:1.

NATIONAL INFORMATION POLICIESWITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TODEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Shahid AkhtarDirector, Information and Communications Systems and Networks

International Development Research Centre250 Albert Strret, P.O. Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada K1G3H9

Tel: (613)236-6163 ext: 2033. Paz: (613)563-3858

A. NeslameghanRon. Executive Director

Ranganathan Centre for Information Studies (Madras)216, 4th Main Road, 16th Cross Road, Bangalor. 560055, India

Tel: (91) (80)3341657. Paz: (91) (80) 8430265E-mail: ndrtc@isibang. ernet in

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ND BACEGROUND

Scop. of the chapter; Working definition.Developing countries; R.gional alliances

SOME BASIC PREMISES AND COUNTRY CONTEXTS

Basic societal function of information systems and service.;Pr.aises; Country Contexts

SOME LESBONS PROM PAST EXPERIENCES

SUGGESTED ELEMENTS POR W9lONZL INFORMATION POLICY

Goal of a national information policy; Information fornational development; Structur. and function of thenational information policy coordinating body; Budget;Provision of access to information; Indigenous informationand information products Promotion of use of information;International information activities; Information manpowerdevelopment; Infornatics and telematics; India - an example.

2

NATIONAL INFORMATION POLICIESWITH SPECIAL REVERENCE TODEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Shahid Akhtar; A. Ne.lamegban

Reviews issues pertaining to the formulation of nationalinformation policies especially for developing countries and isbased largely on papers published between 1992 and 1994. Mentionslessons learnt from past experiences of formulating informationpolicies in developing countries. Emphasizes the need to take intoaccount - the country context and situation in formulatinginformation policy. Model statements of policy on select basiccomponents of national information infrastructure and som. of theimplications of implementing the policy discussed are largelybased on reports of technical assistance missions to developingcountries and deliberations of national and regional meetingssupported by international agencies. Human resources developmentespecially enhancing people's propensity and capacity to useinformation as well as th. education and training of informationprofessionals to handle IT are of concern to developing countri...This has implications to national and international informationpolicy and educational policies. Hence, the bibliography cites afew documents on applications of IT in education. The emergingreality of information superhighways, global informationinfra-structure and trends in public policy on information indevelopedcountries that ar. likely to affect or otherwis. of interest topublic policy formulation in developing developing countries, alsoreceive selected citations.

3

NATIONAL INPORNATION POLICIESWITH SPECIAL REPERENCE TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Scope of the Chapter

This chapter reviews issues pertaining to the formulation ofnational information policies especially for developing countriesand is based largely on recent papers (1992-1994). The specimenstatements of policy on basic components of national informationinfrastructures and the implications of implementing the policy,discussed in this paper are largely based on reports of technicalassistance missions to developing countries and deliberations ofnational and regional meetings supported by such organizations asUnesco, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa,Canada, and others bodies. Human resources development especiallyenhancing people's propensity and capacity to use information andthe education and training of information professionals to handleIT are of particular concern to developing countries. This hasimplications to national and international information policy andeducational policies (BUGLIARELLO; LESGOLD; DOYLE). Hence, thebibliography cites a few documents on the applications of IT ineducation. The emerging reality of information superhighways,global information infrastructure and trends in public policy oninformation in developed countries that are likely to affect orotherwise of interest to public policy formulation in developingdeveloping countries, also receive selected citations.

Working Definitions

br the purpose of this review the following definitionsderived from MONTVILOPF, and NEELAMEGHAN & TOCATLIAN are used:

Information resources is used as a generic term denoting dataand information sources in textual, factual, numerical, graphical,and sound form, recorded in conventional or in non-conventionalmedia and handled in conventional ways or through the applicationsof information technology (IT). The term also covers systems,services, and products of libraries, information and documentationcentres; data bases, data banks, information clearing houses, andreferral centres; information analysis, consolidation andrepackaging activities, decision support and management informationsystems, expert systems and other similar specialized informationsupport facilities.

Information infrastructure consists of information resources,human and knowledge resources, and facilities necessary for theprocessing and delivery of information. The traffic within aninformation infrastructure is information itself,

In relation to developing countries, information systems will

1

be viewed as facilitators of development communication, the flow ofand convenient access to, relevant development messages by allsections of society. Several papers on communication anddevelopment have been presented in a special issue of Development(1993) guest edited by XHTAR. Some aspects of communicatingd.vslopaent messages are bristly discussed below.

pevelopment messages: Messages communicated deemed relevan.t tothe development concerns of the recipients more particularly ofpeople at the grass roots in developing countries, for exampleagricultural practices, water, health and sanitation, food andnutrition, women, family and child welfare, preservation andconservation of natural and other resources, fuel and energy,environment protection, literacy, etc. Also, messages that helpprevent exploitation of people and/or deny them their rights todevelopment, development process, and outputs, by others, whetherth. latter be locals, nationals, or people of other nations.

Development messages also guide people at all levels in thepositive use of knowledge, and prevent its use in ways that areharmful to people, material, and environment; enable people toovercome barriers to communication and access todevelopment-related messages; and build or enhance indigenouscapacity to access, retrieve and use information effectively.

Development communication,: Communication of messages orinformation that enhance the capacity of recipient individuals orgroups to select and integrats appropriate exogenous knowledge withindigenous knowledge systems to support their socioeconomicdevelopment within the respective development contexts and, in theprocess, to preserve their respective cultural and spiritual valuesystems. This should be accomplished through a judicious blendingof traditional and modern communication media in such a way as tofacilitate the exchange of messages among local communities on theen. hand and between them and communities of other nations at theinternational level on the other.

Development communication must "empower the majority of thepopulations in the South" which are still striving just for selfsufficiency and a marginal degree of social progress (BLAXE). Itshould enhance sustainable human development potential that is,investing in human development, enabling informed participation ofpeopl. in development policy making and implementation, andequitable distribution of economic growth.

Development communication system: A large scale developmentprogram involves a large number of people, and organizations ofdifferent professionals, social classes and interests at variouslevels, ranging from the village to national and internationaldevelopment agencies. In developing communitie. developmentcommunication at the grass roots consist largely of change agentsand the target populations. They ar. linked among themselves and

2

with other people and organizations through various communicationchannels, means and media, ranging from direct person-to-personto sophisticated telematics. Such communication networks, themessages or information flowing through those networks, and theindividual and institutional nodes taken together constitute thedevelopment communication system. In this physical structure,activities at one level or communicating node will hay, theirimpact at other levels and nodes.

The symbolic structure of development communication consistsof "meanings, motivations, values, beliefs, customs, norms andrules of development and communication shared/or contested byindividuals and organizations." (RflIX)

In this development communication framework, the levels ofsocioeconomic development at which information and IT impactsmay bestudied are: national, community/organization, and individual. Pndthe criteria for assessing IT impact include: Does it reach allsections of the community? and I. it sustainable? (WAEMA) Will ithelp preserve the symbolic structure cherished by the community? Inany development communication process the people, the individualsare the nodes who spread the message (MORINO).

In formulating public policy, a qoa] is an overall ultimatedesideratum sought. Statement of a goal is an enduring statement ofan encompassing purpose toward which action will be directedover an indefinite period of time; and a Policy is astatement ofprinciples and strategies, and a commitment to a generic course ofaction for attaining a given goal. Policies are embodied inpolicy-instruments, such as, legal instruments (constitution,parliamentary act, law, regulation, treaty, etc.) professionalinstruments (codes of conduct, professional ethics, eta.) andcultural instruments (customs, beliefs, traditions, conventions,social values, etc.)

In this perspective, a national information policy adopted bya government, would become a long term commitment to support ageneric course of action that can be translated into a plan ofaction for its implementation. Thus, a national policy providesguidance and direction for designing strategies, projects, andprograms for developing and using information infrastructures.

Developing Countries

As this review relates to developing countries, it will beuseful to note some features of this group of countries:

Differences: The political, social, technological, cultural,regulatory and other environmental influences on the informationsystems, services and infrastructure and of the latter on thesocioeconomic development in developing countries are not of a

3

similar nature, and neither are they at the same level. Ther. isalso difference in the extent of use information and in the rang.of applications of IT. This is in part due to the differencesin th. nature and level of development among these economies.Developing countries may be categorized as: newly industrializingeconomies, developing countries, and least developed countries.And, in terms of policies and strategies on information and IT,there are differences among them. These ar. discussed in thesection Country Contexts below.

Common features: Some common features in th. history of thedeveloping countries in the second half of the Twentieth centuryinclude the following:

- Attaining political independence (decolonization).- Attempts at planned national development:

- move toward industrialization;- efforts at infrastructure development throughpolicy and institutional changes, and administrative

reforms;- programs for human resources development;- establishment of research and development CR & D)facilities;

- technology acquisition, adaptation, and developmentof indigenous technology

- Establishment of library and information facilities tosupport the above-mentioned efforts.

some external influences: During this period, we may alsonotice the

- establishment of several international organizations,such as the specialized agencies of the United Nations and

and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) concerned withsocial, economic, technological, and cultural developmentespecially of developing countries;

- formation of regional alliances of nations for cooperationfor political, trade, economic, scientific, cultural orsecurity purposes (e.g. ASIAN, BAARC, APEC, OAU, SADC, EU,OAB, Andean Pact; NAPTA)

- accelerating pace of developments in information handling,especially in infermatics and telematics;

- developments in and activities of industrialized countriesincluding their large investments in R & D, adoption ofstrategies and institutional structures for applying

research results to develop new products and services,together with their vigorous efforts to seek markets forthe products, services and expertise through establishingmultinational corporations, joint ventures, bilateralarrangements with or in developing countries;

4

- significant developments in the information industry inth, industrialized countries and their move toward aninformation society whos, economy depends in a larg.maasur. on trade in information;

- globalization of national issues and increasinginterdependence among nations.

Thes. developments with their pace accelerating during thepast two decades have had and continue to have their impact on theinformation scenario of developing countries.

Impact of international nrograas: Th. impact of the programs,projects, and activities of international intergovernmental andnongovernmental organizations on the information infrastructure ofdeveloping countries may be summed up as follows (NEBLXEGHA1fl:

- technology transfer, North-South and, sometimes, South-South;

- establishment of national documentation and informationcentres, particularly in science and technology fields;

- strengthening of information resources (including theprovision of hardware and software) of selectedinstitutions;

- training of information professionals through short termworkshops, and training courses, a. well as supportingthe establishment of regional graduate/postgraduatetraining and research programs in institutions of highereducation;

- production and introduction of norms and standards ininformation work;

- assisting in the formulation of national informationpolicies; and

- providing a model for voluntary cooperation among -information facilities.

Regional Alliances

Information and information exchange are the substance andmodality in most regional cooperation arrangements, be it forpolitical, economic, trade, technological, social, or culturalpurposes (TIIBERGEN).

