismonisticabsolutismisanotherextremeviewtoberefuted,forthatwhichisbeyondbeingandnon-beingisreallyempty.Liketheprevious,dualisticwaysofthinking,thismetaphysicalviewpointbelongstoworldlytruth(erh-yu-pu-erh-wei-su-ti).Thedenialofbothdualisticandnon-dualisticmetaphysicsisultimatetruth(fei-erh-fei-pu-erh-wei-chen-ti).49.Chi-tsang'scriticalexaminationoftheproblemofbeingandnon-beingisameansofpurifyingthemindfromvariousattachments.K'ung,emptiness,isusedwheneverextremeviewsoccur.Ithasdifferentconnotationsandimplicationsonvariouslevels.Onthefirstlevel,emptinessmeansthatcommon-sensethingsareillusoryandunreal.ItisexpressedbyChi-tsangasthedenialofbeing.Onthesecondlevel,emptinessimpliesthatthenihilisticaswellascommon-senseviewsoftheuniverseareunacceptableandthatalldiscriminationsordualisticways

ofthinkingshouldbedismissed.Onthethirdlevel,emptinessdisplaysthatmonisticaswellasthedualisticandpluralisticviewsoftheuniverseshouldberejected.Itisexpressedasthedenialofbothdualityandnon-duality.Whenallconceptualizationsandotherattachmentsarecompletelyeliminated,emptinessmeans"absolutelynon-abiding",clingingtonothing..Thusthewordk'unghasnomeaningbyitself,butacquiresameaningincontext.Itgainsitstrueconnotationonlyinprocess.Whennirvanaisachieved,itlosesitsmeaningandshouldbediscarded.Aswithmedicine,emptinessisofusetoamanonlysolongasheisill,butnotwhenheiswellagain.


23/100

.Chi-tsangsaid,.|Originally,itwastocounterthediseaseof[beliefin]BeingthatwepreachedNon-being.Ifthediseaseof[beliefin]Beingvanishes,theMedicineofEmptinessisalsouseless.ThusweknowthatthewayofthesagehasneverheldtoeitherBeingorNon-being.Whatobstaclecantherebe,then?50.**************************************************************************************************************.L3:[3.Thenatureandvalueofthetext]:L3.Nagarjuna'sTwelveGateTreatisewasaprincipledocumentintheSan-luntraditionforcenturiesandwasalsoacceptedascanonicalliteraturebymanyotherschools.ButbecauseitexistsonlyinChinesetranslation,modernWesternscholarshaveseldomstudiedtheTwelveGateTreatise.Recentlyafewhavequestionedtheauthenticityofthethreetreatises,anddoubtediftheyareNagarjuna'sandAryadeva'swork.1.ContemporaryMadhyamikascholarsacceptthePrasannapadaofChandrakirtiastheauthenticMulamadhyamakakarikaofNagarjuna.ItseemsthatifthePrasannapadaisgenuine,thentheMiddleTreatiseisalsoauthentic,becausethetwoarealmostidentical.SinceboththemainversesandcommentariesoftheTwelveGateTrea

tiseresemblethemainversesoftheMiddleTreatiseintheirphilosophicalreasoning,religiousassertionandliterarystyle,theTwelveGateTreatiseismostlikelyanauthenticNagarjunabook.TheMiddleTreatisewaswrittenbeforetheTwelveGateTreatise,ascanbeseenbythefactthattheMiddleTreatiseismentionedseveraltimesintheTwelveGate.Inexaminingtheissuesofbeingandnon-being,theTwelveGateTreatisestates,.|"ThishasbeendiscussedintheMiddleTreatise";2(TGTVII).andhisanalyzingthenotionofamaker,theTwelveGateTreatisementions,.|"AsithasbeenwrittenintheMiddleTreatise..."3(TGTX).

