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National College of Business
Administration and Economics
Lahore
IMPACT OF MANAGERIAL COACHING ON EMPLOYEE JOB PERFORMANCE:
A MEDIATION ANALYSIS
BY
MUHAMMAD ALI
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
MARCH, 2017
ii
NATIONAL COLLEGE OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMICS
IMPACT OF MANAGERIAL COACHING ON EMPLOYEE JOB PERFORMANCE:
A MEDIATION ANALYSIS
BY
MUHAMMAD ALI
A dissertation submitted to School of Business Administration
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
March, 2017
iii
In the name of ALLAH,
The Compassionate,
The Merciful
iv
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I, Muhammad Ali hereby state that my Ph.D. thesis titled “Impact of
Managerial Coaching on Employee Job Performance: A Mediation
Analysis” is my own work and has not been submitted previously by me for
taking any degree from this university, National College of Business
Administration and Economics, Lahore or anywhere else in the
country/world.
At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my
graduate the university has the right to withdraw my Ph.D. degree.
Muhammad Ali
March, 2017
v
PLAGIARISM UNDERTAKING
I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled
“Impact of Managerial Coaching on Employee Job Performance:
A Mediation Analysis” is solely my research work with no significant
contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help whenever taken
has been duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been written by me.
I understand the zero-tolerance policy of the HEC and National College
of Business Administration and Economics, Lahore towards plagiarism.
Therefore, I as an Author of the above titled thesis declare that no portion of
my thesis has been plagiarized and any material used as reference is
properly/cited.
I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the
above title thesis even after award of PhD degree, the university reserves the
right to withdraw/revoke my PhD degree and that HEC and the University has
the right to publish my name on the HEC/University website on which names
of students are placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.
Muhammad Ali
vi
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
This is to certify that research work presented in the thesis, entitled
“Impact of Managerial Coaching on Employee Job Performance: A Mediation
Analysis” was conducted by Mr. Muhammad Ali under the supervision of
Dr. Suleman Aziz Lodhi.
No part of this thesis has been submitted anywhere else for any other degree.
This thesis is submitted to the School of Business Administration in partial
fulfillment of requirements for the degree of requirements for the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy in the field of Business Administration, School of Business
Administration, National College of Business Administration and Economics,
Lahore.
Student Name: Signature:
Examination Committee:
a) External Examiner 1:
Signature:
b) External Examiner 2:
Signature:
c) Internal Examiner 1:
Signature:
Supervisor: Signature:
Dean/HOD: Signature:
vii
DEDICATION
Dedicated To
Almighty Allah
&
Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him)
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praise to the gracious, the greatest Almighty Allah who blessed us
with the courage and made our efforts fruitful for the completion of this
research to a happy end. Without Allah’s assistance, a dissertation like this
would never have come to fruition. I am especially thankful to my parents, and
brother, Wasif Ali and whole family for supporting me throughout my career
as well encouraging me for completion of this research. I must say that I feel
grateful to be among you people and for all your contributions in your
individual capabilities.
It gives us immense pleasure to express the deepest gratitude
to Dr. Suleman Aziz Lodhi for his advice and encouragement. His masterly
expression, stimulating criticism, moral support, inspiring comments, and
strong motivation compelled me to think freely and write independently
throughout my Ph.D. research work. I am grateful to his for this perceptiveness
and guidance during my research work. I am deeply thankful to my
all respected professors; Dr. Alia Ahmed, Dr. Muhammad Shafique,
Dr. Muhammad Hanif, and Dr. Amman Ullah for providing professional
guidance, support, and research orientation. Without their help and support,
I could not have been able to complete my program successfully.
I am also very grateful to Tariq Mahmood, Deputy Director, Community
Development Unit, Public Health Engineering Department, Govt. of the
Punjab, for his support in data collection from intended respondents. I am
deeply indebted to and would like to thank Dr. Ahmad Raza, for his constant
support and guidance throughout this journey. I would also like to thank
Basharat Raza and Muhammad Faran who helped me a lot in completing this
thesis with their knowledge and skills. They were always there for me
whenever I needed their help and needed to understand something. I will never
forget their unconditional friendship and the tough time we spend together.
I am proud to be a part of this wonderful group.
ix
SUMMARY
Coaching is turning into a vital area for human resource development
experts. Human resource development professionals, researchers, training
related experts and organizational psychologists have started to explore
intensively the nature of managerial coaching and its consequences. This study
investigated the impact of managerial coaching on employee job performance
and explored that how the impact is transferred on job performance using
structural equation modeling. A conceptual model was developed based on
systematic literature review in the domains of management, HRD, and
managerial coaching. The perceived organizational support theory was used
for identification of constructs as well as the development of relationship
among different employee outcomes in the conceptual model. The model
included managerial coaching as the independent variable and perceived
employee job performance as the dependent variable. The conceptual model
also included two layers of mediating variables between the relationship of
managerial coaching and job performance. The first layer included role clarity,
work engagement, and leader-member exchange quality. The second layer
included job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions.
A 66-item survey including eight instruments was utilized to collect data
from a public-sector organization in province Punjab, Pakistan. Using census
technique, 216 survey was sent to target population via email, post, and
personal visit. The 190 surveys were received back for a response rate of 87
percent and 183 responses was utilized for analysis. Internal consistency based
on composite reliability, convergent validity based on average variance
extracted, discriminant validity based on Fornell-Larcker criterion, and
multicollinearity based on variance inflation factor were confirmed. The
Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was used for
hypotheses testing. The Sobel test was also used for testing double mediation
models.
The results of analyses indicated that various relationships hypothesized
in conceptual model were supported. The analyses indicated that managerial
coaching had a direct impact on perceived employee job performance, role
clarity, work engagement, and leader-member-exchange quality. Role clarity,
as a direct outcome of managerial coaching influenced job satisfaction and
turnover intentions. Work engagement as a direct outcome of managerial
coaching influenced job satisfaction and turnover intentions. Leader-Member
exchange quality, as a direct outcome of managerial coaching influenced job
satisfaction and turnover intentions. Job satisfaction and turnover intentions
influenced perceived job performance as well. This study provides an evidence
x
regarding proposed effectiveness of managerial coaching, and enhances
selected theory by providing offering additional support. The mediation
analysis also revealed that role clarity, work engagement, leader-member
exchange quality, job satisfaction and turnover intentions mediated the
influence the managerial coaching on job performance. The findings reveal
that managers can utilize managerial coaching to enhance various attitudes and
behaviors of employees. Managerial positively affects perceived employees’
role clarity, work engagement, leader-member-exchange quality, job
satisfaction and reduces turnover intentions. The research, theoretical, and
practical implication of study, limitation and future direction are also
discussed.
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION ................................................................................... iv
PLAGIARISM UNDERTAKING ............................................................................... v
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL ............................................................................... vi
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................... viii
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xiv
LIST OF FIGURE ...................................................................................................... xv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................... 6
1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................. 7
1.4 Objectives of the Research .................................................................................. 8
1.5 Significance of the Study..................................................................................... 8
1.6 Justification of the Study ..................................................................................... 8
1.7 Operational Definitions ....................................................................................... 9
1.8 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 10
1.9 Organization of the Dissertation ........................................................................ 11
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................... 12
2.1 Overview .......................................................................................................... 12
2.2 Literature Review Procedure ............................................................................. 12
2.3 Manager as Coach ............................................................................................. 13
2.4 Concept of Coaching ......................................................................................... 15
2.4.1 Open Communication ............................................................................. 16
2.4.2 Team Approach ....................................................................................... 16
2.4.3 Value People Over Task ......................................................................... 17
2.4.4 Accept Ambiguity ................................................................................... 17
2.4.5 Facilitate Development ........................................................................... 17
2.5 Comparing Coaching ......................................................................................... 18
2.5.1 Coaching vs. Counseling ........................................................................ 18
2.5.2 Coaching vs. Mentoring .......................................................................... 19
2.5.3 Managerial Coaching vs. Executive Coaching ....................................... 19
2.6 Research Studies on Managerial Coaching ....................................................... 19
xii
CHAPTER 3: MANAGERIAL COACHING AND JOB PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE LAYERED MODEL ..................................... 25
3.1 Overview .......................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................... 25
3.3 Consequences of Managerial Coaching ............................................................ 28
3.3.1 Role Clarity ............................................................................................. 28
3.3.2 Work Engagement .................................................................................. 29
3.3.3 Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Quality ............................................ 30
3.8.4 Job Satisfaction ....................................................................................... 31
3.8.5 Organizational Commitment ................................................................... 32
3.3.6 Turnover Intentions ................................................................................. 32
3.3.7 Job Performance ...................................................................................... 32
3.4 Relationship between Managerial Coaching and Job Performance .................. 33
3.5 Relationship between Managerial Coaching and Role Clarity ......................... 34
3.6 Relationship between Managerial Coaching and Work Engagement ............... 36
3.7 Relationship between Managerial Coaching and Leader-Member
Exchange Quality .............................................................................................. 38
3.8 Relationship of Role Clarity with Job Satisfaction, Organizational
Commitment, and Turnover Intentions ............................................................. 39
3.9 Relationship of Work Engagement with Job Satisfaction, Organizational
Commitment, and Turnover Intentions. ............................................................ 42
3.10 Relationship of Leader-Member Exchange Quality with Job Satisfaction,
Organizational Commitment, and Turnover Intentions .................................... 44
3.11 Relationship of Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and Turnover
Intentions with Job Performance ....................................................................... 46
3.12 Managerial Coaching and Job Performance Layered Model ............................ 47
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................... 52
4.1 Overview .......................................................................................................... 52
4.2 Research Design ................................................................................................ 52
4.3 Population .......................................................................................................... 52
4.4 Study Sample ..................................................................................................... 53
4.4.1 Demographics Characteristics of Respondents....................................... 53
4.5 Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................... 54
4.6 Human Subjects Protection ............................................................................... 55
4.7 Instrument Development ................................................................................... 55
4.8 Data Analysis Procedures .................................................................................. 58
CHAPTER 5: RESULTS ......................................................................................... 61
5.1 Overview .......................................................................................................... 61
xiii
5.2 Means, Standard Deviation, and Correlation Matrix ........................................ 61
5.3 Reliability Analysis ........................................................................................... 62
5.4 Evaluation of Measurement Model ................................................................... 63
5.4.1 Internal Consistency................................................................................ 63
5.4.2 Convergent Validity ................................................................................ 64
5.4.3 Discriminant Validity.............................................................................. 66
5.4.4 Common Method Bias ............................................................................ 67
5.5 Evaluation of Structural Model ......................................................................... 68
5.5.1 Multi-Collinearity Assessment ............................................................... 68
5.5.2 Size and Significance of Path Coefficients ................................................. 69
5.5.3 Coefficients of Determination (R2) .............................................................. 71
5.5.4 Effect Size 2f
............................................................................................... 72
5.5.5 Predictive Relevance (Q2) ............................................................................. 74
5.6 Mediation Analysis ............................................................................................ 74
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................. 80
6.1 Overview .......................................................................................................... 80
6.2 Discussion .......................................................................................................... 80
6.3 Contribution of the Study .................................................................................. 85
6.4 Limitations and Future Directions ..................................................................... 87
6.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 88
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 90
ANNEXURE A ........................................................................................................ 118
ANNEXURE B ........................................................................................................ 121
ANNEXURE C ........................................................................................................ 125
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table
No. Title Page
4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 54
5.1 Means, Standard Deviation (SD), and Correlation Matrix 61
5.2 Cronbach’s Alpha 62
5.3 Composite Reliability 64
5.4 Outer Loadings 65
5.5 Average Variance Extracted 66
5.6 Fornell-Larcker Criterion 67
5.7 Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) 68
5.8 Results of Structural (Inner) Model 70
5.9 Coefficients of Determination 72
5.10 Effect Size 2f 73
5.11 Predictive Relevance (Q2) 74
xv
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure
No. Title Page
3.1 Managerial Coaching and Employee Job Performance
Layered Model
49
4.1 Systematic Evaluation of PLS-SEM Results 59
5.1 Model 1 75
5.2 Model 2 75
5.3 Model 3 76
5.4 Model 4 76
5.5 Model 5 77
5.6 Model 6 77
5.7 Model 7 78
5.8 Model 8 78
5.9 Model 9 79
1
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Coaching can be found in the management literature of the 1950s and it
is not a new organizational practice (Evered & Selman, 1989). During these
initial years, the concept of coaching was mostly theorized like a
developmental relationship between the master and apprentice. Before 1950,
the word “coaching” always referred to the sports trainer wearing a cap and
blowing the whistle. Generally, Mace (1950) suggested the actual description
of coaching for the first time as a managerial technique for employees’
guidance and development. In the 1970s and later, when the notion of
coaching in games was transformed into organizational and management
frameworks, the idea of coaching became more famous in organizations
(Evered & Selman, 1989; McNutt & Wright, 1995). Practically, coaching rose
gradually as managerial practices during the 1980s and initial 1990s and then
suddenly prevailed rapidly in the literature of human resource development. A
lot of famous books, essays, and articles discussed and regularly published on
the concept of coaching and consequently, coaching has achieved more
significance in the management literature. Anyhow, being a new field of
knowledge, the subject requires advanced analysis and review as it is a less
discovered and less inquired area which is quite significant to HRD (Kim,
2014).
The academic and practitioner literature has given remarkable
recognition to the coaching and has become famous internationally (Segers,
Vloeberghs, Henderickx, & Inceoglu, 2011). Its importance for human
resource development experts and organizations can be realized by growing
number of publications on the topic of coaching in leadership, psychology and
HRD (Dagley, 2010). The expansion and demand for coaching in the present
era go parallel with this increasing literature and research (Ellinger, Ellinger,
Bachrach, Wang, & Baş, 2011; Gray & Goregaokar, 2010). Numerous types of
specialized coaching experts are available as a result of its growing demand.
Naughton (2002) proposed several types of coaching while stating “there are
life coaches, relationship coaches, money coaches, dating coaches, spiritual
coaches, weight-loss coaches, peak performance coaches, coaches for students,
coaches for professionals, coaches for therapists, and even coaches for
coaches” (p. 24). Similarly, Cox, Bachkirova, and Clutterbuck (2014)
identified that numerous distinct perspectives explain the concept of coaching.
2
In the context of organizations, it denotes classification of roles that
demonstrates rising coaching activities; for example, coach as line managers or
internal and external specialized coaches.
Coaching has been identified as most important and essential role to be
performed by human resource development experts among their different roles
in organizations (McLagan, 1996). Moreover, American Society for Training
and Development (ASTD) mentioned coaching as an important area of
expertise for training and learning professionals in 2004 competency model.
As per the new version of The ASTD Competency Model, coaching as a core
competency for the training and development profession remains 1 of 10 areas
of expertise in 2013. Coaching is also observed as organization development
(OD) strategy or an exceptional type of OD for the purpose of defining the
aims of organizational members, providing them resources, or eliminating any
barriers and hurdles, and in enhancing their productivity (Cummings &
Worley, 2009; Kim, Egan, & Moon, 2013).
In the organizational framework, practicing coaching has become
famous and prevailing progressively. Basically, coaching has two types
regarding organizations: one is executive coaching and the other is managerial
coaching in which the organizational managers perform the duties of a coach.
In the present study, such form of coaching is termed as managerial coaching
in which employees receive coaching from managers. Similarly, in executive
coaching, executives in organizations are the receiver of coaching.
Coaching appeared as a modern trend or metaphor of management
(Ellinger, Ellinger, & Keller, 2003). In organizations, managerial coaching has
rapidly become famous (Ellinger, Hamlin, & Beattie, 2008). A lot of
consulting companies has launched the different types of training courses.
Furthermore, coaching diplomas have also been started by various educational
and professional organizations. Relatedly, a new research conducted by
International Coaching Federation (ICF) revealed that worldwide
organizations have broadly started specialized coaching (as cited in Kim,
Egan, & Moon, 2013). For HRD specialist and employees, managerial
coaching has become a common focus which is described as an efficient
managerial activity which is helpful in enhancing learning and productivity of
employees (Ellinger, Ellinger, Hamlin, & Beattie, 2010). The theme of
coaching has been comprehensively covered in various books, book chapters
and journal articles published in the field of psychology and management
(A. Gilley, Gilley, & Kouider, 2010). Furthermore, Bartlett (2007) emphasized
that coaching is among the rapidly developing methods of HRD.
3
Organizations are experiencing growing challenges, rapid
transformations, and pressures from various stakeholders in the current
working context. Furthermore, for-profit organizations are especially going
through many changing circumstances, such as changing technologies and
products, reduced phases of goods production, changing demands of
stakeholders and customers, restructuration of channels and modified patterns
of purchasing (Ingram, LaForge, Locander, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2005).
In the light of above factors, to achieve further success for organizations,
managers, and workers both are equally demanded to become more reactive
and exert extra efforts to help the organizations to achieve their goals. For
gaining competitive advantage, the importance of managerial coaching has
been increased in contemporary organizations because of continuous demand
for innovation and organizational learning. The dynamic and global
environment of organizations provide endless chances of promoting
developmental changes and such environment also demand organizations to
capture and share knowledge with others in the learning organizations
(Ellinger, Ellinger, Yang, & Howton, 2002). In order to achieve these
objectives, as well as organizational learning, organizations have started
significant financing for the growth of human & social capital (Ellinger et al.,
2011).
For the purpose of the enhancing job performance of workers, designing
occupational learning & reforms and implementing advancement plans for
future managers and leaders, managerial coaching has been commonly
recognized as an effective and crucial tool (Ellinger et al., 2010; A. Gilley et
al., 2010; Yukl, 1994). Fundamentally, managerial coaching often observed as
a one-on-one developmental relationship and important managerial leadership
style. However, with reference to supervision, managerial coaching differs
from mentoring in a way that immediate job development is the common focus
of managerial coaching, on the other hand mentoring stresses on the sustaining
job for long span (Kim & Egan, 2011). It has been revealed by different essays
and theoretical writings of expert that managerial coaching is not merely
proved to be fruitful in enhancing output and monetary profits of organizations
but also boost job satisfaction of workers (Kellough & Nigro, 2002; Park,
2007; Zemke, 1996). Moreover, time to time managers’ feedback can help in
minimizing employee uncertainties and pressures, and can encourage them to
achieve their organizational targets as organizational matters and job
responsibilities have become so much complicated (Kim, 2010; Peterson &
Hicks, 1996).
Besides emphasizing on organizational change and learning, it has been
increasingly observed as a shift in organizations, managers and leaders are
carrying out the responsibilities of coaching and development which are
4
usually related to HRD professionals (Liu & Batt, 2010). Currently, such
transfer of HRD responsibilities toward managers and leader motivate them to
perform the tasks of assessing, recognizing and advancing human capitals,
which are the basic functions of managerial coaching (Kim, Egan, Kim, &
Kim, 2013). While, in the past they were only confined to supervision, control
and command (Ellinger et al., 2003; Evered & Selman, 1989).
Because of increased concentration of organizations on employees,
consumers and methods of gaining profits (Pfeffer & Veiga, 1999), the
traditional regulatory patterns of management are now replaced by modern
styles of management that are unbiased, collaborative and enabling (Stevens &
Ash, 2001). In such new styles of management, modern practices such as
motivating, coaching and helping employees for learning and growth are
demanded from leaders and managers (Feldman & Lankau, 2005). Indeed,
professionals recommend that in order to enhance worker’s job performance,
the supervisors ought to turn down certain powers and influences and satisfy
their new position as a coach (Hotek, 2002).
Thus, managers are likely to fulfill the responsibilities as educators
(Cohen & Tichy, 1998), trainers (Evered & Selman, 1989; Frisch, 2001; L.
Marsh, 1992; Orth, Wilkinson, & Benfari, 1987), counselors (Booth, 1996),
developers (Hyman & Cunningham, 1998), strategic learning managers
(Larsen, 1997), and learning champions (J. W. Gilley, 2000) in order to
facilitate employee’s growth and development. Similarly, Webber (1993,
January–February) proclaimed that “managers, therefore, have to attract and
motivate the best people, reward, recognize, and retain them, train, educate,
and improve them and in the most remarkable reversal of all, serve and satisfy
them” (p. 27).
Parsloe and Rolph (2004, June) highlighted that nowadays classroom
training method is fading and contemporary organizations are promoting
coaching as a human resource development strategy. Furthermore, it was
acknowledged in a review of leadership development activities by Hernez-
Broome and Hughes (2004) that leadership development embedded in leader’s
workplace and continuous performance feedback can create considerable
effects. Because of these reasons, for the purpose of enhancing learning and
management development, coaching and on-the-job training techniques are
recognized as the most efficient practices (Parsloe & Rolph, 2004). So, it can
be said that regarding the workplace, individuals learn and develop through
performing the job and with the help of their coaches.
Colombo and Werther (2003) claimed that individual and organization
both gain equal benefits through coaching. Individuals get advantages like
5
increased employee attention, greater inspiration, quick development of
employee, better coworkers relationship, quick learning and professional
success & stability (Longenecker & Simonetti, 2001). While in the case of
organizations, coaching can produce efficient coaches as such coaches can
propose productive development plans. Coaching can also promote the value
of considering outcomes, enable organizational learning, and can speed up
solving problems (Redshaw, 2000). The level of organizational learning can be
enhanced through such types of coaching environment while charges on other
useless developmental approaches can be minimized. However, as stated by
the manager, in the whole job life of an individual there will be hardly two or
more managers who consider coaching critically and this become reality when
an individual also become a manager in his/her career. If organizations want to
improve their performance they required focusing on this phenomenon
(Redshaw, 2000).
Managerial coaching is a source for facilitating employee learning
within the organization through job experiences and activities. The “little extra
each time” can be saved through managers and leader’s positive and
expressive feedback and can be added progressively to the overall
organizational effectiveness. In the absence of such feedback, employees will
be unable to identify that whether they are meeting the demand of
organizational consumers or performing per the requirements of leaders and
manager. Moreover, it is difficult to specify efficient or inefficient working of
employees without such feedback (King & Eaton, 1999).
In the view of many authors, there is a positive relation between a
leadership style which embed coaching and employees job performance (Grant
& Cavanagh, 2004; King & Eaton, 1999) as it is commonly observed that the
people who are more devoted and diligent to their job are actually those who
gain appreciation and respect from their managers because they achieve more
from their jobs. Therefore, Redshaw (2000) claimed that both employees and
organizations get numerous benefits from managerial coaching and according
to current research studies, in order to develop abilities of front-line
employees, investment in organizational coaching activities can be useful for
improving performance (Hannah, 2004) and customer satisfaction (Kiger,
2002).
