Natural enemies used in biological control

Natural enemies used in biological control

Dr. Mor Salomon

The Israel Cohen Institute for Biological controlThe Plants production and

marketing board

What are Natural Enemies?

Organisms that kill or reduce the population of another organism

Predators

Parasitoids

Nematodes

Pathogens

many individuals a singe individual

Development achieved by feeding on other organisms:

Free living Bound to their host

Biological control

Predators Parasitoids

Feed on another organism

Predators

Mosquitofish

Green-rice leafhopperMosquito larvae

Grasshopper

Acridotheres tristis Ducks

MaynaGambusia affinis

Important natural enemies for applied biological control

are Insects & Mites

Predators

Most predators are entomophagous insects Entomophagy

InsectsPhagein = Feeding

feed on one type of prey (i.e. a specialist)

Feeding strategy

Rodolia cardinalis feeds

on Icerya purchasi

Monophagous

Monophagous predator

Phytoseiulus persimilis

Two-spotted spider mite

Tetranychus urticae

Feeds on a limited range of prey

Chilocorus kuwanae

Euonymus scale

Coccinella septempunctata

Pea aphid

Oligophagous predator

Feeds on closelyrelated species of prey

Feeds on a broad range of prey

Chrysoperla carnea

Aphids

Thrips

Spider mite

Whiteflies

Leafminers

Polyphagous predator

Green lacewing

Mouthparts

Predators can have either:

1. Biting – chewing mouthparts

2. Piercing – Sucking mouthparts

Biting mouthparts

Mandibles cut & chew;

Maxillae manipulate the prey

Examples:

Cicendela sp.

(Carabidae)

Tiger beetle

Green lacewing (Antlion; Neuroptera)

Mouthparts

Elongated labium

Mandibles & maxillae = stylet for piercing

Piercing & sucking mouthparts

Examples:

Cicendela sp.

(Pentatomidae)

Anchor stink bug

Minute pirate bugOrius sp.

(Anthocoridae)

Zosteria sp.

(Asilidae)

Assassin fly

Stegodyphus lineatus

(Eresidae)

Velvet spider

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera

Coleoptera - Beetles

Cockchafer

Melolontha sp.

Family: Scarabaeidae

Order: Coleoptera

Beetles - Coleoptera Bugs - Hemiptera

Stink bug

Nezara marginata

Family: Pentatomidae

Order: Hemiptera

Suborder: Heteroptera

Coleoptera - Beetles

Ground beetle

Pasimachs elongatus

Family: Carabidae

Order: Coleoptera

Beetles - Coleoptera Bugs - Hemiptera

Stink bug

Nezara marginata


Order: Hemiptera


Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera

Beetles life cycle

Pterostichus melanarius

Family: Carabidae

Exarate pupa

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera2-4 instarsLife cycle

(Free appendages)

Bird cherry-oat aphidcarrot weevil

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Carabidae

Ground beetles

Natural enemies in agroecosystems

Live and prey mostly on the ground

Gypsy moth larva

Colorado potato beetle larva

Clivinia fossor Pterostichus melanariu

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Carabidae

Ground beetles

Bimidion quadrimaculatum

Onion root maggot

Black onion fly

Black bean aphid European corn borer

Fall armyworm

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Coccinellidae

Ladybird beetles

~5,000 species in the family

Most species eat primarily insects and mites

Aphid colony

Rodolia cardinalis prey on

The cottony cushion scale,

Icerya purchasi California; 1,888

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera


Feeding behaviour

Adults & larva feed on the same prey

Highly specific diet

Some ladybirds are species-specific, others eat several species

Ladybirds are not effective at low population levels

Many species feed on pollen, nectar and honeydew

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera


Life cycle

Warning colours

Eggs laid in clusters

4 instars

sucker

Coccinellinae: Exposed pupaScymnini:

Completely covered pupa

Chilocorini:

Partly exposed

Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Hippodamia convergens

Biological control

Coccinella septempunctata

Adalia bipunctataScymnus sp.Stethorus punctilum Harmonia axyridis

Green lacewing

Lacewings / AntlionsBrown lacewing

Order: Neuroptera

Families: Chrysopidae

HemerobiidaeLarva: predator

Adult: honeydew, nectar, pollenAll predators

Prey: Aphids, whiteflies, thrips, spider mites, moth eggs, spider mites, mealybugsAphids

Great golden digger wasp

Sphex sp.

