National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) and Maritime Infrastructure Adaptation to Climate Change

Heming Yip Stanford University CEE 129 12/2/2010

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Abstract

Greenhouse gas emissions have contributed to an increase in average global temperature associated with anthropogenic climate change. A principal impact of higher global temperatures is accelerated sea level rise see around the globe. As is the case with many climate change-related impacts, developing countries are often hit the hardest and have the least capacity to respond and adapt to sea level rise or extreme weather events. Additionally, infrastructure is a vital component of developing (and developed) countries’ economies. Therefore, there is an urgent and pressing need for developing countries to assess and protect their vulnerable infrastructure, especially those near the coast, in order to adapt to the impacts of climate change and sea level rise in the coming decades.

This paper investigates the status of climate change adaptation for ports and other

maritime infrastructure in the context of National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPAs) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process. Current and proposed NAPAs as well as their implementation are covered to see if and how they address maritime infrastructure planning in the least developed countries (LDCs). Alternative routes of securing financing for maritime infrastructure adaptation projects for LDCs are also researched and proposed. Introduction Objectives

The primary objective of this research paper is to investigate NAPAs and their stage of proposal or implementation to see if and how they address maritime infrastructure planning in the LDCs. If maritime infrastructure is addressed, the extent to which it is discussed and the specificity—whether they are under broader planning for infrastructure overall, or if they are discussed separately—is a key issue.

The secondary objective of this paper is to explore alternative routes of obtaining financial support and funding for maritime infrastructure adaptation projects in LDCs as well as more advanced developing countries. Recommendations will be made regarding the next steps for LDCs in the context of adapting their maritime infrastructure to climate change. Methods

The primary source for the research of LDC NAPAs and their proposed projects, goals, implementation and cost comes from the summary of projects on infrastructure identified in submitted and completed NAPAs as of September 2008, combined with a slightly more updated list of completed NAPAs from 2010.

The NAPAs of the following 12 countries identify infrastructure adaptation as

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among their adaptation projects: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Comoros, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Guinea, Madagascar, Maldives, Samoa, Sao Tome e Principe, Sierra Leone, and the Soloman Islands. Of these 12 countries, seven specifically identify maritime or coastal infrastructure in their ranked projects: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Madagascar, Maldives, Samoa, Sao Tome e Principe, and the Solomon Islands. Of these seven countries, Bangladesh, Maldives, the Solomon Islands were selected as case studies to investigate maritime infrastructure adaptation in LDCs.

Table 1. Status of preparation of NAPAs Country

Implementing Agency

Current Status Completion Date

Afghanistan UNEP Completed September 2009 Bangladesh UNDP Completed November 2005 Benin UNDP Completed January 2008 Bhutan UNDP Completed May 2006 Burkina Faso UNDP Completed December 2007 Burundi UNDP Completed February 2007 Cambodia UNDP Completed March 2007 Cape Verde UNDP Completed December 2007 Central African Republic

UNEP Completed June 2008

Chad UNDP Completed February 2010 Comoros UNEP Completed November 2006 Democratic Republic of the Congo

UNDP Completed September 2006

Djibouti UNEP Completed October 2006 Eritrea UNDP Completed May 2007 Ethiopia UNDP Completed June 2008 Gambia UNEP Completed January 2008 Guinea UNDP Completed July 2007 Guinea Bissau UNDP Completed February 2008 Haiti UNEP Completed December 2006 Kiribati UNDP Completed January 2007 Lao People’s Democratic Republic

UNDP Completed May 2009

Lesotho UNEP Completed June 2007 Liberia UNEP Completed July 2008 Madagascar World Bank Completed December 2006 Malawi UNDP Completed March 2006 Maldives UNDP Completed March 2008 Mali UNDP Completed December 2007 Mauritania UNEP Completed November 2004 Mozambique UNDP Completed July 2008 Niger UNDP Completed July 2006 Rwanda UNEP Completed May 2007 Samoa UNDP Completed December 2005 São Tomé and Principe

