Nation StatesNation States

Nations and StatesNations and States These two terms are not synonymous.These two terms are not synonymous. ““The State” refers to an area bound by political structures and subject to an The State” refers to an area bound by political structures and subject to an

authority. A successful State is one where its legitimacy is recognised by the authority. A successful State is one where its legitimacy is recognised by the people.people.

A “Nation” does not refer to a body of land or any political ideology or system. A “Nation” does not refer to a body of land or any political ideology or system. Instead, the term applies to a particular group of people who have some shared Instead, the term applies to a particular group of people who have some shared ethnicity or cultural identity. ethnicity or cultural identity.

For example, the Jews are a nation who have been spread across many political For example, the Jews are a nation who have been spread across many political boundaries, whilst Israel is a State in which some Jews live alongside other boundaries, whilst Israel is a State in which some Jews live alongside other groups under a political system.groups under a political system.

The concept of nation is essentially to describe something factual and is only The concept of nation is essentially to describe something factual and is only contentious if it is used to discriminate against others.contentious if it is used to discriminate against others.

The concept of state is perhaps more abstract and, therefore more difficult to The concept of state is perhaps more abstract and, therefore more difficult to justify – why should political boundaries exist? What is authority and who justify – why should political boundaries exist? What is authority and who should have it? What claims can the state make over the individual? etc.should have it? What claims can the state make over the individual? etc.

A “Nation State” refers to “A political unit consisting of an autonomous state A “Nation State” refers to “A political unit consisting of an autonomous state inhabited predominantly by a people sharing a common culture, history, and inhabited predominantly by a people sharing a common culture, history, and language.”language.”

Is Britain a “Nation State”?Is Britain a “Nation State”?

NationalismNationalism ““Nationalism refers to the attitude of caring about one’s Nationalism refers to the attitude of caring about one’s

nation and national identity, and also the policy of a nation to nation and national identity, and also the policy of a nation to pursue or sustain self-determination.” (Lacewing)pursue or sustain self-determination.” (Lacewing)

The concept of Nationalism often generates passionate The concept of Nationalism often generates passionate responses. responses.

Many modern thinkers see it as dangerous, leading to Many modern thinkers see it as dangerous, leading to intolerance and an inward looking perspective. intolerance and an inward looking perspective.

Others view it as an essential ingredient in creating a Others view it as an essential ingredient in creating a successful State – without a sense of national identity, successful State – without a sense of national identity, establishing values to live by can be difficult.establishing values to live by can be difficult.

Many commentators view Britain as a State that struggles to Many commentators view Britain as a State that struggles to establish national identity. Parties such as the BNP like to establish national identity. Parties such as the BNP like to blame this on a liberal immigration policy.blame this on a liberal immigration policy.

National sentimentNational sentiment David Miller offers the following definition of David Miller offers the following definition of

nationalism“…that a national identity is a defensible source nationalism“…that a national identity is a defensible source of personal identity, that nations are ethical communities of personal identity, that nations are ethical communities imposing reciprocal obligations on members which are not imposing reciprocal obligations on members which are not owed to outsiders, and that nations have a good claim to be owed to outsiders, and that nations have a good claim to be politically self determining.”politically self determining.”

Nationalism obviously has a strong focus on national Nationalism obviously has a strong focus on national identity that can command loyalty, even love for one’s identity that can command loyalty, even love for one’s country.country.

In contrast, individualism and cosmopolitanism can appear In contrast, individualism and cosmopolitanism can appear abstract and cold.abstract and cold.

NB Individualism = an atomised view of society i.e. a NB Individualism = an atomised view of society i.e. a whole made up of many individuals. Cosmopolitanism = a whole made up of many individuals. Cosmopolitanism = a commitment to accept and integrate cultural and ethnic commitment to accept and integrate cultural and ethnic types.types.

LibertyLiberty Liberal principles are more difficult to apply when directed at Liberal principles are more difficult to apply when directed at

Nation States than they are when directed at individuals.Nation States than they are when directed at individuals. We may be less willing to allow a State the opportunity to We may be less willing to allow a State the opportunity to

conduct “experiments in living” than we would with conduct “experiments in living” than we would with individuals as the consequences may be more severe.individuals as the consequences may be more severe.

For example, allowing countries the right to experiment with a For example, allowing countries the right to experiment with a Theocracy may lead to “brainwashing” and the growth of Theocracy may lead to “brainwashing” and the growth of dangerous attitudes – intolerance etc. dangerous attitudes – intolerance etc.

Further, allowing Iran the right to experiment with nuclear Further, allowing Iran the right to experiment with nuclear energy or extreme principles of social justice may have energy or extreme principles of social justice may have serious consequences.serious consequences.

