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British Geological Survey NATURAL ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH COUNCIL

Department for International DFID Development

BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

TECHNICAL REPORT WF/01/03 Mineral Resources Series

Utilisation of mineral waste: a scoping study D J Harrison', A J Bloodworth', J M Eyre2, P W Scott2 & M MacFarlane3

'BGS, 2Carnborne School of Mines (University of Exeter), 'University of Warwick

This report is an output from a project funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) under the UK provision of technical assistance to developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of the Department.

DFID Classification: Subsector: Geoscience Theme: G1 Environmental mineral resource development Project title: Minerals kom Waste Project reference: R7416

Bibliographic reference: Utilisation of mineral waste: a scoping study D J Harrison, A J Bloodworth, J M Eyre, P W Scott & M MacFarlane. British Geological Survey Technical Report WF/01/03. 80pp.

Front coverphotograph: Artisanal miners reprocessing waste material at a former tin mine in Namibia.

0 NERC Copyright 2001

Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, United Kingdom. www.bgs.ac.uk

\ SUMMARY

Mine and quarry waste from the extraction and processing of minerals, ores and rocks commonly occurs in substantial volumes which remain in waste piles or tailings heaps, although some is used in back filling of open pits and for landscaping and other uses within the mine site. Fine-grained waste especially creates problems in its containment and disposal and usually remains at the site after mining has long since ceased. Some mine waste has the potential as a raw material for industrial mineral products and construction.

This research project was carried out under the UK Department for International Development’s Know ledge and Research Programme of aid to developing countries. The project was formulated to investigate mineral waste as potential sources of industrial mineral and constructional raw materials and to develop methodologies for their evaluation. This report presents the results of the first phase of the project, which is a scoping study to provide an overview of the potential of mineral waste and the economic, environmental and social issues involved in mine waste utilisation. A second phase of the project (which will be reported separately) involves detailed case study investigations of mineral waste at several former and current mining sites in Costa Rica and Namibia. The project was undertaken in collaboration with the Instituto Costariccense de Electricidad in Costa Rica and the Ministry of Mines and Energy in Namibia. The project was led by the British Geological Survey with specialist input from the Camborne School of Mines (University of Exeter) and the Corporate Citizenship Unit at the University of Warwick.

There are four main types of mineral waste. One is a bulk product requiring minimal processing and the market is local (such as quarry scalpings used as fill or low quality roadstone). The second is processed to reclaim a mineral product which is a major component of the waste (such as fine grained sand from silica sand waste). The market is most likely to be local. ‘The third contains small amounts of a mineral which may be extracted by mineral processing to produce added value products (such as feldspar and mica in waste from tin-bearing pegmatites). Here the rrlarket for the products will be national, possibly international. The fourth type of waste contains very high value minerals (such as gemstones) which can be recovered by mineral beneficiation. The market is international.

The project embraces mineral waste from mine and quarry extraction and processing, but does not include mineral waste from industrial processes (such as slags, foundry sands, pulverised fuel ash) or from construction and engineering works (building waste). The principal materials studied include waste from aggregate extraction (both hard rock and alluvial sand and gravel), waste from dimension stone quarrying, slate waste, colliery spoil, waste from a number of other types of industrial mineral operation (such as kaolin, talc, silica sand) and waste from metal mining.

This scoping study report uses a fact-sheet approach to describe each mineral waste, including descriptions of their likely volumes, composition and technical properties, their potential end uses and the general constraints on their usage. A methodology is developed to assess the economic viability of developing industrial iruneral products from mine waste and this is extended to include small-scale mining. A further objective of the project is to develop an understanding of the social arid environmental impacts of reworking mine waste together with development of a methodology for

assessing the social impacts. To achieve this aim the range of direct, indirect and cumulative impacts are reviewed and best practice procedures for social impact assessment are presented.

This report is aimed as a general guide to the utilisation of mine waste for industrial mineral products. It is anticipated that the guidance and methodologies will be applicable to all regions and countries. Overall, the information presented in this report is aimed to be of benefit not only to geoscientists, but also to mining engineers, those concerned with environmental protection and social scientists, as well as all involved in the management of mining operations.