Various organizations have confidence in the team-based style of
working wherein teams are self-managed and responsible for their own
management (Solansky, 2008). However, it is observed these teams does not
require a leader for optimal team performance but external leader affects the
job performance of employees in self-directed teams (Druskat & Wheeler,
2003). It has been highlighted in different theories and studies that because of
6
the encouraging and empowering nature of managerial coaching, it is an
important behavior exhibited by the external leader. By encouraging team
reflection, these managers cum coaches improve the job performance of the
team. The coaches motivate the team to reconsider their aims, plan, and
practices, to analyze their achievements & losses and to evaluate whether they
are doing the appropriate job or not (Schippers, Den Hartog, & Koopman,
2007) with the help of critical examination, attention and giving performance
feedback (Ellinger et al., 2003). In numerous working conditions, regular
evaluation of dynamic team environment is necessary for the purpose of taking
a corrective action (Hoegl & Parboteeah, 2006) as the performance of the team
is determined by the team reflection (Schippers et al., 2007).
Several organizations have started investing all over for the promotion of
managerial coaching because of the belief that by increasing the reflection of
self-directing teams, managerial coaching helps in developing the performance
of these teams (Redshaw, 2000). Nevertheless, this belief is controversial that
every time by increasing team reflection, managerial coaching will enhance the
performance of the team. However, according to leadership functional
perspective (McGrath, 1962), to perform any task that is not effectively
managed by the team themselves is the primary responsibility of external leader
(Morgeson, Dierdorff, & Hmurovic, 2010). Therefore, in accordance with these
reasons, the coaching services of external manager for achieving better team
performance are less required by reflective teams. On the other hand, there is an
increasing demand for external manager’s coaching services by the poorly
national teams as they are unable to analyze their performance.
Many studies highlighted that managerial coaching provides a number
of advantages including worker’s role clarity, improved working and learning
outcomes, improved work performance, improved communication, job
satisfaction, professional relationships and more career & organizational
commitment (Agarwal, Angst, & Magni, 2009; Ellinger et al., 2011; Ellinger
et al., 2003; Elmadağ, Ellinger, & Franke, 2008; Wang, 2013).
Correspondingly, according to Paustian‐Underdahl et al. (2013), employees’
job performance, collaboration, satisfaction, organizational commitment can
be improved and turnover intentions can be minimized with the help of
encouraging managers. Therefore, benefits of managerial coaching are similar
with those as identified for supportive managers.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
There is a paucity of investigation about the influence of managerial
coaching on employee job outcomes and organizational performance (Grant &
7
Cavanagh, 2004; Hagen, 2012; Hamlin, Ellinger, & Beattie, 2006; McLean,
Yang, Kuo, Tolbert, & Larkin, 2005). The link between managerial coaching
and employee job performance is not sufficiently elaborated because rare
research studies have uncovered mediating variables to explain the effect of
the managerial coaching on job performance (Hagen, 2012; Pousa & Mathieu,
2014b). Although a few existing studies have investigated one or two
intervening variables (Kim & Kuo, 2015). The effectiveness of managerial
coaching is doubtful in the high-distance eastern culture as this type of
coaching is more useful in low-distance western culture (Rosinski, 2003). A
few argues that managerial coaching practices are not suitable for eastern
cultural orientation because managerial coaching was initiated in the Western
culture (Evered & Selman, 1989; Hagen, 2012). The organizations in Eastern
culture support top-down decision making, high power distance, authoritarian
style of leadership and management, on the other hand, organization in
western cultures appreciate managerial coaching, job autonomy, participative
style of leadership and management, and participative decision making
(Hofstede, 2001; McLean et al., 2005). An important gap in the literature of
managerial coaching is lack of investigation of its impact and practices away
from the Western culture (Beattie et al., 2014).
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This study addresses the following research questions.
• How managerial coaching directly affect perceived employee job
performance?
• How managerial coaching effect employee role clarity, work
engagement and Leader-member-exchange quality?
• How employee role clarity, work engagement, and leader-member-
exchange quality affect employee job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, and turnover intentions?
• How employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
turnover intentions effect perceived employee job performance?
• How the influence of managerial coaching is shifted on perceived
employee job performance through mediation mechanism?
8
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH
This research examines the direct influence of managerial coaching on
employee job performance and indirect influence through mediation
mechanism. This study analyzes the mediating effects of different employee
attitudes between the relationship of managerial coaching and job performance
through two layers of mediating variables; the first layer includes; role clarity,
work engagement, and leader-member exchange quality; second layer
includes; turnover intentions, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
This study conducts a survey to confirm proposed relationship among these
constructs in a public-sector organization of Pakistan.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This research assists leaders and managers within organizations to realize
the value of their coaching skills for improvement of desired employee attitudes
and behaviors like employee role clarity, work engagement, perceived leader-
member-exchange quality, turnover intentions, job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, and job performance in organizations. This research is also helpful
for human resource development experts for introducing managerial coaching as
cost effective HRD strategy for employee learning and development to improve
their current and future job performance rather than relying on classroom
training method. The findings are also beneficial for internal coaches, line
managers, practitioners, and researchers to improve coaching practices as well
as increasing evidence on managerial coaching.
1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
This study investigates managerial coaching effectiveness in the South
Asian country, Pakistan as well as describes managerial coaching effectiveness
in Eastern culture. The findings are also beneficial for HRD professionals as
well as researchers for an understanding of managerial coaching effectiveness in
the local context. This study followed mediation mechanism which in important
for understanding the transfer of managerial coaching on employee job
performance via different employee attitudes and behaviors which are also
important for improving employee effectiveness in organizations. This research
also introduces work engagement and leader-member exchange quality as
outcomes of managerial coaching which are important workplace attitudes for
improving employee performance in the workplace.
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1.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS According to Park, Yang, and McLean (2008), managerial coaching
(MC) is a method for developing employees by which employees are being facilitated in the practice of self-development. Managerial coaching not only improves the bad performance of employees but also boosts their capabilities. It is not merely a practice nor does it happen at a time. Managers can make use of the regular opportunities for employee’s development by deeply rooting coaching practice in the organizational values.
According to Tubre and Collins (2000), a role can be defined as “a
pattern of behaviors perceived by an employee as behaviors that are expected” (p.156). Role Clarity (RC) in context of this study is defined as a condition in which employee is aware of duties assigned to him in accordance with his status in the organization.
Work engagement (WE) can be defined as “a positive, fulfilling, work-
related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption” (Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, & Bakker, 2002, p. 74). Vigor refers to significant strength and adaptability, a desire to do struggle in the work, and while facing problems not to be weak and inflexible. Dedication can be defined as active participation in the job, eagerness, and a feeling of self-respect and motivation. It is like a strong emotional attachment to your work. While absorption can be stated as a pleasurable psychological condition of being fully engaged in your job, undergo quick time pass and not being able to disengage from your work. It also refers to being well focused and having a pleasing interest in your work.
The nature of the employee-manager reciprocal association is termed as
Leader-Member-Exchange (LMX) Quality. There are four components of LMX quality (Liden & Maslyn, 1998). The mutual attachment between dyad members established on the grounds of personal empathy for each other instead of work or organizational values is called affect. Loyalty refers to showing support for objectives and the personality of another member of LMX dyad. On the other hand, for achieving common dyad objectives (hidden or open), the degree to which each member of LMX dyad exert effort to achieve common goals is called a contribution. The level of prestige achieved by dyad members within or outside their organization due to their outstanding work is called professional respect.
Job satisfaction (JS) is an individual positive feelings about the job
(Seashore, Lawler, Mirvis, & Cammann, 1983).
10
Organizational Commitment (OC) is an affective attachment to the organization and it goal and an individual wish to remain the member of the organization (Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993).
According to Spector (1997), turnover intentions (TI) are defined as
thoughts of quitting and intentions of looking for a different job. Employee job performance (JP)“is defined as the level of achievement
at assigned job duties” (L. J. Williams & Anderson, 1991).
1.8 METHODOLOGY
Coaching is getting special attention in the literature of human resource
development. Recently, a subject specific journal “Advances in Developing Human Resource” and another journal “The journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences” published special issues on coaching which reflected the significance of coaching. Coaching is turning into a vital area for human resource development experts. The traditional role of managers and leaders is shifting from controlling and commanding. Now, they have become a facilitator of learning within organizations. Managerial coaching has been recognized as a critical set of activities for supervisor and subordinate success. This research aimed to unfold the influence of managerial coaching on various employee attitudes and behaviors of employees working in a public-sector organization; Community Development Unit (CDU), Public Health Engineering Department (PHED), Govt. of the Punjab, Headquartered in Lahore, Pakistan. This department strives to provide safe drinking water in Brackish areas and other areas having contaminated ground water or unsafe drinking water, pollution free environment by construction of sewerage/drainage schemes, sewerage treatment plants to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for improving the quality of life in the province, Punjab. This department has a set up in every district of the Punjab in two units, engineering unit and community development unit (CDU). This study focused on the community development unit (CDU) of this department.
A survey methodology was used for data collection through self-
administered questionnaire from individual employees. The target population of this study was 216 community-based motivators (CBMs) working in community development unit. The census technique was used a sampling procedure and questionnaires were distributed to all subjects of the population. The 190 questionnaires were received back and 183 were used for data analysis because 7 questionnaires were not appropriately filled.
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The SPSS (version 22) and Smart PLS 3 were used for analysis of primary data. The different statistical techniques are applied to analyze data. For instance, composite reliability for analysis of the internal consistency of measures, average variance extracted (AVE) for ensuring convergent validity, variance inflation factor for multi-collinearity assessment. The Partial least square-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) is used for hypotheses testing in this research. The R2, f2 and Q2 are also used for PLS model’s goodness of fit. The Sobel test is also used for testing mediating effects in the conceptual model.
1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION Chapter 1 presents the introduction, statement of the problem, research
questions, objectives of the study, significance of the research, justification of the study, research methodology and data analysis techniques.
Chapter 2 presents a literature review on managerial coaching which
included a definition of coaching, comparison of coaching with counseling, mentoring, and executive coaching, existing studies on managerial coaching, theoretical framework, hypotheses development, and managerial coaching, and employee job performance layered model.
The chapter 3 presents theoretical framework, consequences of
managerial coaching, hypotheses development and conceptual model. Chapter 4 presents research methodology which includes research
design, target population, study sample, data collection procedures, human subjects protections, instrument development, and ethical considerations.
Chapter 5 presents results for evaluation of measurement model and
evaluation of structural model for hypotheses testing by using PLS-SEM.
Chapter 6 presents discussion, research, theoretical, and practical implications of this research, limitations and future direction, and conclusion.
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CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 OVERVIEW
This chapter presents review of literature regarding key aspects of
managerial coaching and its consequences. Literature review discusses role of
manager as coach, contrast coaching with other similar concepts like
counseling, mentoring and executive coaching. The chapter also describes
research studies regarding the effectiveness of managerial coaching
(chronologically), theoretical framework, conceptual model, and hypotheses
development. The procedure of literature review is given in the following
section.
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW PROCEDURE
Literature synthesizing procedure was followed to interpret, evaluate
and integrate literature (Pan, 2016). The procedure adopted for literature
review include; (1) searching and selecting books, book chapters and articles,
(2) summarizing the selected literature (3) synthesizing relevant information
from the summaries. These keywords managerial coaching, leader-member
exchange quality, work engagement, role clarity, turnover intentions, job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance were used for
searching literature. The literature for eight latent variables of study was
selected based on following criteria.
• Identified scholarly publications had a keyword in the title or abstract
related to the eight variables, managerial coaching, leader-member
exchange quality, work engagement, role clarity, turnover intentions,
job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance.
• A criterion for defining scholarly publication was as a publication with
five or more pages, with five or more scholarly references, and
underwent a double-blinded peer review.
• The preliminary search for scholarly publication was limited up to 15
journals in the field of organizational psychology, human resource
development, organizational behavior, human resource management,
and management.
o Academy of Management Journal
o Journal of Management
o Academy of Management Learning
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o Journal of Applied Psychology
o Academy of Management Perspective
o Advances in Developing Human Resources
o HRD Quarterly
o HRD Review
o HRD International
o Journal of Organizational Behavior
o Performance Improvement Quarterly
o Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology
o Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research, and
Practice
o Journal of Applied Behavioral Science
o Management Learning
• The scholarly publications were searched for the period of last ten years,
from January, 2005 to December, 2015.
• Articles, books, and book chapters mostly cited in the found literature
were also used as scholarly publications.
• During the search process, citations in recent publications with
theoretical and conceptual contribution were also considered as
scholarly publication.
The “search this journal” option was used to search keywords in the
selected journals. These databases were also utilized for identification of
articles Emerald, Google Scholar, Informa Business Taylor & Francis, Sage
Management and Organizational Studies Full Text Collection, Springer
Business and Management, Wiley online Library Business and Management.
The articles were downloaded and saved in electronic folders. A list of
selected publication was created as year, author, and tile of publication.
2.3 MANAGER AS COACH
Managerial coaching has become a very common strategy for
organization development in the context of management to help individuals in
addressing their practical knowledge gaps and skills (Joo, 2005). London
(2003) argued that employees gain an exciting insight through Manger-as-
Coach (MAC) role in the form of opportunities that helps employees for
increasing their individual effectiveness. Since 1980s, the concept of MAC has
become famous in the literature of human resource development (McLean et
al., 2005) and also become the source of improving the quality of manager and
subordinate relationship. The MAC role changes the traditional control-based
management and fosters the culture of sharing powers and discovering actions
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that productively contribute in empowering people working in the organization
(McLean et al., 2005).
The role of manager as a coach is different from conventional type of
coaching in which the coaches help the professional and personal development
of individuals. Coaching is not the primary role of managers but MAC use
coaching approach for their staff development. The MAC develop a
trustworthy relationship with subordinates and believe in the abilities of his/her
team members instead of commanding and controlling employees and MAC
role rejects the commanding model of leadership and embraces the coaching
role as one of their skills. As mentioned earlier, MAC role is not a primary
function of a manager. Managers must perform other roles which make MAC
role as more complex. For instance, there is always a major issue to take
special time for coaching as a manager (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2001),
because of multiple demands on the manager. Specifically, it becomes more
difficult for managers to perform MAC role having a larger number of
subordinates. It is observed that coaching skills of the manager were rated high
which had less than eight subordinates in contrast to those managers who had
more subordinates working under their supervision within the organizations
(Graham, Wedman, & Garvin–Kester, 1993).
Managers might have preferences to coaching the employees working
under their supervision (London, 2003). For instance, individuals who perceive
that human attributes as inborn and unchangeable are more disinclined toward
investing in others development and hold entity theory approach (Dweck,
2000). On the other hand, human attributes are changeable and can be
developed are considered those individuals who believe in the incremental
theory. So, individuals believe in implicit theory perspective influence his/her
coaching behavior toward subordinates. Fortunately, training helps in shifting
the belief system of individual from entity theory perspective to incremental
theory perspective (Heslin, Vandewalle, & Latham, 2006).
Managers need a set of skills to play a successful MAC role. The
fundamental skills required to become more successful coach include;
excellent communication skills; focus on a goal; ability to develop a
relationship; giving respect to the subordinates as individuals, responsiveness;
preparation and practice; compassion and acceptance; sensitivity; as well as
and openness as a coach (Evered & Selman, 1989). The most important
predictors of coaching outcomes for a manager is his/her emotional
intelligence. The emotions play a vital role in a coaching relationship and
important for learning and development between manager and subordinate
because coaching is a psychological interpersonal process. The individuals
having the ability to “manage the competencies of self-awareness, self-
15
management, social awareness and relationship management are able to
control others, considered to be high performers and able to use these skills to
enhance others’ human performance” (Goleman et al., 2001). The individuals
which score high on emotional intelligence have more awareness about their
own goals, goals of others and develop a social relationship with others
positively influence the performance of subordinates (Boyatzis & Howard,
2006).
2.4 CONCEPT OF COACHING
Coaching has not a single definition which is globally acceptable and
“creating a unique identity of coaching is still an unresolved problem”
(Bachkirova, Cox, & Clutterbuck, 2010, p. 3). Hamlin, Ellinger, and Beattie
(2008) explored different thirty-seven definitions of managerial coaching
(MC) in coaching literature from different perspectives. A. Gilley et al. (2010)
explained MC as an outcome of various functions, a process, or an activity.
However, Fournies (1978) explained coaching as a therapy for the poor
performance of employees and method which create connectivity between
performance of employees and organizational effectiveness (E. Ellinger & D.
Ellinger, 2013), and coaching has been viewed as an empowerment (vs.
directive) paradigm and developmental perspective by recent conceptions of
coaching. Managerial coaching is a development practice through which
manager and subordinate interact with each other or in order to improve
performance, a goal-directed interaction are to be carried out between manager
and employees (Sue-Chan, Wood, & Latham, 2012). As said by Hamlin et al.
(2008), “coaching is a facilitative and helping process designed to improve
existing skills, competence, and performance, and to enhance [individual’s]
personal effectiveness or personal development or personal growth”.
McLean et al. (2005) identified key several factors embodying coaching
components through an extensive review of the literature. They considered
those factors which explain the situations of interaction between managers and
their employees within the organization as well as found the factors related to
coaching in an organization which identified and supported by the literature.
Because of extensive literature review, they identified four key dimensions of
coaching which include “open communication, team approach, value people
over the task, and accept ambiguity”. Besides the four dimensions of
managerial coaching identified by McLean et al. (2005), a new dimension was
added by Park et al. (2008), “facilitate employee development”. The details of
each dimension of managerial coaching (Park et al., 2008) are discussed as
under:
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2.4.1 Open Communication
In the literature, communication is a very crucial element leading to
successful coaching (Evered & Selman, 1989; Graham et al., 1993). McLean
(personal communication, March 5, 2007) and Tolbert (personal
communication, March 2, 2007) stressed to develop the interpersonal rapport
through an open sharing of information, feelings and thoughts are necessary to
influence others. Open communication is helpful for developing a relationship
between employee and manager and increasing understanding of each other.
Evered and Selman (1989) elaborated that qualities of listening and speaking
would benefit the research in coaching and emphasized the significance of
communication between manager and employee for effective coaching. Sharing
values, opinions, and information are skills which help in communication and
other skills needed for direction from manager to employee. Managers should
listen to their subordinates carefully (Good, 1993; Peterson & Hicks, 1996) as
well as clearly understand what they say (Ellinger et al., 2003).
2.4.2 Team Approach
Managers should work together and view their subordinates as their
partner while working together. Employees feel more empowered by
considering them as a partner instead of controlling them. This approach is to
be applied in a team situation as well as in the one-on-one relationship
between manager and subordinate. Managers need to work as a coordinator of
teamwork and discuss and acknowledge ideas with employees instead of
controlling or command them in order to make better decisions (Park et al.,
2008). McLean et al. (2005) said this approach as “Team Approach”.
Nevertheless, this term is confusing from the perspective of meanings. For
instance, Peterson and Little (2005) in their critique of coaching instrument
developed by McLean et al. mentioned that team orientation is not found in the
literature of coaching. Similarly, they also found that developing partnership is
the missing component in the McLean et al instrument. However, real
meanings of this dimension are working together and building a partnership
between manager and subordinates. McLean et al (personal communication,
March 5, 2007) and Tolbert (personal communication, March 2, 2007) defined
this dimension of managerial coaching as preferences to involving others in
decision making and goal achievement while working with others. They
viewed coaching as a collective effort and emphasized that managers need
skills to promote the sharing behaviors in the workplace. Similar notions
include developing the teamwork (Zemke, 1996), developing a partnership,
alliance (Stowell, 1988), and empowering the self-directed teams (Geber,
1992).
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2.4.3 Value People Over Task
According to Park et al. (2008), both needs of people and task should be
considered by the manager in the workplace. McLean (personal
communication, March 5, 2007) and Tolbert (personal communication, March
2, 2007) elaborated that consideration of individuals’ needs and their
application to task is important for good coaching. However, the general
practice is more inclined towards the tasks accomplishment instead of
considering the importance of people. McLean, personal communication,
March 22, (2007) emphasized in shifting this contemporary approach.
However, this dimension is also based on person-oriented approach (Stowell,
1988), and concerned with employee needs (Evered & Selman, 1989).
2.4.4 Accept Ambiguity
Park et al. (2008) argued that managers need to always welcome new
ideas during work with employees and search for multiple solutions of the
problems. This is possible by accepting innovative thoughts from other
employees and willingness to consider several viewpoints in the decision-
making process. This concept of “accept ambiguity” is associated with the
concept of cognitive flexibility and adaptability given by Peterson and Hicks
(1996). In dealing with the complicated and rapidly changing organizational
setting, looking at possible responses instead of being focused on using only
one solution will not only guide managers to handle issues but also provide
opportunities to the employees for dealing with uncertainty. McLean (personal
communication, March 5, 2007) and Tolbert (personal communication, March
2, 2007) stated that great coaching practices concurrently explain what can
possibly be responded to eliminate the discomfort of uncertainty and
encourage employees to embrace the chances offered by uncertainty. Taking
on the opportunity of many interpretations replaces discomfort with the
anticipation of novel alternatives.
2.4.5 Facilitate Development
Park et al. (2008) identified that facilitate employees’ development is
another important skill used in different ways for managerial coaching.
Managers must have the specific skills aimed to facilitate employees’
development for effective coaching. Facilitate development is not one of the
four dimension suggested by McLean et al. (Peterson & Little, 2005). This
aspect of coaching was emphasized by Hamlin et al. (2006).They focused on
18
knowing the ways by which effective coaches facilitate employees’ learning
and then comparing with findings of existing literature. The illustration of
behaviors incorporated setting goals, providing resources, giving feedback,
questioning for employees to think through, utilizing examples, role playing,
and scenarios. Some others likewise recognized strategies to facilitate
employees’ development. They comprised of questioning (Ellinger et al.,
2003), motivating to go beyond what they actually achieved (Evered &
Selman, 1989), providing feedback and suggestions (Good, 1993; Orth et al.,
1987), and widening employees vision (Ellinger et al., 2003).
2.5 COMPARING COACHING
It is challenging for scholars to differentiate among these terms due to
their alternative use such as coaching and counseling, specifically in
perspective of therapy, and mentoring (Bachkirova et al., 2010). However,
researchers have identified minor distinctions among these terms in spite of
potential overlap among coaching, counseling and mentoring (Ellinger & Kim,
2014).
2.5.1 Coaching vs. Counseling
In general, and context of therapy, coaching is distinguished from the
concept of counseling; specifically, coaching is concerned with job related
developmental outcomes and achievement of goals in present and future for
coachee. According to Hart, Blattner and Leipsic (2001) in counselling
employees personal and psychological issues are resolved, specifically in the
traditional therapy context. P. Williams (2003) recognized that managers need
to develop the set of skills from cognitive, behavioral, positive psychology
approaches and approaches of solution-oriented therapy. Still, he mentioned
several differences between coaching and counseling. Therapy is often used in
the medical/clinical model in which client might have some serious
pathologies and problems. As per Williams, coaching is about “discovering”
while therapy is concerned with “recovering” as well as “uncovering”. In the
traditional therapy context, counseling is provided by the licensed therapists or
the professionals having education in a specific discipline. Currently, coaching
lacked common measurement standards (Joo, Sushko, & McLean, 2012).