Obviously, such freedom for the state will impact severely on Obviously, such freedom for the state will impact severely on the freedom of the individual – giving a state the liberty to the freedom of the individual – giving a state the liberty to experiment with enslaving ginger dwarves will obviously experiment with enslaving ginger dwarves will obviously impact on individual negative liberty.impact on individual negative liberty.

Are restrictions on cross-border movement and Are restrictions on cross-border movement and association just?association just?

Conservatives would agree that restrictions are necessary if the Conservatives would agree that restrictions are necessary if the preservation of identity, and the traditions that support it, is to be preservation of identity, and the traditions that support it, is to be maintained – upholding a central narrative. Consequently, they are maintained – upholding a central narrative. Consequently, they are likely to be resistant to immigration.likely to be resistant to immigration.

However, can such closing of borders be seen as “just”? What gives However, can such closing of borders be seen as “just”? What gives anyone the right to reside in a wealthy state and further, the right to anyone the right to reside in a wealthy state and further, the right to stop others from seeking to improve the conditions they inherited?stop others from seeking to improve the conditions they inherited?

Rawls’ “veil of ignorance” thought experiment seems to support the Rawls’ “veil of ignorance” thought experiment seems to support the idea of removing borders and applying principles of justice to all. idea of removing borders and applying principles of justice to all.

Peter Singer alludes to this issue in “Practical Ethics” via use of his Peter Singer alludes to this issue in “Practical Ethics” via use of his post-apocalyptic thought experiment – who should we admit to the post-apocalyptic thought experiment – who should we admit to the bunker?bunker?

His conclusion is based on globally applied Utilitarian principles, His conclusion is based on globally applied Utilitarian principles, arguing that developed nations should continue to accept immigrants arguing that developed nations should continue to accept immigrants until “the balance of interests has swung against a further increase”. until “the balance of interests has swung against a further increase”. As with all Utilitarian calculations, this is a difficult one to make.As with all Utilitarian calculations, this is a difficult one to make.

Many in the UK (the majority in fact) would argue that the balance of Many in the UK (the majority in fact) would argue that the balance of interests has now swung against immigration. Control is necessary to interests has now swung against immigration. Control is necessary to provide quality of life for members of the state.provide quality of life for members of the state.

Do rights apply to groups and nations?Do rights apply to groups and nations?

International Law attempts to provide states with certain International Law attempts to provide states with certain rights e.g. the right to self-determination, the right to rights e.g. the right to self-determination, the right to free trade etc.free trade etc.

However, such rights are only applicable if the However, such rights are only applicable if the countries concerned acknowledge the institutions that countries concerned acknowledge the institutions that issue the law e.g. the UN, World Bank etc.issue the law e.g. the UN, World Bank etc.

Also, it can be argued that such rights are not the rights Also, it can be argued that such rights are not the rights of the State, but simply the rights of the individuals that of the State, but simply the rights of the individuals that compose it. compose it.

Some have resisted this reductionist model, claiming Some have resisted this reductionist model, claiming that the body of state is more important than the parts that the body of state is more important than the parts that make it – think about the cover of Leviathan.that make it – think about the cover of Leviathan.

Does a nation have a right to self-Does a nation have a right to self-determination?determination?

Answering this question involves performing a Answering this question involves performing a balancing act between a commitment to tolerance, a balancing act between a commitment to tolerance, a sensitivity to human rights and an awareness of what is sensitivity to human rights and an awareness of what is practically possible in the State.practically possible in the State.

Historically, attempts to establish independent states for Historically, attempts to establish independent states for nations has led to instability and War.nations has led to instability and War.

Palestinian Problem?Palestinian Problem? It is difficult to argue that a right to self determinism It is difficult to argue that a right to self determinism

can be established, though a claim may still be made.can be established, though a claim may still be made. Restrictions on existing nation states?Restrictions on existing nation states?

Does distributive justice apply globally?Does distributive justice apply globally? Marxists would obviously answer “yes” to this question. Marxists would obviously answer “yes” to this question.

For them, the aim is to dismantle all the forces of For them, the aim is to dismantle all the forces of Capitalism and then apply Communism globally. Capitalism and then apply Communism globally.

Yet, it is worth noting that most “Communist” countries Yet, it is worth noting that most “Communist” countries quickly abandoned this commitment.quickly abandoned this commitment.

Cosmopolitanism is another ideology that opposes Cosmopolitanism is another ideology that opposes limiting justice to nation states.limiting justice to nation states.

Rawls’ Theory of Justice is often used to defend this Rawls’ Theory of Justice is often used to defend this position (though not be Rawls himself).position (though not be Rawls himself).

This cosmopolitan ideal does seem too hopeful – This cosmopolitan ideal does seem too hopeful – international cooperation has rarely produced strong international cooperation has rarely produced strong bonds and never on a universal level.bonds and never on a universal level.