Digger waspsClass: Insecta

Order: Hymenoptera

Family: Sphecidae25% of species in the order are predators

Ants control ground-dwelling insects

Wasps paralyze insects Biological control of

leaf-eating insects

Polistes humilis

Vespidae

Great golden digger wasp

Digger waspsClass: Insecta

Order: Hymenoptera

Family: Sphecidae25% of species in the order are predators

Ants control ground-dwelling insects

Wasps paralyze insects Biological control of

leaf-eating insects

Polistes humilis

Vespidae

reduced caterpillar

numbers in cabbages

Impractical in

agriculture

White cabbage butterfly

Class: Insecta

Order: Diptera

Family: Syrphidae

Hoverflies

Resemble bees, but only one pair of wings

Feed on aphids

Esiyrphus balteatus

Marmalade hoverfly

500 eggs

Released

in pepper

crops

Class: Insecta

Order: Hemiptera (bugs)

Family: Lygaeidae

Big-eyed bugs

Geocoris sp. feeding

on whitefly nymph

Most bugs are vegetarian

Some important predators

Lepidopteran eggs

Plant bugs

Whiteflies

Mites

aphids

Prey:

Crops

(e.g.):

Cotton

Ornamentals

Strawberries

Vegetable crops

Class: Insecta

Order: Hemiptera (bugs)

Suborder: Heteroptera (True bugs)

Family: Reduviidae

Pristhesancus plagipennis

Helicoverpa sp.

(Lepidoptera

Creoniades sp.

Miridae

Assassin bugs

Ambush predators

Thin neck ; Strong piercing rostrum

Highly polyphagous, including honeybees & spiders

Crop (e.g.): sunflower, cotton Good control in cotton

(Grundy 2007)

Order: Hemiptera


Family: Anthocoridae

Flower bugs

Polyphagous predators

Important in many agricultural crops

The common flower bug

Anthocoris nemorum

Minute pirate bug

Orius sp.Pear Psylla

Actively search for prey

Order: Hemiptera



Flower bugs

Polyphagous predators

Important in many agricultural crops

The common flower bug

Anthocoris nemorumPear Psylla

Actively search for prey

Prey: greenfly

red spider mite

Crop: Hedgerows

Agri. crops

Wild plants

Pear orchards

Order: Hemiptera



Minute pirate bug

3 main species used as BCA: Orius laevigatus

O. Majusculus

O. insidiosus

Order: Hemiptera



Minute pirate bug

Prey: Thrips

Aphids

Whiteflies

Mites

Moth eggs

Omnivorous

Introduced the most

Orius laevigatus

Mediterranean Europe

Thrips

O. majusculus

Flowers Whole plant

Egg

5 nymphal stages

Adult

Orius life cycle

Hemimetabolus

Order: Hemiptera



Egg: embedded in the leaf

Nymph: yellowish

wing buds at 5th instar

Adult: brown / black

occupy flower head

found on leaves

All instars feed on soft-bodied insectsO. insidiosus nymph

Order: Hemiptera


Family: Miridae

Zoophytophagus plant bugs

Lygus sp.

Pest in cotton, strawberry etc.

Most mirids are pests

Order: Hemiptera


Family: Miridae

Zoophytophagus plant bugs

Most mirids are pests

Nesidiocoris Tenuis

Tomato leafminer; Tuta absoluta

Efficient natural enemy of Tuta absoluta

Macrolophus caliginosus

Order: Hemiptera


Family: MiridaeOmnivore

Wide range of prey

Effective in controlling

whiteflies

Used commercially

Tomato (tunnel & glasshouse)

Order: Hemiptera



Stink/Shield bugs

Eject foul smell when disturbed

Most species are pests

Stiretrus anchorago


e.g. mexican bean beetle

Low abundance

Anchor bug

Low contribution to

biological control

Spined soldier bug


e.g. gypsy moth, corn borer, armyworm sp. etc.