Moreover, coaching is a short-term task oriented approach, in contrast to
mentoring, which focuses on psychological and career support in the long term
(Kim, Egan, Kim, et al., 2013).
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2.5.2 Coaching vs. Mentoring
Clutterbuck (2014) recognized confusion in understanding the definition
of mentoring phenomena due to influence of national and organizational
values and “other forms of one-to-one developmental help, such as coaching,
have also had a rapid evolution in recent years”. Clutterbuck also mentioned
“it’s not that coaching has invaded mentoring’s territory or vice versa. While
the roles have remained broadly separate but overlapping, the behavioral
repertoire available to each has increased over the past two decades”. He
proposed “the purpose of the relationship, the expectations of the mentoring
pair, the national and/or corporate culture, and the context in which they
operate, all contribute to substantial differences in style and definition of
mentoring”. Traditionally, the mentoring function to a less experienced person
or younger employee (the protégé) is provided by the more experienced and
older person (the mentor) (Hezlett & Gibson, 2005).
2.5.3 Managerial Coaching vs. Executive Coaching
There are several differences between managerial coaching and executive
coaching (Pousa & Mathieu, 2014b), despite sharing a common beginning and
foundation. The processes of executive coaching involve the working of an
external coach with top executives in the organization aimed to assist top
executives in achieving mutually defined goals as well as self–defined goals,
increase his/her personal satisfaction and job performance, and ultimately to
improve the organizational effectiveness (Joo, 2005). Managerial coaching
involves the interaction between manager and subordinate in which manager use
managerial coaching as a technique to help his/her subordinates in improving
their job performance and achievement of externally-set organizational
objectives. For instance, in the context of the sales force, the organization sets
the performance standards or objectives for every salesperson and then manager
convey those goals to the salesperson, for achieving these goals a salesperson is
expected to involve in different activities (Ellinger et al., 2003).
2.6 RESEARCH STUDIES ON MANAGERIAL COACHING
Ellinger (1999) shared results of her important qualitative critical
incidental research that exemplary managers as a facilitator of learning were
selected as well as 12 middle and top managers were asked to explain their
ineffective and/or effective critical incidents which played an important role in
facilitating learning of their subordinates. From perspectives of the learner,
managers, and organization, the effects of managerial coaching were
20
considered. Cost savings, sharing knowledge, learning, and better structures
were found as outcomes of managerial coaching.
Ellinger et al. (2003) studied the influence of behaviors of line managers
as coach on subordinate job satisfaction and their job performance. This study
included both manager and their respective subordinates to analyze the
perceived coaching behaviors of supervisors within industrial organizations
their relationship with employee job performance and job satisfaction. The
survey data was collected from different eighteen distribution centers of six
different organizations in the USA. The distribution centers of six
organizations were in East and Middle West, Northwest, and Southwest of
USA. The research sample was taken from these corporations which included:
paper product manufacturing, motor carrier transportation cross-docking,
retailers and wholesalers of grocery, vendors of manufacturing distribution,
loading services firms and dry, frozen and fresh storage facilities. The findings
showed a positive association of managerial coaching behaviors of supervisor
with job satisfaction & job performance.
Mulec and Roth (2005) conducted a qualitative research in the context
of the team. For effective research & development (R& D) in the organization;
the top performing project teams are very important. The diverse skills are
needed for team performance enhancement and consider the mutual efforts as
well as share knowledge which leads toward the value-added actions for the
organization. They used word team coaching to support team learning and
reflection for global team working on R&D projects in Sweden. For the
coaching duration of eight months, a combined research approach and various
methods of investigation were applied. The findings disclosed that team
competencies were improved such as competency for finding creative
solutions to problems by applying different training methods such as different
analysis strategies and investigation techniques. Those teams were observed as
much creative and successful that experience managerial coaching through
controlled questioning. The research findings also revealed that team
performance in terms of efficiency, innovation and organizational climate
context was positively related to coaching interventions.
In the Malaysian context, Har (2008) explored that how organizational
commitment and turnover intentions of employees are influenced by MC. In
this study data was collected from the sample of 208 respondents including
MBA students of University of Malaysia, HR experts as well as employed
individuals. The research findings showed that employee organizational
commitment was positively and turnover intentions was negatively influenced
by managerial coaching in the organizations. While organizational
commitment negatively influenced the turnover intentions. Moreover, it was
21
also observed and explored that organizational commitment and turnover
intention also influenced by age factor. Furthermore, managerial coaching, TI
and OC were effected by HRD program. In business-to-business context,
Elmadağ, Ellinger, and Franke (2008) explored the different strategies for
improving employee commitment to service quality. They investigated the
influence of reward-based and alternative development methods on employee
behavioral and affective outcomes. They used a sample of 310 frontline
service employees in the logistics service provider industry. The results
indicated that MC strongly predicted the commitment to service quality of
employees.
In various Chinese organizations, Li-Yan (2008) examined the role of
MC to improve JP. The research identified four behaviors relevant to
managerial coaching based on a sample of 340 managers belong to 38
organizations. The four behaviors were: “self-awareness enlightenment,
psychological support, vocational development, and role modeling”. The
structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis indicated that these four
managerial coaching behaviors positively affect the employee contextual
performance. The notion that managerial coaching is essential for improving
worker’s job performance was further strengthened by this research. The
association of MC with employees’ personal learning, OC and TI was explored
by Park et al. (2008). The sample size comprised of 187 workers employed in a
technology organization’s Headquarter located in the United States. The
selected institute was among the leading global organizations in the field of
technology. The findings of the study revealed that managerial coaching skills
of manager positively influenced employee personal learning and organizational
commitment as well as negatively correlated with turnover intentions.
Based on the theoretical background of feedback and behavior
modeling, Agarwal et al. (2009) explored influence of MC intensity on JP of
their subordinates on different levels of organizational hierarchy. ‘Zeta’ a
multinational organization in the manufacturing sector, operating in the United
States was considered for selecting respondents. They collected data from 328
sales representatives working under the supervision of 114 middle managers
and from 93 middle managers working under the supervision of 32 senior
executives for research hypotheses testing. The data was analyzed using
hierarchical linear modeling and the results indicated that MC intensity’
improve the JP of employees. Moreover, this influence become weaken at
upper hierarchical level.
Liu and Batt (2010) investigated the role played by managers for
enhancing worker’s job performance with the help group management
practices and coaching through a multilevel study. The study analyzed the
22
influence of these management activities on both individual and group level.
The study respondents were representatives of call centers performing
extremely standardize tasks in an organizational context where automated
technology is used for random distribution of task assignment or calls. The
collected survey data from telephone operating division of unionized
telecommunication company operating in different states of the USA from 666
employees and 110 managers. Findings revealed that improvement in
employee objective performance over time was predicted by the amount of
coaching a worker experienced every month.
Kim (2010) developed a structural model to examine the direct
influence of managerial on job performance as well as indirect influence
through different outcomes of managerial coaching such as employee role
ambiguity, satisfaction with work, satisfaction with manager, career
commitment, and organizational commitment. The respondents of the study
were 431 employees working in a public-sector organization (TEEX) of USA.
A SEM analysis revealed a direct influence of managerial coaching on
employee role clarity and satisfaction with work and indirect influence on
organization commitment, job performance, satisfaction with work and career
commitment.
Hagen (2010) examined another outcome of managerial coaching within
reference to Six Sigma. The data for two surveys was collected from black
belts and their team fellows. The respondents belonged to six various fortune
organizations including 140 black belts and 176 team members. The
organizations that historically implemented Six Sigma in the industry, and
represent the core of Six Sigma companies were selected for data collection.
The collected data was analyzed for both black belts and team members as
well. The findings revealed that MC significantly influenced the individual’s
team, and organizational outcomes.
Ellinger et al. (2011) used survey methodology to investigate the
moderating effect of MC between the association of organizational
investments in social capital (OISC) with organizational citizenship behavior,
task performance and commitment to service quality. The respondents were
408 workers from different USA based organizations and industries. The
findings indicated positive influence of OISC on JP, OCB, and service quality.
Furthermore, MC moderated the relationship among these variables from low
to moderate level. In the context of high performing teams, Hagen and Aguilar
(2012) examined the effect of coaching skills, team empowerment and project
difficulty on team learning. The respondents of study were 212 team members
and 167 team leaders. They found that project difficulty has more influence on
23
team learning for team leaders. Team empowerment and coaching skills of
team leaders shown a significant influence on learning of team member.
Egan and Kim (2013) studied the association between MC and
personnel voicing, learning as well as affective consequences using a sample
of 173 leaders and 693 employees. The findings of the study showed that
coaching behaviors of managers influence employee motivation to learn,
psychological safety and employee voicing behavior. Kim, Egan, Kim, et al.
(2013) explored the connections between expected managerial coaching
behavior and worker occupational results. The research was conducted in a
Korean public organization by collecting data from 482 employees. The
sample data appropriately supported the hypothesized conceptual model.
Further analysis exposed that managerial coaching directly affects worker job
satisfaction and role clarity while indirectly effect work satisfaction, career
commitment, organizational commitment, and job performance.
Pousa and Mathieu (2014a) examined the effect of bank manager’s
coaching on the job performance of frontline employees through mediating
role of sales person’s customer and sales orientation. They used cross-sectional
research design; an online survey was conducted from 122 financial advisors
performing sales responsibilities in a bank located in Canada. The results
indicated that managerial coaching behavior of managers is useful for an
employee to enhance their customer orientation, improve JP and reduce sales
orientation. Kim, Egan, and Moon (2013) tested the theoretical model
describing the association of MC with subordinate’s satisfaction with work and
JP through mediating effect of role clarity. The respondents of the study were
534 personnel from public sector in the United States and 274 employees of
the public sector in South Korea. The findings showed that conceptual model
was fully supported by both USA and Korean Sample. This research provided
a primary support regarding the efficacy of managerial coaching in possible
cultural differences between two distinct countries. Kim (2014) examined the
effect of MC on various job related outcomes of employees. The respondents
for testing proposed conceptual framework were employees of a private
conglomerate in South Korea (N=234). The structural equation modeling
analysis supported structural relations and proposed conceptual framework. He
found that MC directly influenced employee satisfaction with work and role
clarity.
An investigation from two international field studies was presented by
Pousa and Mathieu (2014b). They invited salesperson from different companies
to participate in the study and taken two purposive samples. Sample 1 included
the salesperson working in different organizations from various business-to-
business industries in USA. The sample 2 included frontline employees
24
providing business-to-consumer services from a large financial services
organization in Canada. They proposed that beyond the potential impact of sales
experience and tenure; managerial coaching also increases an individual
performance. The results showed when employee tenure and experience
controlled then coaching explained variance in performance between 2.9-6.2%.
G. Chen, Ai, and You (2014) analyzed the influence of managerial
coaching behaviors on employee life satisfaction, orientations to happiness and
job satisfaction. The data was collected from 145 managers employed in one
hospital, two factories, China Broadcasting and China Mobile through “Chinese
Managerial Coaching Behaviors Inventory, the Chinese translation of the
Orientations to Happiness Scale, General Job Satisfaction Scale, and General
Life Satisfaction Scale”. Surprisingly, the influence of managerial behaviors on
job satisfaction and life satisfaction was not found. An important relationship
was shown between managerial coaching behavior and pleasure of life
orientations to happiness. The behavior of women was more encouraging than
males. Furthermore, front-line managers and technicians exhibited more
challenging and supporting behaviors as compared to middle and top managers.
The managers in China Mobile, Hospitals and China Telecom showed more
challenging and supporting behaviors in comparison to factory managers.
Kim and Kuo (2015) analyzed link of coaching relationship with
employee contextual and task performance for exploring this topic deeply.
They tested a relationship among managerial coaching and employee JP as
well as organizational citizenship behavior toward individual and organization
(OCBI and OCBO) with the mediating effect of manager’s trustworthiness.
They collected data of 208 dyads. The findings indicated that data supported
hypothesized relationships.
25
CHAPTER 3:
MANAGERIAL COACHING AND
JOB PERFORMANCE LAYERED MODEL
3.1 OVERVIEW
This chapter presents theoretical framework of study. The perceived
organizational support theory is used for identification of variables and
development of relationship among those variables. This chapter also presents
consequences of managerial coaching, conceptual model as well as hypotheses
development.
3.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
According to Ellinger and Kim (2014), different theories have been used
in the context of coaching. Ellinger, Egan, Kim, Hagen, and Peterson (2014)
argued that diverse theories may be applied to coaching which is used to
explain other situations and approaches to human resource development. In
this research, the consequences of managerial coaching are identified based on
perceived organizational support (POS) theory. Specifically, POS theory is
used to explain the association among managerial coaching and different job-
related attitudes and behaviors of employees.
Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) argued that a very important theoretical
model for explaining the behavior of employees in the workplace is social
exchange framework. Blau (1964) proposed social and economic principles for
elaborating the nature of exchange relationship. Those exchanges which are
based on the mutual trust between parties and predict the reciprocation in the
future are social exchanges in nature. The particular benefits in an exchange
are a sign of high-quality relationship and also get basic importance in
exchange relationship; the parties which are involved in the exchange provide
mutual support from each other (Blau, 1964). On the workplace, employees
follow a long-term approach to developing social exchange relationships, with
the expectation of reciprocity for creating balances among exchanges (Blau,
1964; Rousseau, 1989). Currently, two different types of social exchange have
been identified and studied in literature; exchange between employee and
his/her supervisor is known as Leader-Member- Exchange (Graen & Scandura,
1987) and perceived organizational support or POS is known as exchange
26
between the employing organization and employee (Eisenberger, Huntington,
& Sowa, 1986).
Eisenberger et al. (1986) described the reciprocation (Levinson, 1965)
as commitment to organization and individual or employee is POS.
Eisenberger et al. (1986), elaborated POS as “to determine the personified
organization’s readiness to reward increased work effort and to meet needs for
praise and approval, employees develop global beliefs concerning the extent to
which the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-
being” (p. 501) in social exchange explanation of organization commitment.
They also said that based on this belief employees draw inferences about
organizations’ commitment (POS) toward them which in return play a vital
role to develop the commitment of employees with organization. The level of
perceived organizational support is very important for creating employees’
commitment. It creates more feelings of responsibility in employees when they
feel support from their organization and employees become loyal with
organization as well as feel the responsibility in turn of their employers’
commitment to them and engage in such behaviors which contribute to the
achievement of organizational objectives. This POS builds confidence in
employees for supporting them when they face challenging situations on the
job. The different practices of organization which demonstrates the POS
influence the attitudes and behaviors of employees. According to the Levinson
(1965), explanation of employers’ commitment toward employees, employees
feel more responsible and obligated for the organization and play a vital role in
execution of vision and mission of the organization. In this exchange
relationship, for acknowledgment of employees’ supportive behavior for the
organization, organizations also support employees in return. This mutual
support from employee and organization for each other lead toward the
positive and favorable outcomes for the both parties (Rhoades & Eisenberger,
2002).
Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) revealed that employees perceive three
key forms of organizational support which include supervisor support, job
conditions and organizational rewards, and fairness in a meta-analysis of POS.
These positive actions improve the consequences for both organization and
employee. POS increases employee JP, job involvement, JS, intentions to stay,
OC and reduce turnover rate. Another meta-analysis of perceiving
organizational support by Riggle, Edmondson, and Hansen (2009) also
revealed a strong positive influence of POS on employee JP, OC, and JS;
shown a negative effect on TI.
POS has been supported by numerous studies in which POS was
positively related to perceived supervisor support (Stamper & Johlke, 2003),
27
work engagement (Kinnunen, Feldt, & Mäkikangas, 2008), leader-member
exchange (Settoon, Bennett, & Liden, 1996; Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997),
affective organizational commitment (Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch,
& Rhoades, 2001; Panaccio & Vandenberghe, 2009), job satisfaction (Stamper
& Johlke, 2003), job attendance (Eisenberger, Fasolo, & Davis-LaMastro,
1990), job performance (Eisenberger et al., 2001), employee well-being
(Panaccio & Vandenberghe, 2009), organization spontaneity (Eisenberger et
al., 2001) and reduced role ambiguity and stressors (Panaccio &
Vandenberghe, 2009).
Kottke and Sharafinski (1988) extended the theory through addition of a
notion “perceived supervisor support (PSS)”, like the employees’ global
perception regarding the acknowledgment of their contribution to the
organization, they also develop a view about the acknowledgment of their
contribution and take care of their well- being by supervisor (perceived
supervisor support, or PSS). The supervisor behaves like a representative of
the organization; they also command the employees as well as evaluate their
performance. The supportive behaviors of their supervisors are perceived as
organizational support by the employees (Eisenberger et al., 1986).
Furthermore, workers think that top management of the organization develops
views about them based on evaluation communicated by the supervisor and
associate the supervisor support with organizational support. Based on the
perceived organizational theory, PSS leads toward the POS which show a
positive association (Rhoades, Eisenberger, & Armeli, 2001; Yoon & Lim,
1999).
The supervisory support has been widely emphasized in various areas of
research, such as mentoring (Allen, Eby, Poteet, Lentz, & Lima, 2004) as well
as leadership (Yukl, 2001). Yukl’sguidelines regarding supervisory support
proposed that supervisor which supportive toward their subordinates “act
friendly and considerate, are patient and helpful, show sympathy and support
when someone is upset or anxious, listen to complaints or problems, and look
out for others’ interests” (2001, p. 60). The supportive behaviors of supervisors
also include different behaviors such as showing interest for the fulfillment of
subordinates’ psychological and job-related needs, developing a relationship
with subordinates and their well-being (Kram, 1985). The supervisor behaviors
based on relation-oriented approach involves developing identification with
the organization, increasing cooperation with others, helping in task
accomplishment and developing a relationship with others. The supervisory
support can also view as a type of social support in which individually support
each other to reduce the effects of stress and anxiety (House, 1981). He also
explained informational, instrumental, emotional and appraisal support as the
characteristics of a supportive supervisor. Paustian‐Underdahl et al. (2013)
28
describe that supervisor which support their subordinates are being ready to
assign key responsibilities, careful regarding work overload on subordinates,
coaching subordinates to achieve optimal performance, take an interest in
motivating others, help employees in career development and provide
opportunities for development by assigning challenging activities.
The employees perceive coaching behaviors of managers as a form of
organizational support in the coaching environment of organization. The
managers performs various activities as a coach such as clear communication
of expectations to subordinates, frequent feedback for increasing their
performance, facilitate development for success, acknowledge their
achievement and fair rewards, provide useful instructions and role modeling,
and provide learning opportunities to enhance their knowledge and skills
(Ellinger & Bostrom, 1999; McLean et al., 2005; Park et al., 2008). The
employees feel obligation and responsibility to perform positive attitudes as
well as behaviors for the benefit of organization in exchange of perceived
coaching behaviors exhibited by their managers. (Colquitt, Scott, & LePine,
2007).
Eisenberger et al. (2001) explained that favorable orientation of
supervisor toward his/her subordinates is perceived as organization support by
the employees because leaders and managers act as representatives of the
organization. The findings of studies revealed that supervisor’s POS is
meaningfully and favorably associated with their employees’ POS and in
return subordinates’ PSS is favorably linked with their job performance and
perceived organizational support (Shanock & Eisenberger, 2006). It was found
in theory testing that perceived supervisory support is positively associated
with employees JS, OC, and JP (Wayne et al., 1997). The POS is positively
associated with work engagement (Saks, 2006) and perceived high leader-
member exchange quality (Settoon et al., 1996). Therefore, a major component
of POS theory is perceived supervisor support (PSS) and managerial coaching
as a type of perceived organizational support and perceived supervisory
support influences employees’ role clarity, work engagement, leader-member-
exchange quality, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, turnover
intentions, and job performance within the organizations.
3.3 CONSEQUENCES OF MANAGERIAL COACHING
3.3.1 Role Clarity
The status of the role of workers in organizations is frequently discussed
in the context of the degree of clarity or ambiguousness of their role in their
29
organizations. According to Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman (1970) define that
role ambiguity is a “lack of necessary information regarding role expectation
for a given organizational position”. Similarly, role clarity is characterized as
the level of cognition and awareness of employees about their role in the
organization. Organized and immediate feedback is considered as a stimulus to
promote role clarity among employees (Peterson & Hicks, 1996). Allenbaugh
(1983) also, highlighted the significance of managerial feedback and asserted
that it would assist employees to fulfill their responsibilities and achieve
targets consistent within the context of organizational roles and chose the paths
to achieve those objectives. The behavioral responses of workers and their
attitudes are affected by role ambiguity as per role theory. It is most likely that
employees feel greater mental and physical stress due to role ambiguity in
complex work environment. Rizzo et al. (1970) suggested that relationship
between manager and employees would be misaligned because of lack of
awareness of employees regarding organization and managers’ expectations
from them.
3.3.2 Work Engagement
It is a positive attitude of workers in the working environment. W. A.
Kahn (1990) conducted a premier study on work engagement and referred it as
“the harnessing of organizational members’ selves to their work roles”.
Furthermore, he also added that “in engagement, people employ and express
themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performances”
and “in disengagement, people withdraw and defend themselves physically,
cognitively and emotionally during role performances”. Therefore, he said that
divergence among employees’ commitment and energy toward their job can be
termed as work engagement. Maslach, Jackson, and Leiter (1997) stated that
those employees who are physical, emotionally, or cognitively engaged in their
jobs exhibit efficiency and energetic attitude at their workplace. On the other
hand, employees which were not engaged in their work found to be less
involved in their jobs both physically and emotionally.
Kahn (1990) initially developed the conceptual framework of
employees’ work engagement. An operational concept of work engagement
was developed by Schaufeli et al. (2002) as “a positive fulfilling, work-related
state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption”. Vigor
is “high levels of energy and mental resilience while working; the willingness
to invest efforts in one’s work and persistence even in the face of difficulties”.
Dedication is “a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and
challenge”. Furthermore, absorption is “being fully concentrated and deeply
30
engrossed in one’s work, whereby time passes quickly and one has difficulties
with detaching oneself from work”.
Employees who are physically and emotionally attached to their job and
find it difficult to leave their job because they work energetically and
efficiently. In other words, employees consider their job as a source of energy
(vigor) and want to invest their efforts (dedication) and to give their complete
attention while working (absorption). Hakanen, Bakker, and Schaufeli (2006)
highlighted various positive effects of work engagement in an organization
which includes satisfaction of employees with their work, organizational
commitment, ingenuity, and performance of employees etc. Similarly,
Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) noted that employees’ turnover intentions can be
reduced by making them more engaged in their work. Britt, Castro, and Adler
(2005) asserted that engaged employees feel less stressed in their jobs as
compared to disengaged employees. In addition, Saks (2006) concluded that
employees’ engagement in their job has an influence on their productivity,
commitment, the attitude in the workplace, economic performance, and
satisfaction of customers.