The Just WarThe Just War

The aggression involved in war is at odds with basic The aggression involved in war is at odds with basic values of civilization. It attacks people’s rights to values of civilization. It attacks people’s rights to life, security, subsistence, peace and liberty. life, security, subsistence, peace and liberty. However, just war theory claims that war can, under However, just war theory claims that war can, under certain conditions, be morally justified. Pacifism certain conditions, be morally justified. Pacifism argues that war is never morally justified. Realism argues that war is never morally justified. Realism says that moral concepts cannot be applied to says that moral concepts cannot be applied to questions of war (or foreign policy generally).questions of war (or foreign policy generally).Just war theory divides into three parts:Just war theory divides into three parts: 1. jus ad bellum – the justice of resorting to war;1. jus ad bellum – the justice of resorting to war; 2. jus in bello – just conduct in war;2. jus in bello – just conduct in war; 3. jus post bellum – justice at the end of war.3. jus post bellum – justice at the end of war.

Aquinas’ ConditionsAquinas’ Conditions Following the merging of Church and State (Roman Empire) in the 4Following the merging of Church and State (Roman Empire) in the 4 thth

century CE, Christians were forced to challenge the pacifist values century CE, Christians were forced to challenge the pacifist values they had held for over 300 years.they had held for over 300 years.

The task of somehow fusing Christian principles with the practical The task of somehow fusing Christian principles with the practical necessity of defending the state fell to Thomas Aquinas.necessity of defending the state fell to Thomas Aquinas.

Aquinas reasoned that the Sovereign, as God’s representative on Aquinas reasoned that the Sovereign, as God’s representative on earth, was empowered to use violence in order to resist invasion and earth, was empowered to use violence in order to resist invasion and administer justice. administer justice.

However, resort to war is only justified if the following conditions are However, resort to war is only justified if the following conditions are set in place:set in place: War waged by the War waged by the right authorityright authority There must be There must be sufficient causesufficient cause Right intention Right intention must inform the decision.must inform the decision.

Jus ad bellum:Jus ad bellum:

Just causeJust cause Right intentionRight intention Right authorityRight authority Last resortLast resort Likelihood of successLikelihood of success Proportionately beneficial outcome.Proportionately beneficial outcome.

Jus in belloJus in bello

Weapons prohibited by international law must not be Weapons prohibited by international law must not be used.used.

Only combatants may be targeted.Only combatants may be targeted. Armed forces must use proportional forceArmed forces must use proportional force Prisoners of war must be treated wellPrisoners of war must be treated well No weapons or means of war that are ‘evil in themselves’ No weapons or means of war that are ‘evil in themselves’

are permittedare permitted Armed forces are not justified in breaking these rules in Armed forces are not justified in breaking these rules in

response to the enemy breaking these rules.response to the enemy breaking these rules.

Jus post bellumJus post bellum

Peace declared by the right authorityPeace declared by the right authority The objectives of the war should be The objectives of the war should be

securedsecured Peace settlements must be Peace settlements must be

proportionateproportionate Discrimination between combatants Discrimination between combatants

and non-combatantsand non-combatants

RealismRealism ‘‘Realism’ objects that justice applies within the boundaries of Realism’ objects that justice applies within the boundaries of

a state only. In relation to each other, states act only in terms a state only. In relation to each other, states act only in terms of self-interest. This claim can take either of two forms.of self-interest. This claim can take either of two forms.

According to ‘descriptive realism’, states are simply not According to ‘descriptive realism’, states are simply not motivated by justice. They are motivated by the national motivated by justice. They are motivated by the national interest, including power and security. However, it seems interest, including power and security. However, it seems unlikely that states have no concern with justice – they are unlikely that states have no concern with justice – they are created and sustained by individuals (and a national created and sustained by individuals (and a national community) who are concerned with justice.community) who are concerned with justice.

According to ‘prescriptive realism’, it is prudent for states to According to ‘prescriptive realism’, it is prudent for states to act without regard to morality in foreign policy. It should act without regard to morality in foreign policy. It should respect the conditions laid down by just war theory only if respect the conditions laid down by just war theory only if doing so would be in the best interests of a state to, e.g. If doing so would be in the best interests of a state to, e.g. If doing so would lead to a more peaceful world.doing so would lead to a more peaceful world.

