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Government of Nepal
Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation
Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre
Participant Handbook for Climate Change and WASH Training
Final Draft
Publisher
Government of Nepal
Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation
Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre
Nagarkot, Bhaktapur
Nepal
Copy rights©
Government of Nepal, National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre (NWSSTC), 2017
Citation
GoN, National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre (2017), Participant Hand Book for Climate Change and
WASH Training, Bhaktapur, Nepal
Supported by:
World Health Organization (WHO) "Building adaptation to
Climate Change in health in least developed countries through
resilient water sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Nepal”
Contributors:
Department of Drinking Water Supply and Sewerage
Mr. Kabindra Bikram Karki, Chief, National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre (NWSSTC)
Mr. Kiran Darnal, Chief, Climate Change Section, Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS)
Mr. Kamal Adhikari, Senior Sociologist, Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS)
World Health Organization (WHO)
Mr. Raja Ram Shrestha, National Professional Officer, WHO Country Office
Rupantaran Nepal and Manual Development Team
Mr. Sohan Lal Shrestha, Chief Executive Officer, Rupantaran Nepal
Mr. Bal Bahadur Shahi, Team Leader
Dr. Bandana Pradhan, Public Health Expert
Mr. Gyanesh Bajracharya, WASH Expert
Mr. Namindra Dahal, Climatologist
Dr. Bhimsen Devkota, Public Health Expert
Mr. Nimesh Regmi, Editor
Preface and acknowledgement
Climate Change is now a deep global concern. Climate change causes erratic rainfall and increase in
temperature due to anthropogenic activities by emission of greenhouse gases. These have resulted in
decrease in agriculture productivity, drying of water sources, increase in incidents of floods and droughts
and outburst of various pests and diseases.
Human health is intimately related to climate, which has a wide range of health impacts by playing a key
role in the ecology of many infectious diseases. In addition, heat waves, floods, storms, fires and droughts
already cause death, physical and psychological disease and injury. Scant availability and bad quality of
water damage personal hygiene and health by increasing the frequency and spread of diarrheal diseases.
Likewise, increasing droughts is exacerbating malnutrition and associated disorders. In this context,
Government of Nepal (GoN) is undertaking various initiations with top priority by formulating different CC
related policies and plan in order to responding the issues. In this regard, sensitization and awareness on
climate change, its impact on water sources and public health and relevant adaptation
technologies/measures are key steps to move forward.
World Health Organization (WHO) has been implementing a project "Building adaptation to Climate Change
in health in least developed countries through resilient water sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Nepal.
Under support of this project and guidance and supervision of Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
and National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre, Training Manuals are prepared on Climate
Change and WASH sector to enhance knowledge and skills through delivery of training events at different
scales and levels.
During the course of preparation of these manuals different professional from various organizations have
contributed. We would like to extend thanks for peer reviewer Mr. Kabindra Bikram Karki, Chief, National
Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre (NWSSTC), Mr. Kiran Darnal, Chief, Climate Change Section,
Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS), Mr. Kamal Adhikari, Senior Sociologist, Department
of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS), In this line, we would like to thank to Raja Ram Shrestha,
National Professional Officer, WHO Country Office who played a key role in coordination and facilitated
in providing technical inputs to this assignment. Likewise, our heartfelt thanks go to Mr. Sohan Lal
Shrestha, Mr. Bal Bahadur Shahi, Dr. Bandana Pradhan, Mr. Gyanesh Bajracharya, Mr. Namindra Dahal,
Dr. Bhimsen Devkota and Mr. Nimesh Regmi, the experts from Rupantaran Nepal, the service provider,
who provided their high efforts, field experiences and expertise to develop these manuals. Last but not
least, we would like to request to all readers and users of these manuals for suggestions to modify and
update for the betterment to use in future effectively.
National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre,
Nagarkot, Bhaktapur
Nepal
Table of Contents Acronyms ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
1. Background ............................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1. Introduction of the Participant Hand Book ...................................................................................... 6
1.2 Objectives of the training .................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 Training content ................................................................................................................................ 7
1.4 Target Audience ................................................................................................................................ 8
3.4 Training Design and Methodology .................................................................................................... 8
2. Training Management and Logistical Arrangement ......................................................................................... 9
2.1 Educational Materials of Training ..................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Stationeries for Participants .............................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Time Table......................................................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Advance Preparation for Participants ............................................................................................... 9
2.5 Training Monitoring and Evaluation .................................................................................................. 9
3. Reading Materials (Training Handout) of each session ................................................................................. 10
3.1 Session- Fundamental Concept of Climate Change ......................................................................... 10
3.2 Session Impact of Climate Change in WASH ................................................................................... 13
3.3 Session: Initiatives in Climate Change and WASH Sector and Health ........................................ 17
3.4 Session: Concept of Coping, Adaptation and Resilience .............................................................. 20
3.5 Session: Concept of climate vulnerability functions................................................................... 21
3.6 Session- Identification of current and future climate vulnerability on WASH Sector ............... 26
3.7 Session: Exploration of adaptation measures for WASH in different Scenarios ............................. 32
3.8 Session: Integration Climate Change in Project Planning ............................................................... 40
3.9 Session: Concept of Monitoring & Evaluation and Developing Monitoring Framework ................ 43
Acronyms
CC Climate Change
CCA Climate Change Adaptation
MoWSS Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation
DWSS Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
LAPA Local Adaptation Plans for Action
MoPE Ministry of Population and Environment
MoSTE Ministry of Science Technology and Environment
NAP National Adaptation Plan
NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action
NWSSTC National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre
RN Rupantaran Nepal
UNFCCC United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change
VA Vulnerability Assessment
WASH Water, Sanitation and hygiene
WHO World Health Organization
1. Background
Climate Change (CC) is a deep global concern and Nepal is one of the most vulnerable and affected countries.
Several CC impacts on water resources, biodiversity, agriculture, and health have occurred frequently in Nepal due
to its physiographic characteristics. Within the country, poor and marginalized people and communities are found to
be the most vulnerable to climate change impacts. Responding to the needs for addressing the impacts of climate
change, the Government of Nepal (GoN) as a party to the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) has initiated various efforts by formulating and endorsing documents like Climate Change Policy, National
Adaptation Programme of Actions (NAPA) and National Framework of Local Adaptation Plans for Actions (LAPA).
Likewise, formulation of National Adaptation Plan (NAP) is in the process.
Since climate change is a global phenomenon, its impact on local hydrology is considerable. The spatial and
temporal distribution of fresh water ecosystems are highly sensitive to climate change resulting in more unfavorable
situation for human health. Weather and climate have a wide range of health impacts and play a role in the ecology
of many infectious diseases. Health is sensitive to shifts in weather patterns and to other climate-related impacts.
Climate change is likely to exacerbate already existing health problems, and bring additional impacts on health and
mortality (IPCC, 2014). Heat waves, floods, inundation, storms, fires and droughts already cause death, physical and
psychological disease and injury. In addition, scant availability and bad quality of water damage personal hygiene
and health. Lack of clean drinking water could increase frequency and spreading of diarrheal diseases, whereas
increasing droughts will exacerbate malnutrition and associated disorders (Synthesis Report, NAP 2017). At local
level, impacts of climate change such as drying off spring, lowering ground water table, decreasing discharge of
water and flow of water in river are being observed and experienced. Approaches of recharge retain and re-use
together with regular measurement of water sources and water saving behavior and practices need to be
encouraged. In this regard, sensitization and awareness on climate change, its impact on water sources, sanitation
as well as public health and relevant adaptation technologies/measures are key steps to move forward.
In this context, World Health Organization (WHO) has been implementing a project "Building adaptation to Climate
Change in health” in least developed countries through resilient water sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Nepal. The
project is supporting Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) and National Water Supply and Sanitation
Training Centre (NWSSTC) to prepare training manuals and participant handbook on Climate Change and WASH for
enhancing knowledge and skills through delivery of training events at different scales and levels.
1.1. Introduction of the Participant Hand Book
This participant handbook is prepared for the participants especially Engineers of the Climate Change and WASH
training. The key objectives of the handbook are to introduce training aims, session outline and provide reading
materials including reference list for further study and advancement of their knowledge. Furthermore, participant
handbook will also act as a guide to participants for advanced preparation for each session and its learning.
1.2 Objectives of the training
The overall objective of the training program is to strengthen capacity of the Engineers working under the Department
of Water Supply and Sanitation on climate change and WASH. Upon completion of the training, the participants will
be able to;
Describe climate science, climate change risks and challenges their impacts and vulnerability of the systems
and communities with focus WASH Sector
Apply and interpret climate change related national policies , strategies, frameworks, guidelines planning,
implementation and monitoring of WASH Schemes
Showcase greater knowledge and skills in understanding and apply tools for climate vulnerability assessment
and identification, prioritization and selection of adaptation measures for WASH Scheme
Demonstrate stronger abilities to integrate and mainstream climate change risks management in water supply
and sanitation schemes
Implement and monitor effectiveness of climate change adaptation measures in water sully scheme
1.3 Training content
The training contents are divided into three sections. Section one covers the conceptual framework of the climate
vulnerability and resilience of the systems and communities, fundamental concept and functions of climate systems,
and the impact of climate variability, extremes and uncertainty in WASH Sector and initiatives taken to response
climate changes risks in the WASH sectors at local, national and international levels.