The formation of such alliances of nations calls for data andinformation support for the effective execution of their functionsof coordination and promotion of cooperation in th. selected

5

sectors of the participating countries. Some areas of commoninterest and on which information is required among the countriesinclude:

- market status for products and services;- trade opportunities;- customs, duties, taxes, and related regulations;- available technologies and innovations;- natural resources data;- available expertise and skilled manpower in different

fields;- banking and other financial services;- status of various infrastructural components; a

demographic data;- public health, communicable diseases situation,epidemiology and health legislation;

- intercountry travel regulations;- existing bilateral and multilateral agreements, treaties,and contracts;

- ongoing development projects and programs;- national development plans and priorities thereof;- national policies relating to various sectors;-. political, social, and cultural information;- laws relating to resource sharing, transborder data flow,patents, trade marks, eta.

These information requirements have promoted the creation anddevelopment of general and sectorial information facilities, in theparticipating countries as well as at the secretariat of theregional alliance. These developments have added a dimension tonational information policy formulations in the participatingcountries.

SOME BASIC PREMISES AND COUNTRY-CONTEXTS

Basic Societal Function of Information Systems and Services

The main function of information systems and services (ISSs)is to assist people in all walks of life to cope with change in thelocal, national, and increasingly, in the global environment.The environmental elements encompass political, social, cultural,technological, regulatory and other entities and issues, With theview to achieving this objective, 188$ must keep their antennaefine-tuned to monitor the changes and also to adapt themselves tothose changes so as to perform optimally their functions. There isalso a growing belief, supported by events of the past decade, thatan effective national information infrastructure would makegovernance nor. transparent and assist spread democracy to alllevls of society. It should, however, be noted that economicgrowth may not necessarily be accompanied by various social andindividual freedoms associated with the concept of democracy in theWest (ef. Singapore, China, Indonesia) (NAISBITT, 1994). 188$

6

nevertheless, have a valuable societal role to play and also thepotential to play it, that is, to help people shape the future.

Premises

The fundamental premis. of an overall national informationpolicy is that any economic-social-political system is likely top.rfor'm more efficiently and effectively if there exists within thesystem a mechanism for ensuring that such functions and tasks asgainful decision making, effective problem solving, planning,management, minimizing the chances of unnecessary duplication ofeffort and wastage of resources, promoting innovation, and thusenhancing overall productivity are supported by timely provision toall those participating in and contributing to the developmentprocess with relevant, upto date, and reliable information.

In recent years,the role of information as a vital nationalresource for socioeconomic development has been gaining widerrecognition among govermnent officials and decision makers. Theyexpress a need for timely, relevant and reliable information forpolicy and decision making and for planning in priority areas, suchas, economic development, marketing, trade, domestic and foreigninvestment, human resources development, energy, naturalresources, social and cultural aspects of the population etc.(INPORMATION IMPERATIVES).

On the other hand, at the lower levels of government there maynot be a similar preoccupation and awareness of the data andinformation needs of the users, or may not have adequate accessto pertinent sources of information, or they may not possess therequired training and skills for responding to such needs with theresult that top level officials may not receive the neededinformation and data in time and in a form convenient to use.

There is a growing trend in the globalisation of nationalissues and a corresponding interdependence among nations. This hasbeen accelerated by, contributed to and strengthened by,developments in IT, regional alliances of nations, and regional andinternational information systems, networks and programs. Theeffective participation of a country in the development of andderiving benefits from, such regional and international networksand systems depend in a large measure on the backing of a strongnational information infrastructure. The development of such aninfrastructur, and ensuring its effective participation in andcontribution to, regional and international cooperative networksand systems will be facilitated by formulating and implementingappropriate policies in the participating countries.

In most countries there exist aonstitutionalacts,policies,and legislation of various kinds relating in some way or other tothe provision of information and IT application. Nevertheless theinterrelationships among issues concerning the communication ofinformation, IT, telematics,the information industry, economicsof information, information management and services, privacy and

7

confidentiality, the right to information and communication,emphasiz. the need for an overall and comprehensiv, approach to theproblem.

-every citizen of a country has the right to development- tobenefit from and to contribute to, the development process. Dataand information ar. essential support to as well as products of thedsv.lopm.nt process. Further, the fac.t-that the proceasesof sounddecision-making and planning require inter-sectorial andinter-disciplinary data and information, such as, sociological,economic, political, financial, scientific, technological, andother information from domestic and foreign sources, makes ituseful to adopt an overall comprehensive information policy tocoordinate the flow of and access to, such information.

Thus, an overall national information policy, comprehendingpolicies relating to informatics, teleinatics, and other emergingITs, and- fully integrated into the national social-, economic-,technological-, cultural-development policies and plans, isseen tobe conducive if not a pre-requisite to national development inall sectors.

The overall national information policy statement should notonly be comprehensive, but also sufficiently sensitive to thedevelopments in IT, and responsive to the specific developmentneeds of the country and formulated in broad terms to minimize theneed' for frequent revisions. Implicit in the statement of anational information policy is the need for an effectivenationallevel trans-sectorial and multi-level coordinating mechanism.

Country Contexts

In formulating a national information policy, the countrycontext and the existing information infrastructure and policystatus should be taken into account. The differences and commonfeatures among developing countries have been mentioned earlier. Inrespect of information policy and infrastructure development thereare:

- Countries that have good information infrastructures andreasonably well defined policies. These are mostly the developedcountries. They may, however, need harmonization of the systems andservices as these grow and proliferate, and many parties from thepublic and private sectors get into the picture. -

- Countries that have reasonably well developed informationinfrastructures but have not clearly stated national informationpolicies. These may be newly industrializing economies or thedeveloped countries that might not have identified a nationalinformation coordinating mechanism or do not have appropriatelegislation.

8

- countries that have a national information policy but apoorly developed information infrastructure. These are eitherdeveloped countries or developing countries that have gone aheadformulating a legislative framework for the information field.

Countries that have no information policy and very poorlydeveloped information infrastructure. These are mostly the leastdeveloped countries.

On. may note further certain features especially among theemerging .conomies, in informatics and telematics infrastructureand policies. Per example:

countries having policies on the use of computers andcontrolling such facilities at the national level;

countries that have plans and policies.to develop thenational infrastructure for informatics and a domesticinformation industry e.g. computer literacy programs,advanced training in IT, software development and

export, export of services, and local hardwareproduction facilities (e.g. Brazil, China, India,Malaysia, Singapore); and

countries mainly involved in the manufacture ofIT components and equipment that are sufficientlycompetitive on the international market (e.g. HongKong, Korea, Taiwan)

These differences are not, however, permanent.

There are a large number of papers on the usefulness of IT invarious sectors of the national economy. There is no need to repeatthem here. However, as a background to the examination ofpolicy issues later in this chapter, we may note that it was notuntil the mid-1980s when powerful, relatively inexpensive micro-computers and portable software became more widely available, ITbegan to make perceptible impacts in .eveloping countries, officeautomation, management and administration, manufacturing andproduction, in libraries and information centres, etc. In Africa,for example, with the support of international organizations, useof IT in libraries and information centres had increased by thebeginning of the 1990's (UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC COMMISION PORAPRICA; COURIER).

With telecommunications and networking providing access to awide range and variety of information, information professionals onthe one hand and policy makers, planners, and managers on theother, are realizing that any attempt at formulating nationalinformation policies must consider developments and policies notonly in informatics but also those of telematics.

9

nil, the advantages to be derived from IT applications arebeing appreciated in an increasing measure, new apprehensions andissues are surfacing in developing countries. These and relatedpolicy matters ar. discussed later in this presentation.

SOME LESSONS PROM PAST EXPERIENCES

Tb.program. and activities of Unesco especially its GeneralInformation Programme (PGI) for assisting Member States developnationml information policies and their implementation haveachieved satisfactory results in some developing counties but raninto difficulties in others. Several papers and presentations inregional and international meetings have also highlighted thefailures in formulating and/or implementing national informationand informatics policies. KONTVILOPP summarizes and synthesizes theconcepts and issues relating to national information policiesand discusses the steps toward formulating and implementing suchpolicies. The 1988 African regional conference, edited by WTAR(1990) provides an extensive critical review of the status andattempts to formulate information and informatics policies in thecountries of Sub-Saharan Africa. Lessons learnt from these andsimilar exercises in other developing countries of the world arementioned in brief below:

Low priority assigned to information matters ingeneral and theabsence of a national plan of action and commitment of publicfunds and resources to such program actions are not conducive toefficient national ISa development. Low investment in informationtechnology (IT) and poor integration of IT into the mainstream ofthe national economy. The unsupportive public sector culture mayarise from poor commitment to public policy, politicised decisionmaking, bureaucracy, secrecy, inadequate IT funding, and the"bigbang" rather than pragmatic step by step approach to IT. on theotherhand, the economic leap forward of Singapore is attributed toan appreciable extent on the implementation of a comprehensiveNational Information Technology Plan. The plan was issued in 1986by the National Computer Board, established in 1980 to formulateand implement the country's IT policies. Thepolicy and plan speltout "specific objectives and set deadlines for training people, forcreating an IT culture, enhancing the communicationsinfrastructure; generating and supporting IT applications,fostering a world-class indigenous IT industry, that includessoftware, hardware, and computer services; and pioneering newinformation technology applications through R&D. In most of theseobjectives, the National Computer Board has either achieved orsurpassed its goals." (NAISBITT, 1994)

Unregulated IT acquisition and implementation has led tovarious kinds of corruption and difficulties in the integrated useof hardware and software of different standards.

Zbs.nce of a formal overall national information policy canlimit the commitment and involvement of the government in the

10

development of the national information infrastructure. This maylead to weak cooperation among government agencies, ministries andother stat. bodies and to a tendency among them in some casesto resist coordination. In turn, information systems develop inisolation, and IT and telematics applications across sectors becomefragmented.

Information for decision-making being inter-disciplinaryandinter-sectorial, its gathering and channeling to top managementappear to be easier where conditions ar. created for effectivehoziaontal cooperation among ministries and government agencies bythe coordinating mechanism.

Cooperation based solely on the goodwill of the concernedparties, without an institutionalized mechanism for coordination,has not, in nest cases, proved to be effective. Further, imposedcoordination without clearly understood incentives has not beensuccessful.

Horizontal information flow among departments, ministries andsectors through cooperative arrangements for the collection ofinformation and data from different sources and for the exchangeof such information often appear to be weak. In some cases whereIT applications in public administration and other areas have beenpursued, elitist attitudes have arisen in IT planning,implementation, and use.

Kisunderstanding of the functions of a national coordinationmechanism nay also lead to resistance to coordination among theparties involved.

Inappropriate designation or placement of the national levelnachanisa for coordinating information systems and services in thecountry within the national government structure may result inlimiting the possibility of achieving overall coordination.

Inadequate budget of the coordinating ineohanienconstrainingits support for substantial information infrastructuredevelop-inent activities.

Inadequate staffing of the national coordinating mechanism mayalso constrain its effectiveness.

Coordinating mechanisms that give technical and financialsupport to other component. of the national information system, forexample for human resource development, R & D, eta., in theinformation field have generally been more successful than thosethat have tended to centralize all these activities.