3.3.3 Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Quality
Wayne, Shore, Bommer, and Tetrick (2002) summarized the extensive
works that have been done on LMX theory under leadership research. Uhl-
Bien and Maslyn (2000) said that LMX relationship between leader and
employees vary from employee to employee, and depends largely on mutual
expectations that they have developed over time. They also described that the
underlying element in the development of LMX relationship is the fulfillment
of mutual expectations in transactional agreements between leader and
follower as it develops mutual trust and respect; and enhances the loyalty of
followers to their leader. Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) stated that LMX
relationship is a consequence of social exchange. Furthermore, the quality of
this relationship can be improved by building up the expected benefits for both
leader and followers from their social exchange.
The expectations of manager and an employee are better matched in
LMX relationship of high quality than that of lower quality. The reason is that
the leaders and followers can achieve job resources of their preference from
each other in a better way in high-quality LMX relationship as compared to the
low-quality relationship between them. Davis and Gardner (2004) argued that
leaders and followers that are involved in a high-quality relationship can have
sufficient information about each other which would be unlikely otherwise. It
is also observed that employees become reluctant to request for feedback from
31
their managers in low-quality LMX relationship. The accessibility of
information about each other in a high-quality rapport between leaders and
follower assist employees to better understand the requirements and
expectations of their manager whereas the manager would be in a better
position to motivate and guide his team to meet personal as well as
organizational goals.
Leadership is explored through the mutual relationship of leaders and
followers under LMX theory. There exist a high degree of emotional support
and mutual trust between an employee and manager in LMX relationship of
higher quality (Uhl-Bien & Maslyn, 2000). In addition, Wayne et al. (1997)
stated that employees also enjoy other benefits like performance based rewards
and promotions, frequent and frank interactions with their manager in LMX
relationship of higher quality. These employees not only exhibit better
performance but also show a willingness to do extra tasks over and above their
job responsibilities as well. Schyns, Torka, and Gössling (2007) supported the
fact that high-quality exchange relationship between supervisor and
subordinate results in increased JS, better performance, increased OC, and
reduced turnover behavior. Uhl-Bien and Maslyn (2000) referred LMX
relationship of higher quality as a ‘social capital’ for an organization. They
also confirmed that organizational performance can be improved by
developing high-quality LMX relationship.
3.3.4 Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction (JS) is considered as a key factor to study various
organizational phenomena and extensively studied in the literature of
organizational behavior (Spector, 1997). Job satisfaction is determined through
overall feelings of a worker about his work as per classical model. job
responsibilities as well as employees’ expectation regarding nature and
facilities of their job are important for job satisfaction. Locke (1976) explained
JS as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of
one’s job or job experience”. The job satisfaction is very important attitude of
employee which predict their performance (Edwards, Bell, Arthur Jr, &
Decuir, 2008). Springer (2011) also, recommended to managers that they
should enhance the overall job satisfaction of employees by employing
different managerial tactics to increase the performance of their employees. A
positive association between job satisfaction and performance of employees is
reported in various research studies. For instance, Riketta (2008) conducted an
study and confirmed that job satisfaction positively influences the performance
of employees.
32
3.3.5 Organizational Commitment
Meyer and Allen (1997) defined the “organizational commitment as
employee’s psychological attachment to his/her organization”. They
highlighted the importance OC as well as identified three types of
organizational commitment which include affective commitment, normative
commitment, and continuance commitment. As per Allen et al. (2004),
affective commitment is emotional feelings of employees to be identified with
his/her organization. They also asserted that affective commitment is the most
desirable form of organizational commitment from the organizational
perspective. Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, and Topolnytsky (2002) conducted a
meta-analysis on organizational commitment and revealed that commitment of
workers toward their organization positively affect their performance,
productivity, and job satisfaction.
3.3.6 Turnover Intentions
The term ‘turnover intention’ implies the intention or likelihood of an
employee to leave his job with the current organization (Tett & Meyer, 1993).
Battistelli, Portoghese, Galletta, and Pohl (2013) argued that the turnover
intention is a determinant of turnover in an organization which in turn
negatively impacts its effectiveness. They also mentioned that trend in
turnovers can be better explained by turnover intentions. They also suggested
that investigation of turnover intention of employees is quite economical and
cost effective as compared to turnover behaviors. In addition, organizations
can prevent or reduce the turnover rate by analyzing the turnover intentions of
its employees and by redressing its reasons. The turnover intentions were also
found as an important attitude associated with employees’ job performance
(Hui, Wong, & Tjosvold, 2007). Furthermore, Hulin, Roznowski, and Hachiya
(1985) asserted that increase in the turnover intention of an employee will
cause a reduction in his job efforts.
3.3.7 Job Performance
Managerial coaching have been extensively studied in the field of
human resource development and management. Agarwal et al. (2009), Liu and
Batt (2010), and Hagen (2010) highlighted the improvement in job
performance of employees as an outcome or advantage of managerial
coaching. Orpen (1985) argued that managerial coaching affects the job
performance of workers by influencing the expectations of workers about their
role in the organization, and its emotional and financial support its employees.
33
According to McCloy, Campbell, and Cudeck (1994) job performance can be
define as “behaviors and actions that are relevant to the goals of the
organization”. Employees took the actions to achieve goals associated with
their job as well as organizational goals also come under the scope of job
performance. JP in the context of this study is in-role performance of an
employee at his workplace.
3.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MANAGERIAL COACHING
AND JOB PERFORMANCE
Heslin et al. (2006) explained the coaching process in their study and
asserted that the ultimate objective of the coaching process is to ensure the
personal as well as professional development of employees within
organization and enhancement of their work related performance. Richardson
(1996) also concurred to this definition of the coaching process. Whitmore
(1994) extensively studied the ways in which managerial coaching can
enhance the performance of employees. Managers can coach their workers by
discussing job-related issues with them which involve problems and the
possible solutions to solve these problems. Managers may leave off their
directive role during coaching sessions and follow conversational style to help
their employees in finding the desired solution. Employees may be asked
several questions to enhance their awareness regarding a different possible
solution to the given job-related problem. He also stressed on the discussion
between the managers and employees regarding the advantages and
disadvantages of each of the alternative course of action in order to select the
best option. Hargrove (1995) also argued that that coaching of the employees
by their manager regarding various work related issues make the employees
deal with challenging situation and problems in a better way, because after so
many works related issues and discussion on positives and negatives of various
alternative options they know the implications and effectiveness of the given
course of action. Pousa (2012) also, asserted similar argument that
organizational goals can be achieved by improving the performance of
employees through managerial coaching.
Ellinger et al. (2003) discussed the distinctive characteristics of
coaching which differentiate it from traditional management style. Coaching
assists in developing an effective relationship between manager and employees
at the workplace whereas traditional management approaches are directive and
bureaucratic. Boyatzis and Howard (2006) also, asserted that managerial
coaching involves a participative and caring approach that empowers the
employees of the organization. In addition, individualized coaching and
feedback from managers as a result of managerial coaching improve the
34
performance of the employees. Hamlin, Ellinger, and Beattie (2009) identified
a special skill set to enhance the effectiveness of managerial coaching practice.
This skill set consists of many elements like developing a rapport, ways of
asking questions, interviewing technique, active listening, innovative ideas,
different decision-making perspectives, effective communication of objectives,
collaboration, flexibility and building an encouraging and supportive
environment in the organization.
Hargrove (2008) used job performance as an outcome variable to
examine the effectiveness of managerial coaching. Kim, Egan, and Moon
(2014) asserted that clear communication of organizational goals as well as
means to achieve those objectives from management to employees can
enhance the in-role performance of workers. The improvement in the
weaknesses of employees can be made through proper observation of
employees and immediate feedback from their supervisor or manager. They
also argued that managers are resource persons for their employees and
employees may consider their managers as a role model and should learn from
the experience of their managers regarding various challenging problems on
the job. This would improve their contextual and task performance as well.
An investigation from two international field studies was presented by
Pousa and Mathieu (2014b). They invited salesperson from different
companies to participate in the study and taken two purposive samples. Sample
1 included the salesperson working in different organizations from various
business-to-business industries in USA. The sample 2 included frontline
employees providing business-to-consumer services from a large financial
services organization in Canada. They proposed that beyond the potential
impact of sales experience and tenure; managerial coaching also increases an
individual performance. The results showed when employee tenure and
experience controlled then coaching explained variance in performance
between 2.9-6.2%. Kim and Kuo (2015) analyzed link of coaching relationship
with employee contextual and task performance for exploring this topic
deeply. They tested a relationship among managerial coaching and employee
JP as well as organizational citizenship behavior toward individual and
organization (OCBI and OCBO) with the mediating effect of manager’s
trustworthiness. They collected data of 208 dyads. The findings indicated that
data supported hypothesized relationships.
3.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MANAGERIAL COACHING
AND ROLE CLARITY Managerial coaching also influences the attitude of employees toward
work through clarification of their roles in achieving the objectives of the
35
organization. Role clarity can be explained as the viewpoint and approach to employees regarding their job. Currently, the complexity in organizations has increased greatly which caused increase in significance of role clarity for employees and organizations. Cicero, Pierro, and Van Knippenberg (2010) extensively studied the significance of role clarity for team functioning and optimal organizational effectiveness. Similarly, Tubre and Collins (2000) highlighted the importance of role clarity regarding employee performance, work-related stress, safety and health, and general satisfaction of employees. Peterson and Hicks (1996) mentioned that constructive managerial feedback is a central feature of managerial coaching and that can help to improve the awareness of workers regarding their roles in the organization. Kim (2010) also affirmed that effective feedback from managers during coaching makes employees relatively more conscious regarding their responsibilities. In addition, employees may also derive benefit to select an efficient course of action to achieve given organizational objectives through constructive feedback during managerial coaching.
Garvey, Stokes, and Megginson (2014) revisited several coaching
theories and identified that most of these theories focused deeply on goal setting. Yukl (2012) fond it is consistent with the role of managers to settle the expectations clearly. Nevertheless, he also mentioned that during coaching most likely managers’ focus on achieving organizational goals rather than exploring the personal goals of their employees. The intrinsic motivating factors of a manager should be consistent with his personal as well as professional objectives otherwise it would be very difficult for a manager to meet his/her targets. Green, Oades, and Grant (2006) also added that the targets of managers must also be consistent with the values and intrinsic needs of their employees. They also studied the practical aspects of managerial coaching and found that external coaches are normally confined to the issues for which they have been paid during their coaching sessions. In addition, organizational coaching sessions are even more structured and controlled. In this context, Riddle and Ting (2006) argued that practically it is rare that goals are selected freely by the employees; the coaching managers assist the employees in order to understand their level of motivation, aspirations, and dedication to change. Coaching may also be effective if managers assist their subordinates to know whether their personal and institutional goals are similar or not. Managers may also ask employees for to be committed to the organizational goals and use feedback in the successful accomplishment of those objectives. Ellinger et al. (2010) highlighted effectiveness of managerial coaching as solution-focused technique. This approach is quite different from others approaches of coaching as it is specifically goal oriented. Moreover, this approach is relatively more directive rather than authoritative as managers
36
normally share the possible solutions to a given problematic situation, as per their experience and skills, with their employees. They argued that managers should be careful in goal setting because it is very unlikely that employees will accept the organizational goals just to please their supervisors.
Longenecker and Neubert (2005) mentioned that workers may also get
distracted from organizational objectives due to various job-related issues that may require their earliest attention. They also argued that the continuous internal coaching is better than the periodic external coaching as continuous coaching would help employees to keep them on track. Managers are also expected to give constructive and immediate feedback to their employees. In this regard, Steelman, Levy, and Snell (2004) stated that those managers who regularly involve themselves in coaching employees develop themselves to give effective feedback to their subordinates. Similarly, Folkman, Goldsmith, and Lyons (2006) mentioned that when a gap exists between the perception of individuals about their actions and perception of others about their actions, then managerial coaching might help in accepting feedback from others.
Numerous researchers explored the impact of feedback on the
performance. It has been found that feedback is more effective for increasing performance when it is acted on objectives of the organization via managerial coaching (McDowall & Millward, 2010). They also suggested that managers should pay more attention on future or ‘feed forward’ rather than feedback on the previous performance of their workers. He stated that managers should find the ways to utilize the strengths and overcome the weaknesses of their team members to enhance their performance in future. Kim, Egan, Kim, et al. (2013) explored the connections between expected managerial coaching behavior and worker occupational results. The research was conducted in a Korean public organization by collecting data from 482 employees. The sample data appropriately supported the hypothesized conceptual model. Further analysis exposed that managerial coaching directly affects worker job satisfaction and role clarity while indirectly effect work satisfaction, career commitment, organizational commitment, and job performance.
3.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MANAGERIAL COACHING
AND WORK ENGAGEMENT
Coaching process should not be confined to annual, quarterly, or limited
basis, rather a continuous coaching process should be followed as it would
cultivate the engagement of employees with their managers and job
responsibilities. Different methods have been devised by the researchers to
foster engagement and that includes coaching of employees regarding their
work plan, possible difficulties they may encounter and emotional support and
37
suggestions from the managers to solve these problems (Schaufeli & Salanova,
2007). This also results in making employees more efficient and confident
about their potential. Hakanen et al. (2006) mentioned that employee
engagement can be enhanced through coaching and providing proper support
and guidance. Managers ought to develop a ‘can do’ model among the
employees by making employees more confident about their personal potential
and should encourage self-efficacy of subordinates (Latham, Almost, Mann, &
Moore, 2005).
Social support has also been found as an important antecedent of
engagement and a major component of job resources (Schaufeli & Bakker,
2004). Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter (2001) asserted that lack of social
support from the managers may cause the employees to become
psychologically exhausted. Researchers have identified two dimensions to
analyze the social support in an organization and these dimensions include
POS and PSS. Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) stated that POS implies
general perception among employees that their organization acknowledge their
performance and efforts and take care of their welfare. Rhoades et al. (2001)
also maintained that POS also implies that the workers should also bear in
mind the interests of their organization and assist it in realizing its goals.
Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) claimed that POS leads to numerous positive
outcomes in an organization and that includes job satisfaction, enhancement in
performance of employees and their commitment toward the organization.
They argued that these positive outcomes of POS are related to employee
engagement. In simple words, a worker who has relatively higher perceived
organizational support is more likely to be engaged in his organization and his
work as well. This is because when an employee feels that his/her organization
cares about him and his welfare then correspondingly he also fulfills his duties
and become more engaged.
Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) argued that attitudes and behaviors of
their managers with subordinates is indication of the support of their
organization for employees. Therefore, PSS is a crucial factor for increasing
employee engagement. Maslach et al. (2001) confirmed that low PSS is a
determinant of psychological stress of employees in an organization. Bates
(2004) argued that the immediate manager of an employee is extremely to
boost or diminish the engagement of employees to their organization. Hence,
managerial coaching can also be used to ensure support of managers for
employees and thus it can promote the engagement as well.
38
3.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MANAGERIAL COACHING
AND LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE QUALITY
The relationship between manager and employee is thoroughly
exmained by Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory. The results of different
studies indicated that both manager and employee can derive benefit from the
dyadic relationship as mentioned in LMX theory. LMX theory state that
manager and employees should communicate honestly with each other in a
high LMX relationship. One of the characteristics of a high LMX relationship
is that the employee is given different formal and informal rewards like access
to resources, most challenging assignments, and support from managers, and
frequent meetings with the leader of the organization etc., unlike employees
that are in a low Leader-Member Exchange relationship. In addition, the
employees in high LMX relationship are given highest support for innovation
and they are more productive and efficient than other employees in a low
LMX relationship. Managers mostly rely on employees in a high LMX
relationship for extra work or additional responsibility (Nahrgang, Morgeson,
& Ilies, 2009).
The behavior and attitude of the leader towards his team members
predicts the quality of LMX relationship. There exists a difference in power of
manager and an employee in LMX relationship and managers have relatively
more control in LMX relationship as compared to their employees. Therefore,
Liden, Sparrowe, and Wayne (1997) maintained that leader has the most
responsibility in the LMX relationship. Lord and Maher (1991) argued that
attitude and behavior of managers determine the perceptions of employees
regarding their organization and their response toward their manager.
Although, there exist an extensive literature on the behaviors of leaders and
their implications. However, more attention has received by contingent reward
and transformational behaviors of the leaders. Contingent reward behavior of a
leader means that leader provides constructive feedback to his employees and
acknowledge the achievements and efforts of his team members and appreciate
the performance of employees by giving rewards. This behavior of leaders is
aimed to convey the targets to employees with clarity and the rewards
associated with the performances that are consistent with the expectations of
the managers (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999). According to Graen and Uhl-Bien
(1995), social exchange is a unique determinant for development of high-
quality relationship between the leaders and subordinate. However, some other
recent studies proved that high-quality LMX relationship depends on both
transactional and transformational attitudes of leaders. Avolio et al. (1999)
stated that although contingent reward is also a trait of the transactional
behavior of leaders, that leads to a low-quality relationship between leader and
39
employees, but it is also a component of high-quality LMX relationship as
well.
Waldman, Bass, and Yammarino (1990) explained that clear
communication of expectation of leaders from employees and associated
awards help employees to make the correct perception of their job
responsibilities. Furthermore, Brower, Lester, Korsgaard, and Dineen (2008)
asserted that respect and mutual trust between subordinates supervisors are the
salient factors in development of leader-member-exchange relationship of
higher quality. Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) claimed that there would be neither
trust nor respect between manager and employees if the manager did not
acknowledge the efforts of his team members and distribute rewards
accordingly. Wayne et al. (2002) also, supported this notion that employees
who receive constructive feedback, acknowledgment and reward for their
efforts from their managers become more pleased with their manager and
organization which result in high LMX quality.
Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) conducted a seminal study on the
characteristics and impacts of transformational leadership. They stated that it
consists of an appealing vision of the leader, his behavior coherent with that
vision and acknowledgment on achieving the set goals to realize that vision.
This kind of leadership also leads to high-quality LMX rapport between leader
and his team members. Judge and Piccolo (2004) mentioned that managers
who motivate employees and inspire them to meet their targets get more
favorable response from subordinates. Consequently, this favorable reaction
draws out an inspiration to develop a relationship employees and their
managers based on high quality. Three elements of LMX was identified in the
classical LMX theory in 1975. Firstly, the attention of manager to each
subordinate affects the LMX relationship. Secondly, managerial coaching to
build the career of employees is also crucial in this regard. Finally, the
contribution of employees to in assisting their manager also enhance the LMX
relationship in an organization. Hence, it can be proposed that managerial
coaching facilitates the development of leader-member-exchange relationship
between leader and his/her subordinates based on high quality which in turn
determines the response of employees to the directions of their leader.
3.8 RELATIONSHIP OF ROLE CLARITY WITH JOB
SATISFACTION, ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, AND
TURNOVER INTENTIONS
Role theory asserts that there should be a clear set of responsibilities and
expectations for each job in an organization. In that way, managers can better
40
coach their employees and similarly workers can be held responsible for their
performance. Jackson and Schuler (1985) highlighted the argument of role
theorists that employees should have clear information about their targets in
the job. They also discussed the disadvantages of improper or vague
communication of job responsibilities and goals to the employees. For
example, reduction in productivity of employees increases in stress level or
dissatisfaction of employees with their job. It may also cause difficulty in
making decisions (Rizzo et al., 1970). R. L. Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and
Rosenthal (1964) argued main cause for the lack of role clarity is poor
communication of necessary information regarding their job responsibilities
and performance targets to the employees, which can be improved through
managerial coaching. Abramis (1994) stated that one of the factors that cause
dissatisfaction among employees regarding their job is a lack of role clarity.
Cicero et al. (2010) confirmed the findings of Abramis (1994) and conclude
that effectiveness of management depends on role clarity. Singh (1993) found
that workers who are aware of their job responsibilities are relatively more
satisfied with their role as compared to others who are not cognizant of their
role in the organization. Jackson and Schuler (1985) showed in their study a
meta-analysis and they also revealed that job satisfaction depends largely on
role clarity. In other words, those workers who are clearly informed about the
expectation of organization from them are relatively more contented with their
job as compared to those who have a vague idea about their targets and how to
perform their duties.
Rapid changes in the organizations due to technological improvements
and globalization etc. have made the working environment quite challenging
and demanding. Therefore, it has become extremely important for an employee
to have a hold on their working environment to some extent in order to
complete their assigned tasks efficiently (Hui & Lee, 2000). Schaufeli and
Bakker (2004) discussed two ways in which employees can achieve control in
their working environment. Firstly, organizations may diminish the uncertainty
regarding work or reduce the job responsibilities to make working
environment more conducive. Secondly, organizations can also improve the
confidence level or resilience of their employees and this would increase their
potential to cope with the problematic and challenging assignments. The first
way can be achieved by communicating effectively and clearly to the
employees regarding their tasks. Nevertheless, organizations are required to
nurture a sense of value and competence among employees internally to follow
the second option.
The need for employees to control, and their esteem, can be satisfied by
decreasing the uncertainty regarding work and developing the confidence and
resilience in employees (Lee & Peccei, 2007). If organizations become
41
successful in achieving these two things then it would create great benefits for
both employees and organizations. Meyer and Allen (1991) mentioned in their
study that role clarity leads to comfortable and secure working environment
for employees and develops the competency in the work roles of employees as
well. They also mentioned that these variables have a strong connection with
the attachment of employees to their organization. Many studies like Hughes
and Palmer (2007) and many others also supported this fact and concluded that
role clarity is an important antecedent of organizational commitment.
Saks, Uggerslev, and Fassina (2007) stated in their study that
expectations, objectives, and vision of organization become more perceptible
after role clarity. These variables improve the level of comfort and competency
of employees which in turn make them more efficient and committed to their
organization. Wetzels, de Ruyter, and Bloemer (2000) also concluded in their
study that role clarity is one of the major determinants of organizational
commitment. Meyer et al. (2002) showed in their study a meta-analysis and
their results supported previous findings. Meyer, Irving, and Allen (1998)
asserted that role clarity improves the quality of employees’ work, as they can
do their job easily and in a better way when they have a clear idea about the
expectations of the organization and consequently that results in stronger
organizational commitment.