In the second section, training will focuses on the vulnerability assessment to identify current and future climate
change risks and hazards and identify potential climate change adaptation measures to mitigate current and future
risks and challenges and prepare climate resilient water scheme.
The third section will highlight the integration and mainstreaming of CCA risks management in project cycle and the
concept of monitoring and implementing of adaptation measures and effectiveness of the integrated adaptation
measures within the project. Training schedule is presented in table-1
Table 1 Session outline of the training Climate Change and WASH
Session Code
Day I Time Facilitators/ Trainers
Session-1
Participants registration
Opening of the Training
Introduction
Expectations and norms setting
Training objectives
Pre-test
120 Minutes
Session-2 2.1 Fundamental concept of climate change 75 Minutes
Session-3 2.2 Impact of Climate Change in WASH 75 Minutes
Session-4 Initiatives in Climate Change and WASH Sector and Public health
75 Minutes
Recap and Evaluation of Day I 15 Minutes
Day II Climate Setting and recapitulation of day I 15 minutes
Session 5 Concept of Coping Adaptation and resilience 60 Minutes
Session 6 Concept of climate vulnerability , risks assessment and climate change adaptation
90 minutes
Session-7 Identification of current and future Climate Change vulnerability on WASH sector and WASH schemes
90 Minutes
Session Code
Day I Time Facilitators/ Trainers
Session-8 Exploration of adaptation measures in different scenarios to make climate resilient schemes (WASH)
90 Minutes
Recap and Evaluation of Day II 15 Minutes
Day III Climate Setting and recapitulation of day II 15 minutes
Session 9 Integration Climate Change in Project planning cycle 60 Minutes
Session 10 Concept of Monitoring and developing monitoring framework
60 Minutes
Session 11 Training Reflection and Closing Ceremony 60 Minutes
1.4 Target Audience
The participant handbook is designed particularly for the training participants especially engineers, actively engaged
in designing, implementation and monitoring of water and sanitation schemes in Nepal. The agencies mandated with
WASH sectors and with plans to sensitize on climate change, environment and resources distribution are other
clients of the manual.
Suggested selection criteria of participants and facilitator:
Participant selection criteria's
Participants will be from engineering background mainly working in WASH sector. They need to be
interested in capacity building activities, committed and dedicated to work with local communities. Having
good facilitation skills in delivering training sessions, learning attitude and field experiences are other
criteria to be selected as participants for the training.
Facilitator Selection Criteria's
Facilitator needs to be ToT (Training of Trainers) holder having good facilitation skills and knowledgeable
and skillful in subject matters of Climate Change and WASH sector. They need to have experiences of field
situation and activities carried out in the field by communities. In addition she/he should have good
experiences in facilitating participatory training process and techniques.
3.4 Training Design and Methodology
The training is designed based on a participatory approach and adult learning principles. The training keeps
participants at the centre and deploys the process of supporting for mutual conversation/interaction, creating
ownership amongst participants and enhancing experiential learning. Varieties of training methodologies and
techniques have been included in the training so that the participants can actively engage and express their views
and share their experiences. Likewise the training is designed ensuring and following "Adult Learning Principles" and
it is expected that participants are able to learn through learning by doing practice and reflect their learning according
to their experiences.
Participatory training methodologies such as group work and presentation, brief lecture, brainstorming, case studies,
buzz group discussion, action learning, gallery walk, video /animation show and case study based practical exercise
are included in the trainer's manuals.
2. Training Management and Logistical Arrangement
The training will be managed according to Government of Nepal cost norms and procedure. The training will be
residential therefore participants are expected to arrive at the training venue on the previous day. The participants of
the training will be provided with the following amenities and materials:
2.1 Educational Materials of Training
Every participant will be provided with the participant handbooks and other facilitator books for references. The
handbook will include reading materials as per the session and reference list for advanced study as per the training
session. Electronic version of the distributed materials, manual and presentation materials will be provided in
CD/USB drive at the end of the training session.
2.2 Stationeries for Participants
Stationeries pack will be made available to all participants which includes a ball pen, a notebook, a nametag and a
folder to keep the provided material. However, this will also follow the GoN cost norms.
2.3 Time Table
This training is planned as residential therefore; participants must stay within the training venue as arranged by the
organizers throughout the training period. The time for each session is allocated according to the objectives and
methodology of the session however it will take an effective six hours per day to achieve the objectives of the
training. Apart from this, certain time will be provided as a break between each session. This break will provide an
opportunity for informal discussions between participants and facilitator. Therefore, it may take seven hours to
complete a whole day’s proceedings.
2.4 Advance Preparation for Participants
The participants participating in the training on behalf of their organization must bring the following materials of their
organization with them:
A formal letter written in the letter-pad of the concerned organization (regarding participation).
An organization’s policy, strategy, case study, progress report, learning methodology and experience regarding Climate Change and WASH.
Filled-up form of the participant profile
2.5 Training Monitoring and Evaluation
The understanding of the participants will be assessed based on the objectives of the training and expected outputs.
Understanding level of participants before and after the training will be assessed to judge the understating of
participants on the subject matter. Participants will need to fill the assessment form for assessment. Further, a
participatory method of evaluation will be followed for the daily assessment. Participants are encouraged to give their
valuable suggestions and feedbacks during or at the end of training period to make the training more effective.
3. Reading Materials (Training Handout) of each session
3.1 Session- Fundamental Concept of Climate Change
Objective of Session:
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:
Explain climate system and hydrological cycle
Explain green house effect, global warming and genesis of Climate Change
List out names of Green House Gases (GHGs)
Explain trend of climatic indicators (temperature and Rainfall pattern)
Reading Materials
Weather
Weather is termed as the atmospheric condition at any given time or place. It is measured in terms of wind,
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and precipitation. In most places, weather can change from
hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average
weather", or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities
over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years.
Climate
Climate is the description of the long-term pattern of weather in a particular area. It specifically is an average
condition of temperature and rainfall data of decades/centuries. According to World Metrological Organization,
climate is the average of weather data of at least 30 years.
Climate System (or Earth System)
Climate system includes the five physical components (atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and
biosphere) that are responsible for the climate and its variations.
Hydrological Cycle:
Hydrological cycle is the process of evaporation, vertical and horizontal transport of vapor, condensation,
precipitation, and the flow of water from continents to oceans. It is a major factor in determining climate through its
influence on surface vegetation, the clouds, snow and ice, and soil moisture. The hydrologic cycle is responsible for
25 to 30 percent of the mid-latitudes' heat transport from the equatorial to Polar Regions.
Climate Change
Climate change refers to the changing condition of the climate parameters. The data on the climate parameters over
150 years from the established metrological stations has shown an increasing trend of temperature rise. But the
change in temperature is not uniform spatially.
Global Warming
Global warming is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth's surface and in the
troposphere, which can contribute to changes in global climate patterns. Global warming can occur from a variety of
causes, both natural and human induced. In common usage, "global warming" often refers to the warming that can
occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities.
Greenhouse Effect
Trapping and build-up of heat in the atmosphere (troposphere) near the Earth’s surface is termed as greenhouse
effect. Some of the heat flowing back towards the space from the Earth's surface is absorbed by water vapor, carbon
dioxide, ozone, and several other green house gases in the atmosphere and then reradiated back toward the Earth’s
surface. If the atmospheric concentrations of these greenhouse gases rise, the average temperature of the lower
atmosphere will gradually increase.
Greenhouse Gas (GHG)
Any gas that absorbs infrared radiation in the atmosphere is called a greenhouse gas. According to Inter
Governmental Panel on climate change (IPCC) the following gases are enlisted as greenhouse gases (GHGs):
1. Carbon dioxide (CO2): CO2 is produced from the use of fossil fuel, forest fire, production of cements and other
industrial activities
2. Methane (CH4) : Methane is produced from waste disposal, uses of petroleum and natural gases, shed waste
(Dung and urine) , farm activities especially paddy farming,
3. Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is produced from chemical fertilizers, fossil fuel use, production of nylon and
industrial activities,
4. Hydrofluoro carbons (HFCs): Hydrpfluoro carbon is produced from air conditioners, refrigerators, foams and
production of aerosols,
5. Perfluoro carbons (PFCs): Perfluoro carbons are produced from aluminum, production of electrical device and
conductors,
6. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6): Sulfur hexafluoride is produced from electricity distribution system, magnesium
production and development of circuit breakers and
7. Nitrogentrifloride (NF3): Nitrogentrifluoride is produced from electrical circuits, Modern solar panel, flat TV and
touch screen and electrical process.
Climate change and Green House Gases (GHGs)
Atmosphere is made up of various gases. It consists of 78% of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen and 1% of other gases. The
sunlight travels to earth from sun through the atmosphere. These gases allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere freely.
When sunlight strikes the Earth’s surface, 30% of the sunlight is reflected back towards the space as infrared
radiation (heat), while 70% of the solar radiation reaches the earth surface. Some of the sunlight that reaches earth
gets absorbed by water bodies like sea, oceans, lakes and rivers and plants while some portion of the light is
returned back to the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases absorb this infrared radiation and trap the heat in the
atmosphere, leaving the temperature of the earth's surface roughly constant. If this thick layer of green house gases
was absent, the average temperature of the earth would be less than -18 degree celsius which would never favour
living organisms in earth.