Coordination and policy-making becomes more complicatedwhenthe government department under whose authority the coordinatingagency is placed is also entrusted with operation of information

11

services.

It appears to be more advantageous to place the coordinatingmechanism under the authority of a government department havingresponsibility for policy-making, such as the Prime Minister'soff ic., since the choice of a ministry or structure which does nothay, any authority over the other ministries or structures limitsthe-efficiency and effectiveness of coordination.

Successful examples ahoy that the coordinating mechanism mustbe staffed with dynamic, motivated, well-trained specialists whoar. given the necessary status, responsibilities, and salaries tosecur. continuity and stability of the operation.

Successfulexainples of policy, implementation show that thepresence of documentation, library and information development andtraining activities in educational institutions, research units andthe private sector are essential for the development ofsound, stable national information systems and services as well asan information conscious society.

At the organizational level, lack of proper planning has ledto poor matching of IT requirements with organizational needs; anduse of inappropriate models for IT implementation.

Inadequat. human resources - technical knowledge and skillsfor information handling, leadership in the management of change,and large illiterate population are persisting handicaps to becontended with in developing countries.

National efforts which have placed initial heavy stress on thehardware aspect of the national information system, at the expenseor neglecting other important aspects,such as,manpowerdevelopment, user needs, development of information resources,indigenous information, provision for document delivery, haveencountered various problems. On the ether hand, development ofsystems ignoring the emerging trends in IT and telematics miss theadvantages to be gained from their applications especially inproviding fast access to a wide range of data and information, eventhose in remote locations. The Bill of Rights on informationand transfer of IT from the developed to the developing countriesdiscussed by ROODB & DU PLOOY is noteworthy in this connection.

In the hightech information industry the new buzzwords areInformation superhighway and Global Information Infrastructure.These are an integral part of the US Administration's plan toestablish a seamless web of communication networks, linkingcomputers, databases, and consumer electronics enabling everyone,irrespective of one's geographical location, occupation, age, raceor creed, to have access to a great variety and vastamountsof information when needed. The Global Information Infrastructure(Gil) "will encircle the globe with information superhighways on

12

which all people can travel." The creation of this network ofnstworks is seen as "an essential prerequisite to sustainabledevelopment, for all members of the human family." These networks"of distributed intelligence - will allow us to share information,to connect, and to communicate as a global community. Prom theseconnections we will derive robust and sustainable economicprogress." (GORE). Developing countries while appreciating theglobal network concept are apprehensive on certain counts. Will thesuperhighway interconnect only the already affluent countriesor those that have the wherewithal for effective participation, inother words, will th. highway connect also the South? Will thetechnology be accessible and affordable to developing countries?Will the promoters take into account the local contextá, social andcultural value systems, and technological capabilities? Will localcapacitiss to access and use information be enhanced? Will the gapbetween the haves and havenota within a country and among countrieswiden or narrowed since more than half the population of thedeveloping world have not used a telephone? Will the dataflows in the networks be dominated and/or controlled by thedeveloped information-rich nations? Can indigenous developmentmessages from developing countries mounted on to the informationhighways? These and related issues have been subjects of recentseminars, conferences and papers (NIT'94; GILBERT ET AL; REGIONALINPORHATION TECNEOLOGY & SOFTWARE ENGINEERING CENTER; WHITE).

There ar. few papers on strategies and practical steps forimplementing national information policy proposals in developingcountries. XONTVILOPP's handbook based on experiences in severaldeveloping countries is a useful starting point. However, one ofthe difficulties of governments and other authorities in thedeveloping countries in accepting national information policyproposals or being abl. to evaluate the proposals with a clearunderstanding of what is involved during the legislative processor at implementation stages, arises because the policy elements andrelated issues may not have been clearly stated; and/or (2) theimplications of implementing each policy component nay not havebsendelinatsd. The latter case, for instance, nay lead theconcerned authorities to underestimate the commitment, budgetaryprovision, and various actions to be taken in implementing thepolicy. Hence, in this chapter, while suggesting basic elements forformulating national information policies mainly oriented todeveloping countries, as identified in the cited papers, we alsoprovide notes on the implications of implementing each of thepolicy components.

SUGGESTEDELEMENTBPORA NATIONAL INPORNATION POLICY

Goal of National Information Policy

Statement: The goal of the national information policy is toensure:

13

(1.) That information is recognized as a national resourcebyth. national authorities (policy makers and decision makers) aswell by all other sections of the society;

(2) That the effective and efficient use and applications ofinformation contributes in significant ways to nation's social,economic, and cultural development and to the improvement of thequality of life of the people at large through th. creation andevolution of a more informed society; and

(3) Nore specifically the attainment of effective, optimalus. of information as well as of the specialized and professionalknowledg, and .xpertis. in all areas of human endeavour, bothgenerated within the country and obtainable from elsewhere in theworld, in making gainful decisions and in problem-solving at alllevels and in all sectors of the society.

Implications for Implementation of Policy: To prepare andimplement medium-term and yearly programs of activities for thedevelopment of a comprehensive national information system based onexisting infrastructur.e,coordinating the various sub-systemsand specialized systems and services, identifying and correctingdeficiencies, filling in the gaps, and interacting productivelywithr.gional and international information systemsand programs.

To develop systems, structures and procedures for propvidingrelevant,reliable and timely information and data at reasonablecost to decision makers, development planners, executives andadministrators, researchers, engineers, technicians, and otherprofessionals; to para-professionals, extension workers, farmers,entrepreneurs, the business community; and to those contributing indiverse ways to achieve national development objectives.

To ensure continuous and adequate support to the components ofthe national information system including human, financial andother infrastructural resources, administrative and institutionalarrangements through public, private and other forms of financingand collaboration.

Toensure cohesiveness and sustained growth of the nationalinformation system and its components in conformity with thecountry's development objectives and its political, social andcultural characteristics and government structure, adaptating theth. national information system as these environmental elementsevolve and change over time.

Information for National Development

tatement: The policy will be to treat information and data,specialized knowledge and expertise as well as the informationindustry in the country as resources essential to socio-economicdevelopment and as potentiating elements in its development plans

14

and programs.

InDlications for Implementation of Policy:, ensuring thatthe national information policy is integrated into th. nationaldevelopment policies, both overall and sectorial, and that thenational information system planning is made an integral part ofth. national development plans and strategies so that availableinformation, data and services remain relevant to the developmentplanning needs.

instituting appropriate program. and activities at nationaland institutional levels to demonstrat. to and sensitiz, decisionmakers and planning staff in the national leadership with a view toaccelerating the emergence and acceptance of the concept that dataand information ar. essential national development resourcesand that a healthy information-, informatics-, and telematics-industry can contribute significantly to national economic growthandof itaelf to the national product.

Adopting appropriate methods and procedures so as toensurethat within the broader context of the political philosophy andgovernment structure of the country, the government and itscomponent institutional structures have important roles to play andcan make significant contributions to national informationinfrastructuredevelopment, including the formulation of policieson information, informatics and telematics, and systems planningand th.irimplementation, monitoring, coordination, and provisionof support.

Supporting measures and programs to identify high leveltechnical staff in government ministries, departments, and othercorporate entities that liaise with and assist, decision makers,policy makers and top-level executives and to orient them to theinformation and data sources pertinent to their respective areas ofactivity, to effective methods of accessing and utilizing theinformation sources, services and products, and to ensure that thenational/sectorial information sources and services are effectivelylinked and mad. easily accessibl. and conveniently usable to suchofficials.

To giv, priority consideration to include an informationcomponent with a separate budget line in all sectorial and/or thenational and sub-national development plans and programs so as tocontribut. to the achievement of the overall objectives of thenational information policy.

To formulat, appropriate policies, strategies, regulations andprograms that would attract and facilitate the private sectorto take part and contribute to th. development of the nationalinformation infrastructure, systems and services.

National Coordination of Information Systems and Services

15

Statement: The policy vii]. be to establish a national body forimplementing th. national information policy and coordinating andharmonizing the activities of the information infrastructure,system., and services in the country.

Th. coordinating body (hereafter referred to as the NationalInformation Policy Coordinating Body) should be placed as highasposs ibis in the government structure, with, a view to ensuring itseffective functioning in implementing the national informationpolicy, coordinating and harmonizing information resources,systems, services, projects and programs in the country. Theobjective is to minimize unnecessary duplication of effort andwastage of resources in the development and operation of thenational information systems and to maximize the benefits to bederived from the services provided by the systems to the people atall levels in the country.

Implications for ImDlemefltation of Policy: Creation of aNational Information Policy Coodinating Body (NIPCB).

Formulating and implementating appropriate legislative,regulatory, administrative procedures and measures for providingfinancial support and conducive to the sustained growth of theNIPCB.

Structure and Functions of the NIPCB

Coverage: The NIPCB will be concerned with the development ofth. national information system of the country and, therefore, viiicover all matters related to the sustained development of thenational information infrastructure, systems andservices.(see Working Definitions).

Position in the government tructure: The NIPCB should beplaced as high as possibl. in the government structure, e.g. in theOffice of the Prime Ninister or the Cabinet, or the Office of thePresident or of the Chief Executive of the State, depending uponthe structureof the government of the country.

Jtructure: TheNIPCB will have three main functions:

- A policy making and decision function, entrusted to anInter-ministerial Group;

- An executive function, entrusted to an ExecutiveDirectorate:

- An advisory function, entrusted to an Advisory Committee.

The Interministerial Group, (13) under the chairmanship of thhead of the office under whose authority the NIPCB is placed, willmainly be concerned with matters of policy and decisions thereon,and advising the national government on all matters

16

relating to information systemS and services.

It should be composed of ministerial level representationsfrom the relevant sectors, services and political entities, suchas, education, science and technology, industry, economics andplanning, telecommunications, mass media, manpower, statistics, andculture. It should meet at least twice a year to review theactivities of the NIPCB, consider new policy proposals, budgetand progrim. of the Body; establish priorities and deal with allmajor, policy issues concerning the development of the nationalinformation system.

TheExecutive Directorate (ED), consitituting theexecutive armof the NIPCB, should be headed by an Executive Director of the rankand status of Secretary to Government, and supported bycompetent professional staff and administrative and secretarialstaff.

The ED will consider and implement projects, programs andactivities relating to system development and networking, with theeducation and training of professionals and users, norms andstandards; and in general, implement, in collaboration withappropriate organizations, the plan of action and the yearlyprograms for the developing the national information system.

The Mvisorv Committee, (AC), a technical body, will have 12 to15 persons who are experts in different areas of information,informatics and telematics, and representatives of information usergroups, academia and prof sessional organizations, also otherappropriat, nongovernmental organizations, and the informationindustry.

The AC will advise and assist the ED in ensuring effectiveimplementation ofthe policiesanddecisions of the 10 regarding thedevelopment and management of the information infrastructure,systems, services and activities in the country.

