Introduction to NanotechnologyNanotechnology is defined as the study and use of structures between 1 nanometer and 100 nanometers in size. To give you an idea of how small that is, it would take eight hundred 100 nanometer particles side by side to match the width of a human hair.

Introduction to Nanotechnology: Looking At NanoparticlesScientists have been studying and working with nanoparticles for centuries, but the effectiveness of their work has been hampered by their inability to see the structure of nanoparticles. In recent decades the development of microscopes capable of displaying particles as small as atoms has allowed scientists to see what they are working with.

The following illustration titled “The Scale of Things”, created by the U. S. Department of Energy, provides a comparison of various objects to help you begin to envision exactly how small a nanometer is. The chart starts with objects that can be seen by the unaided eye, such as an ant, at the top of the chart, and progresses to objects about a nanometer or less in size, such as the ATP molecule used in humans to store energy from food.

Now that you have an idea of how small a scale nanotechnologists work with, consider the challenge they face. Think about how difficult it is for many of us to insert thread through the eye of a needle. Such an image helps you imagine the problem scientists have working with nanoparticles that can be as much as one millionth the size of the thread. Only through the use of powerful microscopes can they hope to ‘see’ and manipulate these nano-sized particles.

Introduction to Nanotechnology ApplicationsThe ability to see nano-sized materials has opened up a world of possibilities in a variety of industries and scientific endeavors. Because nanotechnology is essentially a set of techniques that allow manipulation of properties at a very small scale, it can have many applications, such as the ones listed below.

Drug delivery . Today, most harmful side effects of treatments such as chemotherapy are a result of drug delivery methods that don't pinpoint their intended target cells accurately. Researchers at Harvard and MIT   have been able to attach special RNA strands, measuring about 10 nm in diameter, to nanoparticles and fill the nanoparticles with a chemotherapy drug. These RNA strands are attracted to cancer cells. When the nanoparticle encounters a cancer cell it adheres to it and releases the drug into the cancer cell. This directed method of drug delivery has great potential for treating cancer patients while producing less side harmful affects than those produced by conventional chemotherapy.

Fabrics . The properties of familiar materials are being changed by manufacturers who are adding nano-sized components to conventional materials to improve performance. For example, some clothing manufacturers are making water and stain repellent clothing using   nano- sized whiskers   in the fabric that cause water to bead up on the surface.

Reactivity of Materials . The properties of many conventional materials change when formed as nano-sized particles (nanoparticles). This is generally because nanoparticles have a greater surface area per weight than larger particles; they are therefore more reactive to some other molecules. For example studies have show that   nanoparticles of iron can be effective in the cleanup of chemicals in groundwater   because they react more efficiently to those chemicals than larger iron particles.

Strength of Materials . Nano-sized particles of carbon, (for example nanotubes and bucky balls) are extremely   strong. Nanotubes and bucky balls are composed of only carbon and their strength comes from special characteristics of the bonds between carbon atoms.   One proposed

application that illustrates the strength of nanosized particles of carbon is the manufacture of t-shirt weight   bullet proof vests made out of carbon nanotubes .

Micro/Nano ElectroMechanical Systems . The ability to create gears, mirrors, sensor elements, as well as electronic circuitry in silicon surfaces allows the manufacture of miniature sensors such as those used to activate the airbags in your car. This technique is called MEMS (Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems). The MEMS technique results in close integration of the mechanical mechanism with the necessary electronic circuit on a single silicon chip, similar to the method used to produce computer chips. Using MEMS to produce a device reduces both the cost and size of the product, compared to similar devices made with conventional methods. MEMS is a stepping stone to NEMS or Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems. NEMS products are being made by a few companies, and will take over as the standard once manufacturers make the investment in the equipment needed to produce nano-sized features.

Molecular Manufacturing . If you're a Star Trek fan, you remember the replicator, a device that could produce anything from a space age guitar to a cup of Earl Grey tea. Your favorite character just programmed the replicator, and whatever he or she wanted appeared. Researchers are working on developing a method called molecular manufacturing that may someday make the Star Trek replicator a reality. The gadget these folks envision is called a molecular fabricator; this device would use tiny manipulators to position atoms and molecules to build an object as complex as a desktop computer. Researchers believe that raw materials can be used to reproduce almost any inanimate object using this method.

The Nanotechnology DebateThere are many different points of view about the nanotechnology. These differences start with the definition of nanotechnology. Some define it as any activity that involves manipulating materials between one nanometer and 100 nanometers. However the original definition of nanotechnology involved building machines at the molecular scale and involves the manipulation of materials on an atomic (about two-tenths of a nanometer) scale.

The debate continues with varying opinions about exactly what nanotechnology can achieve. Some researchers believe nanotechnology can be used to significantly extend the human lifespan or produce replicator-like devices that can create almost anything from simple raw materials. Others see nanotechnology only as a tool to help us do what we do now, but faster or better.

The third major area of debate concerns the timeframe of nanotechnology-related advances. Will nanotechnology have a significant

impact on our day-to-day lives in a decade or two, or will many of these promised advances take considerably longer to become realities?

Finally, all the opinions about what nanotechnology can help us achieve echo with ethical challenges. If nanotechnology helps us to increase our lifespans or produce manufactured goods from inexpensive raw materials, what is the moral imperative about making such technology available to all? Is there sufficient understanding or regulation of nanotech based materials to minimize possible harm to us or our environment?  

Only time will tell how nanotechnology will affect our lives, but browsing through the topics on the navigation bar to the left or on our   Nanotechnology Applications   page will help you understand the possibilities and anticipate the future.

 

Nanotechnology in Medicine - NanomedicineThe use of nanotechnology in medicine offers some exciting possibilities. Some techniques are only imagined, while others are at various stages of testing, or actually being used today.

Nanotechnology in medicine involves applications of nanoparticles currently under development, as well as longer range research that involves the use of manufactured nano-robots to make repairs at the cellular level (sometimes referred to as nanomedicine).

Whatever you call it, the use of nanotechnology in the field of medicine could revolutionize the way we detect and treat damage to the human body and disease in the future, and many techniques only imagined a few years ago are making remarkable progress towards becoming realities.

Nanotechnology in Medicine Application: Drug DeliveryOne application of nanotechnology in medicine currently being developed involves employing nanoparticles to deliver drugs, heat, light or other substances to specific types of cells (such as cancer cells). Particles are engineered so that they are attracted to diseased cells, which allows direct treatment of those cells. This technique reduces damage to healthy cells in the body and allows for earlier detection of disease.

For example, nanoparticles that deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to cancer cells are under development. Tests are in progress for targeted

delivery of chemotherapy drugs and their final approval for their use with cancer patients is pending, as explained on CytImmune Science's website. CytImmune has published the preliminary results of a Phase 1 Clinical Trial   of their first targeted chemotherapy drug.

If you hate getting shots, you'll be glad to hear that oral administration of drugs that currently are delivered by injection may be possible in many cases. The drug is encapsulated in a nanoparticle which helps it pass through the stomach to deliver the drug into the bloodstream. There are efforts underway to develop oral administration of several different drugs using a variety of nanoparticles.  A company which has progressed to the clinical testing stage with a drug for treating systemic fungal diseases is BioDelivery Sciences, which is using a nanoparticle called a cochleate. You can read the initial results from their Phase 1 Clinical Study here.

Nanotechnology in Medicine Application: Therapy TechniquesBuckyballs may be used to trap free radicals generated during an allergic reaction and block the inflammation that results from an allergic reaction.

Nanoshells may be used to concentrate the heat from infrared light to destroy cancer cells with minimal damage to surrounding healthy cells. For a good visual explanation of nanoshells, click here. Nanospectra Biosciences has developed such a treatment using nanoshells illuminated by an infrared laser that has been approved for a pilot trial with human patients.

Nanoparticles, when activated by x-rays, that generate electrons that cause the destruction of cancer cells to which they have attached themselves. This is intended to be used in place radiation therapy with much less damage to healthy tissue.  Nanobiotix has released preclinical results for this technique.

Aluminosilicate nanoparticles can more quickly reduce bleeding in trauma patients by absorbing water, causing blood in a wound to clot quickly. Z-Medica is producing a medical gauze that uses aluminosilicate nanoparticles.

Nanofibers can stimulate the production of cartilage in damaged joints.