Indicators of Climate Change
Amongst the natural processes, temperature, precipitation, sea level rise and increase in extreme climate events are
regarded as indicators of climate change. The amount, intensity, type, magnitude and frequency of temperature and
precipitation are key indicators to climate change. Rise in global surface temperature, snow cover retreat in poles,
decreasing snow in the Himalayas, glacial retreat, fluctuation in rainfall patterns, long drought seasons, devastating
floods etc are the observed impacts of climate change.
Nepal has experienced changes in temperature and mean precipitation. The country, with the exception of some
isolated pockets, has become warmer. Data on temperature trends from 1975 to 2005 showed 0.06 degree Celsius
rise in temperature annually whereas mean rainfall has significantly decreased on an average of 3.7 mm (-3.2%) per
month per decade. Nepal has regularly suffered from increased frequency of extreme weather events such as
landslides, floods and droughts resulting to the loss of human lives as well as high social and economic costs. (INDC
report, 2016)
3.2 Session Impact of Climate Change in WASH
Objective of the Session
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:
Explain three key global impacts of climate change
List the impacts of climate change on the system and communities in Nepal with focusing WASH and
health
Reading Materials
Climate Change Impact and Effect
According to NAPA, there are six sectors which are highly sensitive in Nepal. Details of the sectoral impacts are
presented as follows.
a. Water Resources and Sanitation:
A water resource is the most sensitive and highly impacted sector in Nepal. Increase in temperature has resulted in
glacier melting, lake formation from molten ice and glacial lake outburst flood which ultimately increases vulnerability
of the people. Increase in intensive rainfall days has resulted in flooding, landslides and triggered other natural
devastation, resulting in siltation and engulfing of the productive agricultural land. Besides, decreased stream/river
discharge and underground water scarcity will be the impacts of climate change in water sector.
Temporarily, there will be increased water discharge in the rivers due to ice melting during the initial stages; the real
impacts will be noticed with passage of time, with the decrease in river discharge affecting the hydropower and
irrigation sectors.
Increase/decrease in temperature and variation in precipitation results in direct impacts on the water supply and
sanitation. Some of the examples are presented as follow:
1. Degradation of catchment areas by drought and depletion of water sources leading to long term impacts on
WASH systems and services as well as ecosystem health
2. Pollution of water sources and degradation of water quality leading to long term effects in ecosystem health
3. Scarcity of water for drinking, proper sanitation and hygiene leading to water and food borne diseases
4. Increased frequency and magnitude of climate-induced events like floods and landslides causing loss of
human life, damage to WASH infrastructures, human settlements and agricultural lands, hardship and
increased number of morbidity cases.
b. Agriculture and food security
Majority of the people are dependent on agriculture and this sector is adversely affected. Though rise in temperature
in mid-hills of Nepal has resulted in improved agricultural production but negative impacts on agriculture can be seen
due to loss of top fertile soil due to soil erosion, landslides and floods. Therefore, soil loss is one of the major causes
of decline in agricultural production.
c. Forest and Biodiversity
There are ample evidences that climate change affects biodiversity. There are fifteen climate patterns existing in
Nepal. If amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere doubles then three types of such climate patterns will be
extinct. This will either force biodiversity to adapt either through shifting habitats, changing life cycles, or the
development of new physical traits or become extinct from the area if they cannot be adapted. The species who
cannot migrate easily will be the most vulnerable ones from climate change perspective. Apart from forests,
wetlands, one of the major biodiversity hotspots will suffer from climate change impacts. Rise in temperature,
catastrophe like floods and landslides, and degrading water quality will impact negatively wetlands and its species.
d. Public Health
Climate change has both direct and indirect impacts on health. In the recent years pollution has become the major
threat to public health. Malaria, Japanese encephalitis, kala-azar and dengue are becoming common in Nepal. The
casualties due to these diseases are also increasing because of favorable environment to the vectors. Heat and cold
waves lead to sudden increase in morbidity and mortality rates. Impacts on water sources and extreme events trigger
diarrheal morbidity and mortality mostly among children under five. There are also cases of extreme cold air-borne
diseases (Pradhan B, 2009).
The impacts on water supplies due to extreme events are further aggravating the situation of sanitation and hygiene
services. The health burden and hardship of the displaced people due to extreme events (floods, landslides and
draught) increases accordingly as the severity of unsafe WASH and lack of health services continue over longer time.
The increased temperature, rainfall and extreme events are causing the water sources and WASH infrastructure to
be more vulnerable which affect the WASH services and limits the access of already marginalized people ( NAP
stock taking report). Some of the critical concern of health and sanitation services with climate change are: 1. Prevent
and control occurrence of vector borne diseases (example – Malaria) spread due to increased temperature towards
higher altitude 2. Prevent and control occurrence of water-borne diseases (example – diarrhoea) spread due to
degradation of water sources and supply systems and lack of proper sanitation and hygiene facilities and behaviors.
According to IPPC AR-4, following trends of future impacts on public health sector.
Increase malnutrition and consequent disorders, including those relating to child growth and development (high
confidence)
Increase the number of people suffering from death, disease and injury from heat-waves, floods, storms, fires
and droughts (high confidence)
Continue to change the range of some infectious disease vectors (high confidence)
Have mixed effects on malaria; in some places the geographical range will contract, elsewhere the geographical
range will expand and the transmission season may be changed (very high confidence)
Increase the burden of diarrheal diseases (medium confidence)
Increase cardio-respiratory morbidity and mortality associated with ground-level ozone (high confidence)
Increase the number of people at risk of dengue (low confidence)
Bring some benefits to health, including fewer deaths from cold, although it is expected that these will be
outweighed by the negative effects of rising temperatures worldwide, especially in developing countries (high
confidence
e. Urban settlements and infrastructure
Climate change impacts urban settlements both directly and indirectly. Direct impacts, such as disastrous floods,
reduce freshwater supplies. Indirect impacts of climate change could be experienced due to extreme events that
increase food prices and/or damage livelihood assets of the vulnerable communities. Climate change is likely to
result in increased damage to buildings, energy services, telecommunications, transport structures and water
services (IPCC, 2007). All of these impacts are likely to affect the quality of lives and safety of the local communities.
Climate vulnerability of settlements and the need to adapt will vary depending on their form and size, location,
geography, and economy.
The dense and unsafely built urban settlements are one of the major reasons for climate vulnerability. The ongoing
physical changes in the urban settlements are land use, new built-ups, land transaction, and land fragmentation.
Open spaces as place of escape during major disasters are becoming scarce adding to the vulnerability of the urban
communities. In the past, most construction works had been carried out without proper planning, monitoring and
supervision. (NAPA- 2010)
f. Climate-induced disasters
The NCVST (2009) study projects that the current frequency of hydro-meteorological extreme events such as
droughts, storms, floods, inundation, landslides, debris flow, soil erosion and avalanches will increase due to
projected climate change. Factors that exacerbate vulnerability to climate-related disasters, which are identified by
the TWGs through discussions with communities include: inadequate institutional guidance and land-use regulation,
failure to implement building construction codes, inadequate public awareness on climate related disasters and ways
to reduce community exposure, and limited reach of early warning systems.
Impact on Climate Change and WASH
It is universally accepted that climate is changing and the changing climate is affecting many aspects of the earth and
hence mankind as well. Increase in temperature, erratic rain/precipitations and long dry spells are the main elements
of climate change. These elements are causing floods, landslides, drying of water sources/ drought in Nepal which is
adversely affecting the water supply and sanitation systems.
Erratic high intensity rain fall/precipitation has caused floods and landslides. Floods and landslides are washing away
/damaging infrastructures like water intakes, pipelines etc thus disturbing water supply systems similarly other
sanitation infrastructures like sewer pipes, treatment plants etc. Flooding also spoils the water quality by
contamination of water bodies and increasing water turbidity. Similarly increase in temperature/dry spells dry out the
water sources that either fails the whole system or reduces the water quantity making the supply inadequate.
National Climate Change Impact Survey (NCCIS)-2016/CBS shows that 74.29 per cent of total households have
observed changes in water sources whereby 84.47 per cent observed decrease in amount of surface water. On the
other hand, 79.64 per cent households in urban area and 68.12 per cent in rural area reported decrease in water
quality. Likewise, majority of households (74.56%) in mountain region have reported complete drying up of surface
water and high percentage (48.81%) in hill area observed complete drying up of the underground water sources.
Such changes in water sources have been reported due to insufficient rainfall. National Management Information
Project (NMIP) - 2014 report mentions that 50% of Nepal’s 38,000 water supply systems are not functioning properly.
The majority of these failures are caused by the combination of poor design practices, inappropriate construction
techniques, poor material availability and selection and a lack of regular maintenance of infrastructure. Adverse
effects on water supply and sanitation will/are obviously affecting the hygiene of the general people adversely. This is
bringing and will continue to pose a very bad impact on the general health of the Nepali people and jeopardize their
overall quality of life. IPCC, 2014 document spells ‘Climate change is likely to exacerbate already existing health
problems, and bring additional impacts on health and mortality’. Thus a grave need is being felt for making the water
supply, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) programme in the country climate change resilient. Therefore, capacity
building is one of the main factors that can help make WASH programme climate change resilient in Nepal.
Climate change is relatively a new issue in Nepal and not many concerned people have been adequately sensitized
about it. Only 49.33 per cent households in Nepal have heard about climate change out of which 42.82 per cent
households got information on climate change through radio while 27.63 per cent through television (Source:
National Climate Change Impact Survey (NCCIS)-2016/CBS. This makes the capacity building programme more
important for the concerned people/stakeholders to keep their respective WASH components climate change
resilient.