World Bank Completed November 2007

Senegal UNEP Completed November 2006 Sierra Leone UNDP Completed June 2008 Solomon Islands UNDP Completed December 2008 Sudan UNDP Completed July 2007 Togo UNDP Completed September 2009 Tuvalu UNDP Completed May 2007 Uganda UNEP Completed December 2007

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Blue= country with infrastructure-related projects in their NAPAs Bold/underlined=countrywithmaritime/coastalinfrastructure‐relatedprojectsintheirNAPAs

Source: Progress Report on the Least Developed Countries Fund and the Special Climate Change Fund (July 1, 2010), National Adaptation Programmes of Action- Summary of Projects on Infrastructure Identified in Submitted NAPAs as of September 2008

Several LDCs and their NAPAs (or other routes of coastal infrastructure adaptation) will be used as case studies. Their proposed adaptation projects, funding and financing mechanisms from partners, including developed nations and international organizations, are examined. From that, this paper proposes a set of recommendations for LDCs addressing maritime infrastructure, including the central issue of whether NAPAs should even be appropriate forum. Also important is the context in which NAPA is addressed, if at all, and whether maritime infrastructure should be addressed under the NAPA process at all. For example, this paper explores if different countries’ NAPAs group maritime infrastructure as their own distinct issue or as part of broader infrastructure adaptation plans. Terminology

In the context of this paper, maritime or coastal infrastructure is defined as the design of structures (including harbors, lighthouses, wharves, marinas and shipyards) that primarily support shipping and transport, but also possibly including fishing, coastal management and marine activities. Specifically, coastal infrastructure is not categorized by the location of the structures near the coast, but rather its reliance on the coast for its operations. National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) UNFCCC Support for Adaptation in LDCs

At the core of the purpose of NAPAs is the principle that those with the least resources have the least capacity to adapt and are the most vulnerable to climate change impacts. Moreover, the ability of human systems to adapt to and cope with climate change depends on many factors, chief among which is infrastructure. In Article 4.4 of the UNFCCC charter: “Developed countries shall assist the developing countries in meeting costs of adaptation to climate change”, which can be done through capacity building, technology transfer, and different financial mechanisms. In Article 4.9, the UNFCCC states, “Parties shall take full account of the specific needs and special situations of the least developed countries in their actions with regard to funding and transfer of technology.”i NAPAs

NAPAs provide a venue for LDCs to cooperate with the international community

to reduce its future vulnerability to climate change through a process of identifying priority activities that respond to their urgent and immediate needs to adapt to climate

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change. NAPAs are a list of ranked adaptation projects made by LDCs to request funding under the UNFCCC process. NAPAs lay out a plan of action about how to build capacity and enhance coping strategies to adapt to climate change. The purpose of the NAPA process is to facilitate a simplified and direct channel of communication for information relating to the urgent and immediate adaptation needs of LDCs. The planning and implementation of NAPAs include major stakeholder groups and are often coupled to national development activities.

The main content of NAPAs is a list of adaptation projects ranked in terms of

priority, and accompanying rationale and description for each project, designed to address urgent and immediate adaptation needs of LDCs. The steps for the preparation of the NAPAs include synthesis of available information, assessment of vulnerability to current climatic events and impacts and of areas where risks would increase due to future climate change, proposals of key adaptation measures and projects, criteria for prioritizing those measures, and the final selection of a prioritized short list of activities. Past efforts in terms of NAPAs have been plagued by problems of intermittent and insufficient financial support from developed countries to LCDs for mitigation and especially adaptation. The NAPA Process

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There are several approaches in terms of the emphasis of each country’s NAPAs: 1) Some countries plan NAPAs in a comprehensive for the entire country, while others approach NAPAs by 2) key sector or several sectors only, 3) highly vulnerable region or communities only, or 4) One, several or all potential climate hazards. Regardless, the end product of the NAPA process is a concise and well-justified list of actions and projects to address priority vulnerabilities for the country, or at least to build capacity. NAPA Structure and Components The NAPAs of the LDCs selected as case studies all followed a similar format in terms of structure: 1) Background 2) Rationale 3) Description -Suggested actions required -Key objectives -Expected outcomes (short and long term) 4) Implementation -Institutional arrangements, roles -Risks and barriers -Evaluation and monitoring 5) Cost and financial resources Country Case Studies Bangladesh

Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to the impacts of climate change, and is already faces large numbers of climate refugees. More than half of the country is less than 20 feet above sea level, and sea level rise and extreme weather events such as cyclones and heavy rain make climate change an enormous threat for the developing countryii. Storms, cyclones and tidal surges appear to have increased in the coastal areas, and their accompanying threat to coastal infrastructure is something the country is aware of, although it is inadequately addressed in its NAPA. Nevertheless, the country’s NAPA does identify infrastructure as being one of the most impacted sectors for floods, cyclones, and storm surge,

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Coastal/maritime infrastructure in Bangladesh:

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Bangladesh’s coastal protection focused on projects such as afforestation, protection of drinking water and fisheries, etc. instead of coastal infrastructure. Under the criteria for selecting priority activities under the NAPA process, one of the intervention type measures is enhancing resilience of urban infrastructure. While the NAPA does identify infrastructure as being one of the most impacted sectors for floods, cyclones, and storm surges, it does not propose a specific project to address maritime infrastructure under the NAPA process. It does, however, have a project for capacity building for integrating climate change in the planning and designing of infrastructure, a $2 million project to be implemented by the Water Resource Planning Organization (WARPO). It also has a project aimed at enhancing the resilience of urban infrastructure and industries to impacts of climate change, a $2 million funded by the Department of Energy. The objective of the project is to to enhance resilience to climate change (including floods and cyclones) in urban and industrial sectors in the major cities. The primary implementing agency is the Department of Energy, with the secondary implementing agency being the Ministry of Industries. Risks and barriers for the project are typical of many developing countries: lack of understanding and awareness of the climate change issues within the concerned agencies, as well as general ignorance of the importance of climate change adaptation. Evaluation and monitoring for the project is done by a multi-sectoral, multi-stakeholder review committee, and is thus one of the weaker projects when compared to other LDCs that have more stringent and rigorous monitoring and accountability frameworks.

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Maldives

The Maldives faces an existential threat from the imminent dangers of climate change, including sea level rise and severe weather events such as increase in the intensity and frequency of storms in the Indian Ocean. The low elevation (80% of its 1,200 islands are no more than 1m above sea level) and nature of the island nation means that the effects of climate change could expose coastal infrastructure to significant dangers and risksiii. Male, the capital of Maldives

Maritime transport and the infrastructure associated with it have been vital in both the social and economic development of the Maldives. Coastal infrastructure in the Maldives, as in many LDCs, suffers from problems in adequate design and construction. Due to the prohibitively high capital costs, improper design and construction has been prevalent in the Maldives, with harbors constructed in a low-cost manner. As a result, much of the Maldives’ coastal infrastructure (such as concrete flood defenses) is poorly built and like not resilient to the impacts of the severe weather events or sea level rise that climatologist predict will come with climate change. For instance, more than two-thirds of existing harbors were heavily damaged during the 2004 tsunami. Male, the Maldives’ capital, is surrounded by a 3m-high (9.8ft) wall, which took 14 years to construct at a cost of $63 million (mostly aid from Japan). The wall protects only against tidal surges rather than the rising sea level, and similar projects are needed for the Maldives’ other islands, a daunting task. In response to these dire threats, the Maldives has undertaken afforestation and coral reef restoration projects to stop the damage to their natural barrier against tidal surges, but infrastructure changes are crucially important in order to adapt to the long term changes in the coming years.