Nanoparticles may be used, when inhaled, to stimulate an immune response to fight respiratory virsuses.

 

Nanotechnology in Medicine Application: Diagnostic and Imaging TechniquesQuantum Dots (qdots) may be used in the future for locating cancer tumors   in patients and in the near term for performing diagnostic tests in samples. Invitrogen's website provides information about qdots that are available for both uses, although at this time the use "in vivo" (in a living creature) is limited to experiments with lab animals.

Iron oxide nanoparticles can used to improve MRI images of cancer tumors. The nanoparticle is coated with a peptide that binds to a cancer tumor, once the nanoparticles are attached to the tumor the magnetic property of the iron oxide enhances the images from the Magnetic Resonance Imagining scan.

Nanoparticles can attach to proteins or other molecules, allowing detection of disease indicators in a lab sample at a very early stage. There are several efforts to develop nanoparticle disease detection systems underway. One system being developed by Nanosphere, Inc. uses gold nanoparticles,   Nanosphere has clinical study resultswith their Verigene system involving it's ability to detect four different nucleic acids, while another system being developed by T2 Biosystems uses magnetic nanoparticles to identify specimens, including proteins, nucleic acids, and other materials.  

Nanotechnology in Medicine Application: Anti-Microbial TechniquesOne of the earliest nanomedicine applications was the use of nanocrystalline silver which is  as an antimicrobial agent for the treatment of wounds, as discussed on the Nucryst Pharmaceuticals Corporation website.

A nanoparticle cream has been shown to fight staph infections. The nanoparticles contain nitric oxide gas, which is known to kill bacteria. Studies on mice have shown that using the nanoparticle cream to release nitric oxide gas at the site of staph abscesses significantly reduced the infection.

Burn dressing that is coated with nanocapsules containing antibotics. If a infection starts the harmful bacteria in the wound causes the nanocapsules to break open, releasing the antibotics. This allows much quicker treatment of an infection and reduces the number of times a dressing has to be changed.

A welcome idea in the early study stages is the elimination of bacterial infections in a patient within minutes, instead of delivering treatment

with antibiotics over a period of weeks. You can read about design analysis for the antimicrobial nanorobot used in such treatments in the following article: Microbivores: Artifical Mechanical Phagocytes using Digest and Discharge Protocol.

Nanotechnology in Medicine Application: Cell RepairNanorobots could actually be programmed to repair specific diseased cells, functioning in a similar way to antibodies in our natural healing processes.  Read about design analysis for one such cell repair nanorobot in this article:  The Ideal Gene Delivery Vector: Chromallocytes, Cell Repair Nanorobots for Chromosome Repair Therapy

Nanotechnology in Medicine: Company DirectoryCompany Product

BioDelivery Sciences Oral drug delivery of drugs encapuslated in a nanocrystalline structure called a cochleate

CytImmune Gold nanoparticles for targeted delivery of drugs to tumorsInvitrogen Qdots for medical imagingSmith and Nephew Antimicrobial wound dressings using silver nanocrystalsLuna Inovations Bucky balls to block inflammation by trapping free radicals

NanoBio Nanoemulsions for nasal delivery to fight viruses (such as the flu and colds) or through the skin to fight bacteria

NanoBioMagnetics Magnetically responsive nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery and other applications

NanobiotixNanoparticles that target tumor cells, when irradiated by xrays the nanoparticles generate electrons which cause localized destruction of the tumor cells.

Nanospectra   AuroShell particles (nanoshells) for thermal destruction of cancer tissue

Nanosphere Diagnostic testing using gold nanoparticles to detect low levels of proteins indicating particular diseases

Nanotherapeutics Nanoparticles for improving the performance of drug delivery by oral or nasal methods 

Oxonica Diagnostic testing using gold nanoparticles (biomarkers)T2 Biosystems Diagnostic testing using magnetic nanoparticles

Z-Medica Medical gauze containing aluminosilicate nanoparticles which help blood clot faster in open wounds.

Sirnaomics Nanoparticle enhanced techniques for delivery of siRNAMakefield Therapeutics Nanoparticle cream for delivery of nitric oxide gas to treat infection

DNA Medicine Institute Diagnostic testing system

NanoViricides Drugs called nanoviricides™ designed to attack virus particlesNanoMedia Targeted drug deliveryTaiwan Liposome Drug delivery using lipsomesTraversa Therapeutics Delivery of siRNA molecules

Nano Science Diagnostics Diagnostic testing system

Nanotechnology in Medicine: ResourcesNational Cancer Institute Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer; This alliance includes aNanotechnology Characterization Lab as well as eight Centers of   Cancer Nanotechnology Excellence .

Alliance for NanoHealth; This alliance includes eight research institutions performing collaborative research.

European Nanomedicine platform

The National Institute of Health (NIH) is funding research at eight Nanomedicine Development Centers.

Nanotechnology in Electronics (Nanoelectronics)How can nanotechnology improve the capabilities of electronic components?

Nanoelectronics holds some answers for how we might increase the capabilities of electronics devices while we reduce their weight and power consumption. Some of the nanoelectronics areas under development, which you can explore in more detail by following the links provided in the next section, include the following topics.

Improving display screens on electronics devices. This involves reducing power consumption while decreasing the weight and thickness of the screens.

Increasing the density of memory chips. Researchers are developing a type of memory chip with a projected density of one terabyte of memory per square inch or greater.

Reducing the size of transistors used in integrated circuits. One researcher believes it may be possible to "put the power of all of today's present computers in the palm of your hand".

Nanoelectronics: Applications under Development

Researchers are looking into the following nanoelectronics projects:

Building transistors from carbon nanotubes to enable minimum transistor dimensions of a few nanometers and developing techniques to manufacture integrated circuits built with nanotube transistors.

Using electrodes made fromnanowires that would enable flat panel displays to be flexible as well as thinner than current flat panel displays.

Using MEMS techniques to control an array of probes whose tips have a radius of a few nanometers. These probes are used to write and read data onto a polymer film, with the aim of producing memory chips with a density of one terabyte per square inch or greater.

Transistors built in single atom thick graphene film to enable very high speed transistors.

Combining gold nanoparticles with organic molecules to create a transistor known as a NOMFET (Nanoparticle Organic Memory Field-Effect Transistor).

Using carbon nanotubes to direct electrons to illuminate pixels, resulting in a lightweight, millimeter thick "nanoemmissive" display panel.

Making integrated circuits with features that can be measured in nanometers (nm), such as the process that allows the production of integrated circuits with 45 nm wide transistor gates.

Using nanosized magnetic rings to make Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory (MRAM) which research has indicated may allow memory density of 400 GB per square inch.

Developing molecular-sized transistors which may allow us to shrink the width of transistor gates to approximately one nm which will significantly increase transistor density in integrated circuits.

Using self-aligning nanostructures to manufacture nanoscale integrated circuits.

Using nanowires to build transistors without p-n junctions. Using magnetic quantum dots in spintronic semiconductor

devices. Spintronic devices are expected to be significantly higher density and lower power consumption because they measure the spin of electronics to determine a 1 or 0, rather than measuring groups of electronics as done in current semiconductor devices.

Nanoelectronics: Company Directory

Company Products or ProjectsEverspin Technologies Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory (MRAM)

HP Self-assembled nanostructuresIBM NanophotonicsIntel Integrated circuits with nano-sized featuresCalifornia Molecular   Electronics Corp.

Molecule sized switches and other devices

Unidym Nanotube based transparent conductive film for use in applications such as LCD displays and e-paper

Imec Developing CMOS technology for IC's using sub-22nm geometry

Nanoelectronics: Resources

Center for Nanoscale Materials at Argonne National Lab

Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies   at Sandia and Los Alamos National Labs

Nanoelectronics Research Initiative

Center for Electron Transport in Molecular Nanostructures at Columbia University

Environmental NanotechnologyNanotechnology is being used in several applications to improve the environment. This includes cleaning up existing pollution, improving manufacturing methods to reduce the generation of new pollution, and making alternative energy sources more cost effective.

The Application of Nanotechnology to Environmental IssuesIn trying to help our ailing environment, nanotechnology researchers and developers are pursuing the following avenues:

Generating less pollution during the manufacture of materials. One example of this is how researchers have demonstrated

that the use of silver nanoclusters as catalysts can significantly reduce the polluting byproducts generated in the process used to manufacture propylene oxide. Propylene oxide is used to produce common materials such as plastics, paint, detergents and brake fluid.