Now,sincetheMiddleTreatisewaswrittenfirstandthetwoworksaresimilar,onemayaskwhyNagarjunawrotetheTwelveGateTreatiseatall.WhydidSan-lunmastersinsistthatoneshouldstudythebook?Severalpurposesandreasonscanbeoffered..(1)TheTwelveGateTreatiseprovidesaconciseaccountofNagarjuna'sthought.InasenseitisasimplecrystallizationofhismainteachingsintheMiddleTreatise..(2)TheMiddleTreatisewaswrittenprimarilyforHinayanaBuddhists,whiletheTwelveGateTreatisewaspresentedfornon-BuddhistsaswellasBuddhists..(3)TheTwelveGateTreatisediscussescertainimportantreligiousandphilosoph

icalissueswhichtheMiddleTreatisedoesnottouchon..(4)TheTwelveGateTreatiseclarifiescertainproblemswhichtheMiddleTreatisedoesnotexplainclearly..Nagarjuna'sMulamadhyamakakarikahas27chaptersandconsistsof445verses,or449versesinthePrasannapadaversion.Itseemstohavebeentoomuchforordinarylaymenandevenmanyprofessionalmonkstostudy.InordertomakeBuddhismeasiertounderstand,abriefbutcomprehensivepresentationofBuddhistthoughtwasneeded.TheTwelveGateTreatise,whichhasonly26verses,seemstohavef


24/100

ittheneed.Nagarjunaopenedthebookwiththesewords:.|NowIshallbrieflyexplaintheteachingsofMahayanism.....|Question:Mahayanateachingsaretoomanytobecounted.|EventhesayingsoftheBuddhaalonecannotbeexhausted.|Howcanyouexplainandexpoundthem[all]?.|Answer:Becauseofthis,Isaidatthebeginning[thiswouldbe]abriefexplanation.4(TGTI).Inexpoundingthedoctrineofemptiness,theMiddleTreatisediscusseseightnegationsortheeightfoldnegationofthemiddleway;namely,.|"noorigination,noextinction;nopermanence,noimpermanence;noidentity,nodifferentiation;nocoming,nodeparture"5..~[MkIntroductoryverse:~"Isalutehim,thefully-enlightened,thebestofspeakers,~whopreachedthenon-ceasingandthenon-arising,~thenon-annihilationandthenon-permanence,~thenon-identityandthenon-difference,~thenon-appearanceandthenon-disappearance,~thedependentarising,

~theappeasementofobsessionsandtheauspicious."].ButtheTwelveGateTreatisechoosesthefirstnegationandconcentratesitsargumentontheconceptoforiginationorproduction(sheng).Insteadofspendingtimeexaminingtheothersevennegations,theentiretreatiseaimsatshowingthat.|"allthingshavenoproduction:thereforeallthingsareultimatelyemptyandtranquil"6(TGTXII)..ThepresentationofBuddhistthoughtintheTwelveGateTreatiseissimpleandyetcomprehensiveenoughtoleadpeopletoknowthecentralmessageofBuddhism..

SoNagarjunatoldreaders,.|"ToexplainemptinessandenterintoitsmeaningoneshouldusetheTwelveGate"7(TGTI)..ItseemsthatifonestudiestheTwelveGateTreatisefirst,itiseasiertounderstandMadhyamikateachingsintheothertreatises.PerhapsthisiswhyKumarajivatranslatedtheTwelveGateTreatiseintoChinesefirst,thentheMiddleTreatise..Althoughbothtreatisesargueforthedoctrineofemptiness,theaimofNagarjuna'scriticismintheMiddleTreatiseismainlytorefuteHinayanaphilosophy,andtothisenditexaminesindetailtheconceptsofthesixsensefaculties(liu

-ching),fiveskandhas(wu-yin),sixdhatus(liu-chung)andpassions(jan-jan-che).TheaimofthecriticismintheTwelveGateTreatiseistorefutebothanatmanandatmantraditions.Ittriestoachievethisgoalbyanalyzingtheconceptsofnature(hsing),mark(hsiang)andfunction(yung),anddemonstratingthatallthings,whetheratmanoranatman(substanceorelements),aredevoidofnature,markandfunction.UnliketheMiddleTreatise,theTwelveGateTreatisedevotescomparativelylittleefforttoadiscussionofHinayanaissues,suchastheskandhas,dhatusandpassions,butitdealswithcommonmistakesofHinayanaandnon-Buddhistphilosophies..