Functions of the NIPCB: Elaborating the national policy oninformation systems and services and preparing revisions whennecessary and formulating strategies for the implementation of thepolicy components.

Ensuring that the national information policy and nationalinformation system plans are supportive of and integrated orincorporated into the nationaldevelopment plans and programs.

Supporting measures to identify the priority areas of thenational and sectorial development plans that need informationsystems and services to be developed on a priority basis.

Translating the national information policy into action plans,by formulating a national plan to be implemented through yearlyprograms and activities for developing various components of the

17

national information system, in collaboration with appropriateinstitutions and organizations in the public and private sectors.

Coordinating, promoting and monitoring the informationactivities, systems and services, programmes and projects in thecountry in collaboration with appropriate organizations, bothgov.rsmsutal and nongov.rnmental,within and outside th. country.Ensuring harmonization of the components. and their activities;assessing the performanc, of the different components, correctingdeficiencies and filling in gaps.

Assigning responsibility to different organizations, andcorporat. entities in the country regarding the building-up andsharing of data and information resources,creation of databases,developing information manpower, setting up and interconnectinginformation and data systems and services, etc.

Promoting, and supporting appropriate sectorial informationsystems, specialized sub-networks and services.

Pormulating legislative and administrativ, procedures asmay benecessary to secur. resource inputs - human, financial and otherinfrastructures - for the development and operation of the nationalinformation system components.

Pormulating and implementing regulatory, legislative andadministrativ, mechanisms relating to information provision,accessibility and flow, cooperative arrangements and resourcesharing and the information industry.

Developing norms and standards for the development and forassessing the performance of the components of the nationalinformation system, e.g. whether all sections of the society arebeing reached and sustainability of the services;and undertakingmeasures for the correction of inadequacies identified and forcontinuously improving the management of the information systemsand services.

Assisting in the formulation of norms and regulations for theprevention of copyright, patents and other violations as applicableto all information source materials, databases, etc., and softwarepiracy.

Examine, in collaboration with appropriate national and statebodies, rules and regulations relating to customs, duties and otherimpositions on the import and export of information, informatics,and telematics products and services, with the viewto amending those that are not conducive to the development of thenational informatics and telematics industries and provision ofaffordable information services.

Supporting research and development in information science,informatics, telematics, arhives management, norms and standards,

18

and training of information specialists and users; and supportingdissemination of research results for application in operationalactivities. The findings of research can help modifying existingpolicies or formulating new ones in information, informatics, andt.l.aatica fields.

Coordinating activities of various organizations at nationaland s.ctorial levels involved in the implementation of nationalinformation policies. In decentralized development planning withmultiseatorial and multilevel objectives (individual, household,village, district, state, national), it would be necessary toensure that information structures and authority structures areproperly integrated and effective flow of information among all theparties involved (SUNDBM4).

Advising those concerned with national data collection on alarge scale to support socioeconomic planning (e.g. population,agricultural production, etc.) that it is more cost-effectivetocollect and process reliable basic data than attempt collectinga wide range of data on many indicators and variables that may beused infrequently. In an information-intensive planning process anydeficiency in the data collected will be more accentuated, and thiswill be the case in developing countries where resourcesand expertise for large scale data collection and processing areinadequate. Further, once the basic statistic.. have been madeavailabl, the return on any additional investment to collect dataon other infrequently used indicators will be marginal. In regardto data on/from rural areas in developing countries, approachessuch as rapid rural appraisal, optimum ignorance and imprecision,etc., may be adopted with advantage.

supporting cooperativ, and collaborative operations andprograms withregional and international information systems andagencies so as to enrich the national information activities on theone hand and providing inputs (information, data, expertise) to theregional and international systems, services, programsandactivities on the other.

Budget

The NIPCB should be allocated adequate funds. Apart frommaintaining the ED and convening of the meetings of the 13 and ofthe AC, the major items of expenditure in the NIPCB's program wouldbe support to the development of sectorial information systems,systems interconnection and networking, education and training ofinformation specialists and users, and research anddevelopment projects in the information handling, informatics andtelematics mentioned above.

Provision of Access to Information

Statement: The policy will be to support the organization,networking and management of public information resources, and

19

when, possible private sources as well, in such ways as wouldensure easy access, effective distribution to and us. by all typesof users wherever they may be located, of pertinent data andinformation; developing for the purpose information networks,resource sharing programs, information services and documentdelivery arrangements, to different user groups to satisfy theirrespective information requirements; and adoption of appropriatetahniquss. and strategies of resource management with a view, toachieving high quality and cost-effective information and dataservices.

Implications for Implementation of Policy: Formulation ofcriteria, guidelines and procedures for the allocation of publicfunds and mobilization of private resources for the planning,development and management of information systems and informationresources in the country.

Encouraging and supporting a wide variety of informationproviders so as to ensure open, fair and competitive market formaking information and information products accessible to all.

Endorsing the fundamental principle of freedom ofaccess toinformation and information sources bearing in mind the necessaryconstraints on such freedom in relation to such considerations asnational security, personal and/or corporat. privacy, social andcultural morals, proprietary rights and administrative efficiency.

Comprehensive regulations and measures should be formulated toensure that the privacy of all, people is protected. Personal datacollected for specific purposes should be limited to the minimumnecessary. Individuals should have the right to examine and correctdata files about themselves. Transaction data should remainconfidential. Sharing of information about an individual should beallowed only with the consent of the individual.

Intellectual property rights and protection should be madeapplicabl. to all types of information carrier media includingelectronic media. An equitable balance should be ensured betweenthe rights of those responsible for the ideas, invention, orinnovation embodied in an information source and other copyrightowners and needs of information users. Copyright owners shouldr.a.iv. fair compensation. (AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION).

Formulating criteria for and allocating responsibility amonginstitutions in the country for building information resources,databases and data banks, and for the provision of appropriateinformation services nation-wide in selected areas of priority andspecialization.

Encouragingthe formulation and adoption of resource-sharingprinciples, modalities, tools and cost-sharing within sectors andat national and inter-sectonial levels. Network access costs to

20

individuals, libraries, non-profit groups, government agencies, andth. challenged should be fair, affordable, stable over a period oftim., and independent of geographical location.

Bupporting appropriat, models for the int.11ectual andg.ographic organization of information' sources and services forensuring comprehensiveness of coverage, operational feasibility,compatibility, networking, resource-sharing, data exchange andsystems interconnection.

Implementing legislative measures, adopting administrativeprocedures for the national registration/disposition Of all dataand information sources and materials generated in the countrywhatever be the recording medium (see also Indigenous Informationand Information Products)

formulating and implementing criteria for the importation offoreign information sources, including databases, of relevance tonational development needs. (Bee also Information Technology andInternational Activities)

Developing appropriate infrastructures for providing access torelevant external information sources, through online servicesand other computer-mediated communications, including electronicmail, electronic data transfer, contact with experts, etc.

Establishing and implementing procedures f or identifyingnon-traditional transborder flow of problem-solvinginformation/data, technology and knowledge - for example, viaconsultants, import of goods and services, training of nationalsabroad, multilateraland bilateral agreements, through multinational companies andregional, international and other organizations and agencies in thecountry, etc. Adopting effective means of institutionalizing thesystematic flow and access to such information in the country.

Supporting R & D and pilot projects in information handling,informatics and telematics applications with a view to developingnew methods and/or adapting existing technology for improvinguser-friendliness, efficiency, and effectiveness of informationsystems and service, in the country.

Supporting projects and programs for the creation, updatingand maintenanc, of tools that facilitate identification,s.lectionand location of information and data sources and materials in thecountry, including databases, information and data systems andservices, ongoing projects, software packages used, specializedequipment, teaching aids, compilations of profiles of specialistsor experts, institutions, contractual arrangements and technologytransfer agreements, directories, inventories, union catalogues,and lists, etc.: and to institute appropriate measures that wouldfacilitat. the collection,recording, exchange and processing of

21

such information from al] the appropriate institutions, agencies,programs and projects.

Indigenous Information and Information Products

Statement: With a view to maximizing the utilization ofnational potential and capacity for social, economic, cultural,industrial and technological davelopmant, the policy will be tointensify and strengthen the indigenous generation of scientific,technical., socio-.conomia and educational data, information andmaterials; widen their range, types and coverage to improve thequality of information materials, sources, services and productsthat carry such data and information whether in documentary orother forms.

Implications for Implementation of Policy: Stimulating,promoting and supporting the generation, recording, publication,protection, preservation, dissemination of the nation'sscholarlycreative and professional output and their documentationand bibliographic control through the implementation of appropriatelegislation and administrativ, measures. Particular attention willbe paid to recording of oral history and similar forms oftransmission of information on traditional and rural technology,culture, handicrafts, medical and health practices, etc., commonin many developing countries.

8upportng programs and measures in the public and privatesectors for upgrading and improving the quality of information anddata generated and of the primary, secondary and tertiary documentsand other recording media including electronic forms and databasesthat carry such data and information.

Provision of support to the indigenous publishing industry andother components of the information and informatics industryof the country, the components to be supported being selectedthrough appropriate and agreed upon criteria in conformity with theoverall national information policy and national developmentobjectives.

Providing resources to appropriate institutions and throughlegislation and/or administrative measures, for facilitating pro-publication documentation (e.g. cataloguing-in-publication, keywords, abstracts, etc.) of all information materials produced inthe country and ensuring their coverage in national and sectorialdatabases and bibliographical tools produced within the country andappropriate ones abroad.

Providing support to appropriate institutions, projects andprograms in the country through legislative and administrativemeasures to improve the collection and recording, validation,processing, organization, computerization and timely distributionof numerical/statistical data and images needed for preparinginformation products and systems to support development planning,

22

decision making, execution and management of development programsand activities.

Promotion of Use of Information

Statement,: With the view to maximizing the effectiv, andefficient us. of information, information sources, systems andservices by all sections of the society, thenational policyvil]b to rais. the perception of people on the value and utility ofinformation in their respective activity areas; to continuouslystrive to increas, people's propensity and ability to apply thisresource in problem solving, to keep themselves continuouslyupdated and well-informed in their respective areas of interest andconcern; and to improve the quality of life in general.

Implications for Inlementation of Policy: To encourage,stimulate and support appropriate institutions and organizations inthe country to design and develop necessary programs, courses oftraining, and projects; and to contribute resources for theperiodical study and analysis of the information needs andinformation-seeking behaviour aswel]. as attitudes to informationuse of personsfalling within their respective areas of concern.

To encourage, stimulate and support programs and projects ofinstitutions and organizations in the country designed to educatechildren in the use of information and information materials andproducts, sensitize decision makers and policy makers and personswho can influence the former on the value and usefulness of valueadded information products, and orient information users in theeffective and efficient use of specific information systems,services and products. The overall objective is the orientationof th. perception and attitudes of people regarding information andto enhanc. their capacity to us. information, sources, and systems,and services ffectiv.ly.