Employees may lose their self-determination and feel hesitation in
achieving the organizational objectives if they have a vague idea about their
role and organizational expectation from them (Rizzo et al., 1970). Yukl and
Mahsud (2010) argued that even the best employees with a high degree of
competency and motivation may not perform well in the case when they are
not clearly aware of their job responsibilities. The lack of role clarity may also
increase the absentees of employees and turnover behavior. Bray and Brawley
(2002) conducted a research on role clarity by taking small groups and
concluded that workgroups can work efficiently if each member of the group is
well aware of his duties. Bray and Brawley (2002) argued that lack of role
clarity will hinder the employees to complete the organizational objectives and
will also undermine their performance.
Members of the group tend to be dissatisfied with their work because of
high level of ambiguity regarding their job responsibilities. Consequently, the
employees working in a group prefer to separate themselves from a group.
Numerous researchers explored the influence of role ambiguity on employees’
turnover in organizational context. Griffeth, Hom, and Gaertner (2000) showed
the results in their meta-analysis study that role ambiguity has a negative
relationship with turnover intensions to employees. Wright and Davis (2003)
also, supported these findings. In addition, Jung (2011) conducted a study on
42
federal agencies and also confirmed the positive impact of role ambiguity on
employees’ turnover rates. Panaccio and Vandenberghe (2009) revealed that
unlike role ambiguity, role clarity, and turnover rate are negatively correlated.
3.9 RELATIONSHIP OF WORK ENGAGEMENT WITH JOB
SATISFACTION, ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, AND
TURNOVER INTENTIONS.
Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) defined work engagement as a positive
state of mind of employees regarding their job experience. The various studies
have found the influence of work engagement on various organizational
factors (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002). Saks (2006) also, conducted a study
in this regard and concluded that performance of employees and their job
satisfaction are dependent on work engagement of employees. The employees
that are more engaged in their work have a good disposition and positive
feelings about their working environment. Sonnentag (2003) confirmed that
these positive feelings and experiences result in better performance of
employees regarding their work. Hobfoll (2001) asserted that workers who are
more engaged in their work obtain adequate job resources as well. The supply
of abundant resources to employees helps in reducing the stress of employees
caused by challenging job demands. Therefore, many studies revealed that
work engagement of employees is a factor to enhance their job satisfaction
(Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).
Meyer et al. (2002) studied the influence of dimensions of WE on the
employees’ OC. They found a strong association between both variables and
the nature of this relationship was found to be positive. The affective element
of employees’ commitment is influenced by various dimensions of work
engagement like the dedication of employees and their vigor and absorption
abilities (Saks, 2006). In other words, Saks (2006) confirmed that different
dimensions of work engagement are determinants of affective commitment of
employees.
Affective commitment can be facilitated by various techniques but
creating an energetic process in an organization can be very effective in this
regard (Hakanen et al., 2006). Researchers also identified that WE is a
consequence of job resources, like feedback and social support etc., influences
the organizational commitment. They used three factors of work engagement
in their model to represent the energetic element. As per Llorens, Bakker,
Schaufeli, and Salanova (2006), organizational commitment is dependent on
job resources and there exist and positive relationship between them. They also
concluded that relationship between job resource and organizational
43
commitment is mediated by work engagement. Nevertheless, job involvement
was not included as a dimension of personal resources in their model. This
implies that energetic and cognizant workers are more likely to get adequate
resources and tend to perform better. It is quite possible and believable that
eventually employees increase their job resources with their performance. The
thorough overview of the available literature on the subject indicate that both
individual employees and organizations can derive benefits from WE.
The association between WE and employees’ turnover rate might be
described through workers’ dedication and investment in their job. If an
employee is deeply engaged in his job, then it is unlikely that he would leave
his job because of the dedication and energy he has put in his work. In
addition, De Lange, De Witte, and Notelaers (2008) asserted a dedicated
employee is given various job resources as a result of his performance and
experience in his job, therefore, he may be reluctant to detach himself from the
job and organization. Hobfoll (2001) also, stated that if an employee leaves a
job then he would have to take a fresh start in his next organization which he
might think as a risky investment. He also referred to the conservation of
resources (COR) theory that individuals behave rationally and take actions to
conserve their present job resources and make a new investment of their job
resources very carefully.
Saks (2006) provided an extensive review of studies on work
engagement and concluded that work engagement negatively influences
employee turnover behavior. Another study in which Schaufeli and Bakker
(2004) affirmed the provision of job resources to employees increase the
motivation level of employees by making them more engaged in their work
and consequently this reduces the tendency of employees to leave their job.
Similarly, managers are also inclined to retain those workers who are strongly
engaged in their jobs because that yields great returns for the organizations as
well. Robinson and Morrison (1995) highlighted the negative impact of work
engagement on employees’ turnover rate and reasoned it by social exchange
theory (SET). They argued that when one person gives something to another
person then he also expects something in return and the same is true for the
relationship between employees and organization. Organizations provide job
resources to employees and facilitate them by improving their working
environment as well. Consequently, it requires that employees should also
devote their energy and efforts in return to their organizations.
44
3.10 RELATIONSHIP OF LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE
QUALITY WITH JOB SATISFACTION, ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMITMENT, AND TURNOVER INTENTIONS
Employees experience many social interactions and relationship with
their managers, colleagues, subordinates, and clients during their job.
However, Liden, Wayne, and Sparrowe (2000) mentioned that relationship
with his/her immediate supervisor is most important for the employee than all
of other working relationships. Liden and Maslyn (1998) referred this as LMX
relationship in their study. Therefore, LMX theory is essentially a relationship
based approach. Janssen and Van Yperen (2004) stated that as per LMX
theory, leaders or managers involve in a distinctive relationship with each
subordinate rather than following an average leadership approach. This implies
that a leader can maintain a high-level LMX relationship with some of his
subordinates and low-level LMX relationship with the remaining subordinates.
Janssen and Van Yperen (2004) also, identified the characteristics of
high-quality and low-quality exchange relationship between members and
leader. The characteristics of high LMX quality relationship include mutual
respect, sense of obligation and trust. In contrast, formal interactions between
leader and subordinate and contracts of employment were identified as
distinctive characteristics of low LMX quality relationship. Another study in
which Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) stated that high-quality association of
employees and manager yields great benefits to both employees and their
organizations. One of the major factors behind high-quality exchange
relationship between managers and employees are the provision of social
support and job resources from the managers and the willingness of employees
to work beyond their assigned role in employment contracts. Consequently,
Vigoda-Gadot and Beeri (2011) reported that LMX relationship of high quality
plays a vital role to enhance job satisfaction, employees’ performance and their
affective commitment to their organization.
Tangible and intangible exchanges took place in a working relationship.
However, social exchange theory focuses extensively on intangible benefits
and their exchange in a working relationship and that makes it distinctive from
other theories regarding the relationship of leaders with subordinates. In a
social exchange the obligations are undetermined and the expectation of
returns depend exclusively on the person who makes the exchange. In
addition, the rule of exchange is the main feature of SET (Gouldner, 1960).
This implies that both the parties i.e. leader and subordinate are expected to
give something in return of benefits and favorable treatment provided to them
by another party. Therefore, employees that are engaged in high-quality LMX
relationship with their manager tend to reciprocate the favorable treatment and
45
support of their manager by showing a positive change in their work
performance and, as a result, the level of their job satisfaction will be
increased.
Mowday, Porter, and Steers (1982) explained that when an individual
worker become involved in his job and identify himself with his organization
then consequently he would be emotionally connected to his organization and
have a strong affective commitment to his organization. Wayne et al. (2002)
discussed several reasons for the positive influence of high-quality LMX on OC.
Firstly, managers nurture the organizational commitment in employees during
role-making for employees. They also mentioned that leader that involve
themselves in high-quality LMX relationship convince their subordinates to
develop OC. Individuals would be more dedicated to their employer if they are
emotionally connected and loyal to their manager. Eisenberger et al. (1986)
referred the manager as the proxy for the company to the employees, and thus,
the increased loyalty of employees to their managers also implies the strong
organizational commitment. Several factors like social interaction, job
challenges, and managerial feedback have been discussed in the literature as the
determinants of organizational commitment. It is the responsibility of the
managers to provide useful and immediate response to their employees (Liden
et al., 1997). As per Brouer and Harris (2007), employees that are involved in
high-quality LMX relationship often assigned challenging tasks and
consequently employees put in great efforts to meet their tasks. In addition,
employees that remain in closer contact with the manager would get appropriate
and in time feedback which result in increased organizational commitment.
LMX theory thus asserts that a manager may have either high-quality or
low-quality exchange relationship with his team members of subordinates.
Liden and Graen (1980) mentioned in their study that individuals which have
high-quality LMX connection with their supervisor can control the matters and
make decisions in a better way, whereas Graen and Scandura (1987) asserted
that these employees will have relatively more opportunities to develop their
career. Similarly, Kraimer, Wayne, and Jaworski (2001) stated that these
employees will have greater opportunity to receive support and feedback from
their manager.
An analysis of LMX theory manifests the numerous positive impacts of
high-quality exchange relationship for both employees and organization (Davis
& Gardner, 2004). These include the efficient performance of employees,
increase in JS of employees and improvement in their OC. As a result of high-
quality relationship between leader and subordinate the intentions of employees
to leave their job also reduces. Schyns et al. (2007) also, argued that employees
having low-quality exchange relationship with their supervisor are more likely
46
to have greater tendency to leave their job as compared to those employees who
have a strong working affiliation with their manager. Reid et al. (2008) also
stated that high-quality LMX relationship reduces the employees’ turnover
intentions.
3.11 RELATIONSHIP OF JOB SATISFACTION,
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, AND TURNOVER
INTENTIONS WITH JOB PERFORMANCE
Numerous studies explored the Hawthorne effect in human relation
theory which revealed the major perspective that job performance is positively
affected by the satisfaction with the job (Petty, McGee, & Cavender, 1984).
Riketta (2008) asserted that an effort to satisfy the necessities of employees for
increasing their productivity is the better description of human relations.
Spector (1997) argued that many HRD researchers confirmed that the
satisfaction of an employee is related to many work-related outcomes in any
organization i.e. employees’ turnover rate, commitment to job and
organization, productivity, and burnout. Judge, Thoresen, Bono, and Patton
(2001) conducted an analytic study by taking the sample of 312 observations
and found an appositive association between JS and JP. Iaffaldano and
Muchinsky (1985) concluded that association between JS and JP is marginal.
Some other studies also found that employee job performance is positively
influenced by job satisfaction (George & Jones, 1997; Riketta, 2008).
There is a positive influence of JS on task performance (Edwards et al.,
2008). Springer (2011) argued that many managerial strategies can be applied
to increasing job motivation and satisfaction to improve the job performance
of the workers. S.-H. Chen and Liu (2012) investigated that job satisfaction
and job involvement have positive impacts on work performance in case of
Taiwan. A survey was conducted by Aftab and Idrees (2012) in which 335
middle-level employees of banking sector responded from Pakistan and results
revealed the positive association between job performance and satisfaction.
Affective commitment is considered as a central element of
organizational commitment which is described as attitudinal or emotional
feelings that one have for his/her organization. Meyer and Allen (1997)
specified that effective commitment, to job and company, denotes the
individuals’ identifications and involvement with work in the company. Meyer
et al. (2002) researchers in the field of commitment agree that affective
commitment is the most desirable form of commitment and leaders particularly
want to embed this commitment in their workers. Likewise, Mowday et al.
(1982) organized the studies on commitment with the organization and its
47
applications and tested many relevant theories on the subject. One of the major
arguments inferred by testing these theories is that the theory of organizational
support seemed to be an appropriate explanation of managerial coaching which
is already argued by the several previous studies conducted in this regard
(Meyer et al., 2002). Satisfaction and appreciation of employees can also be
boosted by providing them support via coaching by their reporting managers
and this strategy enables the employees to feel affectively committed to their
organization. In another study Meyer and Allen (1997) reported worker’s
commitment with employer is positively associated with his productivity as
well as organizational productivity and efficiency, and his satisfaction with his
work. Many of the other studies related to employee attitude also reported the
existence of positive relationship between the affective commitment of worker
and his job performance (Riketta, 2008).
Finally, an extensive literature that recommends a negative association
between the turnover intention and job performance (Hui et al., 2007). Hulin
et al. (1985) reported that turnover intention may give way to the employees to
reduce their efforts for the job. There is also an argument that performance of
job may be considered as the investment of an employee in one’s organization.
When one considers about changing his job, in the perspective of investment,
he/she thinks about the substantial investment in the form of his time and
efforts in that job. But as per other perspective, employees deliberating about
turnover make low expectations that harm the actual performance of those
employees (Curry, Snyder, Cook, Ruby, & Rehm, 1997). Heide and Miner
(1992) argued that endurance of any relationship (long term existence or the
degree to how much a relation prolongs) depends on how much strongly a
party wants the relationship to prolong and whether the endpoint is uncertain
or not. In conclusion, if an employee wants to work with an organization then
it implies that, by his effective performance, he/she is more likely has the
intention to invest more in that organization willingly. In contrary argument, if
an employee does not want to work with the organization then it implies that
one does not want to invest his services in that organization by increasing his
performance.
3.12 MANAGERIAL COACHING AND JOB PERFORMANCE
LAYERED MODEL
The perceived organizational support theory is used for development of
hypothesized conceptual model. POS theory is used to frame the managerial
coaching as a form of POS and PSS. The existing literature suggests that
perceived supervisory support affects employee attitudes and behaviors in the
workplace. As per existing literature, managerial coaching as a form of
48
supervisory support can influence employee role clarity, work engagement,
leader-member exchange quality, job satisfaction, organizational commitment,
turnover intentions, and job performance. This structural model is distinct form
the Kim’s (2010) model because it includes different outcomes of managerial
coaching like work engagement, leader-member-exchange, turnover
intentions, and overall job satisfaction. Secondly, this structural model
develops a double mediation mechanism between the relationship of
managerial coaching with job performance. This conceptual model (Figure
2.1) proposes a direct relationship between managerial coaching and job
performance as well as indirect relationship via two layers of mediating
variables. The first layer includes employee perceived role clarity, work
engagement, and leader-member exchange quality. The second layer includes
job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. The
existing literature suggests that managerial coaching influences job
performance and role clarity, work engagement and leader-member exchange
quality. The literature also suggests that role clarity, work engagement and
leader-member exchange quality influence job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, and reduce turnover intentions which in turn improve employee
job performance. The conceptual model hypothesizes that managerial
coaching can increase employee job performance as well as perceived
employee role clarity, work engagement, improve LMX quality, which in turn
positively enhance job satisfaction, increase organizational commitment,
reduce turnover intentions, and all these variables lead towards the employee
improved job performance. Double mediation models were hypothesized
based on previous empirical findings and theory (Simpson, Collins, Tran, &
Haydon, 2007). According to these models, job performance should be
predicted by a sequential link from the managerial coaching to, the role clarity,
to the job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions.
Next, job performance should be predicted by a sequential link from the
managerial coaching to, the work engagement, to the job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. Next, job performance
should be predicted by a sequential link from the managerial coaching to, the
LMX quality, to the job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover
intentions. The conceptual model includes managerial coaching as exogenous
variable, job performance as a dependent variable, work engagement, LMX
quality, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions
as endogenous variables. Based on this model various hypotheses are
developed.
49
Figure 3.1: Managerial Coaching and Employee Job Performance Layered Model
Role Clarity
Work
Engagement
Leader-Member
Exchange
Quality
Job Satisfaction
Organizational
Commitment
Turnover
Interactions
Managerial
Coaching Job Performance
50
Hypotheses:
H1: Managerial coaching positively influences employee job
performance.
H2a: Managerial coaching positively influences employee role clarity.
H2b: Managerial coaching positively influences employee work
engagement.
H2c: Managerial coaching positively influences high leader-member
exchange quality.
H3a: Role clarity positively influences employee job satisfaction.
H3b: Role clarity positively influences employee organizational
commitment.
H3c: Role clarity negatively influences employee turnover intentions.
H4a: Work engagement positively influences employee job
satisfaction.
H4b: Work engagement positively influences employee organizational
commitment.
H4c: Work engagement negatively influences employee turnover
intentions.
H5a: Leader-member-exchange quality positively influences employee
job satisfaction.
H5b: Leader-member-exchange quality positively influences employee
job satisfaction.
H5c: Leader-member-exchange quality negatively influences employee
turnover intentions.
H6: Job satisfaction positively influences employee job performance.
H7: Organizational commitment positively influences employee job
performance.
H8: Turnover intentions is negatively influences employee job
performance.
51
H9a: Role clarity and job satisfaction mediate the relationship between
managerial coaching and job performance.
H9b: Role clarity and organizational commitment mediate the
relationship between managerial coaching and job performance.
H9c: Role clarity and turnover intentions mediate the relationship
between managerial coaching and job performance.
H10a: Work engagement and job satisfaction mediate the relationship
between managerial coaching and job performance.
H10b: Work engagement and organizational commitment mediate the
relationship between managerial coaching and job performance.
H10c: Work engagement and turnover intentions mediate the
relationship between managerial coaching and job performance.
H11a: Leader-member-exchange quality and job satisfaction mediate the
relationship between managerial coaching and job performance.
H11b: Leader-member-exchange quality and organizational commitment
mediate the relationship between managerial coaching and job
performance.
H11c: Leader-member-exchange quality and turnover intentions mediate
the relationship between managerial coaching and job
performance.
52
CHAPTER 4:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 OVERVIEW
Research methodology is a plan of action to execute a research study for
answering the research questions. This chapter describes research design,
population, study sample, data collection procedures, human subjects
protection, and instrument development. This chapter also describes
justification for using two step approach, Partial Least Square Structural
Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) for evaluation of measurement model and
structural model.
4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
An explanatory, and cross sectional design was used to determine the
influence of managerial coaching on employee perceived role clarity, work
engagement, leader-member-exchange quality, affective commitment, turnover
intentions, job satisfaction, and job performance. This design was appropriate
because an was instrument to explain the relationship among managerial
coaching and different employee outcomes such as how managerial coaching
directly affects employee job performance as well as through the mediating
effect of role clarity, work engagement, leader-member-exchange quality,
turnover intentions, job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
4.3 POPULATION
The real-life organizational data was collected from a public-sector
organization; Community Development Unit (CDU), Public Health
Engineering Department (PHED), Govt. of the Punjab, headquartered in the
Lahore, Pakistan. It was important to consider two major variables of study;
managerial coaching and employee job performance before selecting the
population. The existence of coaching environment or coaching relationship
between supervisor and subordinate was crucial to analyze the impact of
managerial coaching on employee job performance. For study purpose,
community development officers (CDOs) were considered as line
manager/supervisor/coach and community-based motivators (CBMs) were
considered as subordinate or coachee. The rationale for choosing community-
53
based motivators as population was dynamic work environment in which they
need extensive coaching from their supervisor to handle difficult situations in
fieldwork, motivate community, resolve community conflicts, minimize
complexity to form community-based organizations (CBOs), capacity building
of community-based organizations (CBOs), and social mobilization. The target
population was (6×36=216) 216 community-based motivators (CBMs)
employed in 36 districts of the province Punjab.
4.4 STUDY SAMPLE
A sample is a part of the target or accessible population that has been
procedurally selected to represent it. The census was used to collect data from
whole target population rather a sample of population. Census is more useful
for a small population (e.g., 200 or less) and impossible for large populations
due to the high cost of data collection (Israel, 1992). It provides data for all
individuals in the population and eliminates sampling error. The whole
population was considered as a sample to achieve the optimal level of
precision. The census was used for data collection from all 216 members of the
target population. The questionnaires were distributed to 216 employees. The
190 filled surveys were received back. The response rate was almost 87 and
183 surveys were used for data analysis.
4.4.1 Demographics Characteristics of Respondents
The total respondents of this study were 183 out of which 131 were males and 51 were females. The age of 24 respondents was between 20 to 25 years, the age of 84 respondents was between 26 to 30 years, the age of 64 respondents was between 31 to 35 years, and age of 11 respondents was above 35 years. The 46 respondents had Bachelor’s degree, 123 respondents had master’s degree, and 14 respondents had Post Graduate degree. The job experience of 29 respondents was less than 1 year, the experience of 51 respondents was 1 to 3 years, the experience of 41 respondents was 3 to 6 years, and experience of 62 respondents was more than 6 years. Table 4.1 presents the demographic characteristics of respondents.
54
Table4.1
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Characteristics N %
Gender Male
Female
131 52
71 29
Age
20 to 25 years 26 to 30 years 31 to 35 years
Above 35 years
24 84 64 11
13 46 35 6
Qualification
Bachelors Masters
Post Graduate
46 123 14
25 67 8
Job
Experience
Less than 1 Year 1 to 3 Years 4 to 6 Years
Above 7 Years
29 51 41 62
16 28 23 33
Total 183 100
4.5 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
Before starting the data collection, the principal investigator (PI) met
Deputy Director of Community Development Unit in Headquarter to explain
the purpose of study and obtain support for the study. A permission letter (see
Annexure C) was issued by Deputy Director for data collection from CBMs.
After receiving the official permission, PI was given an access to the telephone
numbers, emails, location, and postal addresses of intended respondents of the
study. The PI contacted the respondents by telephone and explained the
purpose of research and asked for distribution of questionnaires method. The
216 questionnaires were distributed among respondents through email, post,
and personal visit. The PI did follow up telephone calls reminding CBMs
about surveys at one to two week intervals. The final survey period was 8
weeks. The PI received a total of 190 surveys throughout entire process of data
collection. The response rate was almost 87 percent. The 57 respondents filled
the surveys and sent back through email. While 109 respondents returned the
questionnaires through courier service. The PI collected the remaining 24
surveys. The 26 respondents not replied due to any reason and one reason was
some vacant positions of respondents in different districts. The 7 surveys were
not appropriately filled and 183 surveys were used for data analysis purpose.
55
4.6 HUMAN SUBJECTS PROTECTION
Permission was obtained from Board of Advanced Studies and Research
at National College of Business Administration and Economics, Lahore to
conduct this research. During the data collection procedure, ethical guidelines
given by Fontana and Frey (2003) were being followed. The purpose of
research was explained to participants of survey. Participant were informed
that completion of survey provided informed consent for the survey.
Respondents were not asked to mention their name or any other indicator
through which respondents might be identified; only general demographics
were asked to mention in the questionnaire. The respondents were not mentally
or emotionally harm in any way during data collection procedure. Data was
kept confidential and PI only could access and used data.
4.7 INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT
The survey was a major instrument of primary data collection from the
target respondents which were community-based motivators (CBMs). The first
part of instrument described overall purpose of research and data collection,
assurance for the respondents regarding confidentiality of their response
and use of data only for research purpose. The second part was consisted
of questions on demographic characteristics of respondents like age,
gender, education, and work experience. The third part of the instrument
included close-ended questions regarding variables of study such as
managerial coaching, job performance, role clarity, work engagement, leader-
member-exchange quality, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
turnover intentions. The Likert-type scale was used to capture subjective
feelings of respondents ranging from 1 strong disagree to 5 strongly agree;
1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree and 5=strongly agree
(see Annexure B).