25/100

AccordingtotheMadhyamika,acentralmistakemadebyBuddhistandnon-Buddhistmetaphysiciansisthattheyfailtoseethatnature,markandfunctioncannotbeestablished,andhencefalselyasserttherealityorexistenceofthings.TheMadhyamikaarguesthatifpeopleknowthatnature,markandfunctioncannotbeestablished,theywillnotmakeontologicalcommitments.Thereasoningisquitesimple.Forathingtoberealortoexist,itmusthaveacertainnature,markorfunction.TheMadhyamikashowsthatnature,markandfunctioncannotbeestablished.Thus,fortheMadhyamika,toknowthatnature,markandfunctionareemptyisthesameasknowingthatallthingsareempty.ThisisoneofthemainpointsbroughtoutintheTwelveGateTreatise..AsNagarjunaexaminedtheconceptsofnature,markandfunctionintheTwelveGateTreatise,healsodiscussedcertainimportantreligiousandphilosophicalissueswhichhedidnotexamineinotherworks.OneoftheseissuesistheproblemoftheexistenceofG0d.NagarjunanotonlyruledoutG0d'sexistenceasthecreatoroftheuniverse,butalsorepudiatedtheconceptofG0dasthesaviorofmankind.ReligiousmenoftenthinkofG0dasasavior;ourfate,destinyandhappinessarecontrolledbyHim.IfwesurrendertoHim,Hewillredeemusfromsinandgiveushappiness.WithoutG0d'sgracesalvationisimpossible.Nagarjunaattackedtheseideasandarguedthatwehavecertain"self-makingpowers"suchascontrollingourpassionsandbehaviorsoastoproducegoodandavoidevil.8(TGTX)IfsalvationisonlyfromG0d,itwoulddestroy"theprincipleoftheworld",namely,thatmendogoodandobtainreward,anddoevilandreceivepunishment.9(TGTX)Onewouldnotneedtobemindful,forgooddeedsmightnotproduce

goodreward,whileevilcouldbringaboutsalvation.Sincethisisabsurd,salvationcannotbedependentuponG0d'sgrace.IfG0disthesolesourceofsalvation,religiousdisciplinewouldbeofnouse.Yetthisisnotthecase,andthereforeG0dcannotbethesolesourceofsalvation..AnotherimportantissuediscussedintheTwelveGateTreatiseiswhethertheprincipleofcausalitycanbeprovedempirically.Peopleusuallybelieveitcan,andtheuniformityofcausallawisconsideredaninductiveinference.Weobserveaconstantconjunctionofcausesandeffectsthatjustifiestheprinciplethatsimilarcausesproducesimilareffects.However,Nagarjunaarguedthattheprincipleofcausalitycannotbeprovedempirically.Theconstantconjunctionofeventsinthepastdoesnotguaranteethatsimilareventswillproducesimilareffectsunlessweassumethatsimilarcausesproducesimilareffects.Theempiricalju

stificationofthecausalprincipleisreallybasedupontheveryprinciplewhichweattempttoprove.10.SometimesNagarjunadidnotpresenthisviewpointclearlyintheMiddleTreatise,andscholarshavebeenperplexedabouthisposition..Forinstance,inChapterXXVIoftheMiddleTreatisehedescribedthetwelvechainsofcausalconditions:.|Allsentientbeingsaredeludedbyignoranceandhencehavecausedthreekindsofaction.11|Sincevariousactionsarise,[thesentientbeings]gothroughsixformsoflife.12

.|Sinceitisconditionedbyvariouskindsofaction,theconsciousnessestablishesitselfwithrespecttosixformsoflife.|Sinceconsciousnessisestablished,nameandformareinstilled..|Sincenameandformareinstilled,thesixsensefacultiesarise.13|Throughacombinationofobjects,qualitiesanddiscernments,sixtouches(orperceptions)evolve.|Sincesixtouchesevolve,threefeelingsarise.14|Sincethreefeelingsarise,desireisproduced.