3.3 Session: Initiatives in Climate Change and WASH Sector and Health
Objective of session:
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:
Explain at least 5 key national initiatives to respond to adverse impacts of climate change especially to WASH
sector
Global Responses
Negative impacts of climate change are evident globally, with comparatively harsher effects in the communities of the
developing world. Scientists warn about worsened threats in the future if the green house gases (GHGs) emissions
are not controlled. 1990s marked the initiation of international policies to resolve this global problem based on
scientific evidences. This global attempt has been facilitated by the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change 1992 and its affiliated protocols. Some International Initiatives are:
a. United Nation Frameworks on Climate Change (UNFCC)
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) 1992 was enforced during the Earth Summit at
Rio de Janerio, Brazil and Started from 1994. Currently 197 have signed and ratified UNFCCC. The basic principles
of the convention are:
Stabilize the committed level of atmospheric GHGs within a definite time period.
Need for a common unique responsibility from countries with relation to climate change.
Assistance for non-equitable or extraordinary load bearing to the developing countries from the developed
states.
Commitment of the Annex 1 and 2 states to reduce the GHGs emissions.
b. Kyoto Protocol
3rd Conference of Parties (CoPs) was held in Kyoto, Japan, which agreed to enforce Kyoto protocol to reduce GHGs
emissions. According to the protocol, 37 developed and European Annex-1 countries must reduce their GHGs
emissions by 5% relative to 1990 during the 2008-2012 periods. To translate protocol into action, three mechanisms
are established for reduced GHGs emissions:
Internal carbon market and carbon taxation
Joint investment with Economies in transition
Clean development Mechanism (CDM) in the developing countries:
c. Conference of Parties (CoPs)
Conference of the Parties (CoPs) is the supreme body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). It comprises of 197 nations that have ratified the Convention. Its first session was held in Berlin,
Germany in 1995 and the sessions are expected to continue on a yearly basis. The COP's role is to promote and
review the implementation of the Convention. It periodically reviews existing commitments in light of the Convention's
objective, new scientific findings, and the effectiveness of national climate change programs. Since 1995, total 22
CoPs meetings have been conducted and upcoming CoP-23 will be conducted in Bonn, Germany in November-
December of 2017. Among the 22- CoPs and 15-CoPs was held in Copenhagen, Denmark which was able to raise
public awareness on climate change significantly.
Nepal’s Responses to Climate Change
a. Climate Change Policy 2011
Climate Change Policy was approved by the Government of Nepal on 17 January 2011. The main goal of this
policy is to improve livelihoods by mitigating and adapting to the adverse impacts of climate change, adopting a
low-carbon emissions socio-economic development path and supporting as well as collaborating in the spirits of
country's commitments to national and international agreements related to climate change.
b. Climate Change Council Formation
The Government of Nepal has constituted 25 members including eight experts in Climate Change Council under
the chairmanship of Right Honorable Prime Minister for high level policy coordination and guidance on climate
change. Climate Change Council was formed in July 2009.
c. Multi-stakeholders Climate Change Initiatives Coordination Committee (MCCICC) Formation
To coordinate climate change activities and implement collaborative programmes, a multi-stakeholder Climate
Change Initiatives Coordination Committee (MCCICC) has been formed with representation from relevant ministries
and institutions, international and national non-government organizations, academia, private sector, and donors. It
ensures and promotes functional level coordination. The committee aims to foster a unified and coordinated climate
change responses in Nepal.
d. Establishment of Climate Change Management Division
Climate Change Management Division is established in the MOE with 3 sections as Climate Change Section,
Climate Change Council Secretariat Section and CDM Section. The division was established to expedite climate
change related activities.
e. Second National Communication (SNC)
Nepal has prepared and published Second National Communication (SNC) and Technology Need Assessment
(TNA) according to the provisions made by UNFCCC.
f. Preparation of National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA)
National adaptation programmes of action (NAPAs) has already been approved by Government of Nepal to
communicate priority activities addressing the urgent and immediate needs and concerns of the least developed
countries (LDCs), relating to adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change. Nepal prepared NAPA following
rigorous discussions with wide range of stakeholders and was approved by the cabinet in 2010. It was then
submitted to UNFCCC on the same year. The NAPA has identified six thematic areas- agriculture and food
security, water resource and energy, forest and biodiversity, public health and urban settlement and infrastructure
and identified 9 combined profile projects.
g. Local Adaptation Plans for Action (LAPA)
Local Adaptation Plans of Action (LAPA) framework has been approved by the Government of Nepal (in Nov 2011)
aiming to connect the national perspective of the NAPA to communities. The main purposes of LAPA are to enable
communities to understand the changing and uncertain future climatic conditions and engage them effectively in
the process of developing adaptation priorities; implement climate-resilient plans that are flexible enough for
responding to changing and uncertain climatic conditions;
h. Climate Resilience Framework (2011)
The NPC (March, 2011) has proposed a climate resilience framework for government adaptation and mitigation
planning, within which it has developed a screening approach for projects. The climate resilient plan is a long term
planning tool for adaptation (2011), which was developed by NPC with a vision of achieving a society and economy
that is resilient to a changing climate. The framework broadly recognizes various issues of climate change,
including its drivers (energy, transport, land use, forestry, agriculture and waste) and impact vulnerability
(ecosystem, biodiversity, food security, human health), and outlines mitigation and adaptation measures to achieve
its fundamental goal of sustainable development under the felt and anticipated climate scenarios. The framework
also identifies cross-cutting issues (knowledge management, capacity building, gender, research and development)
that are crucial for the effective implementation of climate-resilient development interventions in order to realize the
nation’s development vision.
Public Health and Water, Sanitation & Hygiene
Nepal Health Sector Strategy (NHSS)- 2015-2020
Sanitation and Hygiene Master Plan, 2010
National Wash Sector Development Plan, 2016
National Health Sector Policies, 2071
3.4 Session: Concept of Coping, Adaptation and Resilience
Objective of Session
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:
Define coping, adaptation and resilience
Definition of Coping, Adaptation and resilience
Coping:
Coping is the use of existing resources to achieve various desired goals during and immediately after unusual,
abnormal, and adverse conditions of a hazardous event or process. The strengthening of coping capacities, together
with preventive measures, is an important aspect of adaptation and usually builds resilience to withstand the effects
of natural and other hazards.
Adaptation to Climate Change
In order to reduce vulnerability to climate change, we must focus on building adaptive capacity, particularly of the
most vulnerable people; and, in some cases, on reducing exposure or sensitivity to climate impacts.
Adaptation is defined as: Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli
or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities
Adaptation consists of adjustments in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic effects,
which moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities. It often consists of initiatives and measures to reduce
vulnerability or enable people to thrive in the resulting situation. It can be a spontaneous or planned response to
actual or expected conditions
Resilience
Resilience can be defined as the ability of a community to resist, absorb, and recover from the effects of hazards in a
timely and efficient manner, preserving or restoring its essential basic structures, functions and identity. Resilience is
a familiar concept in the context of disaster risk reduction (DRR), and is increasingly being discussed in the realm of
adaptation. A resilient community is well-placed to manage hazards to minimize their effects and/or to recover quickly
from any negative impacts, resulting in a similar or improved state as compared to before the hazard occurred. There
are strong linkages between resilience and adaptive capacity; consequently, resilience also varies greatly for different
groups within a community. Resilience is the amount of change a system can undergo and maintain the same
function and structure while retaining options to develop in desired directions. Communities are resilient to climate
change if they can withstand climate hazards and rebuild themselves. Resilience can be enhanced by anticipating
and planning for the future
Differences between coping, adaptation and resilience
Coping Adaptation/Resilience
Short-term and immediate Oriented towards longer term livelihoods security
Oriented towards survival A continuous process
Not continuous Results are sustained
Motivated by crisis, reactive Uses resources efficiently and sustainably
Often degrades resource base Involves planning
Prompted by a lack of alternatives Combines old and new strategies and knowledge
Focused on finding alternatives
3.5 Session: Concept of climate vulnerability functions
Objective of the session:
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:
Describe climate vulnerabilities and its functions
Practice vulnerability assessment of water supply schemes
Definition of Vulnerability: Vulnerability is the degree to which a system is susceptible to, and un-able to cope with, adverse effects of climate change. Vulnerability is a function of exposure to climate stresses, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Vulnerability increases as the magnitude of climate change (exposure) or sensitivity increases, and decreases as adaptive capacity increases. Vulnerability is a function of character, magnitude and rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity (FAR, IPCC)
Vulnerability (V) = f (Exposure (E) Sensitivity (S) /Adaptive Capacity (A) E = Climate change, climate variability and climate change induced hazards S = Effects of climate change on bio-physical and socio-economic sectors A = Knowledge, skill and information; natural and physical assets; financial and institutional assets of the community (Livelihood assets of a community)
Vulnerability Functions Exposure Exposure represents the important climate events that affect a system. In practical terms, exposure is the extent to which a region, resource or community experiences changes in climate. It is characterized by the magnitude, frequency, duration and/or spatial extent of a climate event. Sensitivity Sensitivity is the degree to which a system can be affected, negatively or positively, by changes (in climate). Such changes may have direct or indirect effects. In ecological systems, sensitivity is described in terms of physiological tolerances to changing conditions. The sensitivity of social systems depends on economic, political, cultural and institutional factors. These factors can confound or ameliorate climate exposure. (IUCN) Adaptive capacity Adaptive capacity is a system’s ability to adjust to climate change and variability, to moderate potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities or to cope with consequences. Adaptive capacity is a function of the relative level of a society’s economic resources, access to technology, and access to climate information, skills to make use of the information, institutions and equitable distribution of resources. Adaptive capacity tends to be correlated with the level of development: more developed countries and communities tend to have more adaptive capacity. (OECD based on IPCC). In ecosystems, adaptive capacity is influenced by biodiversity (genetic, species, etc.). In social systems
adaptive capacity is determined by the individual and/or common ability to cope with change (the ability to learn, manage risks and impacts, develop new knowledge, and devise effective approaches) and the institutional setting (IUCN). Impact (CC) Impacts are consequences of climate change on natural and human systems. The character and magnitude of an impact is determined by the (a) exposure and (b) sensitivity of the system. We say potential impacts as obviously it is not clear what is going to happen in the future and today’s mitigation and adaptation efforts may even prevent their occurrence. Biophysical impacts refer to the biophysical parts of a system and often directly result from climate change factors, e.g. damaged infrastructure due to flooding or erosion of shorelines due to storm surge. Socio-economic impacts (for the bigger part) follow biophysical impacts and affect socio-economic development, e.g. reduced access to ser-vices due to damaged infrastructure or losses in tourism revenues due to shoreline erosion
Source: TOT on Integrating Climate Change Adaptation in development planning
Vulnerability assessment itself is a situation specific task and aims to disclose the factual situation of particular community from various perspectives. Hence, there is not any cook booked and single methodology that can be claimed absolutely the best one. Various agencies, documents and the practitioners are using different assessment tools and technologies. In the Nepalese context following are some of the agencies and documents recommending/using the different tools. There are different tools and techniques recommended by followings
National Adaptation Programme of Actions
Community Based Vulnerability Assessment
Local Adaptation Plan of Action : Gateway System
Climate Resilient Planning
Why is Nepal a highly vulnerable country to climate change?