Producing solar cells that generate electricity at a competitive cost. Researcher have demonstrated that an array of silicon nanowires embedded in a polymer results in low cost but high efficiency solar cells. This, or other efforts using nanotechnology to improve solar cells, may result in solar cells that generate electricity as cost effectively as coal or oil.

Increasing the electricity generated by windmills. Epoxy containing carbon nanotubes is being used to make windmill blades. The resulting blades are stronger and lower weight and therefore the amount of electricity generated by each windmill is greater.

Cleaning up organic chemicals polluting groundwater. Researchers have shown that iron nanoparticles can be effective in cleaning up organic solvents that are polluting groundwater. The iron nanoparticles disperse throughout the body of water and decompose the organic solvent in place. This method can be more effective and cost significantly less than treatment methods that require the water to be pumped out of the ground.

Capturing carbon dioxide in power plant exhaust. Researchers are developing  nanostructred membranes  designed to capture carbon dioxide in the exhaust stacks of power plants instead of releasing it into the air.   

Clearing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from air. Researchers have demonstrated a  catalyst that breaks down VOCs at room temperature. The catalyst is composed of porous manganese oxide in which gold nanoparticles have been embedded.

Reducing the cost of fuel cells. Changing the spacing of platinum atoms used in a fuel cell increases the catalytic ability of the platinum. This allows the fuel cell to function with about 80% less platinum, significantly reducing the cost of the fuel cell.

Storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars. Using  graphene layers to increase the binding energy of hydrogen to the graphene surface in a fuel tank results in a higher amount of hydrogen storage and a lighter weight fuel tank. This could help in the development of practical hydrogen-fueled cars.

Air Pollution and NanotechnologyHow can nanotechnology reduce air pollution?

There are two major ways in which nanotechnology is being used to reduce air pollution: catalysts, which are currently in use and constantly being improved upon; and nano-structured membranes, which are under development.

Catalysts can be used to enable a chemical reaction (which changes one type of molecule to another) at lower temperatures or make the reaction more effective. Nanotechnology can improve the performance and cost of catalysts used to transform vapors escaping from cars or industrial plants into harmless gasses. That's because catalysts made from nanoparticles have a greater surface area to interact with the reacting chemicals than catalysts made from larger particles. The larger surface area allows more chemicals to interact with the catalyst simultaneously, which makes the catalyst more effective.

Nanostructured membranes, on the other hand, are being developed to separate carbon dioxide from industrial plant exhaust streams. The plan is to create a method that can be implemented in any power plant without expensive retrofitting.

See the following section for more about the potential of nanoparticle catalysts and nano-structured membranes in reducing air pollution.

Air Pollution: Nanotechnology Applications under DevelopmentUsing gold nanoparticles embedded in a porous manganese oxide as a room temperature catalyst to breakdown volatile organic compounds in air.

Using crystals containing nano sized pores to trap carbon dioxide.

Using a nanocatalyst containing cobalt and platinum to remove nitrogen oxide from smokestacks

Reducing the amount of  platinum used in catalytic converters .

Converting carbon dioxide to methanol; which can be used to power fuel-cells.

Reducing emissions from power plants by converting carbon dioxide into nanotubes.

Removal of carbon dioxide from industrial smoke stacks using:

Air Pollution: Nanotechnology Company DirectoryCompany Product Advantages

NanoStellar Nano-composite catalyst for use in automotive catalytic converters

Reduce cost due to lower platinum usage

American Elements

Catalyst composed of manganese oxide nanoparticles for removal of volatile organic compounds (VOC)in industrial air emissions

Capable of destroying VOCs down to parts per billion level

Poriferia Nanotube based membranes for removal of carbon dioxide from smokestacks  

Water Pollution and NanotechnologyHow can nanotechnology be used to reduce water pollution?

Nanotechnology is being used to develop solutions to three very different problems in water quality.

One challenge is the removal of industrial water pollution, such as a cleaning solvent called TCE, from ground water. Nanoparticles can be used to convert the contaminating chemical through a chemical reaction to make it harmless. Studies have shown that this method can be used successfully to reach contaminates dispersed in underground ponds and at much lower cost than methods which require pumping the water out of the ground for treatment.

Another challenge is the removal of salt or metals from water. A deionization method using electrodes composed of nano-sized fibers shows promise for reducing the cost and energy requirements of turning salt water into drinking water.

The third problem concerns the fact that standard filters do not work on virus cells. A filter only a few nanometers in diameter is currently being developed that should be capable of removing virus cells from water.

See the following section for more about the potential of nanotechnology in removing contaminates from water.

Water Pollution: Nanotechnology Applications under Development

Combining a nanomembrane with solar power to reduce the cost of desalinating seawater

Using iron nanoparticles to clean up carbon tetrachloride pollution in ground water

Using silver chloride nanowires as a photocatalysis to decompose organic molecules in polluted water.

Using an electrified filter composed of silver nanowires, carbon nanotubes and cotton to kill bacteria in water.

Nanoparticles that can absorb radioactive particles polluting ground-water

Coating iron nanoparticles allow them to neutralize dense, hydrophobic solvents polluting ground-water

Using nanowire mats to absorb oil spills

Using iron oxide nanoparticles to clean arsenic from water wells.

Using gold tipped carbon nanotubes to trap oil drops polluting water.

Using antimicrobial nanofibers and activated carbon in a  disposable filter as an inexpensive way to clean contaminated water.

Researchers at Pacific Northwestern Laboratory have developed a material to remove mercury from groundwater. The material is called SAMMS, which is short for Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous Supports. This translates taking a ceramic particle whose surface has many nano-size pores and lining the nanopores with molecules that have sulfur atoms on one end, leaving a hole in the center that is lined with sulfur atoms as shown in figure-SAMMS. They line the nanopores with molecules containing sulfur because it bonds to mercury, so mercury atoms bond to the sulfur and are trapped in the nanopores.

Water Pollution: Nanotechnology Company Directory

Company ProductSiREM Iron nanoparticles to treat groundwater pollutantsCampbell Applied Also working on Capacitive Deionization using carbon aerogel

PhysicsNanoH2O Nanotechnology enhanced membranes for water desalination

Argonide   Filter made from nanofibers is capable of removing viruses from water

Lehigh Nanotech Iron nanoparticles to treat groundwater pollutantsItn Nanovation Filters made from nanoparticlesNanoOasis Reverse osmosis membranes using carbon nanotubes

LANXESS Iron nanoparticle based product for removal of arsenic from water

Carbon Dioxide and NanotechnologyCan Nanotechnology Economically Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions? Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a naturally occurring gas that the plants in your garden use to produce oxygen. We inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. However, when excess carbon dioxide is produced, for example in power plant emissions, it can be a major factor in global warming.Electric power plants fired by fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) produce about a third of the man-made carbon dioxide released into the air in the United States. Several methods exist or are under development to try to reduce the problem. The challenge seems to be developing a method that can be inexpensively and easily retrofitted into existing power plants.

Nanotechnology may be one way to help reduce carbon dioxide in a cost-effective way. One conventional method that nanotechnology may improve upon is called ‘scrubbers'. One company called CO2 Solution is using genetic engineering to produce an enzyme that is more effective in removing carbon dioxide gas from the exhaust than materials currently in use. The exhaust from a power plant bubbles through a scrubber (which CO2 Solution calls a "bioreactor") containing the enzyme. The carbon dioxide is then converted into bicarbonate in solution with water. This method, which is almost in the pilot plant stage, makes strides in improving effectiveness, but existing power plants would have to be retrofitted to use the new bioreactor, so there is probably some significant cost to implementing this solution in existing plants.

A consortium called NANOGLOWA that is funded by the European Commission is working on five different styles of nanostructured membranes that they hope will effectively remove carbon dioxide from power plant exhaust. NANAGLOWA believes that these membranes can be installed in the exhaust stream at significantly lower cost than scrubber systems. Though currently in development, pilot tests in power plants won’t begin on these for approximately five years. Following a similar approach, researchers at the University of Queensland in Australia are developing their own carbon nanotube membrane that could separate carbon dioxide from power plant exhaust. The university projects that their solution may be available in ten or fifteen years.