26/100

|Throughdesirearefourclingings15produced,andthroughtheclingingperceptionsbeingisgenerated..|Iftheperceiverhasnoclingingperception,hewillbefreedandtherewillbenobeing..|Frombeingbirtharises,andfrombirtholdageanddeatharise.|Fromoldageanddeath,misery,grief,despair,anddisturbancearise..|Thesevariousthingsarisefrombirth.|Soowingtothetwelvechainsofcausalconditions,greatsufferingsareproduced..|Theso-calledwheeloflifeanddeathisthesourceofallactions.|Theignorantcreatesit,butthewisedoesnot..|Bythecessationofeachcomponent,eachsubsequentlinkwillnotarise.|Theaccumulationofsufferingsisthuscompletelyextinguished.16.~[Mk26:1.~"Whatishiddenbyignorance(1)"(avidyanivrta)hascausedthethreekindsofconditionedthings(2)(samskara)tobemadeforrebirth

~Bythoseactionsit[i.e.,"whatishiddenbyignorance"]goesforward..~2.~Consciousness(3),presupposingthatwhichisconditioned(samskara),entersonitscourse.~Whenconsciousnessisbegun,the"name-and-form'-(namarupa)(4)isinstilled..~3.~Whenthe"name-and-form"isinstilled,thesixdomainsofsenseperceptions(5)(ayatana)areproduced.~Havingarrivedatthesixdomainsofsenseperceptions,theprocesso

fperceptionbeginstofunction..~4.~Consciousnessbeginstofunctionpresupposingtheeye,thevisualforms,andabilityofmentalassociation~Presupposing"name-and-form.".~5.~Thatwhichisthecoincidence(6)(samnipata)ofvisualform,consciousness,andtheeye:~Thatissensualperception;andfromperception,sensation(7)beginstofunction..

~6.~"Craving(8)"(trsna)[forexistingthings]isconditionedbysensation.~Certainly[aperson]cravesforthesakeofsensation.Theonewhocravesacquiresthefour-foldacquisition(9)(upadana)[namelysexualpleasure,falseviews,asceticmoralityandvows,andthedoctrineofself-existence]..~7.~Whentheacquisitionexists,theacquirerbeginstofunction(10)(i.e.existence,becoming).


27/100

~Ifheweresomeonewithoutacquisition,thatbeingwouldbereleased,andwouldnotexist..~8.~Thatbeingisthefive"groupsofuniversalelements"(skandha).Becauseofabeing,birth(11)beginstofunction.~Growingold,dying,sorrow(dukkha)(12),etc.,griefandregrets,.~9.~Despairandagitation:allthisresultsfrombirth;~That"producedbeing"isasinglemassofsorrows(dukkha)..~10.~Thustheignorantpeopleconstructtheconditionedthings(samskara);[thatis]thesourceforexistence-in-flux.~Theonewhoconstructsisignorant;thewisepersonisnot[onewhoconstructs]becauseheperceivestruereality..~11.~Whenignoranceceases,theconstructedphenomenadonotcomeintoexistence.~Aperson'scessationofignoranceproceedsonthebasisof"becoming"[enlightened]throughknowledge..