This survey used the eight assessment instruments. These were
Measurement model of coaching skills (Park et al., 2008), Role Clarity (Rizzo
et al., 1970), Leader-Member Exchange Quality (Liden & Maslyn, 1998),
Work Engagement (Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006), Job satisfaction
(Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins, & Kelsh, 1979), Organizational Commitment
(Meyer et al., 1993), Turnover Intentions (Bozeman & Perrewé, 2001). These
instruments were selected because already validated in different studies and
there was no scale available to measure employee Job Performance in this
organizational context. In this study, a new 8-items scale was developed to
measure the employee job performance (see Annexure A).
56
According to McLean et al. (2005) and Park et al. (2008), a supervisor or
manager can play a role as a coach not only by exhibiting behaviors as well as
beliefs or attitudes that support the coaching attitude. The Measurement model
of coaching skills scale (also known as Park Skills-Based Scale) includes the
items which are based on behavioral, knowledge-based and skill-based
approaches to coaching. For instance, one item describes “My manager views
differences of opinion as constructive.” This scale comprises attitudes, skills and
other questions which required completing it to consider the manager or
supervisor’s abilities, tendencies, and other unseen cognitive motivations.
This coaching scale based on the premise that an individual can display
coaching competencies via attitudes reflective of expertise which lead toward
the effective coaching. After extensive literature of athletic coaching, general
management, and human resource development, an earlier version of this scale
was developed and validated by Mclean et al. (2005) consisted of four
dimensions: “open communication; team approach; value people and accept
ambiguity”. Park et al (2008) further validated this scale and added one more
dimension to this scale, facilitating development. Finally, they developed 20-
item scale having five dimensions of managerial coaching; “open
communication, team approach, value people, accept ambiguity, and
facilitating development” (α=.93). This coaching 20 item scale was used to
measure managerial coaching on five point Likert-type scale from “1 being
strongly disagree to 5, being strongly agree”.
According to Tubre and Collins (2000), a role can be defined as “a
pattern of behaviors perceived by an employee as behaviors that are expected”
(p. 156). The current study has defined the term role clarity as a condition in
which employee is aware of duties assigned to him in accordance with his status
in the organization. The 4-item scale developed by (Rizzo et al., 1970) was used
to assess role clarity. A sample item is “I have been given clear explanations of
what is expected of me”. The Cronbach’s alpha reported for measures ranging
from .80 to .87 (Karatepe, 2010; Norman, Gardner, & Pierce, 2015).
The construct of work engagement can be defined as ‘‘a positive,
fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication,
and absorption’’(Schaufeli et al., 2002, p. 74). They identified three
dimensions of work engagement; vigor, dedication, and absorption. Vigor
refers to significant strength and adaptability, a desire to do struggle in the
work, and while facing problems not to be weak and inflexible. Dedication can
be defined as active participation in the job, eagerness, and a feeling of self-
respect and motivation. It is like a strong emotional attachment to your work.
While absorption can be stated as a pleasurable psychological condition of
being fully engaged in your job, undergo quick time pass and not being able to
57
disengage from your work. It also refers to being well focused and having a
pleasing interest in your work. Schaufeli et al. (2002) developed 17-item
Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) to measure dimensions of work
engagement; 6-item scale for vigor, 6-item scale for dedication and 5-item
scale for absorption. Schaufeli et al. (2006) revised the 17-item scale and
reduced this to 9-item (UWES-9), three items for each dimension; vigor,
dedication, and absorption (α=.80). This UWES-9 scale was used to measures
the work engagement.
The reciprocal nature of the employee-manager association is termed as
leader-member exchange quality. Liden and Maslyn (1998) defined leader-
member exchange quality as a multi-dimensional construct (MDM). The
mutual attachment between dyad members established on the grounds of
personal affinity instead of occupation or organizational values is called affect.
Loyalty refers to the depiction of people motivation for achieving mutual
objectives and the personality of other LMX dyad members. On the other
hand, for achieving common dyad targets (hidden or open), the extent of
widespread activities proposed by each member referred to as contribution.
The level of prestige achieved by dyad members in their organizations due to
their outstanding work is called professional respect. They reported
Cronbach’s alpha for 11-item scale (α=.89). An 11-item scale respectively 3-
item subscale for affect, 3-item subscale for loyalty, 2-item subscale for
contribution and 3-item subscale for professional respect was used to measure
the leader-member exchange quality.
Job satisfaction can be defined as individual positive feelings about the
job. The three-item job satisfaction subscale of Michigan Organizational
Assessment Questionnaire (Cammann et al., 1979) was used to measure
employee overall job satisfaction. A sample item is “All in all I am satisfied
with my job”. The Cronbach’s alpha of measure has been reported ranging
from 0.74 to 0.90 (Alarcon & Edwards, 2011; Tang, Siu, & Cheung, 2014).
Organizational commitment can be defined as an affective attachment to
the organization and it goal and an individual wish to remain the member of
the organization. The six items Affective organizational Commitment Scale
(AOCS) developed by (Meyer et al., 1993) was used to measure organizational
commitment (α=.82). The sample item includes include “I feel as if my
organization’s problems are my own”. Meyer and Allen (1997) argued that an
employee with high affective commitment demonstrate high productivity and
reduced turnover intentions and affective commitment is perceived as most
desirable component of organizational commitment. Affective commitment
scale was used because affective commitment is more important for the
organization rather continuance and normative commitment.
58
Turnover intentions are defined as thoughts of quitting and intentions of
looking for a different job. In this study, turnover intentions were measured by
the Turnover Cognitions Scale (Bozeman & Perrewé, 2001). An example item
is “I will probably look for a job in the near future”. The Cronbach’s alpha of
measures has been reported ranging from 0.71 to 0.98 (De Villiers & Stander,
2011; Schyns et al., 2007).
Employee job performance is defined as the level of achievement at
assigned job duties (Williams & Anderson, 1991). To measure the employee
job performance in community development unit, an 8-items scale based on
their job description was developed for employees to evaluate their own
performance. The scale content validity of scale was ensured by a discussion
with community development officers/managers working in community
development unit. The inter-item reliability of this scale was ensured through a
pilot study and value of Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.783. A sample
item includes “I am able to mobilize community according to departmental
expectations.”
4.8 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
According to Leguina (2015), for multivariate data analysis in social and
behavioral sciences, Structural equation modeling (SEM) has become a very
famous technique. SEM use various statistical techniques jointly for analyzing
the relationship between latent and observable variables as well as among
latent variables. This is more relevant to the field of studies exploring
intentions, perceptions, attitudes, and abilities. SEM combines the factor
analysis and linear regression to achieve this. There are two alternative
approaches toward SEM; variance based or partial least square SEM (PLS-
SEM) and covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM). The AMOS, M PLUS, and
LISERAL software are popular for applying CB-SEM and Smart PLS, PLS-
Graph, Visual PLS and Warp PLS software for applying PLS-SEM.
PLS-SEM is “particularly appealing when the research objective focuses
on prediction and explaining the variance of key target constructs by different
explanatory constructs; the sample size is relatively small and/or the available
data is non-normal; and, when CB-SEM provides no, or at best questionable,
results (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011; Hair, Sarstedt, Ringle, & Mena, 2012;
Henseler, Ringle, & Sinkovics, 2009). Moreover, formative measured
constructs are particularly useful for explanatory constructs of key target
constructs. PLS-SEM is the preferred alternative over CB-SEM in these
situations since it enables researchers to create and estimate such models
59
without imposing additional limiting constraints” (Hair, Sarstedt, Pieper, &
Ringle, 2012).
There were two reasons for using PLS-SEM as statistical techniques for
model estimation. First, a large sample size is required to obtain good
estimates of model parameters while using covariance-based structural
equation model. The recommended sample size is 200 for applying CB-SEM
(H. Marsh, Hau, Balla, & Grayson, 1998). According to Birkinshaw, Morrison,
& Hulland (1995), Partial Least Square is more suitable for those research
studies having a small sample size. The PLS seemed prudent for estimation of
path coefficients because the sample size is less than two hundred (n= 183).
Finally, an assumption of multivariate normality does not require in PLS-SEM.
The Smart PLS version 3 (Ringle, Wende, & Becker, 2015) was used for
applying PLS-SEM in this research.
According to Hair, Hult, Ringle, and Sarstedt (2013), measures of
association between constructs and their indicators (outer model or
measurement model) and the relationship between constructs (inner model or
structural model) are delivered in model estimation. The model estimation
makes it possible to compare reality as captured through sample data with
theoretically developed measurement and structural model. Specifically, it
helps to analyze match between theory and data. The PLS-SEM estimations
are not evaluated via a single goodness-of-fit criterion. The results of
measurement model and structural model are evaluated on a set of
nonparametric evaluation criteria in PLS-SEM. The PLS-SEM uses different
procedures for model estimation such as bootstrapping and blindfolding. Hair
et al. (2013) presented criteria for systematic evaluation of measurement
model and structural model in PLS-SEM. The Figure 3.1 presents the criteria.
Source: Hair et al., (2013)
Figure 4.1: Systematic Evaluation of PLS-SEM Results
60
A normally distributed data is not required for applying PLS-SEM,
which indicates that outer weight, outer loadings, and path coefficients
significance are not estimated using parametric tests for significance used in
regression analysis. The PLS-SEM depends on the testing coefficient for their
significance via nonparametric bootstrap procedure (Davison & Hinkley,
1997; Efron & Tibshirani, 1986). As a rule, 5,000 bootstrap samples are
recommended (Hair et al., 2013) and also used in the evaluation of
measurement and structural model in this study. The SPSS 22 was used for
descriptive statistics, Cronbach’s alpha, and multicollinearity assessment. For
model estimation, Smart PLS 3 was used for applying Partial least square
structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The structural model was evaluated
by assessing multicollinearity, size and significance of path coefficients, the
coefficient of determination (R2), effect size 2f , predictive reliance (Q2). The
Sobel Test Calculator for the Significance of Mediation [Software] was used
for testing double mediation models in this study.
61
CHAPTER 5:
RESULTS
5.1 OVERVIEW
This chapter presents descriptive statistics, evaluation of measurement model through ensuring internal consistency, convergent and discriminant validity. This chapter also presents results for evaluation of structural model by applying different statistical techniques.
5.2 MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATION, AND CORRELATION
MATRIX
Table 5.1 presents the means, standard deviations, correlation, and
Cronbach’s alphas for each measure. The mean of organizational commitment
was 2.99 which was lesser than all other variables. The standard deviation of
managerial coaching was 0.35 which was lesser than all other variables. All
scales had internal consistencies above 0.70, show by reliability analysis which
is considered adequate (Nunnally, Bernstein, & Berge, 1967). All the
correlations were in the expected directions.
Table 5.1
Means, Standard Deviation (SD), and Correlation Matrix
Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Managerial
Coaching 4.00 .35 1
2. Role Clarity 4.02 .71 .52**
3. Wok
Engagement 3.99 .63 .43** .21*
4. LMX Quality 3.92 .54 .60** .25** .41**
5. Job
Satisfaction 3.92 .85 .35** .43* .89** .47**
6. Organizational
Commitment 3.34 .58 .27** .16* .27** .14 .23**
7. Turnover
Intentions 2.99 .71 -.38** -.43* -.35* -.55** -.34 * -.23*
8. Job
Performance 4.12 .53 .42** .31** .46** .46** .37** .24* .43**
**p<0.01, *p<0.05
62
5.3 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS
The reliability estimates were computed to assess inter-item consistency
for managerial coaching, role clarity, work engagement, organizational
commitment, turnover intentions, job Satisfaction, leader-member exchange
quality and job performance using the Cronbach’s alpha technique. Table 5.2
presents the results of the reliability analysis.
Table 5.2
Cronbach’s Alpha
Sr.
No.
Latent
Variable Dimension Items
Cronbach’s
Alpha
(>0.70)
1 Managerial
Coaching
Open Communication 4 .81
Team Approach 4 .78
Value People 4 .74
Accept Ambiguity 4 .71
Facilitate Development 4 .72
2 Work
Engagement
Vigor 3 .70
Dedication 3 .81
Absorption 3 .74
3
Leader-
Member
Exchange
Affect 3 .88
Loyalty 3 .77
Contribution 2 .82
Professional Respect 3 .70
4 Role Clarity 4 .75
5 Organizational
Commitment 6 .76
6 Turnover
Intentions 5 .78
7 Job
Satisfaction 3 .77
8 Job
Performance 8 .76
Table 5.2 shown that all the factors are reliable because value of
Cronbach’s alpha for all factors is greater than 0.70 (>. 70, Kline, 2005). The
overall reliability of the all factors was good.
63
5.4 EVALUATION OF MEASUREMENT MODEL
The conceptual model includes eight latent variables; managerial
coaching, job performance, role clarity, work engagement, leader-member
exchange quality, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover
intentions. A formative or reflective measurement scale exist in structural
equation modeling. When indicators of latent variable are highly
interchangeable and correlated with each other, they are reflective and their
reliability and validity should be thoroughly examined (Haenlein & Kaplan,
2004; Hair et al., 2013). When the indicators of a latent variable are not
interchangeable or correlated with each other are known as formative.
Generally, formative indicators have no correlation among each other. Role
clarity, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turn over intentions, and
job performance were considered as reflective measurement model.
Managerial coaching, work engagement, and leader-member-exchange quality
were treated as higher order/2nd order model. Hair et al. (2013) presented
criteria for systematic evaluation of measurement model which include
ensuring internal consistency, convergent validity, discriminant validity. These
criteria were used for evaluation of measurement models.
5.4.1 Internal Consistency
According to Hair et al. (2013), internal consistency reliability is
evaluated as the first criterion in the evaluation of measurement model. The
Cronbach’s alpha relies on inter-correlations of the observed indicator
variables to estimate reliability and it is a traditional criterion for estimation of
internal consistency. It is assumed by the Cronbach’s alpha that all indicators
of latent variable are equally reliable. On the other hand, indicators are
prioritized as per their individual reliability which is called composite
reliability and used in PLS-SEM.
The greater value of composite reliability indicates a higher level of
reliability and value ranges from 0 to 1. The composite relatability is interpreted
in a similar manner as Cronbach’s alpha. In exploratory research, the acceptable
values of composite reliability range from 0.60 to 0.70, whereas the value from
0.70 to 0.90 are considered as satisfactory in the most advanced level of
research (Nunally & Bernstein, 1994). Table 5.3 shows the composite reliability
of eight latent variables.
64
Table 5.3
Composite Reliability
Latent Variable Composite Reliability
Managerial Coaching 0.86
Job Performance 0.82
Role Clarity 0.84
Job Satisfaction 0.86
Leader-member-exchange Quality 0.85
Organizational Commitment 0.82
Turnover Intentions 0.84
Work Engagement 0.88
The composite reliability should be higher than 0.70. Table 5.3 shown
the value of composite reliability for all variables is > .70 which indicated that
all variables were reliable.
5.4.2 Convergent Validity
The degree to which indicators of a construct are correlated with other
indicators of same constructs is called convergent validity. The outer loadings
of indicators and average variance extracted (AVE) are criteria considered by
researchers to establish convergent validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The
highly-correlated indicators of a construct reveal commonality among
indicators which indicate high outer loadings. This characteristic is usually
also known as indicator reliability. The outer loadings of indicators should be
> 0.70. The indicators having outer loadings between .40 and .70 should be
deleted if deletion of indicators results increases in average variance extracted
(AVE) and composite reliability of construct. The content validity of a
construct is another criterion for deletion of items. Occasionally, the
contribution of indicators is important to establish content validity of
constructs and indicators having weak outer loading are not deleted. When
indicators outer loadings are below 0.40, those indicators must be deleted from
the scale (Hair et al., 2011). Average variance extracted (AVE) is a common
method to establishing the convergent validity of a construct. Average
variance extracted (AVE) is the extent to which variance of indicators is
explained by their construct. AVE value of 0.50 or higher indicates that, on
average, the construct explains more than half of the variance of its indicators
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006).
Table 5.4 presents the outer loadings of indicators.
65
Table 5.4
Outer Loadings
Factor Indicators Loadings Factor Indicators Loadings
Managerial Coaching
Op_1 0.67
Leader-Member exchange
quality
AF_1 0.71
Op_2 0.71 AF_2 0.54
Op_3 0.62 AF_3 0.75
Op_4 0.65 LO_1 0.64
TA_1 0.43 LO_2 0.63
TA_2 0.53 LO_3 0.34
TA_3 0.55 CO_1 0.40
TA_4 0.68 CO_2 0.53
VP_1 0.62 PR_1 0.71
VP_2 0.43 PR_2 0.57
VP_3 0.51 PR_3 0.52
VP_4 0.39 Job
Satisfaction
JS_1 0.74
AA_1 0.35 JS_2 0.88
AA_2 0.23 JS_3 0.84
AA_3 0.31
Organizational Commitment
OC_1 0.64
AA_4 0.14 OC_2 0.71
FD_1 0.37 OC_3 0.66
FD_2 0.49 OC_4 0.52
FD_3 0.64 OC_5 0.51
FD_4 0.57 OC_6 0.586
Role Clarity
RC_1 0.77
Turnover Intentions
TI_1 0.75
RC_2 0.71 TI_2 0.60
RC_3 0.76 TI_3 0.82
RC_4 0.79 TI_4 0.72
Work Engagement
VI_1 0.43 TI_5 0.67
VI_2 0.63
Job Performance
JP_1 0.61
VI_3 0.81 JP_2 0.83
DE_1 0.70 JP_3 0.89
DE_2 0.88 JP_4 0.73
DE_3 0.80 JP_5 0.43
AB_1 0.65 JP_6 0.31
AB_1 0.50 JP_7 0.47
AB_1 0.65 JP_8 0.49
(For complete items names, please see annexure A)
The seven indicators of managerial coaching including VP_4, AA_1,
AA_2, AA_3, AA_4 and FD_1; one indicators of leader-member exchange
quality, LO_3; and one indicator of job performance, JP_6, were deleted from
scale due to their <.40 outer loadings. The nine items were deleted from the
66
scale. Table 5.5 presents average variance extracted in constructs after deleting
ten indicators.
Table 5.5
Average Variance Extracted
Latent Variables Average Variance
Extracted (AVE) (>0.50)
Managerial Coaching 0.67
Role Clarity 0.58
Work Engagement 0.77
Leader-Member exchange quality 0.54
Job Satisfaction 0.68
Organizational Commitment 0.52
Turnover Intentions 0.59
Job Performance 0.74
The AVE should be higher than 0.50. The above table indicated that
value of AVE is greater than 0.50 for all variables which indicated that all
variables have convergent validity.
5.4.3 Discriminant Validity
Discriminant validity is the “extent to which a construct is truly distinct
from other constructs by empirical standards”. The Constructs may be
considered to have adequate discriminant validity if the square root of the
AVE for each construct is larger than the correlation between the construct and
any other construct in the model (Chin, 1998; Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Table
5.6 shows the discriminant validity of constructs.
67
Table 5.6
Fornell-Larcker Criterion
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Managerial
Coaching .82
2. Role Clarity .52 0.75
3. Wok
Engagement .43 .21 .87
4. LMX Quality .60 .25 .41 0.73
5. Job Satisfaction .35 .43 .89 .47 0.82
6. Organizational
Commitment .27 .16 .27 .14 .23 0.72
7. Turnover
Intentions .38 .43 .35 .55 .34 .23 0.77
8. Job
Performance .42 .31 .46 .466 .37 .24 .43 0.86
Table 5.6 shown that all constructs except work engagement and job
satisfaction in the estimated model fulfilled this condition of discriminant
validity, because none of the off-diagonal elements exceeded the respective
diagonal elements, discriminant validity was achieved. Work engagement and
job satisfaction have low discriminant validity because their correlation is
greater than AVE.
5.4.4 Common Method Bias
Common method variance is potential issue due to self-reporting nature
of survey. I used one test to assess extent of common method bias in the data.
Harman’s single-factor test was applied as it was described as best diagnostic
technique to assess the degree to which common method bias is a potential
problem in the data (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). As per
this test, “if a single factor emerges from the exploratory factor analysis or one
factor accounts for more than 50% of the variance in the items, methods bias is
present” (Mattila & Enz, 2002). A common factor analysis with OBLIM
rotation was used to entered all the items measuring the eight constructs. The
results revealed an eight-factor structure with no one factor accounting for
more than 50% of the variance. The single-factor model accounted for only
19% of the total variance. Therefore, common method bias was not a
significant problem in this study.
68
5.5 EVALUATION OF STRUCTURAL MODEL
According to Hair et al. (2013), once validity and reliability of measures
is assured then we move toward next step in the PLS-SEM to evaluate the
structural model which analyze the association between variables in the
structural model as well predictive or explanatory power of the structural
model. The evaluation of structural model involves different steps; multi-
collinearity assessment, size and significance of path coefficients, the
coefficient of determination (R2), 2f effect size, and predictive relevance (Q2)
of constructs in the structural model.
5.5.1 Multi-Collinearity Assessment
Collinearity “arises when two constructs are highly correlated. When
more than two constructs are involved, it is called multicollinearity. A related
measure of collinearity is the variance inflation factor (VIF), defined as the
reciprocal of the tolerance. In the context of PLS-SEM, a tolerance value of
0.20 or lower and a VIF value of 5 and higher respectively indicate a potential
collinearity problem. If collinearity is indicated by the tolerance or VIF
guidelines, one should consider eliminating constructs, merging predictors into
a single construct, or creating higher-order constructs to treat collinearity
problems” (Hair et al., 2011). Table 5.7 presents the variance inflation factor
among constructs.
Table 5.7
Variance Inflation Factor (VIF)
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1.Job performance
2.Job satisfaction 1.23
3. LMX Quality 1.49 1.49 1.49
4.Managerial Coaching 1.40 1.00 1.00
5. Organizational
Commitment 1.02
6.Role Clarity 1.23 1.23 1.00 1.23
7.Turnover Intentions 1.41
8. Work Engagement 1.38 1.38 1.39
Table 5.7 shown that inner model VIF values are less than 5 which
indicates that multi-collinearity is not a big problem in this model.
69
5.5.2 Size and Significance of Path Coefficients
To determine the significance of paths defined in the structural model;
path coefficients were determined. The predictability of independent factor or
exogenous factor was estimated through path coefficients. The variables in the
structural model, managerial caching was an exogenous variable, role clarity,
work engagement, Leader-member-exchange quality, job satisfaction,
organizational commitment and turnover intentions were analyzed as an
endogenous variable, and job performance was a dependent variable in the
structural model. The criterion of p-value (p < 0.05) determined the
significance of factors. The path coefficients are given in the Table 5.8.