One complex aspect of implementing these solutions is government regulation regarding power plant emissions. Typically companies that own power plants do not make these types of changes until they are required to do so by their governments. Many plants being built today are not being designed to work with the more efficient methods being developed, but rather are being built to use cheaper but less effective methods. Depending on the country and its regulations, companies may or may not be required to retrofit plants when newer methods become a reality.

Ironically, though nanotechnology may help to create a solution to the problem, the political and economic climates of various locales may dictate that the solution will sit on the shelf. The best hope may be that nanotechnology will offer a method that is so cheap that power plant owners will eagerly implement it.

For more ideas about how nanotechnology can reduce air pollution, check out my Air Pollution and Nanotechnology Web page.

Drought Can nanotechnology make drought relief a reality?The news is full of drought stories this autumn. States are fighting legal battles to claim federal water resources. Scientists are predicting that changes to our climate may leave much of the U.S. with multiyear drought for decades to come.

The drought plunging Georgia into a state of emergency this fall set me thinking. How ironic that even states that enjoy miles of coastline are rationing water, truly a case of “water, water everywhere, nor any drop to drink.” Could nanotechnology ease the threat of drought by helping to make our ocean water potable?

The challenge is that the desalinization process that removes salt from salt water is prohibitively costly. In researching this column, I discovered that a few nanotech

companies are working to reduce the cost of desalinization to the point where making ocean water drinkable and available for industrial uses can become affordable.

NanoH2O, for example, is developing a membrane containing hydrophilic nanoparticles (that is, particles that attract water) to reduce the electric power required to run desalinization plants. The company employs a process called reverse osmosis, one of the most prevalent desalinization processes in use today. In this process, water molecules are forced through a membrane, separating the water from the salt. Using conventional membranes, high pressure is needed to force the molecules through the membranes. Hydrophilic nanoparticles enable water molecules to pass more easily through the membrane, lowering the amount of pressure required to separate the water from the salt. Lower pressure means lower consumption of electric power at desalinization plants, resulting in significant savings, even when you factor in the additional cost of the nanoparticle enhanced membranes.

Researchers in Australian universities, such as Victoria University, are trying a similar approach. They are working on developing a membrane containing nanotubes. Water would flow inside the nanotubes from one side of the membrane to the other with less pressure required.

CDT Systems is working with a substance called carbon aerogel. Carbon aerogel, developed by the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, is formed from carbon nanofibers. The surface of electrodes formed from carbon aerogel contains pores less than two nanometers in diameter. It turns out that passing salt water between two carbon aerogel electrodes that have a 1 to 2 volt difference between them removes the salt. The power requirements are low enough that mobile units may even be able to operate on solar or wind generated electricity alone. CDT is planning to start volume manufacturing of water purification systems in 2008. 

Let’s hope that these efforts result in lowering the cost of desalinization to the point that cities near the coast are freed from dependence on rain and snow runoff for their water. There would, of course, be capital costs involved in building the desalinization plants and adapting the water distribution system to a new source. However situations like the current drought in the Southeastern and Southwestern U.S. (and the lost revenue from shutting down manufacturing plants that depend upon water to run their manufacturing processes) may convince some states to make the investment. Once coastal cities put this infrastructure in place, inland cities may be able to share the benefits by using aqueducts and pumping stations, such as the system that brings water over mountains to Los Angeles.

In the meantime, if you live in a drought state, you’ll have to watch your grass turn brown and dream of the greener days that nanotechnology might help provide.

 Nanotechnology in Fuel CellsHow can nanotechnology improve fuel cells?Catalysts are used with fuels such as hydrogen or methanol to produce hydrogen ions. Platinum, which is very expensive, is the catalyst typically used in this process. Companies are using nanoparticles of platinum to reduce the amount of platinum

needed, or using nanoparticles of other materials to replace platinum entirely and thereby lower costs.

Fuel cells contain membranes that allow hydrogen ions to pass through the cell but do not allow other atoms or ions, such as oxygen, to pass through. Companies are using nanotechnology to create more efficient membranes; this will allow them to build lighter weight and longer lasting fuel cells.

Small fuel cells are being developed that can be used to replace batteries in handheld devices such as PDAs or laptop computers. Most companies working on this type of fuel cell are using methanol as a fuel and are calling them DMFC's, which stands for direct methanol fuel cell. DMFC's are designed to last longer than conventional batteries. In addition, rather than plugging your device into an electrical outlet and waiting for the battery to recharge, with a DMFC you simply insert a new cartridge of methanol into the device and you're ready to go.

Fuel cells that can replace batteries in electric cars are also under development. Hydrogen is the fuel most researchers propose for use in fuel cell powered cars. In addition to the improvements to catalysts and membranes discussed above, it is necessary to develop a lightweight and safe hydrogen fuel tank to hold the fuel and build a network of refueling stations. To build these tanks, researchers are trying to develop lightweight nanomaterials that will absorb the hydrogen and only release it when needed. The Department of Energy is estimating that widespread usage of hydrogen powered cars will not occur until approximately 2020.

Fuel Cells: Nanotechnology ApplicationsResearchers at the University of Illinois have developed a proton exchange membrane using a silicon layer with pores of about 5 nanometers in diameter capped by a layer of porous silica. The silica layer is designed to insure that water stays in the nanopores. The water combines with the acid molecules along the wall of the nanopores to form an acidic solution, providing an easy pathway for hydrogen ions through the membrane. Evaluation of this membrane showed it to have much better conductivity of hydrogen ions (100 times better conductivity was reported) in low humidity conditions than the membrane normally used in fuel cells.

Researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute have investigated the storage of hydrogen in graphene (single atom thick carbon sheets). Hydrogen has a high bonding energy to carbon, and the researchers used annealing and plasma treatment to increase this bonding energy. Because graphene is only one atom thick it has the highest surface area exposure of carbon per weight of any material. High hydrogen to carbon bonding energy and high surface area exposure of carbon gives graphene has a good chance of storing hydrogen. The researchers found that they could store14% by weight of hydrogen in graphene.

Researchers at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory have developed a way to use less platinum for the cathode in a fuel cell, which could significantly reduce the cost of fuel cells. They alloyed platinum with

copper and then removed the copper from the surface of the film, which caused the platinum atoms to move closer to each other (reducing the lattice space). It turns out that platinum with reduced lattice spacing is more a more effective catalyst for breaking up oxygen molecules into oxygen ion. The difference is that the reduced spacing changes the electronic structure of the platinum atoms so that the separated oxygen ions more easily released, and allowed to react with the hydrogen ions passing through the proton exchange membrane.

Another way to reduce the use of platinum for catalyst in fuel cell cathodes is being developed by researchers at Brown University. They deposited a one nanometer thick layer of platinum and iron on spherical nanoparticles of palladium. In laboratory scale testing they found that ancatalyst made with these nanoparticles generated 12 times more current   than a catalyst using pure platinum, and lasted ten times longer. The researchers believe that the improvement is due to a more efficient transfer of electrons than in standard catalysts.

Increasing catalyst surface area   and efficiency by depositing platinum on porous alumina

Allowing the use of lower purity, and therefore less expensive, hydrogen with an anode made made of platinum nanoparticles deposited on titanium oxide.

Fuel Cells: Nanotechnology Company DirectoryCompany Product AdvantageQuantumSphere Non-platinum catalyst Reduces costMTI Micro DMFC's Minimizes moving parts,

reduces cost, size and weightUltraCell DMFC's that uses an extra catalyst to

convert methanol to hydrogen before reaching the core of the fuel cell

Increases power density and cell voltage

EDC Ovonics Hydrogen fuel tanks using metal hydrides as the storage media

Reduce size, weight and pressure for storing hydrogen

Unidym Carbon nanotube based electrodes Improve efficiency of fuel cells by reducing resistive and mass transfer losses

GridShift Hydrogen generation using nanoparticle coated electrodes

Improve efficiency of hydrogen generation by electrolysis

Nanotechnology in Solar Cells

How can nanotechnology improve solar cells

Using nanoparticles in the manufacture of solar cells has the following benefits:

Reduced manufacturing costs as a result of using a low temperature process similar to printing instead of the high temperature vacuum deposition process typically used to produce conventional cells made with crystalline semiconductor material.