~12.~Throughcessationofevery[component]nonefunctions;~Thatsinglemassofsorrow(dukkha)isthuscompletelydestroyed.].Theteachingisquitedifferentfromthemessageintheprevious25chaptersoftheMiddleTreatise,andhastheappearanceofHinayanathought..KennethK.Inada,whohastranslatedtheMulamadhyamakakarika,commentsuponthechapter:.|Inthischapterandthefinalonetofollow,NagarjunagoesintotheanalysisofHinayanisticdoctrines.Thepresentchapterdiscussesthetwelvefoldcausalanalysiswhichisthebasisoftheendlessprocessofsufferingincurred

byalllivingbeings.ThediscussionisHinayanisticanditrevealsthatthesourceoftroubleliesinignorancewhichinturninitiatesallkindsofmentalconformations(samskara)....ThediscussionofthedoctrineofcausalanalysisindicatesthestronginfluenceofHinayanisticorAbhidharmicteachingsduringthisperiod.17.Theteachingherehaspuzzledmanyscholars:howdoweinterpretit?WhatwasNagarjuna'srealviewconcerningthetwelvechainsofcausalconditions?DidhebecomeaHinayanistattheendofwritingtheMiddleTreatise!ItseemsthatthesequestionscanbesolvedbystudyoftheTwelveGateTreatisewhereNagarjunaclearlypresentedhisviewofthetwelvechainsofcausalconditionsinthefirstchapter,anddemonstratedthatthetwelvechainscannotbeconceivedasthecausallawoftheworld.HeusedascripturalpassagefromtheSeventyTreatisetoi

ntroducehisstandpoint:.\[I.2]\"[Twelvechainsof]causalconditionsreallyhavenoproduction.Iftheyhaveproduction,dotheyhaveitinonemind-momentorinmanymind-moments?"18.Nagarjunaarguedthatifthetwelvechainsofcausalconditionsaretherealcausallawoftheworld,theymusthappenorbeproduced(a)inonemind-moment,or(b)inmanymind-moments.Butonecannotsaythatalltwelvecausalfactorsapp


28/100

earinonemind-moment,foriftheyoccurinonemind-moment,thencausesandeffectswouldhappenatthesametime.Thisisimpossiblebecauseacausemustbepriortoaneffect.Norcanonesaythatthetwelveappearinmanymind-moments,foriftheyoccurindifferentmind-moments,theywouldbedistinctandhavenoparticularrelationtoeachother.Eachwouldoccurwithaparticularmind-moment,thendisappearwiththatmind-moment.Ifso,howcananyofthembeacausalcondition?Thus,bothcases(a)and(b)cannotbeestablished,andhencethetwelvechainsofcausalconditionscannotbeconceivedastherealinternalcausallaw:theyareempty.Nagarjuna'sdefinitiveviewispresentedintheTwelveGateTreatise.ThisexplainsinpartwhytheTwelveGateTreatiseisvaluableforknowingMadhyamikathoughtandalsowhySan-lunmastersinsistedthatoneshouldstudythebook.RecentlysomescholarsquestionwhetherNagarjunawasreallyaMahayanaBuddhistandwhetherhehadeverreadtheprajnaparamitasutras.FortheMiddleTreatisedoesnotmentionthewords"Mahayana"and"Prajnaparamitasutra"..A.K.Warderargues,.|ThedoctrineoftheBuddha,accordingtoNagarjuna,consistsessentiallyoftheFourTruthsandConditionedOrigination.TherearenotermspeculiartotheMahayana.ThereisnoevidencethatNagarjunahadeverseenanyprajnaparamitatextForhimthemostimportantcanonicaltextistheNidanaSarhyuktaModernstudentshavesometimessupposedthatheiscriticizingearlyBuddhism,ortheearlyschools,inordertosetupMahayanainstead.Isthereanytruthinthi