PacifismPacifism Pacifism argues that war is always unjust. Aggression Pacifism argues that war is always unjust. Aggression

by a state does not need to be resisted by war, as there by a state does not need to be resisted by war, as there are other means, less destructive but just as effective, are other means, less destructive but just as effective, such as a very widespread campaign of civil such as a very widespread campaign of civil disobedience and international sanctions. However, disobedience and international sanctions. However, just war theorists will reject this. There can be times just war theorists will reject this. There can be times when these responses work (Gandhi’s campaign to when these responses work (Gandhi’s campaign to free India from the British Raj; Martin Luther King’s free India from the British Raj; Martin Luther King’s campaign for black civil rights) – but they only work campaign for black civil rights) – but they only work when the aggressor is sensitive to claims of justice. when the aggressor is sensitive to claims of justice. But what of an aggressor that responds to such But what of an aggressor that responds to such campaigns with ethnic cleansing? War may be the campaigns with ethnic cleansing? War may be the only means to resist, and can therefore be justified.only means to resist, and can therefore be justified.

ASYMMETRIC WARSASYMMETRIC WARS

An asymmetric war is one in which the two sides differ An asymmetric war is one in which the two sides differ significantly in military resources or tactics. It may significantly in military resources or tactics. It may differ from ‘normal’ or symmetric war only in that one differ from ‘normal’ or symmetric war only in that one state is significantly weaker than the other; or it may state is significantly weaker than the other; or it may involve one side not being a state or even a politically involve one side not being a state or even a politically recognised body; or it may involve tactics of recognised body; or it may involve tactics of unconventional warfare, e.g. guerrilla warfare. unconventional warfare, e.g. guerrilla warfare. Examples, therefore, are very wide-ranging, from the Examples, therefore, are very wide-ranging, from the American Revolution of 1776 (a people v. an imperial American Revolution of 1776 (a people v. an imperial force), World War II once the USA acquired the force), World War II once the USA acquired the nuclear bomb, to the recent conflict between Israel and nuclear bomb, to the recent conflict between Israel and Palestinians in Gaza and the two Gulf Wars of 1990 Palestinians in Gaza and the two Gulf Wars of 1990 and 2003.and 2003.

Applying RawlsApplying Rawls Under the “Original Position” Rawls argues that all would have an equal Under the “Original Position” Rawls argues that all would have an equal

right to self defence.right to self defence. The Veil of Ignorance also leads us to commit to a situation where war may The Veil of Ignorance also leads us to commit to a situation where war may

be used to secure a peace that is preferable to the position experienced pre be used to secure a peace that is preferable to the position experienced pre war – all would rather have this right than a situation where they had to war – all would rather have this right than a situation where they had to endure injustice.endure injustice.

Rawls emphasises the importance of right conduct during conflict – in Rawls emphasises the importance of right conduct during conflict – in particular, the protection of non-combatants. This can only be compromised particular, the protection of non-combatants. This can only be compromised in the eventuality of an “extreme emergency”.in the eventuality of an “extreme emergency”.

Ultimately, for Rawls, war is only justified as a means of protecting human Ultimately, for Rawls, war is only justified as a means of protecting human rights.rights.

Rawls’ position has been criticised on the basis that it fails to account for the Rawls’ position has been criticised on the basis that it fails to account for the deep convictions (religious, political etc) that people hold outside the veil of deep convictions (religious, political etc) that people hold outside the veil of ignorance. ignorance.

Rawls’ response is that, outside the veil, people would see just how Rawls’ response is that, outside the veil, people would see just how destructive such convictions can be.destructive such convictions can be.

Rawls’ original position has also been criticised on the grounds that it is Rawls’ original position has also been criticised on the grounds that it is permanently binding. This would seem unhealthy and inefficient given the permanently binding. This would seem unhealthy and inefficient given the fluid nature of society.fluid nature of society.

Applying MarxApplying Marx According to Marx, war is the product economic tensions that reach According to Marx, war is the product economic tensions that reach

a critical point and lead to a new system (dialectical materialism)a critical point and lead to a new system (dialectical materialism) This process is inevitable and will eventually culminate in the This process is inevitable and will eventually culminate in the

Communist revolution. This will bring an end to all conflict and Communist revolution. This will bring an end to all conflict and warfare will become athing of the past.warfare will become athing of the past.

However, the revolution is a necessary evil that will have to be However, the revolution is a necessary evil that will have to be endured.endured.

Marx has been criticised for presenting his theory as a scientific Marx has been criticised for presenting his theory as a scientific model. Heywood, in model. Heywood, in Political Ideas and ConceptsPolitical Ideas and Concepts argues that argues that revolution is not always caused by economic factors. Rather, a lack revolution is not always caused by economic factors. Rather, a lack of faith in the strength of the leader can prompt rebellion. of faith in the strength of the leader can prompt rebellion.

We can also refer to history as a counter to Marx – rejection of We can also refer to history as a counter to Marx – rejection of capitalism hasn’t become widespread and a more compassionate capitalism hasn’t become widespread and a more compassionate model to the one that Marx experienced has evolved.model to the one that Marx experienced has evolved.