Reduced installation costs achieved by producing flexible rolls instead of rigid crystalline panels. Cells made from semiconductor thin films will also have this characteristic.

Currently available nanotechnology solar cells are not as efficient as traditional ones, however their lower cost offsets this. In the long term nanotechnology versions should both be lower cost and, using quantum dots, should be able to reach higher efficiency levels than conventional ones.

Solar Cells: Nanotechnology Applications under DevelopmentTitanium dioxide nanotubes filled with a polymer to form low cost solar cells

Combining lead selenide quantum dots with titanium dioxide to form higher higher efficiency solar cells.

Combining carbon nanotubes, bucky-balls and polymers to produce inexpensive solar cells that can be formed by simply painting a surface.

Researchers at Stanford University have found a way to trap light in organic solar cells. The idea is that the longer light is in the solar cell the more electrons will be generated. The researchers found that by making the organic layer much thinner than the wavelength of light and sandwiching the organic layer between a mirror layer and a rough layer the light stayed in the solar cell longer and excited more electrons.

Nanoparticles in plastic film   to form solar cells that can be incorporated into cases for devices such as mobile phones and laptop computers.

Using light absorbing nanowires embedded in a flexible polymer film is another method being developed to produce low cost flexible solar panels.

Using light absorbing graphene sheets to produce low cost solar panels

Organic solar cells that are self repairing

Solar Cells: Nanotechnology Company DirectoryCompany Materials UsedKonarka Nanoparticles imbedded in plastic film

Nanosolar Copper-Indium-Diselenide semiconductor inkGlobal Photonics OrganicInnovalight Silicon nanocrystalline inkBloo Solar "Nano-cables" grown on a thin film materialEnSol Nanocrystals embedded in a thin film material

Nanotechnology Battery (Nano Battery)How can nanotechnology improve batteries?

Using nanotechnology in the manufacture of batteries offers the following benefits:

Reducing the possibility of batteries catching fire by providing less flammable electrode material.

Increasing the available power from a battery and decreasing the time required to recharge a battery. These benefits are achieved by coating the surface of an electrode with nanoparticles. This increases the surface area of the electrode thereby allowing more current to flow between the electrode and the chemicals inside the battery. This technique could increase the efficiency of hybrid vehicles by significantly reducing the weight of the batteries needed to provide adequate power.

Increasing the shelf life of a battery by using nanomaterials to separate liquids in the battery from the solid electrodes when there is no draw on the battery. This separation prevents the low level discharge that occurs in a conventional battery, which increases the shelf life of the battery dramatically.

Batteries: Nanotechnology Applications under DevelopmentResearchers at Stanford University have grown silicon nanowires on a stainless steel substrate and demonstrated that batteries using these anodes could have up to 10 times the power density of conventional lithium ion batteries. Using silicon nanowires, instead of bulk silicon fixes a problem of the silicon cracking, that has been seen on electrodes using bulk silicon. The cracking is caused because the silicon swells it absorbs lithium ions while being recharged, and contracts as the battery is discharged and the lithium ions leave the silicon. However the researchers

found that while the silicon nanowires swell as lithium ions are absorbed during discharge of the battery and contract as the lithium ions leave during recharge of the battery the nanowires do not crack, unlike anodes that used bulk silicon.

Researchers at MIT have developed a technique to deposit aligned carbon nanotubes on a substrate for use as the anode, and possibly the cathode, in a lithium ion battery. The carbon nanotubes have organic molecules attached that help the nanotubes align on the substrate, as well as provide many oxygen atoms that provide points for lithium ions to attach to. This could increase the power density of lithium ion batteries significantly, perhaps by as much as 10 times. A battery manufacturer called Contour Systems has licensed this technology and are planning to use it in their next generation Li-ion batteries.

Cathodes made of a nanocomposite designed to increase the energy density of Li-ion batteries.

Battery small enough to be implanted in the eye and power artificial retina

Long shelf life battery uses "nanograss" to separate liquid electrolytes from the solid electrode until power is needed.

Lithium ion batteries with nanoparticle (Nanophosphate™) electrodes that meet the safety requirements for electric cars   while improving the performance.

Lithium ion batteries with electrodes made from nano -structured lithium titanate that significantly improves the charge/discharge capability at sub freezing temperatures as well as increasing the upper temperature limit at which the battery remains safe from thermal runaway.

Ultracapacitors using nanotubesmay do even better than batteries in hybrid cars.

Ultracapacitor using single atom thick graphene sheets to store electrical charge. 

Battery anodes using  silicon nanoparticles coating a titanium disilicide lattice may improve the charge/discharge rate of Li-ion batteries as well as the battery lifetime.

Thermocells using nanotubes that generate electricity.

Batteries: Nanotechnology Company DirectoryCompany Product Advantages

A123Systems

Lithium-ion battery with the cathode made from nano-phosphate, literature is unclear as to whether this is nanoparticles of phosphate on a substrate or a nano-porous phosphate structure

Higher power, quicker recharge, less combustible than standard lithium-ion batteries

NanoEner Technologies

Electrodes composed of nanoparticles on a substrate for use in batteries. Partner company Enerdel is developing Li Ion battery packs for use in electric and hybrid vehicles

Faster charge and discharge rate than conventional electrodes

Mphase Technologies

Battery with chemicals isolated from electrode by "nanograss" when the battery is not in use

 Very long shelf life

AltairnanoLithium-ion battery with the anode composed of lithium titanate spindel nanoparticles

Higher power, quicker recharge, less combustible than standard lithium-ion batteries

NaoexaLithium-ion battery using nanocomposite electrodes using technology developed at Argonne National Laboratory

Higher power, less combustible than standard lithium-ion batteries

EcoloCap Solutions

Lead acid batteries using nanotube coated electrodes

Increased energy density at a lower cost that Li-ion batteries

Zpower Silver-zinc battery using nanoparticles in the silver cathode

Higher power density, low combustibility

Nexeon Structured silicon anodes for use in lithium-ion batteries

Higher power density, low combustibility

NanoAmor Nanotube based additive for use in lithium-ion electrodes  

NEI Nanomaterials for lithium-ion battery electrodes  

Contour Energy

Lithium ion battery manufacturer that has acquired the techniques MIT has developed for carbon nanotube based electrodes

 

Fuel and NanotechnologyHow can nanotechnology improve fuel availability?Nanotechnology can address the shortage of fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline by:

Making the production of fuels from low grade raw materials economical Increasing the mileage of engines Making the production of fuels from normal raw materials more efficient Nanotechnology can do all this by increasing the effectiveness of catalysts.

Catalysts can reduce the temperature required to convert raw materials into fuel or increase the percentage of fuel burned at a given temperature. Catalysts made from nanoparticles have a greater surface area to interact with the reacting chemicals than catalysts made from larger particles. The larger surface area allows more chemicals to interact with the catalyst simultaneously, which makes the catalyst more effective. This increased effectiveness can make a process such as the production of diesel fuel from coal more economical, and enable the

production of fuel from currently unusable raw materials such as low grade crude oil.

Nanotechnology, in the form of genetic engineering, can also improve the performance of enzymes used in the conversion of cellulose into ethanol. Currently ethanol added to gasoline in the United States is made from corn, which is driving up the price of corn. The plan is to use engineered enzymes to break down cellulose into sugar, is fermented to turn the sugar into ethanol. This will allow material that often goes to waste, such as wood chips and grass to be turned into ethanol.

Fuel: Nanotechnology Applications under Development

Reducing the cost of converting crude from oil sands to fuel Increasing mileage of diesel engines Nanosphere based catalyst that reduces the cost of producing biodiesel Modifying crops  to allow cellulous material, such as corn stalks to produce

enzymes that are triggered at elevated temperatures to convert the cellulous to sugar, simplify the production of ethanol.

Modifying bacteria  to cause the production of enzymes that will convert cellulous material to ethanol in one step, rather than converting cellulous to sugar which is than fermented into ethanol.

Tungsten oxide nanoparticles on a material called zirconia used as a nanocatalyst  to make the process of refining gasoline more efficient.