A summary note that might be useful to the participants particularly those having limited exposure to learning theoretical aspect of climate change in easier terms.
1. High exposure because
a. Himalayan regions are warming at the fastest rates – leading to rapidly shrinking of glaciers- the sources of perennial rivers
b. Majority of Nepali populations depend on natural resources and ecological services - where dramatic changes are ‘very likely’ with direct implications on their lives and livelihoods sustainability.
c. Growth of climate hazards including extreme rains, snow, thunderstorms, hailstorms, avalanches, GLOFs, and consequential effects of floods, landslides, …
2. High Sensitivity because:
a. Nepali society as a LDC economy depends largely on natural systems such as vegetation (forest, agriculture), water supply and fair-weather businesses, and, less on built-in sophisticated environment. Natural systems function in tune of existing climate pattern, therefore, are very much sensitive to any change in climatic parameters. Those who depend less on natural systems for their livelihoods such as car manufacturing industries or farmers who are well-equipped with sophisticated irrigation and other facilities, are less likely to be affected directly and immediately from climate change. Obviously, livelihoods of those who depend on agriculture with rain-fed irrigations, water supply, and hydropower fall on high sensitivity category, thus, likely may fall into the trap of high vulnerability.
b. Nature based tourism including rural home stay also belongs to this category and, may need to have appropriate adaptation measures in place.
c. The sensitivity of the entire population of Nepal below-poverty-line (BPL) to climate change is significant.
3. Low Adaptive Capacity because:
a. Subsistence agricultural practices, limited opportunities to increase or diversify income sources and unemployment remain major hurdles to overcome challenges of CC impacts.
b. Prevailing gaps of RELEVANT knowledge and information flow to support preparedness
c. Existing social inequity, inequality and injustices from households to societal levels.
d. Inadequate opportunities for accessing technologies, investment capital, and markets.
e. Ineffective policy measures and institutional mechanism.
4. Conditions that lead to put Nepal on the most vulnerable spot:
Nepal is among the most vulnerable countries in the world. It is predictable as the entire South Asian region including the Himalayas is identified as the climate hotspot or highly vulnerable part of the world. Country wise, Nepal, Bangladesh and India are among the most vulnerable countries. As simple is that these countries are not prepared to adapt to adverse impacts of climate change on their lives and livelihoods resources despite of high exposure of their vital natural resources such as water, lands, forests and biodiversity.
Although the degree of exposure to climate change depend largely on the natural settings such as geographical position of the country or region; the remaining factors – sensitivity and adaptive capacity determine the degree of vulnerability. Therefore, responses are often directed simultaneously to reducing sensitivity, and enhancing adaptive capacity of the target entity or societies.
Therefore, addressing climate change vulnerability at community levels means investing more on minimization of risks and removing of barriers to build resilient system when every individuals and households can respond the risks collectively. Prioritization of who, how and when involves all types of adaptation approaches for some level of innovations in actions, but this doesn’t always mean doing new things but doing the same with better or smart way.
Table: Summary of climate change risks, adaptation measures and possible opportunities for innovations in Nepali
context.
Climate Change Hazards (1)
Associated risks (2) Examples of adaptation (3)
Possible opportunities for innovations (4)
Rapid warming
(Temperature rise)
- Rapid melting of snow and glaciers,
- Extreme hot days - Heatwaves, - Breakout of diseases and
fires - Impacts on crops - Impacts on livestock - Impacts on forests and
biodiversity - Impacts on soils - Impacts on open
workplaces e.g. farms
- Improved living and workplaces (homes, schools, resting shelters at farms, trails)
- Micro-strategies for minimizing and avoiding risks over businesses and livelihoods
- Actionable policies and institutional reform to develop community resources and infrastructures.
- Awareness on precautionary steps involving protection of life, livelihood (business), and natural resources.
- Enabling environment for new investment and collaborations
- Developing capacity to
relate CC hazards with available local technologies and
Change in
precipitation
patterns from erratic
- More landslides, soil erosion, flooding and inundation
- Protection of water, lands and other natural sources as well as
Climate Change Hazards (1)
Associated risks (2) Examples of adaptation (3)
Possible opportunities for innovations (4)
rainfalls (short and
intense rains,
frequent
cloudbursts,
reduced duration of
rainfalls – annually,
seasonally, monthly,
daily) to droughts at
higher frequencies
and intensities.
- Inadequate recharge of water springs, lakes, wells, ponds and groundwater leading to gradual decline of water levels in all kinds of water bodies.
- Increased drudgery of managing water (more demand, lesser supply).
- Decline or losses of livelihood options.
- Involuntary migration of people from their traditional homes
- Rapid biodiversity losses due to drying of lakes and water sources during drought and extreme hot.
ecosystem services from losses.
- Watershed conservation and storm water collection ponds.
- Diversification of income and livelihoods
- Access and use of crop varieties that can survive climate extreme.
practices for remedial actions.
- Offer at least one relevant example that the person and agencies interventions making a positive change.
- Promoting social champions locally
- Approach to agencies working in the similar themes and same regions (your locality) and explore ways to engage them for new collaborations to build resiliency of the target communities or households.
- Community based insurance schemes together with public and private sectors’ contributions.
- Any CSR or collaborating opportunities
Extreme weather
hazards
(thunderstorms,
lightning, hailstorms,
snowstorms,
avalanches, series
of cloudbursts)
- Losses of infrastructures e.g. roads, bridges, buildings, hydro- plants, transmission lines, inundated settlements, and cut-off from hospitals, schools, jobs, market.
- Introducing or strengthening planning culture for collective responses to address disaster and climate change e.g. contingencies plan of households to local institutions – health centers, schools.
-
Interlocking climate
hazards – e.g. long
drought followed by
extreme rainfalls,
disease break outs,
- Risks perceived by CC witnesses, victims or survival.
3.6 Session- Identification of current and future climate vulnerability on WASH Sector
Session Objectives:
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:
Describe current trend and scenario of climate- temperature, precipitation and climate extremes
List out climate extreme events and climate induced disaster which directly impacted to WASH programme
Reading Materials
Climate Trend of Nepal
Overall Climate Trend of Nepal
Significant positive trends have been observed in annual and seasonal climate around Nepal. Overall maximum and minimum temperature of Nepal shows a significant and positive trend only in monsoon season. No significant trend regarding precipitation is observed has been observed in any other seasons.
Annual maximum temperature trend observed all over Nepal is significantly positive (0.056ºC/yr). In the same way, annual minimum temperature trend has also been observed positive (0.002ºC/yr) though it is slightly insignificant.
Precipitation Trends
District level pre-monsoon and monsoon precipitation show significant trends in few districts only while winter and post-monsoon precipitation trends are observed as insignificant in most of the districts. The significantly highest positive rainfall trend has been observed in Syangja and Parbat districts during the monsoon season.
Only pre-monsoon precipitation shows significant negative trend in the High-Himalayan region. In other seasons, precipitation trends are insignificant in all physiographic regions.
Three coherent yet insignificant patterns have been observed at district and physiographic level, 1) insignificant positive precipitation trend in the southern districts of Far Western Development Region (FWDR) in three seasons (winter, pre-monsoon and monsoon), 2) insignificant decrease in monsoon precipitation in majority of districts east of 84E longitude, and 3) insignificant highest decreasing rainfall trend in all seasons in the High Mountains and insignificant positive trend in all seasons, except in post-monsoon in Tarai. These coherent but insignificant patterns might be associated with short term variability in atmospheric phenomena. However, further analysis and longer period data is necessary to understand these patterns. Since these patterns are not significant, these results should be used very cautiously.