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To alleviate concerns with climate change, the Maldives has developed a series of

project proposals under NAPA to adapt and reduce their vulnerability to climate change impacts on maritime infrastructure. In addition to coastal-related priority projects (NAPA priority project 4 “Coastal Protection of Male' International Airport to Reduce the Risk from Sea Induced Flooding and Predicted Sea Level Rise” and NAPA priority project 8 “Improve resilience of Island communities to climate change and variability through sustainable building designs”), Maldives has a priority project under the NAPA process to improve the design and construction of access infrastructure to increase their resilience to climate change. The total project cost will be $3,800,000. This project proposes to review existing studies and designs of maritime infrastructure ((cost of activity: $100,000) and design infrastructure that can withstand intense storms and sea level rise (cost of activity: $100,000). These engineering solutions must be environmentally sound, cost effective, and of course, demonstrably climate-resilient. The review would take into consideration current climate change scenarios and forecasts and lastly, demonstrate and test the effectiveness of improved design by constructing a model harbor in a selected Safer Island, an endeavor that would cost $360,000,000. Potential obstacles to the proposed project include high capital costs of developing climate change resilient structures today, as well as the likelihood that the long-term studies required to assess potential effective designs may be beyond the project timeframe.The administering institution is led by the Ministry of Construction and Public Infrastructure, partnering with the Ministry of Planning and National Development, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, the Ministry of Atolls Development, the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water, and the National Disaster Management Centre. The project will be evaluated and monitored according to the national M&E standards set by the President's Office and the Ministry of Planning and National Development (MPND). Quarterly progress reports, expenditure reports, annual monitoring reports will be submitted to MPND.

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Male International Airport

Curiously, the actions under Maldives’ NAPA priority project 4: Coastal Protection of Male’ International Airport to Reduce the Risk from Sea Induced Flooding and Predicted Sea Level Rise have little to nothing to do with protection of infrastructure. It is possible that the proposal, whose chief objectives were 1) increase rainwater harvesting capacity and storage and 2) Acquire technology for emergency freshwater provision, was made with purposes other than maritime infrastructure adaptation in mind. However, there lies a pressing need for the Maldives to address the vulnerability of Male International Airport and protect it from sea level rise and other climate risks. Solomon Islands

Solomon Islands, which is vulnerable to the effects of climate change and sea level rise, is particularly concerned with the potential of future climate variability and change exacerbating the already high pressure on key infrastructure, including coastal

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infrastructure such as wharves are built in or near disaster prone areas. In most islands, harbors constitute the hub of commerce and economic activity. Additionally, many provincial airports are located at or near the coast. Thus the protection and resilience of these infrastructures are high on the list of priorities for climate change adaptation in the Solomon Islands. To avoid high overall cost costs, climate risks must be accounted for in the planning, design and implementation processes for infrastructure.

Proposed adaptation projects and measures under the Solomon Islands’ NAPA include construction of coastal/flood protection/defense systems, gravelling and upgrading of seawall, strengthening of surface area and climate proofing drainage and other protective infrastructure. The project will include a detailed survey of the island coastal system to identify built up areas surveyed. Protective seawalls, revetments, culverts, bulkheads, jetties and floodgates will be constructed. The $1 million proposed projects will request funding from the Least Developed Country Fund (LDCF), and co-financing will be provided by other bilateral development partners and the national government of the Solomon Islands. A harbor in the Solomon Islands following a tsunami

Other Countries with Maritime Infrastructure Adaptation Plans Samoa Like many other LDCs, infrastructure for shipping and transport services are currently a critical part of Samoa’s economy. A well-developed shipping service current links both islands. Samoa is prone to frequent cyclones, and Cyclones Ofa and Val in 1990 and 1991 respectively, caused a total of $440 million of damages (four times the nation’s GDP), with much the damage done to infrastructure. In anticipation of increased

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intensity and frequency of storm activity in the future due to climate change, preparation for protecting government assets and coastal infrastructure has become a priority for Samoa. The Ministry of Natural Resources, Environment & Meteorology (MNREM), in collaboration with other government ministries, has developed plans such as the Infrastructure Asset Management Project, IAMP for Samoa that identify location of key infrastructure protection needs, including maritime infrastructure. Cambodia

In Cambodia, many of the problems that plague infrastructure in other LDCs are evident: many of the existing earth dikes that protect agricultural land in Cambodia’s coastal areas were built prior to the 1960s. These dikes have been damaged by harsh environmental conditions and the lack of proper maintenance, leaving land exposed sea level rise and accompanying seawater intrusion and making it unsuitable for agriculture. In response, Cambodia’s NAPA proposes a project to improve its coastal protection infrastructure through rehabilitation of 10 small-scale coastal protection infrastructures. The proposed efforts to protect agricultural land will in turn strengthen Cambodia’s capacity to adapt to climate change. The Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM) will coordinate the project and MOWRAM's Provincial Departments and concerned nongovernment organizations will implement the 2 year, 2 million dollar, along with collaboration with local authorities.