Classical biological control (e.g. Russia)

Podisus maculiventris

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Arachnida

Subclass: Acari

Order: Mesostigmata

Family: Phytoseiidae

Predatory mites

The most introduced NE

Used commercially worldwide

1st used on cucumber by Koppert 1960’s


Subclass: Acari

Order: Trombidiformes

Family: Tetranychidae

Spider mites

Pests in many crops around the world

Two-spotted spider mite is the most important

All stages feed on plant tissue and sap

Adults & nymphs produce webs

Difficult for predators to penetrateTetranychus urticae

Tetranychus urticae

Subclass: Acari

Order: Mesostigmata



Highly specific to spider mitesEgg

Larva

2 nymphstages

Adultdoesn’t eat

eat all stages,

but adults

Highly population growth than T. urticae

Disadvantage: No alternative prey Cannibalism Population decline

Neoseiulus californicus

Subclass: Acari

Order: Mesostigmata


Above 30⁰C, P. persimilis growth declines

Neoseiulus californicus

Prefer the larval & nymphal stages of T. urticae

Consume less prey than P. persimilis, but more

effective at low densities

Generalist predator

Panonychus ulmi

Used commercially in fruit

& ornamental crops

Aculops lycopersici

Tomato rust mite Fruit spider mite

Iphiseius degeneransSubclass: Acari

Order: Mesostigmata

Family: PhytoseiidaeNative to the mediterranean

Feeds on spider mites, thrips & pollen

Not effective against T. urticae because of the web

Used particularly in pepper crops

Can survive and reproduce only on pollen

Amblyseius swirskiiSubclass: Acari

Order: Mesostigmata

Family: PhytoseiidaeNative to the mediterranean

Suited for warm (25-28⁰C) and humid (60-70%) conditions

Generalist predator: 1-2 instar thrips

Eggs, 1st larvae whitefly

Can survive & reproduce on pollen

spider mites

Used commercially to control whiteflies

Establish well in the crop

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Arachnida

Order: Aranea

Family: Linyphiidae

Spiders

Most dominant predator in agro-ecosystems

Consume many prey

in short timeSurvive at low pest

population

Most BCA are specialists

Spiders are generalist predators

Spider BC = conservation of spiders (e.g. selective spraying)

3 main families in desert agro-ecosystems of wheat(Gavish et al. 2008)

Linyphiidae

Gnaphosiidae

Theridiidae

Gnaphosidae

Theriididae

Parasitoids

An organism that live in or on another animal (host), exploiting and killing it

Aphytis melinus, a parasitoid of the

California red scale

Encarsia formosa, parasitoid of

whitefly nymphs

Occupy a host during development

Adult is free-living

Parasites

An organism that live in or on a host, exploiting but not killing it

Blacklegged tick

Occupy a host at all life stages

A parasitoid that lives on the external surface of

its host, feeding on it and killing it in the process.

Diglyphus isaea

D. isaea pupae

Ectoparasitoid

Parasitoid of the vegetable leafminer

Endoparasitoid

A parasitoid that lives inside the body of its host,

feeding on it and killing it in the process.

Don’t cause immediate death of the host

Feed on the essential tissues only at the end of development

Protected inside the host

parasitoid of the citrus leafminer

Ageniaspis citricola

Idiobiont : prevent further development of the host after initial

parasitization

Types of parasitoids

attack an immobile life stage (e.g. an egg or pupa)

mostly ectoparasitoids

Koinobiont : the host continues to develop after prasitization and is

only killed when the parasitoid reaches maturity

attack any life stage

Both ecto- and endoparasitoids

Egg parasitoids

Life-stages attacked

Complete their development in the egg stage of the host

Brown stink bug

Halyomorpha halys

Trissolcus halymorphae

Egg-larval parasitoids

Attack the egg, but complete development at the larval stage

Adult parasitoid emerge from the larva


Egg-pupa parasitoids

Attack the egg, but delay development and kill the host before pupation

Adult parasitoid emerge from the pupa

Chelonus sp.e.g. Chelonus annulipes attack the EU corn borer

EU corn borer

e.g. Fopius arisanus attack fruit fly eggs (e.g. ceratitis capitate)

Larva parasitoids


Complete their development in the larval stage of the host

Pieris rapaeSmall cabbage white butterfly

(Baraconidae)Cotesia rubecula

Parasitize 1st instar

Larval-pupal parasitoids

Deposit it’s egg in or on the host larva

Adult parasitoid emerge from the larva


Larval-adult parasitoids

*rare in nature

e.g. Diachasmimorpha kraussi attack the fruit fly

Parasitoid larva completes development in host pupa

Deposit it’s egg in or on the host larva

Parasitoid larva completes development and kills host adult

Picture by Yoav Gazit

Bactroceralatifrons

Pupal parasitoids


Complete their development in the host pupa

Diamondback moth

Plutella xylostella

Diadromus collaris (Ichneumonidae)