Fuel: Nanotechnology Company Directory

Company Product Advantages

HeadwatersNanocatalysts used in the conversion of coal to liquid fuels and in the upgrading of low grade crude, such as crude from shale oil

Additional raw material, coal, for producing gasoline, diesel and other liquid fuels 

Refinery Science

Nanocatalyst used in upgrading low grade crude

Making low grade crude oil, such as from oil sands, usable for producing gasoline or diesel

Oxonica Nanoparticle cerium oxide catalyst for diesel fuel

Increased mileage and reduced air pollution

H2OILNanoclusters which helps gasoline and diesel fuels burn more completely by breaking the fuel into smaller droplets

Increased mileage and reduced air pollution

Catlin Nanosphere based catalyst that reduces cost of producing biodiesel

Producing diesel from vegetable oil

AgrividaBioengineered plants that produce enzymes to simplify the conversion of cellulous to ethanol

Ethanol production using corn stalks

Fuel Resources The Energy Biosciences Institute, a collaboration between the University of

California, Berkeley, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and British Petroleum.

The National Bioenergy Center at the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

The Renewable Fuel Standard Program at the US Environmental Protection Agency.

The National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition Website has information to let you determine if your car is a Flex Fuel Vehicle and E85 refueling stations.

Nanotechnology in Space       Nanotechnology may hold the key to making space flight more practical. Advancements in nanomaterials make lightweight solar sails and a cable for the space elevator possible. By significantly reducing the amount of rocket fuel required, these advances could lower the cost of reaching orbit and traveling in space. In addition, new materials combined with nanosensors and nanorobots could improve the performance of spaceships, spacesuits, and the equipment used to explore planets and moons, making nanotechnology an important part of the ‘final frontier.’

Space Flight and Nanotechnology: Applications under DevelopmentResearchers are looking into the following applications of nanotechnology in space flight:

Employing materials made from carbon nanotubes to reduce the weight of spaceships like the one shown below while retaining or even increasing the structural strength.

Photo courtesy of NASA

Using carbon nanotubes to make the cable needed for the space elevator, a system which could significantly reduce the cost of sending material into orbit. Nova has a nice video explaining the concepts.

Including layers of bio-nano robots in spacesuits. The outer layer of bio-nano robots would respond to damages to the spacesuit, for example to seal up punctures. An inner layer of bio-nano robots could respond if the astronaut was in trouble, for example by providing drugs in a medical emergency. For more about this see page 30 of this report on Bio-Nano-Machines for Space Applications.

Deploying a network of nanosensors to search large areas of planets such as Mars for traces of water or other chemicals. To read more about this, see page 27 of this report on Bio-Nano-Machines for Space Applications.

Producing t hrusters for spacecraft   that use MEMS devices to accelerate nanoparticles. This should reduce the weight and complexity of thruster systems used for interplanetary missions. One cost-saving feature of these type of thrusters is their ability to draw on more or less of the MEMS devices depending upon the size and thrust requirement of the spacecraft, rather than designing and building different engines for different size spacecraft.

Using carbon nanotubes to build lightweight solar sails that use the pressure of light from the sun reflecting on the mirror-like solar cell to propel a spacecraft. This solves the problem of having to lift enough fuel into orbit to power spacecraft during interplanetary missions.

Working with nanosensors to monitor the levels of trace chemicals  in spacecraft to monitor the performance of life support systems.

Spaceflight and Nanotechnology: Research OrganizationsThe Center for Nanotechnology at NASA Ames  is looking at how nanotechnology can be used to reduce the mass, volume, and power consumption of a wide range of spacecraft systems including sensors, communications, navigation, and propulsion systems.

The Johnson Space Center Nano Materials Project is working on nanotube composites with the aim of reducing spacecraft weight. 

Nanotechnology in SpaceNanotechnology may hold the key to making spaceflight more practical. Advancements in materials to make lightweight solar sails and the cable for the space elevator could significantly cut the cost of reaching orbit and traveling in space, as well as dramatically reducing the amount of rocket fuel used. Also new materials, along with nanosensors and nanorobots could improve the performance of spaceships, spacesuits and equipment used to explore planets and moons, making a big difference on the ‘final frontier.’

Nanotechnology Fueling RocketsThe space elevator is a device that will dramatically reduce the cost of sending cargo into orbit. Like any elevator the space elevator will have a cable, however it will need to be stronger than any existing cable. Roughly 90,000 kilometers long, the space elevator cable will probably be made from carbon nanotubes. It will be anchored at the top to an asteroid (called the counterweight) in orbit around the earth, and at the bottom by an anchor station, perhaps floating in the ocean similar to a drilling rig.

This device would eliminate the need to use rocket fuel, and dramatically reduce the cost of sending cargo into orbit (about 95% of the weight of the space shuttle at blast off is rocket fuel). Instead, solar cells on space elevator cars would convert light from a laser beam mounted on the anchor station into electricity to drive the car up or down the cable like a vertical monorail.

While there are some engineering challenges, to me the most intriguing of which is actually stringing this 90,000 kilometer cable between the anchor station in the ocean and the counterweight asteroid in orbit, steps are underway to address these challenges. A report by NASA’s Institute for Advanced Concepts gives a very good introduction to the techniques necessary to construct the space elevator. Yearly competitions conducted by the Elevator 2010 group are providing a focus for energetic minds to demonstrate prototypes with some substantial cash prizes, totaling one million dollars in 2007.   

Setting Sail in SpaceOnce you have people and cargo in orbit nanotechnology can be used to reduce the rocket fuel needed to travel to the moon or planets. Just as sailboats are propelled by wind while on the seas, spaceships can be propelled by light from the sun reflected off of solar sails while travelling through space. That means that the only fuel required would be during liftoff, docking, or landing.

However solar sails will have to be very large, spreading for kilometers, and very thin to keep their weight low. That’s where nanotechnology enters the picture. Researchers at the University of Texas have used carbon nanotubes to make thin, lightweight sheets that may replace the polymer sheets that have been experimented with to date. While there are details still to be worked out (such as how to unfurl a thin, fragile sail in orbit, along with the continual struggle to reduce weight) this method has great potential for reducing the amount of fuel needed to travel between planets.

Building Better EnginesFor those times when spacecraft need engines there’s a type of engine called ion thrusters that uses less fuel than chemical rockets. Unlike chemical rockets, which push a spaceship by burning fuel and expelling the resulting hot gasses ion thrusters use electricity gathered from solar cells to generate electric fields that push ions away from the spaceship.

Researchers at the University of Michigan have developed ion thrusters that use MEMS devices to accelerate charged nanoparticles. This Nanoparticle Field Extraction Thruster or NanoFET is designed to allow it to last longer than other types of ion thrusters and allow multiple NanoFETs to be clustered together. This could simplify the job of spacecraft engineers by allowing the same thruster design to be used on spacecraft over many different missions just by changing the number of NanoFETs mounted on the spacecraft.

How Nanotechnology Can Improve SpaceshipsRegardless of how fuel efficient propulsion systems are, it’s still important to make spacecraft lightweight. Researchers are investigating nanotube composites from which they can manufacture strong and lightweight skin and structural members for spacecraft. However this is just the start of how nanotechnology could change the way that spaceships are made. NASA has included a concept called self healing spaceships in their 2030 nanotechnology roadmap. Just as your skin heals a small puncture wound NASA is looking to nanotechnology to provide a way for the skin and structural components of a spaceship to seal up damage from meteors that strike the spaceship.

NASA is also planning to use nanosensors to improve the monitoring of spaceship systems such as life support. The ability of nanosensors to quickly report changed levels

of trace chemicals in air could be very useful to keeping life support systems working correctly in a spaceship’s closed system. A longer term proposal is to place nanosensors throughout the skin of a spacecraft to act like nerve endings in your skin. When a particular region of the spacecraft skin becomes is stressed or damaged, the main computer is alerted to take action and alter the spaceship’s course, just as you would jerk your hand away from a hot stove.   

What the Well Dressed Astronaut Will WearOccasionally astronauts have to leave their spaceships, so researchers at Northeastern University and Rutgers University propose that we protect the astronauts by including layers of bio-nano robots in their spacesuits. The outer layer of bio-nano robots would respond to damages to the spacesuit, for example to seal up punctures. An inner layer of bio-nano robots could respond if the astronaut was in trouble, for example by providing drugs in a medical emergency.