Coordinating and harmonizing this aspect of the nationalinformation policy with the relevant elements of the nationaleducation policies and plans as a whole and within thedifferentdisciplines/sections of the technical and professional education(for ezample,engineering/technical education, medical education,training of managers, executives, researchers).

Kobilizing resources and supporting national, regional andinternational organizations, governmental and nongovernmental, forsponsoring user sensitization, user orientation and user educationprograms.

Supporting measures that stimulate the effective use ofdataand information especially by decision-makers and their supportstaff as well as peopl. at the 'grass-roots' through the use ofspecialized information products and services and communicationmethods and media (visual and audio-visual, folk media, etc.)

23

supporting the production and dissemination of learning andteaching materials tools, kits, computer-based systems, audio andaudio-visual systems, etc. useful in user sensitization and usereducation programs. Promoting cooperation and collaboration amongappropriate institutions in the production of such materials anddevices.

International Information Activities

statement: The national policy will be to interact with andparticipate in global, international and regional informationsystems, networks, programs, and activities that are conducive tothe development of the national information systems and services.

(See also: Informatics and Te].ematics]

Xmlications for Implementation of Policy: Pactors affectingnational information policy vie a vis regional and internationalcooperation in nforaation systems, networks and programs include:(See also Introduction and Background)

national Bocial, political, economic, and culturalcharacteristics, ideologies, attitudes and considerations;

- developments in inforinatics and telematics;

emerging international and regional cooperation andcoordination programs e.g. regional alliances of nations;

orientation and emphasis in international and regionalrelations and their information support.

role of international governmental and non-governmentalorganizations;

within this framework, the practical strategy should be:

Encouraging active participation of information personnel andinstitutions, in both the public and private sectors in thecountry, inappropriate regional and international meetings wher.useful exchange of information and experienc, on developments ininformation systems and technologies, and related subjects, takeplace. Such exchanges contribute to technology transfer, humanresources development, etc.

Encouraging and supporting as may be necessary the inputtingof data and information generated/published in the country intorelevant regional and international information systems, networksand cooperative programs.

Ensuring that relevant international standards and norms, andregulations and procedures, toOls and guidelines (e.g. those

24

developed by Unesco, ISO) are mad. available and applied widely inthe information syst.as and services in the country. Nationalcontributions to the formulation of such norms and standards arealso to be encouraged.

Encouraging and supporting the utilization of scientific,technical and economic knowledge emanating from other countrieswith a positive attitude to the acceptanc. and use of suchinformation and knowledge.

Pursuing cooperativ, activities with institutions in oth.rcountri.s, dsve]op.d countries and developing countries. Suchactivities may include joint research projects, academia exchangeand training programs, in informatica and telematics, and in thedistribution of financial and other resources. In this connectionSouth-South cooperation should receive particular attention.

Supporting the country's participation minter-governmentalan4 international agreements that facilitate information flow andaccess to information sources especially from developing countries.In this connection, inter-country and international laws andregulations relating to transborder data flow, copyright,trade mark, patents, and trade laws and regulations covering theimport and export of information materiAls (conventional andnon-conventional) databases, and other information industryproducta should be r.sp.cted. The corresponding national laws,regulations and conventions should be examined and harmonized so asto removebarriers to the inflow and outflow of development communicationmessages, useful technologies, innovations, and expertise withoutcompromising national laws and regulations relating to privacy,confidentiality and copyright.

Information Manpower Development

Statement: The national policy will be to promote and supportthe development of personnel adequate in quality and in number forthe design and development and efficient and effective management,and operation of information resources, systems and services,including the informatics and telematics aspects, in the country.

Implications for ImDlementation of Policy: Formulating andimplementing a national information manpower policy that supportsand is in harmony with the national information policy, nationaleducation policies, and national labor laws and policies.

Instituting measur.s to recognize in the publicand privatesectors the technical and professional character and level ofknowledge and skills required to design, operate, manage anddevelop modern information systems and services.

Supporting measures and programs for the periodical survey of

25

market requirements of different categories of informationprofessionals, paraprofessionals and others and for obtainingfeedback from employers and employees of the adequacy of theknowledge and skills available to meet the changing needs.

supporting measures to establish job classificationscheaei,pay plans and status for information professionals of variouscategories, stipulating tbs types and. 3..vols of responsibility,qualifications necessary, and salary range for each job category,especially in. the public sector, with the view to attracting andretaining for the information management functions adequatelyqualified, competent, and motivated personnel.

Instituting measures including technical assistance programsforincreasing the opportunities for the education and trainingof professional, technical and supporting staff and for improvingtheir career prospects in the country. (Bee also InternationalInformation Activities).

Periodically assessing the curricula and training facilitiesavailable in the country for various categories of informationpersonnel,providing support for their updating and modernizationand the training of teachers in information science,informatics,telematics, and archives management; instituting inselected institutions of higher education and universities graduateand post-graduate programs in information studies.

Encouraging and supporting the establisbinent anddevelopment ofnational professional associations in the fields of libraryscience, information science, archives management, informatics,t.l.matics and related disciplines, with active participation ofprofessionals from both the public and private sectors.

Informatics and Telematics

Statement,: The national policy will be to support experimentsand pilot projects to stimulate optimal utilization of emerginginformatics and telematics technologies for data, text, and imageprocessing; information and data transfer, networking,computer-mediated communication, mass media etc., with a view toimprovingthe quality, comprehensiveness, reliability and management ofinformation systems and services in the country; facilitatingaccess to, delivery and use of information; and to give adequateconsideration and resolution of problems that may arise from theapplication of such technologies.

(Bee also: International Information Activities]

Implications for Implementation of Policy: Pormulating andimplementing criteria and guidelines for supporting experiments fortesting, application and adaptation to suit the local context

26

of informatics, telematics and related technologies for improvingthe information syst.ms and services in the country.

Periodical reviewing of policies, strategies, programs, andactivities relating to the applications of informatice,elsotro-optia, and t.l.aatics technologies, recommending changes soas to facilitat, access to and exchange of information ataffordable cost by all sections. of the community.

In some countries, there are separate policies relating toeach of the areas library and documentation, archives management,informatics and t.l.communications, while other countries areattempting to formulate comprehensiv, policies integrating allthese domains, It should be notedthat the government ministry!department concerned respectively with libraries, informatics andtelecommunications is in most of the countries distinct. Be alsothose concerned with the import/export of various informatias andt.l,matics technologies and products. And since elements in onedomain affect elements in the other domains, one finds elements ofpolicy of common concern formulated in separate sets of policystatements. It will help implementation of information systemsand services if at the policy formulation stage the functions, andinterests, of the different parties concerned with libraries,information technology, telecommunications, trade, customs andtaxation, etc. are taken into account.

With the increasingly global nature of electronicinformationnetworks, sovereignty can be viewed no longer as simply a matter ofphysical borders and political allegiances, but also includesconsiderations of access to, control over and the extent ofdep.nd.nc. and reliance on external information sources.

The primary concerns of developing countries include thefollowing:

- in most developing economies the issues relate toaccessibility to the different levels of societyth. emerging informatics and t.lematics technologiesat affordable cost;

- the information content and messages that flew into thecountry and what the country is able to mount on to thenetworks and highways: ar. the incoming messagesappropriate to the development needs of the country:does the country have the means and capacity to capturethe indigenous innovations, technologies and ideas andplace them on the networks? As mentioned earlier, ITshould strengthen development communication systemsenabling people in developing countries, more particularlythos. at the grass roots, to receive and disseminatedevelopment messages.

27

- the direction of information flow should not only beNorth to South, but also South to North, and South toSouth;

- the difference in the level and patterns of developmentand the related social and cultural attitudes,pr&ctices, and conventions in general and with particularrespect to information recording, processing, seeking,and use; will the new information technologies be orcan be adapted to be compatible with these differences?

- availability, of appropriate local infrastructure - humanresources, expertise, and skills; level of technologydevelopment - informatics and telematics, and otherinformation facilities.

Zn this context, the national policy should address issuessuch as the following to initiate action for finding appropriatesolutions:

- problems relating to accessibility at affordable cost theaccelerating innovations in IT;

- lack of adequate local end national infrastructure end aninforniat ion industry;

lack of expertis. to effectively and efficiently assess,evaluate, manage and use IT;

- effect of IT on aggregat. employment and related socialand political issues;

- possible control and censorship of information by nationalgovernments or other entities;

- issues relating to freedom of access and publication ofinformation;

- assault on privacy and confidentiality of informationwhether it relates to an individual or to corporateentities including the government;

- data security;

sovereignty and conflicts vie a vie nation states;

- intellectual property and business law related matters;

- legislation regarding software production, distribution,and use;

- copyright legislation for machine-readable databasesend for computer programs and software: how can the

28

integrity of IT-based systems be safe-guarded againstillegal and unauthorized use?

- transborder data flow and trade in information acrossnational boundaries;

costing and pricing of data and facsimile transmission;introduction of vid.ot.x;

- the pac. of developments in IT leaves too little buffertin, for national authorities and managements tounderstand, assimilat. and assess their likely impact onthe social, political, economic, and technologicalfabric of th. country.

As already indicated, informatics and telematics hay, becomeimportant and decisive issues in inter-country interactions andcooperation. another significant aspect is the need to tak, intoaccount the private sector including transnational corporationsinvolved in the production and distribution of hardware andsoftware and provision of expertise in the country.

In this connection, a developing country, needs to take intoconsideration additional policy issues such as the following:

- Does the country have adequate access to externalinformation sources; on the other hand, is there an unduedependence of the country on external sources and, if so,how can it be corrected?

- How can the economic value of external information beweighed against trade imbalances and other nationalconcerns?

- How should economic efficiency arising from effectiveinformation service be balanced against national concernssuch as maintenance of national jurisdiction and reductionof vulnerability caused by imbalances in the country'sinformation trade?

- Do international arrangements (e.g. those of OECD,GATT/WTO) provide an appropriate environment for growth of

national information systems and services in developingcountries;

- Pr. the controls on the ownership of the country'sinformation industry appropriate and adequate? forexample, franchis. for the provision of commercialcommunication services;

- Should the import/export of certain types of data andinformation and information products be regulated?

29

Hence, the national policy on information should cover twomajor aspects, namely,

to prevent the erosion of the country's economy, laws,and policies (and thus national sovereignty) by newinformation, and communication technologies and traneborderdata flow; and

- to determin, the extent of economic and politicalvulnerability caused by the country's heavy relianceon external information and information products and totake steps to reduce such dependence, if necessary.

With each new application of IT, new economic, social andpolitical tension. may surface. While some of these may be solvedby market forces, or common sense, many more requiring new policylevel decisions will arise.

In societies with forms of government deemed authoritarian ITposes both opportunities and challenges. Por instance, in somecountries governments have traditionally tended to censor certaintypes of information. This may be politically motivated, but itcan also be due partly to an altruistic desire to protect thecitisen. from degrading influences on their culture and valuesystems by the messages flowing in via the media, communicationsystems, etc. Nationalism may be another motivation for filteringand selective dissemination of information to people.