ssupposition?WehavealreadypointedoutthatthereisnothingovertlyMahayanistintheMK(Mulamadhyamakakarika}.EveninitsdeeperimplicationsthereseemstobenothingdistinctivelyMahayanistinthisreadingoftheNidanaSarhyukta.ItisnotearlyBuddhismwhichisbeingattacked...19.OnewhoreadstheTwelveGateTreatisewillhavecausetodisputethisthesis;theopeningstatementclearsawayourdoubts.ThetextdescribesitselfasaconcisesummaryofMahayanateachings,andNagarjunabeginswithsevenreasonswhyMahayanaissuperiortoHinayana,eachofthemadiscussionofthewordgreat,asin,.|ThisisthevehiclewhichisriddenbyBuddhasandgreatmen,andhenceiscalledgreat....Again,intheprajna-sutra,theBuddhahimselfsaysthat

theteachingsofMahayanaareimmeasurableandboundless.Forthisreasonitiscalledgreat.20(TGTI).IfonestudiestheTwelveGreatTreatiseandtheMiddleTreatisetogether,itbecomesclearthatthelogicinNagarjuna'swritingisnotpurelyformal.WhenNagarjunaargued,hedidnotadhererigidlytoform.Thefourexpressionsheusedarenotentirelydevoidoflogicalmeaning,yetthemeaningofeachexpressiondependsoncontext.Nagarjunaoftenviewedeachlemmainseveraldifferentways.Thisisespeciallythecasewiththethirdandfourthlemmas..AccordingtoRichardRobinson,thethirdlemmaisaconjunctionoftheIandOformsofAristotelianlogic.However,acarefulstudyoftheTwelveGateTreatiseandtheMiddleTreatiseshowsthatNagarjunaviewedthethirdlemmainatleast

threedifferentways,namely(p~p),(pV~p)and(IO).Nagarjuna'sargumentssometimessuggestthatheregardedorusedthethirdlemmanotasaconjunctionofIandO,butofpand~p.Inhiscriticalanalysis,Nagarjunaoftenarguedthatthelemmaitselfinvolvesmutuallyconflictingtheses(hsiang-wei)andhenceisnotpossible.ThisisclearlystatedintheTwelveGateTreatisewhenheexaminedthethirdpossibleviewofcausation:.|Itisalsountenablethatacausecanbothincludeandexcludeaneffectandthenproducetheeffect.Why?Becauseincludingandexcludingarecontradictoryinnature.Howcanthingswhicharecontradictoryinnaturebetogether?


29/100

Justasbrightnessanddarkness,sufferingandpleasure,goingandstaying,bindingandlooseningcannotbetogether,soacausewhichbothincludesandexcludesaneffectcannotproduce.21(TGTII).TheMiddleTreatisealsosuggeststhisview:.|"For,howcouldthemutuallyconflicting'being'and'non-being'co-existasone?"(yu-wuhsiang-weiku,i-ch'utsewu-erh).22.~[Mk8:7.~Andareal-nonrealproducerdoesnotproduceinareal-nonrealmanner.~For,indeed,howcan"real"and"non-real,"whicharemutuallycontradictory,occurinoneplace?].Intalkingaboutthethirdlemmainconnectionwithnirvana,Nagarjunalikewisevieweditasofthe(p~p)formandsaid,.|"Howcouldnirvanabe[intherealmof]bothexistenceandnon-existence?Bothcannotbetogetherinoneplacejustasthesituationiswithlightanddarkness."23.~[Mk25:14.~Howcannirvanaexistasbothanexistentandanon-existentthing?

~Thereisnoexistenceofbothatoneandthesameplace,asinthecaseofbothdarknessandlight.].Onotheroccasions,Nagarjunaseemedtotreatthethirdlemmaasadisjunctiveaffirmation(pV~p).Hedidnotsaythatthethirdlemmaisself-contradictory,butthatitmayhavetwofallacies(erh-kuo).Forexample,inexaminingthethirdalternativeviewofsuffering,Nagarjunawrote,.|"Norcanit(suffering)bemadebybothitselfandanother,forthisinvolvestwofallacies...thefallacyofself-madeandafallacyofother-made"24(TGTX)..Ifeitherofthem('self-made'and'other-made')canbeestablished,thenathir

dalternativecanbeestablished:.|"Ifsufferingcouldbemadeindividuallybyitselfandbyother,thenthereshouldalsobesufferingmadejointly"25..~[MK12:9.~Sorrow(dukkha)couldbemadebyboth[selfandthe"other"](iii)ifitcouldbeproducedbyeitherone.~[But]notproducedbyanother,andnotself-produced(iv)howcansorrow(dukkha)existwithoutacaused].Sinceneitherofthemcanbeestablished:.