70
Table 5.8
Results of Structural (Inner) Model
Proposed
Effect
Path
Coefficient
Observed
t Value
P
Value
Hypothesis
Support
H1: Managerial Coaching
Effects on Job Performance + 0.469 4.988 0.000 Yes
H2a: Managerial Coaching
Effects on Role Clarity + 0.836 28.816 0.000 Yes
H2b: Managerial Coaching
Effects on Work
Engagement
+ 0.501 7.654 0.000 Yes
H2c: Managerial Coaching
Effects on LMX Quality + 0.608 10.935 0.000 Yes
H3a: Role Clarity Effects on Job
Satisfaction + 0.176 2.814 0.035 Yes
H3b: Role Clarity Effects on
Organizational
Commitment
+ 0.123 1.502 0.233 No
H3c: Role Clarity Effects on
Turnover Intentions - -0.241 2.445 0.018 Yes
H4a: Work Engagement Effects
on Job Satisfaction + 0.954 37.658 0.000 Yes
H4b: Work Engagement Effects
on Organizational
Commitment
+ 0.070 0.442 0.888 No
H4c: Work Engagement Effects
on Turnover Intentions - -0.134 1.926 0.026 Yes
H5a: Leader-Member-Exchange
Quality Effects on Job
Satisfaction
+ 0.161 1.581 0.029 Yes
H5b: Leader-Member-Exchange
Quality Effects on
Organizational
Commitment
+ 0.083 1.755 0.216 No
H5c: Leader-Member-Exchange
Quality Effects on
Turnover Intentions
- -0.982 51.734 0.000 Yes
H6: Satisfaction Effects on Job
Performance + 0.236 2.914 0.007 Yes
H7: Organizational
Commitment Effects on
Job Performance
+ 0.025 0.283 0.886 No
H8: Turnover Intentions Effects
on Job Performance - -0.113 1.492 0.027 Yes
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Table 5.8 presented the results of hypotheses testing developed in the
structural (Inner) model. The results indicated that twelve hypotheses were
accepted and four were rejected. H1 was accepted; managerial coaching
predicted the employee job performance (β = .469, p < 0.01). Managerial
coaching also predicted employee role clarity (β = .836, p < 0.01); H2a was
accepted. The relationship between managerial coaching and work
engagement was predicted by managerial coaching (β = .0.501, p < 0.01);
H2b was accepted. Leader-Member exchange quality was predicted by
managerial coaching (β = .608, p < 0.01); H2c was accepted. Role clarity
positively predicted job satisfaction (β = 0.176, p < 0.05); H3a was accepted.
The relationship between role clarity and organizational commitment was not
found (β = 0.123, p > 0.05); H3b was not supported. H3c was accepted; Role
clarity negatively predicted the employee turnover intentions (β = -0.241,
p < 0.05). Work engagement was correlated with job satisfaction (β = 0.954, p
< 0.01); H4a was supported. The organizational commitment was not predicted
by work engagement (β = 0.070, p > 0.05); H4b was not supported. Work
engagement was found to be a predictor of employee turnover intentions
(β = -0.13, p < 0.05); H4c was supported. Leader-Member-Exchange quality
predicted the employee job satisfaction (β = 0.161, p < 0.05); H5a was
accepted. H5b was rejected; Leader-Member-Exchange quality was not found
to be a predictor of organizational commitment (β =0.083, p > 0.05). Leader-
Member-Exchange quality was found to be predicted of employee turnover
intentions (β = -0.982, p < 0.05); H5c was accepted. Job satisfaction was
found to be a predictor of employee job performance (β = .236, p < 0.05);
H6 was supported. Job performance was not predicted by the organizational
commitment (β = 0.025, p > 0.05); H7, was not supported. Turnover intentions
predicted the employee job performance (β = -0.113, p < 0.05); H8 was
supported.
5.5.3 Coefficients of Determination (R2)
R square is a “measure of the proportion of an endogenous construct’s
variance that is explained by its predictor constructs”. Table 5.9 shows
R-square of endogenous construct included in the structural model.
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Table 5.9
Coefficients of Determination
R-Square
Standard
Deviation
T-
Statistics P-Values
Job Performance 0.45 0.068 6.61 0.00
Job Satisfaction 0.80 0.037 21.55 0.00
LMX Quality 0.33 0.06 5.53 0.00
Organizational Commitment 0.05 0.03 1.37 0.17
Role Clarity 0.69 0.048 14.52 0.00
Turnover Intentions 0.20 0.07 2.85 0.00
Work Engagement 0.24 0.069 3.47 0.00
Table 5.9 shown that R-square or percentage of variance explained for
these dependent variables is greater than 10%, implying a satisfactory and
substantive value and predictive power of the PLS model (Falk & Miller,
1992).
5.5.4 Effect Size 2f
The change in “R2 value when a specified exogenous construct is
omitted from the model can be used to evaluate whether the omitted construct
has a substantive impact on the endogenous constructs. This measure is
referred to as the 2f effect size. The criterion of the 2f is that values of 0.02,
0.15, and 0.35, respectively, represent small, medium, and large effects
(Cohen, 1988) of the exogenous latent variable”. Table 5.10 presents the value
of 2f for structural model.
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Table 5.10
Effect Size 2f
Variables 2f
Managerial Coaching Job performance 0.38
Managerial Coaching Role Clarity 1.78
Managerial Coaching Leader-Member Exchange Quality 0.51
Managerial Coaching Work Engagement 0.32
Role Clarity Job Satisfaction 0.02
Role Clarity Organizational Commitment 0.12
Role Clarity Turnover Intentions 0.32
Job Satisfaction Job performance 0.08
Leader-Member Exchange Quality Job Satisfaction 0.23
Leader-Member Exchange Quality Organizational Commitment 0.01
Leader-Member Exchange Quality Turnover Intentions 0.17
Organizational Commitment Job performance 0.02
Turnover Intentions Job performance 0.27
Work Engagement Job Satisfaction 3.41
Work Engagement Organizational Commitment 0.03
Work Engagement Turnover Intentions 0.21
Table 5.10 shown the values of the 2f . All relationship of managerial
coaching with job performance, role clarity, LMX quality and work
engagement have large effect size 2f , which is greater than 0.35. The effect
size of role clarity for job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
turnover intentions is 0.02, 0.12 and 0.32 respectively which indicated role
clarity has small effect size for job satisfaction and organizational commitment
and medium effect size for turnover intentions. The work engagement effect
size for job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions is
3.41, 0.03 and 0.21 respectively which shows that work engagement has large
effect size for job satisfaction, the medium effect size for turnover intentions
and small effect size for organizational commitment. The LMX quality effect
size for job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions is
0.23, 0.01 and 0.17 respectively; which indicates that LMX quality has
medium effect size for job satisfaction, small for turnover intentions and none
for organizational commitment. The effect size of job satisfaction,
organizational commitment and turnover intentions job performance is 0.08,
0.02, and 0.27 respectively; which indicates that job satisfaction and
organizational commitment has small and turnover intention has medium
effect size for job performance. So, the variables in the PLS model have
74
medium and larger effect size which indicates that omitted constructs affect
endogenous variables in the PLS model.
5.5.5 Predictive Relevance (Q2)
Finally, the Stone-Geisser test of predictive relevance was performed to
assessing model fit in PLS analysis (Geisser, 1975; Stone, 1974). Specifically,
the PLS model was evaluated by looking at the Q-square predictive relevance
for the model constructs. The Q-square is a measure of how well the observed
values are reproduced by the model and its parameter estimates. The Q2 value
is obtained by using the blindfolding procedure. Blindfolding is a “sample
reuse technique that omits every dth data point in the endogenous construct’s
indicators and estimates the parameters with the remaining data points” (Chin,
1998; Henseler et al., 2009). When Q-square is greater than zero, the model
has predictive relevance. The Table 5.11 presents the value of Q2 for latent
constructs in the model.
Table 5.11
Predictive Relevance (Q2)
Latent Variables Q2
Job Performance 0.17
Job Satisfaction 0.54
LMX Quality 0.17
Managerial Coaching 0.13
Organizational Commitment 0.00
Role Clarity 0.39
Turnover Intentions 0.44
Work Engagement 0.11
Table 5.11 shown that in the model, Q-square is greater for all variables
except organizational commitment which revealed that PLS model has
predictive relevance.
5.6 MEDIATION ANALYSIS
The Sobel test (Sobel, 1982) (for two-tailed) was conducted to test the
nine double mediation models. A p-value of less than .05 (< .05) was used as
the criterion statistic to determine if the mediation effect was significant. The
mediation was explored along nine paths in the model. Simpson et al. (2007)
used Sobel test for testing the double mediation between independent and
dependent variable. The following mediation models were tested to determine
75
the mediation effects between the relationship of managerial coaching (MC)
and employee job performance (JP).
Model 1
The mode 1 presents the mediating effect of RC and JS between MC
and employee JP relationship.
Figure 5.1: Model 1
Figure 5.1 presented the path model for mediating effect of RC and JS
between MC and JP relationship. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating
effect of RC between MC and JS was 2.85, which was found to be significant
(p< .05). This suggested that RC mediated the relationship between MC and
JP. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating effect of JS on RC and JP was
2.05, which was found to be significant (p < .05). This suggested JS has also
mediated the relationship between MC and JP. So, H9a was accepted which
hypothesized that relationship between MC and JP is mediated by RC and JS.
Model 2
The model 2 presents the mediating effect of RC and OC between MC
and employee JP relationship.
Figure 5.2: Model 2
Figure 5.2 presented the mediating effects of MC and JP through RC
and OC as mediators. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating effect of RC
between MC and OC was 0.144, which was found to be insignificant (p > .05).
This suggested that RC is not a mediated the relationship between MC and
OC. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating effect of OC between RC and JP
was 0.139, which was found to be insignificant (p > .05). This suggested OC
was not a mediator the relationship between MC and JP. So, H9b was not
accepted which hypothesized that relationship between MC and JP is mediated
by RC and OC.
Managerial
Coaching
Role
Clarity
Organizational
Commitment
Job
Performance
Managerial
Coaching
Role
Clarity
Job
Satisfaction
Job
Performance
76
Model 3
The model 3 presents the mediating effect of RC and TI between MC
and employee JP relationship.
Figure 5.3: Model 3
Figure 5.3 presented the mediating effects between MC and JP through
RC and TI as mediators. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating effect of RC
between MC and TI was 4.79, which was found to be significant (p < .05). This
suggested that RC mediated the relationship between MC and TI. The Sobel test
statistic for the mediating effect of TI between RC and JP was 1.74, which was
found to be significant (p < .05). This suggested TI has also mediated the
relationship between RC and JP. So, H9c was accepted which hypothesized
that relationship between MC and JP is mediated by RC and TI.
Model 4
The model 4 presents the mediating effect of WE and JS between MC
and employee JP relationship.
Figure 5.4: Model 4
Figure 5.4 presented the mediating effects between MC and JP through
WE and job satisfaction as mediators. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating
effect of WE between MC and JS was 8.85, which was found to be significant
(p < .05). This suggested that WE mediated the relationship between MC and
JP. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating effect of JS on WE and JP was
2.84, which was found to be significant (p < .05). This suggested that JS
mediated the relationship between WE and JP. So, H10a was accepted which
hypothesized that relationship between MC and JP is mediated by WE and JS.
Managerial
Coaching
Work
Engagement
Job
Satisfaction
Job
Performance
Managerial
Coaching
Role
Clarity
Turnover
Intentions
Job
Performance
77
Model 5
The model 5 presents the mediating effect of WE and OC between MC
and employee JP relationship.
Figure 5.5: Model 5
Figure 5.5 presented the mediating effects of MC and JP through WE
and OC as mediators. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating effect of WE
between MC and OC was 0.76, which was found to be insignificant (p > .05).
This suggested that WE not mediated the relationship between MC and OC.
The Sobel test statistic for the mediating effect of OC between WE and JP was
0.438, which was found to be insignificant (p > .05). This suggested OC was
not a mediator between the relationship between WE and JP. So, H10b was not
accepted which hypothesized that relationship between MC and job
performance is mediated by WE and OC.
Model 6
The model 6 presents the mediating effect of WE and OC between MC
and employee JP relationship.
Figure 5.6: Model 6
Figure 5.6 presented the mediating effects between MC and JP through
WE and TI as mediators. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating effect of
WE between MC and TI was 5.81, which was found to be significant (p < .05).
This suggested that WE mediated the relationship between MC and TI. The
Sobel test statistic for the mediating effect of TI between WE and JP was 1.96,
which was found to be significant (p < .05). This suggested TI mediated the
relationship between WE and JP. So, H10c was accepted which hypothesized
that relationship between MC and JP is mediated by WE and TI.
Managerial
Coaching
Work
Engagement
Turnover
Intentions
Job
Performance
Managerial
Coaching
Work
Engagement
Organizational
Commitment
Job
Performance
78
Model 7
The model 7 presents the mediating effect of LMX quality and JS
between MC and employee JP relationship.
Figure 5.7: Model 7
Figure 5.7 presented the mediating effects of MC and JP, through LMX
quality and job satisfaction as mediators. The Sobel test statistic for the
mediating effect of LMX quality between MC and JS was 6.40, which was
found to be significant (p < .05). This suggested that LMX quality mediated the
relationship between MC and JS. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating
effect of JS between LMX quality and JP was 2.73, which was found to be
significant (p < .05). This suggested JS has also mediated the relationship
between LMX quality and JP. So, H11a was accepted which hypothesized that
relationship between MC and JP was mediated by LMX quality and JS.
Model 8
The model 8 presents the mediating effect of LMX quality and OC
between MC and employee JP relationship.
Figure 5.8: Model 8
Figure 5.8 presented the mediating effects of MC and JP, through LMX
quality and OC as mediators. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating effect of
LMX quality between MC and OC was 0.11, which was found to be
insignificant (p > .05). This suggested that LMX quality not mediated the
relationship between MC and OC. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating
effect of OC between LMX quality and JP was 0.32, which found to be
insignificant (p > .05). This suggested OC not mediated relationship between
LMX quality and JP. So, H11b was not accepted which hypothesized that the
relationship between MC and JP is mediated by LMX quality and OC.
Managerial
Coaching
LMX
Quality
Organizational
Commitment
Job
Performance
Managerial
Coaching
LMX
Quality
Job
Satisfaction
Job
Performance
79
Model 9
The model 9 presents the mediating effect of LMX quality TI between
MC and employee JP relationship.
Figure 5.9: Model 9
The Figure 5.9 presented the mediating effects of MC and JP, through
LMX quality and TI as mediators. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating
effect of LMX quality between MC and TI was 14.54, which was found to be
significant (p < .05). This suggested that LMX quality mediated the
relationship between MC and TI. The Sobel test statistic for the mediating
effect of TI between LMX quality and JP was 1.97, which found to be
significant (p < .05). This suggested TI mediated relationship between LMX
quality and JP. So, H11c was accepted which hypothesized that relationship
between MC and JP is mediated by LMX quality and JS.
Managerial
Coaching
LMX
Quality
Turnover
Intentions
Job
Performance
80
CHAPTER 6:
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
6.1 OVERVIEW
This chapter presents discussion on key findings of study and
comparison with existing literature. Additionally, this chapter summarizes
contribution of study for research implications, theoretical implications, and
practical implications. This chapter also describes limitations as well as future
directions for further studies.
6.2 DISCUSSION
The results discovered that managerial coaching positively predicted
employee job performance. The major finding of research suggested that
employee who perceived their supervisors have coached and exhibited
coaching behaviors reciprocated with improved employee job performance.
According to the literature, managerial coaching is the key antecedent of the
employee job performance (Agarwal et al., 2009; Ellinger et al., 2003; Evered
& Selman, 1989; Hagen, 2012; Liu & Batt, 2010). These findings were
consistent with other studies (Hagen, 2010; Hagen & Aguilar, 2012; Pousa &
Mathieu, 2014a). Interestingly, Kim (2010) found insignificant direct
association between managerial coaching and job performance. Therefore,
managerial coaching effectiveness has been confirmed as managerial practice,
HRD and OD strategy for improving employee learning and performance in
rapidly changing environment. The constructive feedback from supervisor,
open communication with manager, acceptance and regard for employees’
ideas, helping them in a problematic situation, give importance to the
individuals rather than work, take care of their personal needs, reliance on
teamwork are crucial for employee development which improves his/ her job
performance.
Managerial coaching positively predicted the employee role clarity in
this research. These findings were consistent with existing findings as
managerial coaching predicted employee role clarity (Kim, 2014; Kim, Egan,
Kim, et al., 2013). The complexity of the organization has been increased
significantly and role ambiguity is a source of employee stress and decrease
the employee job satisfaction and performance. Manager provides regular
81
feedback to the employee and clearly communicate expectations with the
employee through the managerial coaching process. Managerial coaching
increases the employee role clarity because of frequent interaction between the
supervisor and subordinate which lead toward improved employee outcomes.
The findings disclosed that role clarity positively influenced the
employee level of job satisfaction within organization. The role clarity
increased employee job satisfaction as found in previous findings (Kim, Egan,
Kim, et al., 2013; Mukherjee & Malhotra, 2006; Ruyter, Wetzels, & Feinberg,
2001; Singh, 1993). When employees know well about their role in the
organization, managers clearly communicate expectations to subordinates,
they feel satisfied with their job because they meet their supervisor and
organizational expectations and play an effective role in the achievement of
organizational goals.
The findings showed that role clarity was not correlated with
organizational commitment. The most research studies reported positive
association between role clarity and organizational commitment (Meyer et al.,
2002; Wetzels et al., 2000; Zaccaro & Dobbins, 1989). The earlier studies also
stated positive association among role clarity and organizational commitment
as well (Furenes & Furenes, 2011; Panaccio & Vandenberghe, 2011). Panaccio
and Vandenberghe (2011) explored the effect of role clarity on affective
commitment with organization as well as commitment to the supervisor. They
found a significant influence of role clarity on commitment to the supervisor
and insignificant influence of role clarity on organizational commitment. They
argued that supervisor plays an important part in clarifying and defining the
subordinates’ role in organizations. Supervisors also influence the degree of
uncertainty faced by subordinates in the workplace (O'Driscoll & Beehr,
1994). This capacity is defined by the frequent interaction between supervisor
and subordinate (Tangirala, Green, & Ramanujam, 2007). This clear
communication of expectations to employee increases his/her affective
commitment to supervisor rather organizational commitment.
The results revealed that role clarity negatively predicted employee
turnover intentions. These findings were consistent with results of similar
previous studies (Hamzah, Hashim, & Rashid, 2011; Michael, 2014;
Mukherjee & Malhotra, 2006). When employees have clear information about
their roles in organizations and expectations are clearly communicated by
supervisors to subordinates; employees feel comfortable in the organization.
This role clarity causes a reduction in their intentions to leave because of
successful achievement of duties and responsibilities associated with a job to
enhance their performance and employee wish to serve in the organization.
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The work engagement was included in the conceptual model as a
potential consequence of managerial coaching. The results proved that
managerial coaching positively predicted employee work engagement. Work
engagement is a very important desired attitude in the workplace for improved
employee outcomes. The supervisory behavior is an important factor for
increasing employee work engagement. It is supported that supervisor
coaching skills such as open communication with subordinates, frequent
interaction with subordinates, questioning with employees, regard of their
ideas, promoting team approach in the organization, show concern for
individual needs and facilitate employee development through a coaching
relationship with subordinate increase the employee work engagement. The
increased work engagement means increased positive state of mind in the
workplace. The employee feels vigor or energetic on the job, they show
dedication or enthusiasm and passion for work. They show absorption or
unable to detach them from their job. The employee work engagement
increases various employee outcomes and leads toward achievement of
organizational objectives.
The work engagement positively predicted employee job satisfaction.
These findings were similar to results of previous studies (Giallonardo, Wong,
& Iwasiw, 2010; Saks, 2006). These studies found that employee job
satisfaction is predicted by work engagement in organizations. If an employee
is deeply engaged in his job, then it is unlikely that he would leave his job
because of the dedication and energy he has put in his work. It showed that
employee work engagement increase employee job satisfaction. It is important
for increasing employee job satisfaction to feel energetic and dedicated on the
workplace. The data showed that work engagement was not associated with
employee organizational commitment. These findings were inconsistent with
results of previous studies which showed that employee work engagement
predicted employee organizational commitment (Hakanen et al., 2006;
Halbesleben, 2010; Saks, 2006). The possible reason of insignificant
relationship between these variables is nature of managerial coaching which is
based on supervisor and subordinate relationship. Managerial coaching helps
the employee to improve their individual effectiveness which leads toward an
increase in their commitment to supervisor rather organizational commitment.
The work engagement was negatively associated with employee
turnover intentions. These findings were similar with results of existing studies
which showed that employee work engagement reduces employees’ intentions
to leave their organization (Du Plooy & Roodt, 2010; Halbesleben, 2010; Saks,
2006). Dedicated employee is given various job resources as a result of his
performance and experience in his/her job, therefore, he/she may be reluctant
to detach himself from the job and organization. Hobfoll (2001) also, stated
83
that if an employee leaves a job then he would have to take a fresh start in his
next organization which he might think as a risky investment. He also referred
to the conservation of resources (COR) theory that individuals behave
rationally and take actions to conserve their present job resources and make a
new investment of their job resources very carefully. These findings show an
indication that employee work engagement is the important attitude to reduce
employee turnover intentions in organizations.
The leader-member exchange quality was included in the conceptual
model as a potential outcome of managerial coaching. The results showed that
managerial coaching positively predicted leader-member-exchange quality.
According to Liden et al. (1997), the behavior of a leader plays a dominant
part in improving LMX quality for the reason that the supervisor has power
over subordinates. The managerial coaching skills of supervisor like open
communication with subordinates, appreciate the team approach or team
working in the organization, preference of subordinates’ needs over the tasks,
encouraging employees’ ideas and facilitation of employee development lead
toward the high LMX quality. Coaching relationship between manager and
subordinates caused the high leader-member-exchange quality which improves
the employee outcomes within the organization.
The results showed that leader-member exchange quality positively
influenced employee level of job satisfaction. These findings were aligned
with prior studies which reported positive association between LMX quality
and job satisfaction (Ibrahim, 2014; Volmer, Niessen, Spurk, Linz, & Abele,
2011). The characteristics of high-quality LMX included mutual respect, sense
of obligation and trust. In contrast, formal interactions between leader and
subordinate and contracts of employment were identified as distinctive
characteristics of low-quality LMX relationship. The quality of relationship
with the supervisor is important for increasing employee job satisfaction in
organizations.