Many developing countries are trying to cope with major socialand economic problems of illiteracy, population growth, health,nutrition, inadequacy of resources for development programs, weakinfrastructure, management capacity, etc.

Libraries and information services in many developingcountries have not been able to convincingly demonstrate the valueof information/information products in finding solutions tothese problems faced by decision makers, development planners andexecutives. Purther, the new information technologies tend todisturb conventional institutional structures, information flowpattern., and interactions among individuals and institutions.

IT calls for new perspectives and change in attitudes as wella. strategies and balanced approaches to derive optimal benefitfrom its applications in developmental efforts. But, for many adeveloping economy such change. at the higher levels of decisionand policy making will take some time and in the meantime ITgallop, ahead and it. negative aspect. continues to loom large.

The level of us. of information and data partly depend. on thelevel of R and D activities, planning exercises, industrial andbusiness activities, etc., in a country. Hence, even thoughit may be technologically possible to access more information

30

in/from developing country, the information may still beunder-utilized due to the low level of R and D and other activitiesmentioned. Again, available information may be under-utilizedbecause users may not be adequately aware of its availability orbecause of their inadequat, familiarity with or their inability tous., IT-based systems. This calls for effectiv, measures forinformation us. promotion, marketing of information product. andservices, and user sensitization and orientation.

In science and technology much of the information required byresearchers and other specialists in developing countries isproduced, documented and disseminated in the technologicallyadvanced countries. Th. acquisition of such.information sources,databases, or access to them requires substantial amount of hardcurrency and foreign exchang. facility both of which ar. serioushandicaps in most developing countries. And except in the newlyindustrializing economies, there is little that a developingcountry can offer in exchange for the imported information.

With the expected large investments in developed countries,particularly in the USA, from private and public sources in theglobal information infrastructure development as an integral part -

of the information superhighway plans and programs, there willbegreat opportunities as well as challenges to developing countries- to th. government, the private sector, the information industryand information professionals - to act judiciously to ensure thata wide rang. of appropriat, information is made accessible anddelivered at affordabl. cost to all sections of the community,without prejudice to the national concerns mentioned above.

India - An example

India is an exampl. of a large developing economy and ademocracy attempting to leap-frog into the information age. Thecountry's potential in IT resources and capabilities has beennoticed and availed of in other industrialized countries as well asdeveloping countries. Following the launching of the economicliberalization policies and programs of the Government of Indiathree year ago there has been significant growth in the IT andt.leiaatics industries in the public, private and joint sectors, ininvestments, exports, human resources development, etc. Data bases,networks, and computer mediated communications have sprungup in various sectors.

Recently, commissioning India's first information highwaylinking 24 cities with high-speed satellite earth stations set upby the National Informatics Centre/Department of Electronics(NIC/DOE), the Commerce Minister said it would usher in an era ofpaperless trade, help exporters and enable India to derive thebenefits of global competitiveness. The information highway issuperimposed on the existing NIC network (NICNET) which already has700 earth stations linking 500 centres. While data on the existing

31

network flows slowly, the information highway will be able totransmit voice, video, data, and multimedia information at a speedof 2.2 million bits per second, which means that a 100page document can be transmitted in a mere second.

The info highway was set up at a cost of less than US$5.0million. Twenty mor. cities will be connected by March 1995, at anadditional coat of US$1.7 million. There are plan. to connect.v.ntualiy 70 commercially important cities to the informationhighway. It is expected that 2,000 exporters will be connected toNINET in 16 months.

Telemedicine via the information highway will bring medicalinformation to the doorsteps of barefoot doctors, and libraries of2,000 educational and research institutions will be connectedto the network in about a year.

The services provided on the info highway will be at half thecost provided by other agencies. Through the higher volume ofsubscribers and with a direct link to the international gateway,SPRINTNET, NIC has been able to bring down costs. Costs were alsoreduced because EtC developed the highway based on indigenoussystem technology and converted much of the hardware requirementsinto software.

A national telecom policy was recently announced. The DOE andDepartment of Telecommunications (DOT) in association with privatesector industries are extending telephone links to rural areas. TheCentre for Diffusion of InformatiOn Technology (CDIT)promoted by DOE is launching a pilot project with th, help of AppleComputers to use hand-b.ld computers for recording data andthereby developing a public health network. DOE plans to developthe existing Education and Research Network (ERNET) to function anan "information footpath", linking via computers, teachers andresearchers in some 8000 colleges. DOE'S "Impact Lab" project,supported by the World Bank and Swiss Development Corporation, aimsto interface colleges with neighborhood industries via IT.Railways, banking operations, customs and revenue, and a number ofother government departments are already computerized or in theprocess of being so.

Since 1985 the Government of India has been working on a newTelecommunications Policy to strengthen the telecom sector. TheSeventh live-year Plan (1988-1992) had identified this sector asone its top five development priorities. The formulation of guidelines and policies for the development of telecom industries hasbeen assigned to the Telecom Commission set up in 1989. One of thelements of the new industrial policy announced in 1991 is thedel.icensed production of all types of telecom equipment and madeavailable to the private sector. Thus, the production base for thetelecom industry has been widened to include production units incentral and state public sectors, joint sector, and the private

32

sector. Value-added services such as cellular phones, radio-paging,videotex, etc. has been opened to private sector includingmultinationals.

The new Telecom Policy was announced in May 1994, heraldingthe start of a new era in Indian telecommunications. Por industryit offered new business opportunities and f or the average Indianit meant faster telephone connection. The policy formulation was aresult of the realization that telecom services of world classquality were a pr.rquisit. for enhancing the country's globalcompetitiveness and for attracting foreign investments. This was inconforaity with and a prerequisite to, the government' a three yearold progreasivi economic liberalization policy. The pressureto be competitiv, is forcing a. number of Indian companies to lookat IT and communications as an essential ingredient that will, givetheir business the cutting edge.

The policy envisages that by the end of the Eighth Plan in1997, telephones will be available on demand and all the 570,000villages and in urban areas, a public call office for every 500persons, as. against th. present telecom density of 0.8 per 100persons. On 17 September, 1994 the Union Communications Ministryannounced the norms for private sector participation in basictelephone services.

n agency called the Telecom Authority of India is being setupwith responsibility for standardization, ensuring technicalcompatibility among service operators, price regulation, fixationof access charges for private operators, sharing of revenues, andprotection of interest of consumers as well as of the privateoperators, and resolving disputes among those providing services.

Under th. new guidelines, pilot projects will be allowed inareas of low telecom density, but with high growth potential.. Themost recent technologies will be brought through these pilotprojects. However, there ar. many things in India that shouldchange, including the high cost of most online facilities such asaccess to IIJTERRET, incompatibility between local informationnetwork connectivity, and modem licensing.

New regulations regarding softwar. piracy and amendments tothe Indian patent law have been announced.

The information superhighway gets headline attention in themedia for two reasons. One, the US administration is clearlycommitted to th. success of the concept; second, the hightechindustry sees tremendous business opportunities and potential inth. convergence of information, telecom and media industries. TheUS administration has begun to look beyond the US and is pushingfor a Global Information Infrastructure (Gil) on the lines of theNIX. Michael Schrage, research associate at MIT writes: "SiliconValley may be Ui. world's largest producer of computer software but

33

the second largest is Bangalore in India. Software engineersthere - many superbly trained - do state-of-the-art programming forless than a quarter of Palo Alto type pay. What happens to Anericanwages and employment when a Gil makes it a snap to bid out asoftware development project in Bangalore?"*

*Th. are a large number of reports in national newspapers andjournals, and the medja on IT and telematics policy and relatedd.velopment. in India. BIBLIOGRAPEY

ABATE, DEJEN. 1990. Issues Pertaining to National InformationPolicies in Africa: An Overview. In: Akhtar, Shahid, ed.National Information and Informatics Policies in Africa.Report and Proceedings of a Regional Seminar; 28 November-1 December 1988: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Section II: TheProceedings. 70-90. Ottawa, Canada: IDRC; 1990 April.

AXETAR, SEANID, ed. 1990. National Information and InformaticsPolicies in Africa. Report and Proceedings of a RegionalSeminar; 28 November-i December 1988; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Ottawa, Canada: XDRC; 1990 April. z + 298p. The RegionalSeminar was co-sponsored by the International DevelopmentResearch Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada, and the Pan AfricanDocumentation and Information System (PADIS), Addis Ababa,Ethiopia. PADIS is now Pan frican Development InformationSystem. IDRC-NR233e.

AIRTAR, SHARID, ed. 1993. Equity, Growth and Participation:The Information Age. Development, 3ournal of the Society

34

for International Development (Italy). 1993;(3):1-86.Special issue on communication and development. ISBN:3.O11--6370.

ASSOCIATION 01 REBERRCH LIBRARIES, WASHINGTON D.C. 1993. Gatewayto the Pacific Rim: Information Resources for the 21stCentury. In: Minutes of th. 122nd Meeting; 1.993 May;Honolulu, Hawaii. Washington, D.Cs Association of ResearchLibraries; 1993. 211p. ISBN: 0044-9652.

BIMUWIIGA, BERNARD BAZARIXA. 1992. Policy en Information System.and Services for Uganda: Suggested Formulation and Plans forImplementation. Mdi. Ababa: School of Information Studies;1992. 305p. (N.Sc.(I.S) Thesis, School of InformationStudies, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia).

BECRER, JORGI 1993. Information for All or Enowledge for theElite. The Contours of a Dissimilar European InformationPolicy. International Forum on Information and Documentation(Netherlands). 1.993 January; 18(l):3-10. Over 40 citations.

ISBN: 0304-9701.

BLARE, CECIL. 1993. Development Communication Revisited: An Endto Eurocentric Visions. Development, Journal of the Societyfor International Development (Italy). 1993(3):8-11. ISBN:1011-6370.

BOONE, 7. 1992. Information Policy in a New South Africa. In:Proceedings of the Conference on Library and InformationServices for Future D.v.lopmsnt of Southern Africa; 1992 May6-B; Pretoria, South Africa. Pretoria: INFO AFRICA NOVA CC;1992. 88-98.

BOSCH, ANDREA, ed 1.993. Development Communication Report, 1993.

Washington D.C: Agency for International Devel.opment, Bureaufor Research and Development; 1993. 69p. DevelopmentCommunication Report; Number 80-82; 1993. Available from theCl.aring House on Development Communication, 1815 North PortXyer Drive, Suite 600, Arlingon, Virginia 22209, USA. ISBN:0192-1312.

BUGLIARELLO, GEORGE. 1994. The Global Generation, Transmission,and Diffusion of Enowledge and the Needs of the LessDeveloped Countries. Paper prepared for the World Bank/National Research Council Symposium of MarshallingTechnologies for Development; 1994 December 28-30; Irvin.,CA. To be published by the National Academy Press inSpring 1995.