|"Intruththen,sufferingcouldnotbemadebyitselfforathingcouldnotmakeitself.Neithercoulditbemadebyotherfortheotherisinsubstantial."26.~[Mk12:8.~Sorrow(dukkha)isnotself-produced(i),forthatwhichisproducediscertainlynotproducedbythat[personality].~Ifthe"other"(para)isnotproducedbytheindividualself(atma),howwouldsorrow(dukkha)bethatproducedbyanother?].


30/100

Sothethirdalternativecannotbeestablished.AsRobinsonsuggested,Nagarjunadidsometimesusethethirdlemmaasaconjunctionofparticularstatements(IO).IndiscussingthethirdalternativeviewoftherelationbetweenmanandG0d,Nagarjunainterpreted.|"botheternalandnon-eternal"as"onepartisdivineandonepartishuman"27..~[Mk27:17.~Ifonepartweredivineandanotherparthuman,(i.e.amanwithaneternalsoul)~Thentherewouldbesomethingnon-eternal[togetherwith]thatwhichiseternal(iii);butthatisnotpossible.].PerhapsonereasonwhyRobinsonandotherscholars28insistthatthethirdlemmaisofthe(IO)formexclusivelyisthatitismoreplausiblethanthe(p~p)or(pV~p)forms.ForNagarjuna,however,itdoesnotmakeanydifferencewhichlogicalformisusedtodescribereality.Alltheoriesaboutreality,nomatterwhattheirlogicalformsare,areerroneous,andnonecanbeclaimedmoreplausiblethanothers.Heaimedtoshowabsurdityineachofthem..ItseemsthatNagarjunaalsoviewedandtreatedthefourthlemmainseveraldifferentways.Hesometimesspokeofitasthecontraryornegationofthethird.Forexample,indiscussingthethirdalternativeviewofnirvana,hewrotethatn

irvanaischaracterizedbybothbeingandnon-being(yuwu),andindisputinguponthefourthalternativeview,declaredthatnirvanaisnotcharacterizedbybothbeingandnon-being(fei-yufei-wu)29..~[Mk25:15.~Theassertion:"Nirvanaisneitheranexistentthingnoranon-existentthing"~Isprovedif[theassertion]:"Itisanexistentthingandanon-existentthing"wereproved..~16.~Ifnirvanaisneitheranexistentthingnoranon-existentthing,~Whocanreallyarriveat[theassertion]:"neitheranexistentthing

noranon-existentthing"?].However,Nagarjunaalsoseemstohavetreatedthefourthlemmaasthecontraryoroppositeofthefirstthreelemmastogether.Forinstance,inarguinguponthefirstthreelemmasofsuffering,hestatedthatsuffering"hascause"(iscausedbyitself,byother,orbyboth);andindiscussingthefourthlemma,heclaimedthatsuffering"hasnocause"(wu-yin).30(TGTXII).~[Mk12:9.~Sorrow(dukkha)couldbemadebyboth[selfandthe"other"](iii)ifitcouldbeproducedbyeitherone.~[But]notproducedbyanother,andnotself-produced(iv)howcansorrow(dukkha)existwithoutacaused]

.TheconcisenessoftheTwelveGateTreatisemadeitofrealusetoSan-lunmastersinChinaandtheirpupils.FromitspagesonegathersthatNagarjunamaybedefinitivelyplacedamongMahayanaBuddhists,andthereis,further,theremarkabledispensingwithcauseandeffect,astandardBuddhisttenet.Thetextisabbreviated,focusingonbutone,ratherthanalleight,oftheBuddhisteightfoldnegations.Itshowsaflexibilityoflogicalforms,whenreadinconjunctionwiththeMiddleTreatise,thatmakesitofinteresttospecialistsinthatarea.Theseareallaspectsoftheimportanceofthetext..