The association between LMX quality and organizational commitment
was found insignificant. These finding were inconsistent with results of
existing studies (Eisenberger et al., 2010; Leow & Khong, 2009). These
findings were also similar to findings of few existing studies (Vandenberghe,
Bentein, & Stinglhamber, 2004). They found an influence of perceived
organizational support on organizational commitment as well as LMX quality
was uniquely correlated with a commitment to a supervisor. The result of this
study also provides an evidence that when supervisor communicates openly
with subordinates, appreciate the group work, give importance to employees
over the task, accept their ideas and facilitate the development of subordinate,
it causes the high-quality relationship between managers and subordinates
84
which will increase subordinates’ commitment to a supervisor instead of
organizational commitment. The findings showed negative association
between perceived leader-member exchange quality and employee turnover
intentions. These findings were similar to results reported by existing studies
(Elanain, 2014; Harris, Wheeler, & Kacmar, 2009). When the quality of the
relationship between supervisor and subordinates is high; they have more
access to resources, control of decision making and opportunities to develop
their career, which lead toward a reduction in their turnover intentions.
The level of employee job satisfaction predicted improved employee job
performance in organizations. The results also showed that job satisfaction
predicted the employee job performance as reported in existing research
findings (Judge et al., 2001; Petty et al., 1984; Platis, Reklitis, & Zimeras,
2015). The level of job satisfaction is an important attitude which predicts
improved employee job performance. Therefore, organizations should focus on
increasing employee job satisfaction to enhance their productivity or job
performance. A satisfied employee is motivated to exert effort for achieving an
optimal level of performance in an organization.
The results showed no association between organizational commitment
and job performance which was inconsistent with findings of existing studies
(Imran, Arif, Cheema, & Azeem, 2014; Meyer et al., 2002).The managerial
coaching relationship increases interaction between supervisor and subordinate
which results in employee development and his/her improved performance. It
may increase the employee commitment to a supervisor instead of
organizational commitment. This research showed that employees are lacking
affective commitment to organizations which caused absence of association
between organizational commitment and their job performance. The results
also found employee job performance was predicted by decreased turnover
intentions. These results were similar to findings of earlier research (Curry et
al., 1997; Hui et al., 2007). When individuals have no turnover intentions, they
exert more effort to achieve optimal performance. If an employee wants to
work with an organization, he/she has more intentions to invest more in that
organization willingly. In contrary argument, if an employee does not want to
work with the organization then it implies that one does not want to invest his
services in that organization by increasing his performance.
The findings showed that the relationships between managerial coaching
and employee performance was mediated by various employee attitudes. The
results showed that role clarity and job satisfaction mediated the relationship
between managerial coaching and job performance. The relationship between
managerial coaching and job performance was also mediated by the role
clarity and turnover intentions. The work engagement and job satisfaction
85
mediated the relationship between managerial coaching and job performance.
The association between managerial coaching and job performance was also
mediated by work engagement and turnover intentions. The relationship of
managerial coaching with job performance was mediated by the LMX quality
and job satisfaction. The LMX quality and turnover intention mediated the
association between managerial coaching and job performance. This study
indicated that managerial coaching is very important managerial practice, OD
and HRD strategy which directly improves the performance of employees in
organization. The managerial coaching also influenced attitudes of employees
such as leader-member exchange quality, work engagement, and role clarity
which in turn increase employee job satisfaction, reduce employee turnover
intentions which ultimately improved employee job performance.
6.3 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY
This study has contributed in many ways to HRD research, theory, and
practice. Most importantly, this research developed a managerial coaching and
job performance layered model. This model included various outcomes of
managerial coaching such as role clarity, work engagement, leader-member
exchange quality, turnover intentions, organizational commitment, job
satisfaction, and job performance. The conceptual model also introduced
potential outcomes of managerial coaching in existing literature which include
work engagement and leader-member exchange quality. This managerial
coaching and employee job performance layered model helps to understand the
mechanism for the functioning of managerial coaching.
The research provides an evidence about the effectiveness of managerial
coaching in a public-sector organization. According to Park (2007), there is a
question mark on managerial coaching as a technique for improving employee
job performance and whether managerial coaching is practiced by the
managers or not within the organizations. Specifically, previous studies have
rarely explored the managerial coaching effectiveness in job performance
context in the broader context (Hagen, 2012; Kim & Egan, 2013). Managerial
coaching in organizations has emerged rapidly from last 10 years but it lacks
evidence (Beattie et al., 2014)and because of more view based and less
evidence coaching is under criticism (Ellinger & Kim, 2014). This research
study fills the above-mentioned gaps within management, human resource
development, organizational and managerial coaching literature. The research
found evidence for improved employee outcomes which are also important for
overall organizational growth, the financial performance of the organization
and customer satisfaction (Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2005). Therefore,
86
this research provides a piece of evidence to support managerial coaching
because managerial coaching was lacking evidence regarding its effectiveness.
This research examined a direct association as well as indirect
association through mediation mechanism between managerial coaching and
job performance. According to Hagen (2012), no study has explored the
indirect association between managerial coaching and job performance. Very
few studies have introduced one or two intervening variables in a managerial
coaching-job performance relationship (Kim & Kuo, 2015). This study tested a
direct relationship association between managerial coaching and employee job
performance as well as indirect relationship via two layers of mediating
variables. The results of this research show that association between
managerial coaching and its major outcome (job performance) is mediated by
various employee outcomes. This mechanism support to understand the
transfer of managerial coaching’s influence on employee job performance.
This managerial coaching and job performance layered model was another
important contribution of this study in managerial coaching literature.
There was a doubt regarding managerial coaching effectiveness in high
power distance culture of east in contrast to low distance culture of the west
(Rosinski, 2003). A few believed that managerially is more effective in
western organizations because of its origination in western culture and not
properly matched with eastern cultural orientation (Evered & Selman, 1989;
Hagen, 2012). The managers usually make decisions and communicate to
employees, high power distance between manager and subordinate and
paternalistic style of leadership & management prevail in eastern
organizations. On the other hand, manager and leaders adopt participative
decision-making style, job autonomy and managerial coaching encouraged by
western organizations (Hofstede, 2001; McLean et al., 2005). There was an
important gap in managerial coaching literature regarding evidence of its
usefulness outside the western countries (Beattie et al., 2014). To address the
gap in managerial coaching literature, this research confirmed that managerial
coaching practices prevail in eastern organization and useful for improving
employee performance as well as organizational effectiveness like western
organizations. This is another important contribution of this research to the
literature of managerial coaching.
The study can be considered as a first study which explored the impact
of managerial coaching on employee behaviors in Pakistan. This research
provides an evidence regarding the effectiveness of managerial coaching in an
organization of Pakistan. This research provides useful insights for HRD
practitioners to develop further strategies for employee development.
87
There is a lack of theories in the context of coaching and other theories
used in employee and organizational context has been used in research for
explaining managerial coaching. This research study used perceived
organization support theory to develop a mechanism which explains that how
managerial coaching influences job performance. The managerial coaching is
considered as a type of support from supervisor and organization. The perceive
organizational support theory guided to develop a structure which explains that
how job performance is influenced by managerial coaching through two layers
of intervening variables; the first layer included role clarity, work engagement,
leader-member exchange quality. The second layer included turnover
intentions, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. The findings of
research provided support to existing theory of perceived organizational
support. The findings revealed that employee job performance, role clarity,
work engagement, leader-member exchange quality, job satisfaction, turnover
intentions are influenced by managerial coaching. The study provided a
framework for improving employee attitudes and behaviors by managerial
coaching within the organizations. The research provided a theoretical
framework to explain the functioning of managerial coaching in the
organization which is another contribution of this study.
6.4 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
This study has some limitations which are opportunities for future
research studies. First, limitation of this study is use of only affective
commitment to measure organizational commitment while Meyer et al. (1993)
developed affective commitment, normative commitment and continuous
commitment scales for measuring organizational commitment. This might not
have represented actual organizational commitment of respondents. The
discriminant validity of work engagement and job satisfaction was low
because correlation was greater than AVE which is also a limitation of this
research. A whole dimension of a coaching multidimensional instrument was
deleted during refinement of items (i.e. Accept Ambiguity), which might
reduce the convergent validity of construct.
Second, the generalizability of findings is limited because data was
obtained from single type of organization (Swanson & Holton, 2005). There
exists a difference between employee responses of public and private sector
organizations as shown by various comparative studies in literature of
management and public administration (Perry & Rainey, 1988). The attitudes
and expectations of respondents regarding their performance, cognition,
commitment and satisfaction may be different from employee of non-profit
88
and for-profit organizations because they belonged to a governmental
organization (Perry, 2000).
Another limitation of this study is self-reported data. Self-reported data
relies on reflections and perceptions of participants instead of objective truths.
There might be difference between employee actual and perceived
performance because of self-report measures in this study. The information
might not be recalled accurately by the respondents. However, most practical
way for data collection and representation of employees’ attitudes and
behaviors is self-report survey and usually this method of data collection is
acceptable (Nair, 2007).
The conceptual model needs validation in other cultural settings and
context for generalizability. The future research studies should include sample
form both eastern and western organizations. The findings would help to
understand role of cultural differences regarding effectiveness of managerial
coaching. The future studies should also include sample from both private as
well as public sector organizations to reveal the existence of managerial
coaching practices in public and private sector organizations. The future
studies should also explore organizational and industrial contingencies which
are important for promoting managerial practices in organizations. The future
studies should find individual and organizational level antecedents of
managerial coaching for promoting managerial coaching in organizations.
This research included a few outcomes of managerial coaching in the
conceptual model. The future studies should explore other various potential
outcomes of managerial coaching such as thriving at work, commitment to a
supervisor. This study included only mediating variables in the model. The
future studies should include different moderating and mediation mechanism
to analyze the influence of managerial coaching on employee attitudes and
behaviors. Furthermore, a sample of this research was male dominant as Van
Velsor and Hughes (1990) argued that females are more responsive toward a
developmental relationship in contrast to males. So, future studies should
analyze the difference coaching style of male and female managers as well as
the responsiveness of male and female subordinates toward managerial
coaching relationship.
6.5 CONCLUSION
The research uncovers consequences and usefulness of managerial
coaching in an organization. The findings also revealed that managerial
coaching is very important for improving employee job performance in the
89
organizations. The managers’ competencies like open communication with
subordinates, reliance on group and team work in task accomplishment, care of
employee need rather than focusing on a task, acceptance of employees’ ideas
and facilities employee development have become important for increasing
employee role clarity in the complex and dynamic environment. Managerial
coaching improves the quality of the exchange relationship between
subordinates and manager which is important for employee outcomes.
Managerial coaching increases the employee work engagement in the
organization; employee feels energetic on the workplace, dedicated with their
and attached with their work. Managerial coaching increases job satisfaction of
employee and reduces their turnover intentions. These outcomes of managerial
coaching lead toward improved employee job performance which is desired by
the organizations from employees. Therefore, managers and leaders realize the
worth of their coaching competencies for improving employee outcomes in
organizations. Managers have also acknowledged their role in developing
employee to improve their performance. The HRD professional should also
assess coaching skills of managers before recruitment and promotion of
employees within the organization. Managerial coaching is cost effective HRD
and OD strategy in contrast to classroom training. The management of
organization needs to promote and encourage managerial coaching in
organizations for developing employees to increase employee and
organizational effective. The managers with coaching competencies should be
rewarded by organizations for exhibiting these behaviors.
90
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118
ANNEXURE A
Employee Survey Measures
1. Managerial Coaching
Open Communication
OP_1 When I share my feelings with my manager, my manager appears to be
comfortable.
OP_2 When a situation needs my manager’s experiences, he/she willingly discusses
them.
OP_3 In facing new problems, my manager would rather listen to my opinion first.
OP_4 When I work with my manager, he/she discusses his/her expectations with me.
Team Approach
TA_1 My manager would rather work with others to complete tasks.
TA_2 As a part of a workplace group, my manager prefers to work for group consensus.
TA_3 When a decision is to be made, my manager prefers to (participate with others to
determine the outcome.
TA_4 When analyzing a problem, my manager tends to rely on group ideas.
Value People
VP_1 In discussion with me, my manager focuses on my individual needs.
VP_2 When facilitating business meetings, my manager leaves time for relationship-
building.
VP_3 In facing a conflict between individual needs and tasks, my manager puts a
priority on meeting people’s needs.
VP_4 In daily work, my manager considers people’s needs outside the workplace.
Accept Ambiguity
AA_1 My manager views differences of opinion as constructive.
AA_2 When I am making career decisions, my manager stresses risk-taking.
AA_3 When my manager seeks solutions to problems, he/she tends to try new solutions.
AA_4 My manager views disagreement in the workplace exhilarating.
Facilitate Development
FD_1 My manager appears to view learning and development as one of his/her major
responsibilities.
FD_2 In order to improve my performance, my manager serves as a role model.
FD_3 My manager actively provides opportunities for me to take more responsibility.
FD_4 To improve work performance, my manager constantly provides feedback
119
2. Role Clarity
RC_1: I feel certain about how much authority I have been given to do my job.
RC_2 There are clear planned goals and objectives for my job.
RC_3 I know exactly what is expected of me.
RC_4 I have been given clear explanations of what is expected of me.
3. Work Engagement
Vigor
VI_1 At my work, I feel bursting with energy.
VI_2 At my job, I feel strong and vigorous.
VI_3 When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work
Dedication
DE_1 I am enthusiastic about my job.
DE_2 My job inspires me.
DE_3 I am proud of the work that I do
Absorption
AB_1 I feel happy when I am working intensely.
AB_2 I am immersed in my job.
AB_3 I get carried away when I am working
4. Leader-Member-Exchange Quality
Affect
AF_1 I like my supervisor very much as a person.
AF_2 My supervisor is the kind of person one would like to have a friend.
AF_3 My supervisor is a lot of fun to work with.
Loyalty
LO_1 My supervisor defends my work actions to a superior, even without complete
knowledge of the issue in question.
LO_2 My supervisor would come to my defense if I were “attacked” by others.
LO_3 My supervisor would defend me to others in the organization if I made an honest
mistake.
Contribution
CO_1 I do work for my supervisor that goes beyond what is specified in my job
description.
CO_2 I am willing to apply extra efforts, beyond those normally required, to meet
supervisor’s work goals.
120
Professional Respect
PR_1 I am impressed with my supervisor knowledge of his or her job.
PR_2 I respect my supervisor’s knowledge of and competence on the job.
PR_3 I admire my supervisor’s professional skills.
5. Job Satisfaction
JS_1 All in all, I am satisfied with my job.
JS_2 In general, I don’t like my job. (R)
JS_3 In general, I like working here.
6. Affective Organizational Commitment
OC_1: I would be happy to spend the rest of my career with my organization.
OC_2: I feel as if my organization’s problems are my own.
OC_3: I do not feel a sense of “belonging” to my organization. (R)
OC_4: I do not feel “emotionally attached” to my organization. (R)
OC_5: I do not feel like “part of the family” at my organization. (R)
OC_6: My organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me.
7. Turnover Intentions
TI_1 I will probably look for a new job in the near future.
TI_2 At the present time, I am actively searching for another job in a different
organization.
TI_3 I do not intend to quit my job. (R)
TI_4 It is unlikely that I will actively look for a different organization to work for in
the next year. (R)
TI_5 I am not thinking about quitting my job at the present time. (R)
8. Job Performance
JP_1 I have good need assessment skills.
JP_2 I play an effective role in CBOs formation.
JP_3 I feel comfortable in Capacity Building of CBOs.
JP_4 I am able to mobilize community according to departmental expectations.
JP_5 I am good in preparing documents about completion plan and handing over of
water supply schemes.
JP_6 Monthly Reporting System regarding CBOs is not complex for me.
JP_7 I get positive feedback from end users (community).
JP_8 I satisfy community expectations about CD Unit.
121
ANNEXURE B
QUESTIONNAIRE (From Community-Based Motivators)
Dear Sir/Madam, I am a Ph.D. scholar at National College of Business
Administration & Economics, Lahore. This research is part of the degree program. The
topic of this study is “Impact of Managerial Coaching on Employee Job Performance:
A Mediation Analysis”. The findings of this research would be helpful to improve the
performance of Community Development Unit, Public Health Engineering Department in
the Punjab. Your response will be kept confidential and used only for research purpose.
Thank You!
MUHAMMAD ALI
Cell # 0321-7703756
Email: [email protected]
Name of District: ______________________________
Gender: Male Female
Age: 20 to 25 Years 25 to 30 years 30 to 35 years More than 35 years
Qualification: Bachelors Masters MS/M.Phil.
Job Experience: Less than 1 Year 1 to 3 Year 3 to 5 Year More than 5 Year
Please read the following before giving answers.
• In this study Community Development Officer (CDO) is supervisor or manager,
being the head of CD Unit at District level.
• Please try to be realistic in your answer.
• Use the following rating scale to answer the questions given below: 1=Strongly Disagree 2=Disagree 3=Neutral 4=Agree 5=Strongly Agree
S# Questions
Str
on
gly
Dis
ag
ree
Dis
ag
ree
Neu
tral
Ag
ree
Str
on
gly
Ag
ree
1 When I share my feelings with my supervisor, my supervisor
appears to be comfortable. 1 2 3 4 5
2 When a situation needs my supervisor’s experiences, he/she
willingly discusses them. 1 2 3 4 5
3 In facing new problems, my supervisor would rather listen to
my opinion first. 1 2 3 4 5
4 When I work with my supervisor, he/she discusses his/her
expectations with me. 1 2 3 4 5
5 My supervisor would rather work with others (CBMs) to
complete tasks. 1 2 3 4 5
122
S# Questions
Str
on
gly
Dis
ag
ree
Dis
ag
ree
Neu
tral
Ag
ree
Str
on
gly
Ag
ree
6 As a part of a workplace group, my supervisor prefers to work
for group consensus. 1 2 3 4 5
7 When a decision is to be made, my supervisor prefers to
participate with others (CBMs) to determine the outcome. 1 2 3 4 5
8 When analyzing a problem, my supervisor tends to rely on
group ideas. 1 2 3 4 5
9 In discussion with me, my supervisor focuses on my
individual needs. 1 2 3 4 5
10 When facilitating business meetings, my supervisor leaves
time for relationship-building. 1 2 3 4 5
11 In facing a conflict between individual needs and tasks, my
supervisor puts a priority on meeting people’s needs. 1 2 3 4 5
12 In daily work, my supervisor considers people’s needs outside
the workplace. 1 2 3 4 5
13 My manager views differences of opinion as constructive. 1 2 3 4 5
14 When I am making career decisions, my manager stresses
risk-taking. 1 2 3 4 5
15 When my supervisor seeks solutions to problems, he/she
tends to try new solutions. 1 2 3 4 5
16 My supervisor views disagreement in the workplace exciting. 1 2 3 4 5
17 My supervisor appears to view learning and development as
one of his/her major responsibilities. 1 2 3 4 5
18 In order to improve my performance, my supervisor serves as
a role model. 1 2 3 4 5
19 My supervisor actively provides opportunities for me to take
more responsibility. 1 2 3 4 5
20 To improve work performance, my supervisor constantly
provides feedback. 1 2 3 4 5
21 I feel certain about how much authority I have been given to
do my job. 1 2 3 4 5
22 There are clear planned goals and objectives for my job. 1 2 3 4 5
23 I know exactly what is expected of me. 1 2 3 4 5
24 I have been given clear explanations of what is expected of
me. 1 2 3 4 5
25 At my work, I feel bursting with energy. 1 2 3 4 5
26 At my job, I feel strong and vigorous. 1 2 3 4 5
27 When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work. 1 2 3 4 5
123
S# Questions
Str
on
gly
Dis
ag
ree
Dis
ag
ree
Neu
tral
Ag
ree
Str
on
gly
Ag
ree
28 I am enthusiastic about my job. 1 2 3 4 5
29 My job inspires me. 1 2 3 4 5
30 I am proud of the work that I do. 1 2 3 4 5
31 I feel happy when I am working intensely. 1 2 3 4 5
32 I am immersed in my job. 1 2 3 4 5
33 I get carried away (excited) when I am working. 1 2 3 4 5
34 I like my supervisor very much as a person. 1 2 3 4 5
35 My supervisor is the kind of person one would like to have a
friend 1 2 3 4 5
36 My supervisor is a lot of fun to work with. 1 2 3 4 5
37 My supervisor defends my work actions to a superior, even
without complete knowledge of the issue in question. 1 2 3 4 5
38 My supervisor would come to my defense if I were “attacked”
by others. 1 2 3 4 5
39 My supervisor would defend me to others in the organization
if I made an honest mistake. 1 2 3 4 5
40 I do work for my supervisor that goes beyond what is
specified in my job description. 1 2 3 4 5
41 I am willing to apply extra efforts, beyond those normally
required, to meet supervisor’s work goals.
1
2
3
4
5
42 I am impressed with my supervisor knowledge of his or her
job. 1 2 3 4 5
43 I respect my supervisor’s knowledge of and competence on
the job. 1 2 3 4 5
44 I admire my supervisor’s professional skills. 1 2 3 4 5
45 All in all, I am satisfied with my job. 1 2 3 4 5
46 In general, I don’t like my job. 1 2 3 4 5
47 In general, I like working here. 1 2 3 4 5
48 I would be happy to spend the rest of my career with my
organization. 1 2 3 4 5
49 I feel as if my organization’s problems are my own. 1 2 3 4 5
124
S# Questions
Str
on
gly
Dis
ag
ree
Dis
ag
ree
Neu
tral
Ag
ree
Str
on
gly
Ag
ree
50 I do not feel a sense of “belonging” to my organization. 1 2 3 4 5
51 I do not feel “emotionally attached” to my organization. 1 2 3 4 5
52 I do not feel like “part of the family” at my organization. 1 2 3 4 5
53 My organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me. 1 2 3 4 5
54 I will probably look for a new job in the near future. 1 2 3 4 5
55 At the present time, I am actively searching for another job in
a different organization. 1 2 3 4 5
56 I do not intend to quit my job. 1 2 3 4 5
57 It is unlikely that I will actively look for a different
organization to work for in the next year. 1 2 3 4 5
58 I am not thinking about quitting my job at the present time. 1 2 3 4 5
59 I have good need assessment skills. 1 2 3 4 5
60 I play an effective role in the formation of community-based
organizations (CBOs). 1 2 3 4 5
61 I feel comfortable in Capacity Building of community-based
organizations (CBOs). 1 2 3 4 5
62 I am able to mobilize community according to departmental
expectations. 1 2 3 4 5
63 I am good in preparing documents (e.g., completion plan,
handing over of water supply schemes). 1 2 3 4 5
64 Monthly Reporting System regarding CBOs is not complex
for me. 1 2 3 4 5
65 I get positive feedback from end users (community). 1 2 3 4 5
66 I satisfy community expectations about CD Unit. 1 2 3 4 5
*Thank You Very Much*
125
ANNEXURE C