Conclusion

It is clear that while several countries have proposed projects addressing maritime infrastructure adaptation, the process under NAPA has not been well integrated. Most LDCs still do not consider maritime infrastructure as a top priority when planning for climate change adaptation. Also worth considering is the possibility of alternative routes of obtaining funding for maritime infrastructure projects for LDCs.

Case Study of a Developing Country: Vietnam

Vietnam, though not a LDC, has taken measures to secure funding for adaptation projects outside the NAPA framework. Therefore, Vietnam is a case study worth examining for its relevance to adaptation programs outside of NAPA. Vietnam has its adaptation project “Climate-resilient Infrastructure Planning and Coastal Zone Development” funded by the GEF and SCCF, implemented by the Asian Development Bank and the United Nations Development Programme. Below is a summary of Vietnam’s proposed project:

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Adaptation Project: Climate-resilient Infrastructure Planning and Coastal Zone Development

Implementing Agencies Asian Development Bank, UNDP Implementing Agencies and Partnering Sources

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; Provincial People’s Committees; Ministry of Construction

Funding Source SCCF, GEF Project Grant 3,400,000 USD Total Amount 180,460,000 USD Co-financing Total Financing Amount

176,960,000 USD 3,400,000 USD

Other Frameworks

There are several other frameworks under which maritime infrastructure is currently addressed and can be adopted for LDCs. For example, the Least Developed Countries Fund for Climate Change (LDCF) and Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF), established in 2001, are potential routes in which projects relating to adaptation are funded. The Global Environment Facility (GEF), as the entity that operates the financial mechanism for the SCCF, has been entrusted to operate this fund.

Recommendations

The greatest problem demonstrated by LDC maritime infrastructure adaptation planning under the NAPA process is a general absence of awareness about the very real impacts of climate change to maritime infrastructure, a crucial component of the economies of almost all LDCs with coastal areas. In light of this, the most crucial recommendation for LDCs is to incorporate new information about the impacts of climate change into the conceptual development phases of infrastructure planning. As seen in many LDCs, including the case studies for this paper, there is a pervasive ignorance or lack of knowledge about the imminent impacts of climate change. Therefore, LDCs must develop process for NAPA development at national level that promotes mainstreaming of climate change in development planning.

If NAPAs are judged to be inadequate for adaptation projects when it comes to maritime infrastructure, additional routes and institutions to secure funding should be explored, whether through the GEF, SCCF, banks and co-financing (two or more banks or other lending institutions together financing the same project), or from developed countries. LDCs should learn from more advanced developed countries such as Vietnam to better prepare own adaptation projects.

Lastly, as the primary focus of this paper was to investigate the status of NAPAs in a select few case study countries, further research needed to explore the secondary objective—alternative routes of proposing and obtaining funding for adaptation projects.

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In-Text References

i “Climate Change: Impacts, Vulnerabilities, and Adaptation in Developing Countries.” UNFCCC http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/impacts.pdf ii "In Bangladesh, climate change is a matter of life and death" NBC 12/7/2009 http://worldblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2009/12/07/4376387-in-bangladesh-climate-change-is-a-matter-of-life-and-death iii "From underwater, Maldives sends warning on climate change" CNN 10/17/2009 http://articles.cnn.com/2009-10-17/world/maldives.underwater.meeting_1_maldives-climate-change-sea-levels?_s=PM:WORLD Primary Sources Progress Report on the Least Developed Countries Fund and the Special Climate Change Fund” GEF, July 1, 2010 “National Adaptation Programmes of Action- Summary of Projects on Infrastructure Identified in Submitted NAPAs as of September 2008” UNFCC September 2008