The term bio-nano robots comes from the use of biological molecules to provide portions of the robots mechanism. For example, proteins have mechanisms to travel within a body that enable it them to work as a motor for a nano robot. These proteins could be connected to carbon nanotubes that link parts of the nano robot together. When you think about it, this idea is just like harnessing a horse to a cart as the nano robots hitch a ride on the proteins. There’s a lot of development work to be done, but it will be interesting to see how these self-healing suits turn out.

To research this topic in more depth visit my Nanotechnology in Space Web pageat http://www.understandingnano.com/space.html

Nanotechnology in FoodHow is Nanotechnology being used in Food Science?Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is grown to how it is packaged. Companies are developing nanomaterials that will make a difference not only in the taste of food, but also in food safety, and the health benefits that food delivers. 

Food Science: Current Nanotechnology ApplicationsClay nanocomposites are being used to provide an impermeable barrier to gasses such as oxygen or carbon dioxide in lightweight bottles, cartons and packaging films.

Storage bins are being produced with silver nanoparticles   embedded in the plastic. The silver nanoparticles kill bacteria from any material that was previously stored in the bins, minimizing health risks from harmful bacteria.

Food Science: Nanotechnology Applications under DevelopmentNanoparticles are being developed that will deliver vitamins or other nutrients in food and beverages without affecting the taste or appearance. These nanoparticles actually encapsulate the nutrients and carry them through the stomach into the bloodstream.

Researchers are using silicate nanoparticles to provide a barrierto gasses (for example oxygen), or moisture in a plastic film used for packaging. This could reduce the possibly of food spoiling or drying out.

Zinc oxide nanoparticles can be incorporated into plastic packaging to block UV rays and provide anti bacterial protection, while improving the strength and stability of the plastic film.

Nanosensors are being developed that can detect bacteria and other contaminates, such as salmonella, at a packaging plant. This will allow for frequent testing at a much lower cost than sending samples to a lab for analysis. This point-of-packaging testing, if conducted properly, has the potential to dramatically reduce the chance of contaminated food reaching grocery store shelves.

Research is also being conducted to develop nanocapsules containing nutrients that would be released when nanosensors detect a vitamin deficiency in your body. Basically this research could result in a super vitamin storage system in your body that delivers the nutrients you need, when you need them.

"Interactive" foods are being developed that would allow you to choose the desired flavor and color. Nanocapsules that contain flavor or color enhancers are embedded in the food; inert until a hungry consumer triggers them. The method hasn't been published, so it will be interesting to see how this particular trick is accomplished.

Researchers are also working on pesticides encapsulated in nanoparticles; that only release pesticide within an insect's stomach, minimizing the contamination of plants themselves.

Another development being persued is a network of nanosensors and dispensers used throughout a farm field. The sensors recognize when a plant needs nutrients or water, before there is any sign that the plant is deficient. The dispensers then release fertilizer, nutrients, or water as needed, optimizing the growth of each plant in the field one by one.

Food Science and Nanotechnology: Major ReportsNanotechnology in Agriculture and Food Production (Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies)     

Food Science: Nanotechnology Company DirectoryCompany Product

Nancor Bottles, cartons and films containing clay nanocomposite that act as a barrier to the passage of gasses or odors

Bayer Polymers Plastic film containing silicate nanoparticles that provides a barrier to gasses or moisture

AquaNova Nanoparticles for delivery of vitamins or other nutrients in food and beverages without affecting the taste or appearance.

Nano Science Diagnostics Rapid testing for contaminates in food

Note that many other companies are researching the application of nanotechnology in the food industry but do not have nanotechnology sections on their websites.

Food Science and Nanotechnology: Organizations Exploring the Regulatory ImpactRegulatory Review report from UK Food Safety Authority

Nanotechnology Task Force formed by the United States Food and Drug Administration to address any knowledge or policy gaps related to the use of nanomaterials.  

Nanotechnology Consumer ProductsFabric and NanotechnologyMaking composite fabric with nano-sized particles or fibers allows improvement of fabric properties without a significant increase in weight, thickness, or stiffness as might have been the case with previously-used  techniques. For details on how nanotechnology is being used to improve fabrics go to our Fabric and Nanotechnology page.

Sporting Goods with NanotechnologyIf you're a tennis or golf fan, you'll be glad to hear that even sporting goods has wandered into the nano realm. For details on how nanotechnology is being used to make the sporting goods you use better go to our Sporting Goods with Nanotechnology page.

Cleaning Products with NanotechnologyNanotechnology companies are finding ways to make the world a cleaner place by exploring three methods for improving cleaning products. For details on how nanotechnology is being used to make the cleaning products you use better go to our Cleaning Products with Nanotechnology page.

Chemical Sensors and NanotechnologyHow can nanotechnology improve chemical vapor sensors?

Nanotechnology can enable sensors to detect very small amounts of chemical vapors. Various types of detecting elements, such as carbon nanotubes, zinc oxide nanowires or palladium nanoparticles can be used in nanotechnology-based sensors. These detecting elements change their electrical characteristics, such as resistance or capacitance, when they absorb a gas molecule (for technical details see this article).

Because of the small size of nanotubes, nanowires, or nanoparticles, a few gas molecules are sufficient to change the electrical properties of the sensing elements. This allows the detection of a very low concentration of chemical vapors. The goal is to have small, inexpensive sensors that can sniff out chemicals just as dogs are used in airports to smell the vapors given off by explosives or drugs.

The capability of producing small, inexpensive sensors that can quickly identify a chemical vapor provides a kind of nano-bloodhound that doesn't need sleep or exercise which can be useful in a number of ways. An obvious application is to mount these sensors throughout an airport, or any facility with security concerns, to check for vapors given off by explosive devices.

These sensors can also be useful in industrial plants that use chemicals in manufacturing to detect the release of chemical vapors. When hydrogen fuel cells come into use, in cars or other applications, a sensor that detects escaped hydrogen could be very useful in warning of a leak. This technology should also make possible inexpensive networks of air quality   monitoring stations  to improve the tracking of air pollution sources.

Nanotechnology Applications under DevelopmentHydrogen sensor using a layer of closely spaced palladium nanoparticles that are formed by a beading action like water on a windshield. When hydrogen is absorbed the palladium nanoparticles swell, causing shorts between nanoparticles which lowers the resistance of the palladium layer.

Sensors using  zinc oxide nano-wire detection elements  capable of detecting a range of chemical vapors.

Sensors using carbon nanotube detection elements capable of detecting a range of chemical vapors.

Sensors using a layer of gold nanoparticles on a polymer film for detecting volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The polymer swells in presence of VOCs, changing the spacing between the gold nanoparticles and the resistance of the gold layer.

Chemical sensor using cantilever that are oscillating at their resonance frequency. When the chemical attaches to the cantilever it stops the oscillation, which triggers a detection signal.

Sensors using nanoporous silicon detection elements that could be incorporated into cell phones. This might allow a very widespread network of sensors to detect chemical gas leaks or release of a toxin.

Sensors powered by electricity generated by piezoelectric zinc oxide nanowires. This could allowsmall, self contained, sensors   powered by mechanical energy such as tides or wind.

Nanotechnology Company DirectoryCompany Product

Nanomix

Carbon nanotube based sensors for detecting low levels of industrial gas.

Carbon nanotube based sensors for monitoring carbon dioxide and nitric oxide levels in a patient's breath. This is used to provide a quick evaluation of the respiratory status of medical patients.

Applied Nanotech

Palladium nanoparticle-based hydrogen sensor.

Sensor based upon enzyme coated carbon nanotubes for analyzing chemicals in liquid samples.

Owlstone Nanotech MEMS based sensor for detecting a wide range of gasses.

Molecular ManufacturingWhat is Molecular Manufacturing?If you're a Star Trek fan, you remember the replicator, a device that could produce anything from a space age guitar to a cup of Earl Grey tea. Your favorite character just programmed the replicator, and whatever he or she wanted appeared.

Researchers are working on developing a method called molecular manufacturing that may someday make the Star Trek replicator a reality. The gadget these folks envision is called a molecular fabricator; this device would use tiny manipulators to position atoms and molecules to build an object as complex as a desktop computer. As shown in this video, researchers believe that raw materials can be used to reproduce almost any inanimate object using this method.