CHAUDHRY, ABDUS SATTAR. 1993. Information Policies in Saudi

35

Arabia and Malaysia. Information Development (UK). 1993Deceaber;9(4):228-233. Lists the related key documents forXalayaia and Saudi Arabia. ISBN: 0266-6669.

cHING-cHIN, CHEN, ed 1994. (Papers and Proceedings]. NIT'94(New Information Technology): Planning the GlobalInformation Infrastructure; 1994. November 18-20; Alexandria,VA. Various pagination. New Information Technology.Available from Dr. Ching-Chih Chen, GSLIS, Simmons College,300 The Penway, Boston, MA 02115, USA.

COURIER (UNESCO). 1989. 1989:(113). Paris, France: Unesco.special issue en the us. of computers in Africa.

CRONIW, FRANCIS J.; HERBERT, PAUL L. 1994. Inequities in theBenefits and Costs of Telecommunications Across StakeholderGroups. Telecommunications Policy. 1994 May-June; 18(4):306-320. ISSN: 0308-5961.

DORAN, SUSAN.; DOSA, MARTA; ROSENBAUX, HOWARD. 1991. Nationaland International Information Policies in the Asia PacificRegion. In: Schipper, Wendy; Cunningham, Marie, eds.National and International Information Policies.Philadelphia, PA.: National Federation of Abstracting andIndexing Services; 1991. 99-137. NFAIS Report Series; 4.

DOYLE, CHRISTINA. 1994. Information Literacy in an Informationsociety: A Concept for the Information Age. Syracuse, N.Y.:ERIC Clearinghouse on InformatiOn and Technology; 1.994.

FEATHER, JOHN. 1993. Copyright in Developing Countries:Necessity or Luxury. International Information and LibraryReview. 1993 March; 25(2).:15-25. ISSN: 1057-2317.

GATHEGI, JOHN NG'ANG'A. 1992. The State and Society:Intervention in the Creation of Scientific Information inDeveloping Countries. Journal of the American Society forInformation Science. 1992 May;43(4):323-33. ISBN: 0002-8231.

GILBERT, JOHN; NOBTBAXKEN, DAVID; AXHTAR, SHAHID. Does theHighway Go South? Intermedia. 1994 November; 22(5):9-11.

GORE, AL (Vice President of USA). 1994. Remarks Prepared forDelivery (to the meeting of) International TelecommunicationsUnion. [WashLngton DC: The White House, Office of the VicePresident; 1994]. 9p. The ITU meeting was held on 21. March1994.

GORE, AL (Vice President of USA). 1994. Remarks (as Delivered)by Vice President Al Gore via Satellite to the InternationalTelecommunication Union Plenipotentiary Conference, Kyoto,Japan. Washington DC: The White House, Office of the Vice

36

President; 1994. 3p. Text of the Speech released on 22September 1994.

HaRIHDRMIATE, 0.; LIEBENAU, JONATEAN. 1995. The IndianInformation Technology Industry: Adapting to Globalisation and

Policy Change in the 199Cc. In: Information Technology andSocio-Eaonomia Development: "Challenges & Opportunities".Proc.edings of 1995 International Federation for. InformationProcessing WO 9.4 International Conference; 1995 3anuary 8-11;

Cairo, Egypt; 182-1.95. Cairo, Egypt: RITSEC; 1995. The.Conference was jointly organized by the Information & Decision

Support Center (IDSC), the International Federation forInformation Processing (IPIP-WO 9.4), and the RegionalInformation Technology & Software Engineering Center (RITSEC),

Cairo, Egypt.

HILL, MICHAEL W. 1989. National Information Policies. The Hague,The Netherlands: PID; 1989. (FID Occasional Papers Series;

2).Covers 17 industrialized countries.

INFORMATION IMPERATIVES FOR GLOBAL COMPETITIVENESS; 1.994 JUNE 6;NADRAB, INDIA. 1994. (Papers]. Madras, India: RanganathanCentre for Information Studies; 1994. Various pagination.Selected papers to be published in Information Studies(India). 1995 March; 1(1).

INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OP LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS(IPLA); 58TH GENERAL CONFERENCE; 1992 AUGUST 30-SEPTEMBER 3;

NEW DELHI, INDIA. 1992. Contributed Papers. London: IFLA;1992,. 162p. Several papers deal with information policiesin developing countries.

INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OP LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS(lILA); 58TH GENERAL CONFERENCE DIVISION OF REGIONALACTIVITIES. SECTION ON AFRICA. SECTION ON ASIA/OCEANEA.SECTION ON LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN; 1992 AUGUST30-SEPTEMBER 3; NEW DELHI, INDIA. 1992. (Papers]. London:lILA; 1992. 126p. Several papers deal with nationalinformation policy issues.

KAUL, )t.; XWONG, H.C. 1988. Information Technology inCommonwealth Countries: The African Experience. London:Commonwealth Secretariat; 1988.

XAZLAUSXAS, EDWARD JOHN; IEHL, RONALD EDWIN. 1993. Use ofElectronic Information Systems - Another Perspective. 1993.

37

lap.

IINYAITJUI, PETER; MORTON, AUGUSTA. 1992. The Role ofTeleconferencing in Support of Distance Education: The Ca..for Developing Countries. In: International Conferenc. onDistance Education 16th Annual Meeting; 1.992 November 8-13;Bangkok, Thai1and. lap.

EISIEDU, cHRISTINE. 1990. A Technical, Analytical Report of theSeminar. In: National Information and Informatics Policiesin Africa. Report and Proceedings of a Regional Seminar; 28November-i December 1988; Mdi. Ababa, Ethiopia; Section I;1-68. ottawa, Canada: IDRC 1.990 April.

ZISIBDU, CHRISTINE. 1990. National Information Policies, Plansand

Systems in Sub-Baharan Africa. In: National Information andInformatics Policies in Africa Report and Proceeding. of aRegional Seminar; 28 November-I. December 1988: Mdi. Ababa,Ethiopia; Section 111.1: Literature Review; 91-150. Ottawa,Canada: IDRC; 1990 April.

KRAEMER, X.L.; DEDRICK, J. 1993. Turning loose the invisiblehand:

New Zealand's Information Technology Policy. In: InformationSociety (US). 1993 October-December; 9(4):365-390. ISBN:0197-2243.

KREXER, JEANNETTE MARGUERITE. 1993. Perspectives for InformationServices and Professionals in Brazil. In: Lancaster, P.W.,ed Libraries and the Future. Essays on the Library in theTwenty-First Century; 107-130. New York:The Haworth Press;1993. (6) + 195p. (Haworth Library and Information Science,ed by Peter Gellatly). ISBN: 1-56024-382-1.

KWAJA, SABA; EWAJA, NASSER NAVIN. 1994. InformationSuperhighways: Infobahns of the Global Village. Computers &Communications (India). 1994 December:68-89.

LAXONT, JAMES. 1994. Egypt's National Joke no Longer a Laughinghatter? (Telecommunications Infrastructure) CommunicationsInternational. 1994 September; 21(9) :78(3) ISBN: 0305-2109.

LEONARD, LINDA J.; MARk, RUTH N. 1991. Information Policies inDeveloping Countries. In: Schipper, Wendy; Cunningham, Marie,ds. National and International Information Policies.Philadelphia, PA.: National Federation of Abstracting andIndexing Services; 1991.. 139-1.61.. (NFAIS Report Series; 4).

LESGOLD, ALAN. 1994. Educational Technology for Developing

38

Countries. Paper prepared for the World Bank/NationalResearch Council Symposium of Marshalling Technologies forDevelopment.; 1994 December 28-30; Irvine, CA. To bepublished by the National Academy Press in spring 1995.

LIM RUCZ TEN, EDWARD. 1987. The Computer and KnowledgeInformation Development in Malaysia: Borne Perspectives. In:53rd IFLA Council and General Conference; 1987 August 16-21;Brighton, Sussex, UK. Asia and Oceanea; 39-4 to 19-10.London: Ink; 1987. (Africa/Asia./LAAM/G.npu-Reg).

LOW!, ERIC. 1992. Towards a New South African Media: The 1990sMedia Debate. Innovation. 1992 June; (4):9-11.

LUNDU, MAURICE C.; )tBEWE, GODFREY. 1993. Factors Restraining thePormulation and Implementation of a National InformationPolicy (NIP) Process: The Zambian Experience. Africa Journalof Library, Archives and Information Science. 1993; 3(1):23-33.

NAXRAZIB, VASILIOS; YUAN-TU, LIU. 1993. Informatic., Development,and Education: The Case of China. Educational Technology.1.93 September; 33(9): 31-37. Special issue on status of.computing in education worldwide. ISBN: 0013-1962.

WALAWI ,-' DEPARTMENT OP RESEARCH AND ENVIRONMENTAL APP LAPS 1994.National Policy on Library, Documentation and InformationServices for Malawi: A Proposal. Second draft. (Restricted).

MCCANN, PETER. 1986. National Sovereignty: Australia AddressesInformation Society Challenges. Transnational Data andCommunications Report. 1986 April: 8-10.

MCCLURE, CHARLES R. AND OTHERS. 1992. Federal Information Policyand Management for Electronic Services Delivery. NewYork: Syracuse University, School of Information Studies;1992 December 21. 167p. Sponsor: U.S. Congress, Offic, ofTechnology Assessment.

MOHOMBU, lINGO 3.; MIT!, KATABARO. 1992. Formulation of NationalInformation Policies in Africa: Borne Unlearnt Lessons.International Information 8 Library Review. 3992; 24:139-171.

ISSN: 1057-2317.

)tCHOMBU, lINGO 3.; MIT!, KATABARO. 1993. Designing NationalInformation Policies in Africa: Process and Outputs. Inspel(Germany). 1993; 27(4):234-241. ISBN: 0019-0217.

NOHAIDIED, ZAXARI. 1994. Towards Bridging the Information Gap inDeveloping Countries: The Case of Nigeria. International

39

Information & Library Review (UI). 1994; 24:91-105. ISBN:1057-2317.

XOWTVILOTP, VICTOR. 1990. National Information Policies: AHandbook on the Formulation, Approval, Implementation andOperation of a National Policy on Information. Paris,France: UNESCO; 1990. ix + 180p. Bibliography contains 106citations many of which are either reports of Unesco missionsor papers contributed to Unesco supported seminars andconferences in developing countries.

MOORE, NICK. 1993. Information Policy and Strategic Development:A Framework for the Analysis of Policy Initiatives. In:Sino-British Information Management Symposium; 1993 September6-11; Beijing, China. Beijing, China: IBTIC; 1993.Organized by Aslib at the invitation of the British Councilto assist the Institute of Scientific and Technical

Informationof China.

MORINO, MARIO. 1994. Assessment and Evolution of CommunityNetworking. Paper presented at the Apple Conference on

BuildingCommunity Computing Networks; 1994 May 5; Cupertino, CA.

MOWLANA, HAMID. 1992. Communication policy and planning: AnIntegrative Approach. Telematics and Informatics (US). 1992Spring; 9(2):113-122. ISBN: 0736-5853.