Parasitoids as natural enemies

Hymenoptera

IchneumonidaeChalcidoidae

Aphelinidae

Mymaridae

Encytidae

Trichogrammatidae

Eulophidae

Braconidae

Diptera Leopidoptera

Tachinidae Epipyroptera


Hymenoptera


Aphelinidae

Mymaridae

Encytidae

Trichogrammatidae

Eulophidae

Braconidae

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Hymenoptera

Super-Family: Chalcidoidea

Egg parasitoids

whiteflies

aphids

More than 30 species

Important for biological control


Hymenoptera


Aphelinidae

Mymaridae

Encytidae

Trichogrammatidae

Eulophidae

Braconidae

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Hymenoptera

Super-Family: Chalcidoidea

Egg parasitoids

mealybugs

whiteflies

aphids

Armoured scale insect

Encarsia formosaOrder: Hymenoptera

Super-family: Chalcidoidea

Family: Aphelinidae

Trialeurodes vaporariorum Tobacco whiteflyGreenhouse whitefly

Bemisia tabaci

Used in BC of whitefly since 1972

Preferred species

Skilled in finding whitefly patches

Faster development than that of

whiteflies (27 vs. 32 days)Encarsia formosa

Encarsia formosaSuper-family: Chalcidoidea

Family: Aphelinidaeo Females prefer to oviposit

in 3rd – 4th instar nymphs

o Larva develops in the 4th

instar of the host

o Dark parasitized pupa

o Adult emerge from the pupa

Larval-pupa parasitoid

o Adult feed on honeydew

& larvae, i.e. host feeding

Eretmocerus eremicus Order: Hymenoptera


Family: Aphelinidae

Trialeurodes vaporariorum

Tobacco whitefly

Greenhouse whitefly

Bemisia tabaci


Ectoparasitoid

Female may lay eggs under already

parasitized larvae (super-parasitism)

More efficient than E. formosa

E. eremicus

Eretmocerus Mundus

E. mundus

Native to the mediterranean


Exclusively parasitize B. tabaci

Macrosiphus sp.

Potato aphid

Aphelinus abdominalis Order: Hymenoptera


Family: Aphelinidae

Aphid mummies

Endoparasitoid of various sp.

The egg is injected to

the underside of the aphid

Wasp larvae develops inside

the aphid and kills it when it pupates

Host feeding on small nymphs

Used in BC since 1993

Leptomastix dactylopiiOrder: Hymenoptera


Family: EncyrtidaeSpecialist parasitoid

Endoparasitoid

Female oviposit in 3rd instar

Larva consume the mealybug

Pupate inside the dead mealybug

Efficient searching behaviour

Control pest at low densitiesCitrus mealybug Planococcus citri

Trichogramma brassicae Order: Hymenoptera


Family: TrichogrammatidaeEgg parasitoid of moths

2-3 eggs are laid

in each moth egg

Wasp larva pupate

inside the moth egg

Used against the corn borer

Anagrus atomus Order: Hymenoptera


Family: MymaridaeFamily of egg parasitoids

Parasitize leafhopper eggs

Enters the glasshouse naturally

Not sufficient for effective control

Empoasca vitis

Diglyphus isaeaOrder: Hymenoptera


Family: Eulophidae

Tomato leafminer Liriomyza bryoniae

Ectoparasitoid

Parasitize many sp. of leafminers

Egg laid near paralayzed

leafminer larva

Larva pupates in the dead mine

Host feeding

Released to control leafminers

in glasshouses, used since 1984

Aphid parasitoidsOrder: Hymenoptera

Super-family: Ichneumonoidea

Family: Braconidae

A. matricariae

3 important Aphidius species

A. erviA. colemani

Aphis spp.

Myzus spp.

Aulacorthum solani

Myzus persicaeMacrosiphum euphobiae

Commercially used for biological control

Efficient at low densities

Aphelinus abdominalis

Macrosiphum spp.

Aulacorthum spp.

Myzus spp.