By building an object atom by atom or molecule by molecule, molecular manufacturing, also called molecular nanotechnology, can produce new materials with improved performance over existing materials. For example, an airplane strut must be very strong, but also lightweight. A molecular fabricator   could build the strut atom by atom out of carbon, making a lightweight material that is stronger than a diamond. Remember that a diamond is merely a lattice of carbon atoms held together by bonds between the atoms. By placing carbon atoms, one after the other, in the shape of the strut, such a fabricator could create a diamond-like material that is lightweight and stronger than any metal.

Researchers believe that molecular manufacturing also has the potential to revolutionize medicine. For example, sensors that are smaller than blood cells could be produced inexpensively. When released into a patient's blood stream in large numbers, these sensors could provide very accurate diagnoses. Nanorobots could be built using molecular manufacturing to perform surgical procedures in a more precise way. By working at the cellular level, such nanorobots could prevent much of the damage caused by the comparatively clumsy scalpel.

Molecular fabricators may be available to anybody, anywhere in about twenty years or so. When fabricators are available, any item whose design has been programmed into them can be produced cheaply and in large quantities. This could significantly improve living conditions in regions that do not have easy access to manufactured goods. For example, water filters could be produced to help in regions with contaminated water supplies and solar cells could make electricity available in the remotest jungle or desert.

However, molecular manufacturing could also turn our world's economies on their heads. Many manufacturing industries may be made obsolete and society could be transformed forever. Molecular manufacturing could spawn another industrial revolution that completely changes the way we do business. At the same time, such advances could make it easy and cheap to produce powerful weapons. The ability to produce this kind of drastic change is the reason that nanotechnology is often referred to as a "disruptive" technology.

Who's Working on Molecular Manufacturing?Though researchers are still at the stage where a lot of background work needs to be done, here are some organizations that are leading the way.

Organizations Providing the Infrastructure for Molecular Manufacturing

The Foresight Institute has developed a roadmap to guide researchers working toward molecular manufacturing.

The Nanofactory Collaboration's long term goal is to design, and ultimately to build, a working nanofactory. Their initial goal is the experimental demonstration of controlled diamond mechanosysthesis, i.e. using a mechanical tooltip to place individual carbon atoms in a structure.

The Center for Responsible Nanotechnology sees it as their mission to: "1) raise awareness of the benefits, the dangers, and the possibilities for responsible use of advanced nanotechnology; 2) expedite athorough examination of the environmental, humanitarian, economic, military, political, social, medical, and ethical implications of molecular manufacturing; and 3) assist in thecreation and implementation of wise, comprehensive, and balanced plans for responsible worldwide use of this transformative technology."

Nanorex develops 3-D modeling software that simulates nano-scale structures. Nanorex is planting the seed of MM in our schools by providing their modeling software free of charge to 'qualified' high schools and universities.

Organizations Working on Development of Molecular FabricatorsZyvex was founded with purpose of becoming the leading supplier of tools and services to enable molecular manufacturing. They have developed nanomanipulators, MEMS design software and a process to functionalize carbon nanotubes. Zyvex is working on several projects, such as automated assembly of micro-scale components, that will add knowledge useful in working toward the long term goal of molecular manufacturing and have summarized why they believe atomically precise manufacturing can be achieved.

MIT's Center for Bits and Atoms  may be the 500 pound technology gorilla in the MM jungle. One of this center's key goals is the development of molecular fabricators.

Molecular Nanotechnology Venture CapitalistsMMEI is working to advance the state of molecular nanotechnology by providing seed capital, advice, contacts, and other support services to researchers and business people involved in molecular nanotechnology initiatives. 

MEMS: Micro-Electromechanical SystemsWhat is MEMS?

MEMS stands for Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems. MEMS techniques allow both electronic circuits and mechanical devices to be manufactured on a silicon chip, similar to the process used for integrated circuits. This allows the construction of items such as sensor chips with built-in electronics that are a fraction of the size that was previously possible. 

MEMS ProductsFour devices using MEMS technology have been commercially successful for several years.

MEMS accelerometer chips used to trigger airbags MEMS mirror chips for use in projection screen TVs MEMS inkjet nozzles used in printers MEMS pressure sensors for medical applications

MEMS Products under DevelopmentSeveral interesting new products and applications are being developed using MEMS.

MEMS - piezoelectric generator  being developed for self contained wireless sensors

Computer game controller  using MEMS accelerometer. Programmable MEMS gyroscope with features that significantly lower the cost

of integrating the gyroscope into industrial equipment. MEMS microphones  that are smaller and more resistant to heat than

conventional microphones. MEMS RF switches  to reduce power losses in microwave applications. MEMS blood pressure sensor  with wireless data transfer that can be implanted

in patients. MEMS oscillators  that are smaller and more integrated with electronics circuits than

current quartz oscillators.

MEMS Company Directory

Company MEMS Products

MicroGen Systems Piezoelectric generator that transforms vibrational energy into electricity

Analog Devices Accelerometers and gyroscopesSTMicroelectronics Accelerometer based motion sensorsMEMSCAP Custom products as well as blood pressure sensors for the

medical field and air pressure sensors for the aircraft industrySilex Microsystems Custom products including mirror arrays for fiber optic switching,

pressure and flow sensors for medical applicationsTronics Microsystems

Custom products including accelerometers, pressure sensors, scanning mirror, and  RF switches

SiTime OscillatorsDiscera OscillatorsDebiotech Insulin pumpBaolab MEMS produced with CMOS production methods

MEMS ResourcesMEMS at Sandia National Laboratory

MEMS Industry Group; a trade association for MEMS industries

National Science Foundation Research Center for Microsensors and Microactuators

Nanomaterials GaloreExcerpted from Nanotechnology For Dummies by Richard Booker and Earl Boysen

In This Chapter

 Working with carbon atoms as building blocks   Kicking off nanotechnology with buckyballs   Changing the world around us with nanotubes   Energizing electronics with nanowires

Read the popular science journals out there and you’ll see a lot of ink slung about how things made with nanomaterials are going to be stronger, more sensitive, lighter in weight, or have more load capacity than regular old materials. Delve into the issue a bit more, and you find out that actually getting simple carbon atoms to do all this for us is rather a complex little story.

To understand how nanomaterials will be used, you need a clear look at not only how they are formed but also their various configurations. In this chapter, we look at nano building blocks, and how they’re currently being cajoled into enhancing all kinds of materials and products. Some of this work is still in the research phase; other work has graduated to the big bad world of real, existing consumer products and applications.

It All Starts with Carbon

 Carbon atoms are all over the place. In fact, you can find them in millions of molecules. These molecules have a wide range of properties, meaning they pop up in every possible form — from gases such as propane to

solids such as diamonds, the hardest material found in nature (and reportedly a girl’s best friend).

“Bond, carbon bond . . .”In covalent bonding, the atoms that bond share two electrons, regardless of whether they’re shaken or stirred; this sharing of electrons is what holds the atoms together in a molecule. If the ability of each atom to attract all those negatively charged electrons (called electronegativity) is reasonably close (that is, if the difference in electronegativity is no more than 2), then they can form covalent bonds. Because the electronegativity of carbon atoms is 2.5 (roughly in the midrange), they can form strong, stable, covalent bonds with many other types of atoms with higher or lower values.

There are three significant reasons for the wide range of properties of materials containing carbon:

Carbon atoms can bond together with many types of atoms, using a process called covalent bonding (we discuss the details of covalent bonding later in this section). When carbon atoms bond with different types of atoms, they form molecules with properties that vary according to the atoms they’ve bonded with.

Each carbon atom can form these covalent bonds with four other atoms at a time. That’s more bonds than most other atoms can form. Each nitrogen atom (for example) can form only three covalent bonds, each oxygen atom can form only two covalent bonds, and so on. This four-bond capability allows carbon atoms to bond to other carbon atoms to make chains of atoms — and to bond with other kinds of atoms at various points along such chains. This wide range of potential combinations of atoms in a molecule allows for a correspondingly wide range of potential properties.

There’s no other element in the periodic table that bonds as strongly to itself and in as many ways as the carbon atom. Carbon atoms can bond together in short chains, in which case they may have the properties of a gas. They may bond together as long chains, which might give you a solid, like a plastic. Or, they can bond together in 2- or 3-dimensional lattices, which can make for some very hard materials, such as a diamond.