NOWLANA, HANID. 1993. Information Hunger and Knowledge Affluence:How to Bridge the Gap. Development, Journal of the Society

forInternational Development (Italy). 1993 (3) :23-26 ISBN:1011-6270.

NAIBBITT, JOHN. 1994. Global Paradox. New York: Avon Books;1994.

392p. ISBN: 0-380-72489-8.

NABBIJIBENI, MARY. 1994. Constructing National Library andInformation Policy Options for South Africa Within theFramework of Educational Transformation. Journal ofLibrarianship and Information Science CUK). 1994 September;26(3):149-i55. ISBN: 0961-0006.

NATIONAL SEMINAR ON INFORMATION POLICY AND SERVICES; 1991 NOVEMBER22-29; ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA. 1991. Proceedings. Addie

Ababa,Ethiopia: Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission; 1991.

NATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION ADMINISTRATION (DCC),

40

WASHINGTON D.C. 1994. 20/20 Vision: The Development of aNational Information Infrastructure. Washington D.0 : DOC;1994 March. 166p. Report No. NTIA-SPub-94-28. Evaluationof "The National Information Infrastructure: Agenda forAction".

NZZLMGZ31, A. 1993. Libraries and Information Services inThird World countries. In: Lancaster, Y.W., ed Librariesand the Future. Essays on the Library in the Twenty-FirstCentury. New York: Tb. Haworth Press; 1993. 85-106. (KaworthLibrary and Information Science, ed. by Peter Gellatly).ISBN: 1-56024382-1.

NEELMEGHAN, A.; TOCATLIM, J. 1987. Egypt. Establishment of aNational Information Policy and a Strategy for ItsImplementation. Report to the Govenment of Egypt. Paris,Prane: UNESCO; 1987. (RP/1986-1987/VII.2.1)

(PMR/PGI/87/i.03).Report based on a Unesco mission to Egypt by the authors.(Restricted circulation).

OGWANG-MENT, Remy. 1993. National Policy on Information Systemsand Services of Uganda: A Perspective. PID News Bulletin(Netherlands). 1993 January; .43(1):3.4-19. ISBN: 0014-5874.

OGWANG-MIEMY, RENT. 1993. Information Technology Manpower andthe National Information System in Uganda. InformationDevelopment (UK). 1993 Dscember; 9(4):235-239. ISBN:0266-6669.

OLEN, SANDRA. 1992. Books and Media for All South AfricanChildren in the 21st Century? Zn: International Associationof School Librarians 21st Annual Conference; 1992 July 20-24;Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. 47p.

OLIVIER, A.P.S. 1995. An Information Technology Policy TowardsDevelopment in a Developing Countryt: The Situation inSouth Africa. In: Information Technology and Boaio-EconomioDevelopment: "Challenges & Opportunities". Proceedings of1995 International Federation for Information ProcessingWG 9.4 International Conference; 1995 January 8-11; Cairo,Egypt; 212-226. Cairo, Egypt: RITSBC; 1995.

OYONNO, GORDON 3. 1995. Sustainability of Governmental Use ofMicrocomputer-based Information Technology in Kenya: CriticalIssues and Considerations. In: Information Technology andSocio-iconomia Development: "Challenges & Opportunities".Proceedings of 199$ International Federation for InformationProcessing WG 9.4 International Conference; 1995 January 8-11;Cairo, Egypt; p. 275-298. Cairo, Egypt: RITSEC; 1995.

RAHIX, SYED A. 1993. Communicative Action in Development.

43.

Development, Journal of the Society for InternationalDevelopment (Italy). 1993(3):36-40. ISBN: 1011-6370.

REGIONAL INPORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND SOFTWARE ENGINEERING CENTER(RITSEC), CAIRO, EGYPT; INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT RESEARCHCENTRE (IDRC), OTTAWA, CANADA. 1995. (Papers andProceedings]. Workshop (on] Information and CommunicationT.cbao.logi.s: A Global. Agenda for. Collaborative Researchand Action; 1995 January 12-13; Cairo Egypt. Cairo, Egypt:Regional Information Technology Institute; 1995. Variouspagination. Selected papers presented at the Workshop.

REILLY, JOSEPH. 1992. Communications Policy in a LiberatedSouth Africa. Innovation. 1992 June; (4):24-27.

RODRIGUEZ, KETTY. 1994. Barriers to Information Technology inLatin America and the Caribbean:Bome Options. In: ElectronicLibrary (UI). 1994 February; 12(1):29-35. ISBN: 0264-0473.

ROODE, J.D.; DU PLOOY, H.P. 1995. A Bill of Rights for theInformation Age Which Recognizes the Third World. In:Information Technology and Socio-Economic Development:"Challenges S Opportunities". Proceedings of 1995International Federation for Information Processing WG 9.4International Conference; 1995 January 8-11; Cairo, Egypt;227-239. Cairo, Egypt: RITSECE 1995.

ROSSNAN, PARKER. 1992. The Emerging Worldwide ElectronicUniversity: Information Age Global Higher Education.Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group;1992.169p. (Contributions to the Study of Education; Number 57).ISBN: 0-313-27927-6. ISBN: 0i.96-707X.

SAVAGE, JAMES G.; WEDEMEYER, DAN 3., eds. 1994. PacificT.lecoámunications Council 16th Annual ConferenceProceedings; 1.994 January 16-20; Honolulu, Hawaii. Honolulu,Hawaii: Pacific Telecommunications Council; 1994. 875p.Conference theme: Forging New Links: Pocus on DevelopingEconomies. ISBN: 1-880672-05-7.

SCEREIBMAN, VIGDOR. 1994. The Politics of Cyberspace. Journalof Government Information. 1994 Nay-June; 21(3):249-280.ISBN: 1352-0237.

SEXIXANG'A, DOROTHY A. 1992. A National Policy on InformationSystems and Services for Tanzania; Formulation and Strategyfor Implementation. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: School ofInformation Studies for Africa; 1992. 250p. (N.Bc.(I.S)Thesis, School of Information Studies for Africa, AddisAbaba University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia).

SHAH, BYED. 1995. Computer Technology and Economic Development.

42

In: Information Technology and Socio-Economic Development:"Challenges & Opportunities". Proceedings of 1995International Pederation for Information Processing NO 9.4International. Conference; 1995 January 8-11; Cairo, Egypt;53-62. Cairo, Egypt: RITSEC; 1995.

SHND3T, T.8.TENGxU. 1993. Computers in Malaysian Schools:Current Dev.lopments and Future Plans. EducationalT.oknology. 1993 September; 33(9):48-52. Special issue onthe status of computing in education worldwide. ISBN:0013-1962.

SHETTY, VINEBTA. 1994. Africa - Debt or Development?Communications International. 1994 June;21(6) :62-66.Reports on ITU's Africa '94 and the tecoamunicationsscenario in Africa. ISSN: 0305-2109.

BXLLINCE, J.A.A. 1994. Information Policy in the EuropeanCommunity. Journal of Govemnnent Information. 1994May-June; 21(3):225-30. ISBN: 1352-0237.

STILWELL, CHRISTINE. 1992. The Resource Centre Forums: Democraticand Alternative Information Networks for South Africa.International Information and Library Review. 1992September; 24(3):213-220. ISBN: 1057-2317.

SUNDMtM, E.V. 1991. Information Needs and Systems forDecentralized Development Planning with Special Reference toIndia. In: Neelameghan, A.; How, Agnes, eds. RegionalSeminar on Development Information: Policies and Strategies;1990 July 26-27; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Proceedings andPapers; 55-77. Ruala Lumpur, Malaysia: ADIPA; 1991. 207p.The Seminar was sponsored by IDRC, Canada.

SWNEPOEL, NARINUS. 1994. Getting in from the Cold: Connectingthe New Democratic South Africa to the Global InformationCommunity. In: NIT'94 (New Information Technology): Planningthe Global Information Infrastructure; 1994 November 18-20;Alexandria, VA. 9p. NIT'94 papers are available fromDr. Ching-Chih Chen, OSLIS, Simmons College, 300 The Penway,Boston, MA 02115. USA.

TIMBERGEN, JAR. 1978. International Relations - Alternative Formsof International Cooperation: comparing Their Efficiency.International Social Science Journal. 1978; 30:223-237.

TOTEMETER, A.-J., and others, eds. 1993. Coordination ofInformation Systems and Services in Namibia. Papers of theSeminar; 1993 February 25-March 5; Windhoek, Namibia. 280p.

Seminar sponsored by the German Foundation for InternationalDevelopment, Bonn (West Germany), Education Science and

43

Documentation Division; Ministry of Education and Culture,Windhoek (Namibia); Namibia University, Windhoek.

TYLER, N. 1993. Regulatory Institutions and Processes inTelecommunications: An International Study of Alternatives.Telecommunications Policy. 1993 December; 17(9):650-676.Review based on a report commissioned by the ITU inconnection with its Regulatory Co11q1iva program. Suarisesexperiences and presents case studies from a number ofcountries. ISBN: 0308-5961.

UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC COMMISSION POR ZIRICA, ADDIS ABABA,ETHIOPIA. 1990. The us. of microcomputers in documentationand information centres in Africa In: Sixth Session ofthe Joint Conference of African Planners, Statisticiansand Demographers; 1990 January 15-20. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia:UNECA; 1990.

WAEMA, T.N. 1995. Implementation of Information TechnologyProjects & Economic Development: Issues, Problems andStrategies. In: Information Technology and Socio-Economic

Development: "Challenges 8 Opportunities". Proceedings of1995 International Federation for Information Processing WG9.4 International Conference; 1995 January 8-11; Cairo, Egypt;

14-26. Cairo, Egypt: RITSEC; 1995.

WRITE, WENDY D. 1994. Outreach Programs for the InformationHighway: Designing Programs for All. In: NIT'94 (NewInformation Technology): Planning the Global InformationInfrastructure; 1994 November 18-20; Alexandria, VA.Washington, D.C: National Research Council; 1994. 12p.

WRIGHT, A.]. 1993. Copyright in Cyberspace: IntellectualProperty and Electronic Media and Networks. 1993 December13. iSp.

TUMBA, DICKSON. 1994. An Evaluation of National InformationPolicy Proposals of Selected African Countries - Botsvana,Ethiopia, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. AddisAbaba, Ethiopia: School of Information Studies for Africa;1994. xxii+239p. (M.Bc.(I.B) Thesis, School of InformationStudies for Africa, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa,Ethiopia).

ZAXAN, EALINAH BADIOZE. 1993. Information Technology andEducation. Information Development (UK). 1993 September;9(3):3.42-146. Experiences in Malaysia. ISBN: 0266-6669.

ZWMJGOBANI, N. 1990. National Informatics Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: National Information and InforinaticsPolicies in Africa. Report and Proceedings of a Regional

44

II II

S.minar; 28 Noventhex-i December 1988; Addis baba, Ethiopia;6.ction 111.2: Literature Review; 151-174. Ottawa, Canada:IDRC; 3.990 April.

45

II