Commercially used for

biological control

Host feeding

Occur naturally

Macrosiphum spp.

Glasshouse potato aphid

A. solani M. euphobiae

Potatoaphid

Cotton aphidAphis gossypii

Egg

larva

Aphid mummymummy

with pupa

Waspemerge

Aphedius colemani Order: Hymenoptera


Family: Braconidaeo Rapid population growth

o Female lay >300 eggs

o Parasitize nymphs & adult

o Cocoon inside the aphid cuticle

Wasp presence

Secretion of warning substance

Drop to the ground

Some aphids dieAdds to Biological control

Hyper-parasitoidsOrder: Hymenoptera

Super-family: Ceraphronoidea

Family: Megaspilidaeo Parasitoids on aphid parasitoids

o Serious threat to aphid control

Dendrocerus carpenteri

Ectoparasitoid of 4th instar larva or pupa

D. Carpentri larva eats Aphidius larvae

from the outside & pupates

Hyper-parasitoid emerge

from the mummyAlloxysta spp.

lay the egg inside the

Aphidius larva

D. carpenteri

lay the egg next

to Aphidius larva Aphidius larva

Opius pallipes & Dacnusa sibirica Order: Hymenoptera


Family: BraconidaeEndoparasitoids of leaf-miners

Fast population growth than leaf-miners

Egg-pupa parasitoids (prefer 1st, 2nd instar)

Larva reach full development after leaf-miner pupation

Super-parasitism occur,

D. sibirica

O. pallipes

only 1 wasp will emerge

D. sibirica used commercially

OpiinaeFamily: Braconidae

Subfamily: Opiinaeo Endoparasitoids of fruit-flies (Tephritidae)

Bactrocera tryoni

Ceratitis capitata

Introduced & established in IL

Not sold commercially

o Fruit fly egg is laid inside the fruit,

the larva develop within,

pupate on the ground

o Wasps lay egg inside the egg or larva

o Wasp larva develop in the larva & pupa

o Adult wasp emerge

from the fly’s pupa Diachasmimorpha kraussii

Fopius arisanus

Parasitoid flies Order: Diptera

Family: Tachinidae Large family of parasitoid flies

Attack larvae of Lepidoptera & Coleoptera

Egg deposited next to the host

Maggot ingested with the

leaf by caterpillar

Maggot develops inside

Pupate inside the host, killing the caterpillar

Adult fly emerge

Voria ruralis

maggot

Phylum: Nematoda

Class: Chromadorea

Order: Rhabditidae

Entomopathogenic nematodes

Nematodes are simple round-worms

Colourless, un-segmented, lacking appendages

Free-living, predaceous or parasitic

Lethal to many insect pests, but safely applied

Microbial

pathogens

Entomopathogenic

nematodes

Predators

Parasitoids

Kill pest within 24-48 hours

Photo: Y. Wang

Nematode life cycle

2 genera used in BC: Steinernema

Heterorhabditis

Juvenile search for host

Penetrate through body cavity

Release symbiotic bacteria

Feed on bacteria & liquefied host

Develop & reproduce in the host

Infective juveniles emerge

Nematode-Bacterium complex

Donald Danforth Plant Science Center

Bacterial Chamber

Infective Juveniles

Curtesy of Roy Kaspi

Symbiotic relationship with bacteria

Heterorhabditis Bacteriophora

Biological control

Marketed world wide, against a broad range of pests

Steinernema carpocapsae

Sit-&-wait forager, called Ambusher

Effective against lepidopteran & coleoptera larva

Effective against highly mobile surface insects

Heterorhabditis bacteriophora

Active forager, called Cruiser

Effective against sedentary insects

White grub (larva of June beetle) Photo: Ganpati Jagdale

Conclusion

Many groups are involved in biological control

Efficient BCA are both generalists and specialists

Effective biological control is cheap, safe

and may hold for many years

Success depends on understanding the

pest-natural enemy interactions

Acknowledgments

Dr. Roy Kaspi

Prof. Moshe Coll

Malais, M.H. & Ravensberg, W.J. Knowing and recognizing, the biology

of glasshouse pests and their natural enemies. Koppert Biological Systems

Most material taken from:

Photo: Y. Gazit

Yaniv, Assaf & Ayala

for babysitting

Documents

Natural enemies used in biological control