31/100

**************************************************************************************************************.L3:[Notes]:L3L4:[Preface]:L4.1T.R.V.Murtisays,"ConsideringtheroleandtheimportanceoftheMadhyamika,IhaveventuredtoappraiseitastheCentralPhilosophyofBuddhism".TheCentralPhilosophyofBuddhism(AllenandUnwin,London1970),p.vii.M.Hiriyannasays,"Inonesenseit(theMadhyamika)isthemostimportantoutcomeofBuddha'steaching".OutlinesofIndianPhilosophy(AllenandUnwin,London,1932),p.206..2T.R.V.Murti,'SarhrtiandParamarthainMadhyamikaandAdvartaVedanta',inTheProblemofTwoTruthsinBuddhismandVedanta,ed.byMervynSprung(D.Reidel,Boston,1973),p.13..3A.K.Warder,'IsNagarjunaaMahayanist?',Ibid.,pp.8081..4TheTaishoShinshuDaizokyoistheChineseTripitakain100volumes,ed.byJunjiroTakakusuandKaiyokuWatanabe(DaizoShuppanCompany,Tokyo,1922-34)..L4:[1.Nagarjunaandthespreadofhisteachings]:L4.

1ForadetailedlifeofNagarjuna,seeM.Walleser'sTheLifeofNagarjunafromTibetanandChineseSources,HirthAnniversaryVolume,trans,byA.A.Probsthain,ed.byB.Schindler(London,1922),pp.421-55.SeealsoK.VenkataRamanan,Nagarjuna'sPhilosophyasPresentedinTheMaha-Prajnaparamita-sastra(Varanasi,India,1971),pp.2530,336..2FortheworkofNagarjuna,seeK.VenkataRamanan,Ibid,pp.3437.SeealsoT.R.V.Murti,TheCentralPhilosophyofBuddhism,pp.88-91;RichardRobinson,EarlyMadhyamikainIndiaandChina(UniversityofWisconsinPress,Madison,Wisconsin,1967),pp.2627..3Kao-seng-chuan(T2509).P.332;seeRichardRobinson,Ibid.,p.96..

4Kao-seng-chuan,p.365..5T1852inVol.45..6Erh-ti-i:T1854inVol.45.7MiddleTreatise,XXIV:18..8SeeJunjiroTakakusu,TheEssentialsofBuddhistPhilosophy,ed.byW.T.ChanandCharlesA.Moore(UniversityofHawaiiPress,Honolulu,1974),pp.126-137..9ForHua-yenthought,seeJunjiroTakakusu,pp.108125.SeealsoGarmaC.C.Chang,TheBuddhistTeachingofTotality(PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,UniversityPark,1974)..

10FortheinfluenceofMadhyamikaphilosophyuponZen,seeHsueh-liCheng,'ZenandSan-lunMadhyamikaThought:ExploringtheTheoreticalFoundationofZenTeachingsandPractices',ReligiousStudies15X1979),343-363..11RyukyoFujimoto,AnOutlineoftheTripleSutraofShinBuddhism(HonpaHongwanjiPress,Kyoto,1955),I,p.34..12Ibid.,pp.28,34,41;seealsoAlfredBloom,Shinran'sGospelofPureGrace(UniversityofArizonaPress,Tucson,Arizona,1968),pp.78,47,64..


32/100

13SeeJunjiroTakakusu,Essentials,pp.7477.See

Documents

Nagarjuna Twelve Gate Treatise