Maximum Temperature Trend
The positive temperature trend is highly significant in majority of districts (more than 90% of the districts) and in all physiographic regions in all the seasons, except in majority of the Tarai districts in winter.
At the district level, the highest significant positive trend (0.12oC/yr) is observed in Manang district in winter season.
All five physiographic regions show significant positive trend in all seasons, except in Tarai in winter and pre-monsoon, and in Siwaliks in winter.]
In High Mountains and High Himalayas, the highest positive trend has been observed in winter season and in Tarai, Siwaliks and Middle Mountains, the highest positive trend has been observed in monsoon season.
Seasonal and annual maximum temperature trends at the district and physiographic levels, demonstrate a pattern in relation to altitude with negative trend or small positive trend in lower altitude districts/regions and larger positive trend in higher altitude districts/regions
Minimum Temperature Trend
The negative minimum temperature trend is significant in most of the north-western districts in winter and post-monsoon seasons while positive minimum temperature trend is significant in majority of southern (Tarai to Middle Mountains) districts in Eastern Development Region (EDR), Central Development Region (CDR) and WDR in all seasons.
Though seasonal and annual minimum temperature trends are insignificant at district and physiographic levels, they show positive trends in lower elevation and negative in the higher elevation. Since these patterns are not significant, but might be associated with short term variability in atmospheric phenomena, these results should be used very cautiously.
At the district level, significantly highest positive trend (0.046oC/yr) has observed in Dolpa district in monsoon and significantly highest negative trend (-0.076oC/yr) in Humla district in winter.
At the physiographic level, Tarai and Siwaliks show significant increasing trend in most of the seasons. The decreasing trend is significant only in winter season in the High Himalayas.
Extreme Precipitation Trends
Number of rainy days is increasing significantly mainly in the north-western districts.
Very wet days and extremely wet days are decreasing significantly, mainly in the northern districts.
Consecutively dry days are decreasing significantly, mainly in the north-western districts of MWDR while consecutive wet days are increasing significantly in the northern districts of MWDR and central parts of WDR and EDR.
Extreme Temperature Trends
Trends of warm days and warm nights are significantly increasing in majority of the districts. Warm spell duration is increasing significantly in majority of the districts.
Cool days are decreasing in majority of the districts while cool nights are increasing in few north-western and northern districts and decreasing in few south-eastern districts significantly. Cold spell duration is also increasing significantly only in the FWDR.
It is noteworthy to mention that maximum temperature trends are higher than minimum temperature trends in all
seasons. The significance test shows maximum temperature trends being more robust than minimum temperature
and precipitation trends. The observed climate trends in districts and physiographic regions along with the
information on significance level analyzed is presented in this report. While higher significance level provides clear
signal in the trend, no clear conclusion can be drawn from insignificant trends. This report with observed climate
trends with significance is, therefore, expected to provide a better guidance for adaptation planning, including the
NAP process in Nepal.
Source: Observed Climate Trend Analysis of Nepal (1971-2014), Department of Hydrology and Meteorology/Ministry of Population and Environment/GoN
National Adaptation Plan: Vulnerability and Risk Assessment Indicators for Public Health (WASH)
The National Adaptation Plan (NAP) process in Nepal has identified Public Health and Water, Sanitation
and Health (WASH) as one of the key thematic areas due to its exposure and vulnerability to climate
change. A large proportion of the population in both rural and urban areas depend on climate sensitive
sectors, thus they are exposed and vulnerable to climate change. The exposure indicators in this sector
include human population, health facilities, infrastructure and services, human resources working in the
sector and specifically for WASH, water sources, water infrastructure and services, and sanitation
infrastructure and services. Vulnerability in the public health and WASH sector looks at the sensitivity of
the exposed population, resources, and services, and their capacity to respond to climate change impact.
Sensitivity indicators include population characteristics and features, infrastructure location and condition,
access to and quality of services, and population dynamics including socio-economic differences. The
adaptive capacity indicators mostly refer to the existing capacity in terms of human resources,
investments (both national and international) in emergency response and preparedness, policy and
institutions, technological advances, early warning systems and hazard monitoring, and technological
practices, as well as the socio-economic capability of the population in terms of their ability to access and
benefit from services. 3
1. Indicators for hazards in the WASH sector
Elements of hazard Unit of Measurement Source
Climate Extreme Events:
− Heat waves
− Cold waves
− Consecutive hot days
− Consecutive cold days
− Consecutive dry days
− Consecutive wet days
− Extreme rainfall/snowfall
Climate-induced Hazards:
− Floods
− Landslides
− Drought
− Forest Fire
Sector-Specific Hazards:
− Sediment load (turbidity and suspended solids)
− Water contamination (chemical and
microbiological)
− Outbreak of diseases (VBD, WBD, Seasonal Flue)
− Outbreak of famine (result of drought, flood,
Duration, intensity,
frequency, coverage (Ha)
Area (Ha)
Area (Ha), number
Area (Ha)
Area (Ha)
Turbidity (NTU), TSS
FC Count, PPM
No of events and coverage
(population)
No of events and coverage
DHM, MoHA,
DWSS,
DWIDM, DoHS,
DoA
Elements of hazard Unit of Measurement Source
climate variability)
(population), duration
2. Indicators for exposureElem
Elements of Exposure Unit of Measurement Data source
Population Nos. CBS
Health infrastructure and services
Infrastructures:
(Hospitals, healthcare units at different level, drug stores,
labs)
Government Hospitals, Private hospital/lab, Registered
Pharmaceuticals, Blood transfusion centers
Nos.
Nos.
DoHS, Department
of Drug
Management,
NHRC
Water supply infrastructures and services
Drinking Water Supply Systems
Stream Intakes
Spring intakes
Pipelines
Pump stations
Water treatment plants
Reservoirs
Nos, KM DWSS/KUKL/NWSC
Sanitation infrastructures and services
− Sanitation Systems (Sewerage lines, private
toilets, public toilets, septic tanks, water
treatment plants, Landfill sites)
Nos., KM
DWSS/KUKL/
NWSC/MoFALD
Water sources
− Ground (deep, shallow)
− Surface
− Spring
− Watersheds
Nos.,
Yield (l/s),
Level (m),
Area (hectare)
CBS, GWRDC,
DWSS, DOI
3. Indicators for sensitivityts of Sensitivity Unit
Elements of sensitivity Units of Measurement
Data Source
Average time required to reach the nearest health center Hours DoHS
Mobility of population Frequency Consultation
Mortality rate (CDR, U5MR) Per 1000 DoHS
Disease prevalence and incidence of disease including trend (NCD, Malaria, Dengue, JE, Malnutrition, Psychosocial effect)
Status DoHS
Age, gender (NPC category, wealth quantile and ecological belt) Population, % DoHS
Race, ethnicity Population, % CBS
Poverty Population, % CBS
Elements of sensitivity Units of Measurement
Data Source
Disparities (geographic, social) Status Consultation
Access to care and public health facilities Population, % DoHS
Pre-existing health condition Status, Population, % DoHS,
Infrastructure condition (Example: water supply systems already having functionality problems)
Status, % DoHS, DWSS
Population density (urban and rural) Status, % CBS
Occupation type Population, % CBS
Location of infrastructures (Example: Hospitals, WTTPs on the river banks, WASH facilities such as intakes/pipes) etc.)
Proximity
Consultation, DoHS, DWSS
Condition of water sources and watersheds Yield, status, % DWSS,MoFSC
Water demand rate Liters per capita per day
DWSS
4. Indicators for adaptive capacity
Availability of improved sanitation (toilet) HH Coverage (%) DWSS
Adequate water supply (quantity) HH coverage (%) DWSS
Solid waste collection and management Number, coverage MoWSS, MoH, MoFALD
Surveillance system (water supply, disease) Water supply (quality and quantity) VPD Disease: Kalazaar, Malaria, Filariasis, Kalazaar, Malaria, Filariasis, Polio, Measles
Status, No. DoHS
Awareness on health and WASH Population covered
(%)
DoHS
Post-disaster health management system (strategy and plan to maintain or resume healthcare services contingency plan)
Status DoHS
Water safety plan
Number of WS systems, population
DWSS
Essential healthcare including vaccination and child health care services − Immunization − IMNCI − OPD services − Nutrition program − Disease control program − Free medicine − Safe motherhood programme
Population, %,
Building codes and practices Status MoUD
Improved drainage Status, coverage (HH) MoUD, DWSS
Diversity of water resources Status MoWSS
Water Treatment Practices (Point of use WT) HHs, % DWSS
Technology practices enhancing water availability and water use efficiency (Example: RWH)
Status DWSS
Health Early Warning System Status DoHS
Emergency healthcare service Status DoHS
Hospital bed per 100,000 population Number DoHS
Medical practitioners per 100,000 population Doctors Nurses Paramedic Ayurvedic and other (alternative and traditional health care provider)
Number, status DoHS
Institutions and functioning (Example: sanitation systems operated by municipalities, WUSCs, RRTs,)
Status
MoH, MoWSS, DWSS, MoFALD
Policy, strategy, plan and programs (Health and WASH) Status MoWSS, MoH
Micro –stratification of Malaria Status DoHS
Health insurance (defined package) % of population DoHS
Alternative and traditional medicines and services Status DoHS
Income/saving HHs, % CBS
International/national emergency healthcare budget NPR, % MoF, MoH
Investment of state/non-state sector budget for health and WASH
NPR, %
MoF, MoH, MoWSS
Health Service Management Committee No. DoHS
Exposure to media (MF/Radio, TV, Print media) Population coverage CBS
Assessment Framework and Indicators
Elements of Adaptive Capacity Unit of measurement Data S
3.7 Session: Exploration of adaptation measures for WASH in different Scenarios
Objective of session:
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:
Use this tool to identify a range of options to adjust or improve water management under challenges and risk of changing climate
Defining Adaptation Option/Measures
The interventions or options that could prevent, reduce or avoid the damaging biophysical and socio-economic impacts, enhance opportunities from climate change and enhance the adaptive capacity of relevant actors. Types of options: Infrastructure = I, Policy = P, Capacity = C, Good Practices = GP
Examples of Adaptation Options with focus to WASH- NAP:
• Construct more diversion structures on river • Construct on-stream storage dams • Artificially recharge groundwater • Treat and reuse wastewater • Re-allocate water among sectors or users • Shift to higher-value lower-water consuming crops • Promote drip irrigation technology
Diversifying crops according to the climate scenario
Introduced irrigation technology such, drip irrigation
Rainwater harvest tank
Use of degraded land for cultivation
Plantation in Landslide sites
Raised the bed of goat
Raised the height of the house from the ground level
Criteria for selecting adaptation measures
• Effectiveness: It describes the extent to which the adaptation option reduces vulnerability and provides other benefits. Think of effectiveness of the adaptation option under different scenarios.
• Costs: It describes relative costs of an adaptation option. Think of investment costs as well as costs over time, such as operation and maintenance costs, reconstruction costs, etc. Think of economic and non-economic costs. Think of costs of avoided damage.
• Feasibility: It answers whether the necessary legal, administrative, financial, technical, etc. resources exist. Adaptations that can be implemented under the current operational framework will usually be favoured.
• Additional criteria may include, depending on the context, e.g. political and social acceptance, urgency, biodiversity friendliness, relative speed of implementation or benefits, ‘no regrets’ potential, avoid detrimental effects on other development goals, alignment with funding requirements or other eligibility criteria, alignment with policy priorities, etc.
Source: TOT on CCA Integration into development planning
There are many tools and techniques in practice for identifying effective adaptation measures. Such tools include
Multi Criteria Index, Cost Benefit Analysis etc. The national framework of the LAPA recommends two tools for
prioritizing the most urgent and immediate adaptation measures to people, communities and local bodies; the gender
sensitive Multi- Criteria Index and Participatory Cost Benefit Analysis. The framework also provides a list of other
supportive tools; Pair Wise Ranking, Gender Need Assessment, Impact Implementation Matrix and scenario tools for
identifying the energy path way.
A sample of Gender Sensitive Multi-criteria Index is presented below:
Hazards Adaptation Options
Efficiency
(1-3)
(A)
Cost
Effective
(1-3)
(B)
Possibility
(1-3)
(C)
Gender
Sensitive
(1-3)
(D)
Total
(A+B+C+D)
Remarks
(Priority )
Flood
Plantation 2 2 2 2 8
Stone wall (Temporary) 2 2 2 3 9 Fourth
Gabion wall Embankment 3 1 1 3 8
Cemented wall Embankment 3 1 1 2 7
Controlled grazing in river
banks 3 3 3 1 10 Third
Minimizing export of sand,
stones and gravels 3 3 3 2 11 Second
Awareness raising 3 3 3 3 12 First
Source: LFP (Community Adaptation Plan, Sukaruli VDC)
A sample of participatory cost Benefit Analysis is presented below:
Activities Cost Benefit Ratio B/C
Plantation 1.69 41.1 24.15
Wooden Bridge 1.6 15.2 9.5
Source: LAPA piloting work (2011), Dhungegadhi, Pyuthan
It is important to consider different scenarios of climate and consequences of multiple natural and climate induced
hazards in order to build a resilient WASH scheme. For this purpose, following tool can be used to explore relevant
adaptation measures:
Climate Induced Hazard
Impact on Water supply and Sanitation System
Adaptation Options/Measures
Implications on local communities
Direct Indirect
Drought Reduced water availability
Population movements to other areas, posing further stress on remaining water sources and use of unsafe sources
Collection and storage of surface water runoff:
Below ground tanks (i.e. cisterns) and excavations into which rainwater is directed from the ground
Climate Induced Hazard
Impact on Water supply and Sanitation System
Adaptation Options/Measures
Implications on local communities
Direct Indirect
surface
Small reservoirs with earthen bunds or embankments to contain runoff or river flows
Managed aquifer recharge: capturing and recharging excess runoff in the vicinity of a well or borehole
Examples of findings of the studies carried out by MCCCRMD in districts of different geographic and physiographic areas
Assets Impacts of Climate Change on Assets
Adaptation Measures for physical WASH assets/infrastructure
Remarks/Overall Impacts of Climate Change
Remarks/ Adaptation Measures in terms of Policy and Institutions
Water Supply - Drying water sources and ground water depletion is likely due to longer dry seasons, increasingly irregular rainfall patterns, and increased incidence of high intensity rainfall events leading to high run-off and less infiltration7.
- Disruption to service or damaged systems can result in higher costs for basic services,
- Additional efforts/costs needed to fulfil the water demand
- Lack /shortage of water will lead to health problems like diseases
- Loss of time and additional burden to get water from other available sources specially hardship for womenfolk
- Fall in water quality will lead to diseases.
- In case of sickness, additional cost for medication and loss of efficiency and working days- an economic loss, unnecessary physical pain ,
-Need for reforms in the existing policy documents, acts, standards etc., by incorporating climate change friendly components and making institutional arrangement and provisions for needful budgets and manpower - Need for projecting and predicting future climate change and its impact and for incorporating this information into the planning, construction and rehabilitation of infrastructure assets. -
Water sources – Springs, surface water, streams
Drying-up and reduced flow
- Conservation, protection and better management of traditional water sources - Identify alternative water supply measures such as tankers and rainwater harvesting and strengthen and rehabilitate traditional water sources - Establish deep tube bore-wells where and as feasible - Establish rainwater harvesting techniques - Introduce impounding reservoirs
Intake structure
Sediment collection, Collapse of intake structure
-Construct a new intake structure with screening arrangements to evade dirty run off water. -Protect the upstream catchment/forest vegetation that provides initial filtration of sediments entering the
Assets Impacts of Climate Change on Assets
Adaptation Measures for physical WASH assets/infrastructure
Remarks/Overall Impacts of Climate Change
Remarks/ Adaptation Measures in terms of Policy and Institutions
downstream system Communities/stakeholders also need to be better prepared for potential consequences of climate changes by being aware adequately, that means adequate capacity building - Provisions made to so that the stakeholder institutions have sense of adequate gender equality and social inclusion. - .
Transmission and distribution pipes
Getting washed away, Breakage/damage due to landslides, flooding, Cracks and rupture due to increased temperatures, Leakage and poor delivery
- Protect and provide concrete/steel casing with abutments to the transmission pipelines laid along historic landslide zones - Anti-crack protective coatings to be applied to the pipelines to resist high temperatures - Rebuild the transmission pipeline with better alignment and temperature resistant pipe material -Construct a new water treatment plant between intake and the storage reservoir to provide better water quality and avoid sediments reaching the storage reservoir. - Establish feasibility study approach and environmental impact study assessment for all future pipeline projects to avoid pipes laid in historic landslide and critical zones. - Incorporate climate change elements such as increased temperature into the design process to design a pipe system that is temperature resilient.
Storage Reservoirs
Collapse of structure, Collection of sediment in reservoir
- Protect the reservoir structure through temporary retaining walls - Regular removal of sediments from the structures - Provide fine screens and disinfection arrangements at reservoir site - Construct new storage reservoir with screening arrangements to evade dirty run off water and provision of structural support such as gabions and bioengineering. - Protect the upstream catchment/forest vegetation that provides initial filtration of sediments entering the downstream system -Establish feasibility study approach for all future water supply projects to avoid key structures being
Assets Impacts of Climate Change on Assets
Adaptation Measures for physical WASH assets/infrastructure
Remarks/Overall Impacts of Climate Change
Remarks/ Adaptation Measures in terms of Policy and Institutions
placed in historic landslide \ zones that are prone to damage and sediment runoff - Incorporate climate change elements in the design process to design a system that is climate proof and resilient
Water Pumping Stations
Damage to pumps
filling/blocking other components
- Protect the pumping station structure through temporary retaining walls - Provision of fine screens at pumping station inlet - Promote SCADA and Telemetry system which provides real-time control of pumping stations - Establish 24/7 O&M staff to address any emergency breakdown of system
Water Treatment Plant (WTP)
More sediment reducing operation efficiencies and causing damage
- Provision of fine screens at collection chamber - Provision for adequate budgets for the priority adaptation measures with short and long term objectives - Establish 24/7 O&M staff to address any emergency breakdown of system - Training and operating procedures for relevant staff
Sanitation - Damage in existing sewerage system or overflow/flooding will lead to contamination of water bodies -Lack of proper sanitation and contamination of water bodies will lead to different diseases - In case of sickness, additional cost for medication and loss of efficiency and working days- an economic loss, unnecessary physical pain .
Collection System
Damage to system, pipelines due to landslides
- Rebuild the transmission pipeline with better alignment and temperature resistant pipe material
Septic Tanks/Pit Latrines
Overflow from septic tank
- Establish feasibility study approach and environmental impact study assessment for all future to avoid septic tanks and pit latrine in historic landslide, flooding and critical zones. - Build those structures at safer place.
Weather extremities and its impacts and adaptation measures
Hazard Impacts Adaptation Measures
Health determinants Health Health General
Landslides
and flood
Damage to infrastructure
Inaccessibility of water sources
Inundation of wells
Pollution of water sources
Flooding areas used for defecation
Flooding of latrines
Diarrhoea
Acute Respiratory Infection
Viral fever
Malaria fever
Influenza like Illness
Skin diseases
Distribution of essential medicines to the patients
Syndromic surveillance system establishment
EDCD hotline (01-4100187) operating from 7am to 7pm
Distribute the Long Lasting Insecticide Nets in IDP camps
Monitoring of the stock levels of essential medicines in the affected districts
RRTs are kept on high alert
Health camps are organized as per the need
Coordination with WASH Sector and other partners working in the health sectors
Information management through HEOC functions
Distribution of Inter-Agency Diarrhoeal Diseases Kits, community water filters, chlorine tablets
A flyer on “method of treating turbid water in emergency” distributed
WASH messages through national radio and local FMs.
Improving resilience of protected wells to flooding
Post-construction support (PCS) for community-managed water supplies
Relocation of latrines away from flood-prone and low lying areas
Raising latrines and ensuring minimum distance between pit and water table is maintained
Drought Reduced water availability
Water sources drying up
Fetching distance increasing
Poor management of WASH
Food insecurity
Migration
Diarrhoea
Infections
Viral fever
Malaria fever
Skin diseases
Hepatitis A and E
Typhoid.
Boils
Malnutrition
Anemia
Syndromic surveillance system establishment to identify potential outbreaks.
Distribution of essential medicines to the patients
EDCD hotline (01-4100187) operating from 7am to 7pm
Distribute the Long Lasting Insecticide targeting to vulnerable people
Monitoring of the stock levels of essential medicines in the affected districts
RRTs are kept on high alert
Health camps are organized as per the need
Coordination with WASH Sector and other partners working in the health sectors
Distribution of Inter-Agency Diarrhoeal Diseases Kits, community water filters, chlorine tablets
WASH messages through national radio and local FMs.
Collection and storage of surface water
3.8 Session: Integration Climate Change in Project Planning
Purpose:
At the end of the session, participants will:
Understand how to integrate adaptation into the various steps of the project cycle to avoid mal-adaptation
Rationale for Integration of Climate Change Risks
Most development projects/programmes are likely to be affected by climate change. Therefore, systematical
screening and assessment of development projects/programmes are essential and a must in order to avoid mal-
adaptation, misallocation of development funds and, last but not least, to ensure that the project/programme
continues to address priority development needs.
To reduce and minimize the vulnerability of infrastructures, natural systems and people to CC impacts To address the sector concerns and translate the CC Policy into practice To identify the areas of improvement at various levels of governance To avoid and reduce the risks of mal-adaptation Sustainability of the schemes and making them climate resilient
National Framework of LAPA also emphasizes the integration of adaptation plans into sector and development
planning as it will help address climate induced challenges in an effective and sustainable manner. Integrating LAPA
into local-to-national development planning processes and outcomes allows climate vulnerable men, women,
households, communities, wards, VDC or Municipality to articulate their adaptation priorities, and draw down on
government, civic and private sector resources for sustainable implementation.
On the other hand, integration of climate prospective is essential in any project even though the respective projects
may or may not be affected by climate change. Normally all development goals and project activities are most likely
to be affected by climate change. Therefore, the assessment of climate risks in each cycle of development project/
programme needs to be integrated. Normally assessment of climate change risks is needed in the following steps in
order to ensure its resilience to climate change:
Project Steps Question/ points to be consider How
1. Project Identification
Assess potential climate change risks and effect on vulnerability- Water Scheme
2. Project Appraisal
Undertake in-depth climate risk assessment Identify effective adaptation options Prioritize and select adaptation options
By using multi-criteria index
3. Detail Design
Undertake in-depth climate risk assessment Identify effective adaptation options Prioritize and select adaptation options
Environmental Impact Assessment Cost Benefit Analysis
4. Project Implementation
Implement the selected adaptation measures (for new projects) Carry out intervention of previous stages and implement adaptations option (For ongoing projects)
5. Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitor and evaluate implementation of Adaptation options
Descriptions of each step
1. Project Identification
In general, the vulnerability of any project to climate change impacts is assessed as a function of the type of infrastructure it develops, the activities it supports, and its geographical location. In addition, the expected lifetime of a project determines whether climate change concerns are likely to become relevant, for example long-lived infrastructure may be particularly vulnerable. Vulnerability may be direct (e.g. drinking water System is affected by changes in discharges of water source as well as in demand for water).
2. Project appraisal and detailed design
In this step, the implementing body needs to conduct a detailed assessment in potential climate change risks and effects on the project. It provides the opportunity to reduce climate change risks facing a project and builds grounds for accruing benefits from any opportunities that may arise from climate change. Projects that are directly sensitive to climate should be examined with regard to their degree of sensitivity and vulnerability and whether different project designs or functioning would reduce sensitivity or vulnerability. In addition, projects can also be examined to determine whether they can be modified in order to take advantage of opportunities arising from climate change. A list of potential adaptation measures will be identified according to vulnerability assessment/ environmental impact assessment. Following tools and approaches are normally used to prioritize and select the appropriate adaptation measures from the resulting list:
1. Cost benefit Analysis
2. Multi- Criteria Index
3. Cost effective Analysis
4. Expert Judgment and Knowledge
3. Project implementation While the planning stage of the project cycle provides key entry points for integration of climate risk assessment, identification and selection of adaptation options, it is important not to lose sight of adaptation during the project implementation. Once adaptation options have been selected, the next stage is their integration and implementation within the project, which represents further intervention points. 4. Monitoring and Evaluation
The monitoring and evaluation provides ample opportunities to examine and review implementation of adaption measures as appropriate. Monitoring and evaluation are indispensable to correct past mistakes and improve current practices. In addition, evaluation provides an opportunity to test the accuracy of ex-ante projections of climate vulnerabilities, or of the project’s impacts on the recipient system’s vulnerabilities. Monitoring and evaluation for climate change adaptation is a “doing-by learning” and participatory process. A dynamic process may allow an effective and active monitoring and evaluation of the performance of an adaptation project with respect to its objectives, so as to establish a solid background for scaling up pilot activities. Challenges and Issues of Integration Climate Change Risks in Development
Inadequate knowledge and understanding of climate change adaptation to integrate in project cycle Weak or absence of functional linkages and coordination among the concerned sectors Allocation of the sufficient fund/ budget to implement with integrating climate change risks Limited political commitment, consensus and compliance at local level Experience to be gained through learning-by-doing Significant financial and human resource investments are required for research, data
generation/management, knowledge management and technology transfer
3.9 Session: Concept of Monitoring & Evaluation and Developing Monitoring Framework
Purpose
At the end of the session, participants will be able to:
Define monitoring and evaluation and evaluation framework
List out the indicators of climate change resilient WASH scheme
Monitoring
Monitoring is a routine tracking of the key elements of programmes/project performance usually inputs and outputs through record-keeping, regular reporting, surveillance, observation and client surveys. Evaluation Evaluation is the episodic assessment of the change in targeted results that can be attributed to the programme or project intervention. Evaluation attempts to link a particular output or outcome directly to an intervention after a period of time has passed Difference between Monitoring and Evaluation
Item Monitoring Evaluation
Frequency Routine, Regularly Scheduled Episodic
Primary Objective Tracking/oversight Assessment
Purpose Improve efficiency Mid-course correction to work plan
Improve effectiveness, impact, future programming
Focus Conformity to programme guideline, process indicators, quarterly and annual goals, work plans
Effectiveness, impact, cost-effectiveness, relevance
Data source Routine observation, progress report Same, surveys, special studies
Development of Monitoring and Evaluation Framework
Developing an M&E framework is the final step in climate-resilient planning/development. However, there is an uncertainty associated with climate change, its impacts, and in our understanding of what actions will enable effective adaptation. The M&E provides opportunities for learning, reflection and feedback to support responsive and iterative adaptation planning. The monitoring of climate change adaptation is very critical to find out what action will enable effective adaptation. So M&E needs to revolve around questions such as: What is being monitored? Are we doing it the right way? Are we doing the right thing at the right time? Etc. in the context of M&E for adaptation, different areas need to be monitored to capture adaptation. These areas include:
It should focus on results and impacts of specific adaptation activities associated with project, programme and policy. For this, an analysis for finding the key risks and vulnerability and understanding of how the particular activity addresses these risks and vulnerability are needed.
It should focus on answering "How an intervention has contributed to the development of adaptive capacity?”. It should cover the overall development success in a changing climate scenario. Normally, monitoring
indicators are not different from indicators of a regular development project/programme. Following framework can be used to cover the above mentioned aspects of M&E:
Source: GiZ training manual on Integration Climate Change Adaptation in Development Cooperation
Government of Nepal
Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation
Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Centre
Nargarkot, Bhaktapur
Phone No :+977-1-4422013
Email: [email protected]
Web site: nwsstc.gov.np