CONTENTS

PAGE

1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Mineral wastes 1.3 Classification of mineral wastes 1.4 Structure of the report

2. MINERAL WASTE FACTSHEETS 2.1 Building stone quarry wastes 2.2 Coal mine wastes 2.3 Crushed rock aggregate wastes 2.4 Kaolin wastes 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Silica sand wastes 2.10 Slate wastes 2. I 1 2.12 Wastes from phosphate mining 2.13 Wastes from metal mining

Limestone and dolomite quarry wastes Wastes from mineral sand mining Wastes from mining of pegmatites Sand and gravel quarry wastes

Wastes from talc mining

5 6 9 12 15 18 20 23 26 29 31 34 37 40

3. ECONOMIC FACTORS IN MINE WASTE UTILISATION 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Evaluation criteria 45 3.3 Technical 45 3.4 Costing 47

, 3.5 Marketing 48 3.6 Economic viability 51 3.7 Other factors 52 3.8 Economic factors in waste utilisation from small-scale mining 52

4. SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS GENERATED BY MINING AND QUARRYING ACTIVITIES 55

4.1 Direct social impacts 55

4.3 Cumulative social impacts 57 4.4 Assessment of social impacts of mine development. 57

4.2 Indirect social impacts (including environmental impacts) 56

5. CONCLUSlONS 59

6. REFERENCES 60

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1 . SOCIAL IMPACTS OF MINE WASTE UTILISATION 63

APPENDIX 2. ASSESSMENT OF SOCIAL, IMPACTS OF MINE DEVELOPMENT 73

APPENDIX 3. SOCIAL IMPACT REFERENCES 79

1

1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction

Mineral extraction and processing operations generate considerable volumes of ‘permanent’ mineral waste, most of which are stockpiled on site, disposed of in tailings ponds or transferred away from the quarry for disposal at waste sites. Some waste materials are used in backfilling or in site restoration within the excavation. These are known as ‘temporary waste’.

The main effects of ‘permanent’ waste are:

Visual impact A source of dust

Loss of usable land andor sterilization of mineral resources at the quarry or mine site

A possible source of contamination to surface water courses Additional costs to the mining company of storage and long-term maintenance of the waste pile

There is a considerable volume of research on the utilisation of waste from metal mining, particularly for recovery of metal ores, but little work has been done on the recovery of marketable industrial minerals from mine and quarry waste. If beneficial use could be found for these wastes, which in aggregate quarries for example generally make up 20 - 30% of total output, this would create added-value products and improve the profitability of the quarrying operations, at the same time as meeting certain sustainability criteria. In developing countries such waste materials also represent a valuable resource that could be used in a range of local, secondary industry thereby creating opportunities for improved livelihoods for the rural poor.

The ‘Minerals from Waste’ project aims to improve the sustainability of current and former mining and quarrying communities by investigating the utilisation of mineral waste as a source of construction and industrial minerals. This project has been funded by the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) as part of their Knowledge and Research (KAR) programme which constitutes a key element in the UK’s provision of aid and assistance to less industrialised nations.

This report presents the results of the first phase of the project which is a Scoping Study to provide a preliminary overview assessment of the potential of mineral waste and an appreciation of the economic and sociological issues involved in their utilisation. The report offers guidance on the use of mineral waste as a source of construction and industrial minerals. I t does not attempt to offer prescriptive solutions but provides the background for informed decision making. This report will be useful for geoscientists, mining engineers and social scientists working in government, the private sector and academic institutions, although it is primarily intended for geological surveys, mines departments and other government bodies. Further rnore detailed information will follow in a second phase report describing project implementation studies at trial sites in Costa Kica and Namibia. ‘I’his will describe evaluations of mine waste materials from;

A working silica sand quarrying operation in Costa Rica

2

A former open-pit mine in Namibia which worked ‘hard rock’ pegmatite deposits for tin

0 A working underground lead-zinc mine in Namibia

The report on implementation studies includes technical and economic appraisals of the waste materials, as well as social impact assessments at each site. These case studies will be not only of‘ interest to the host countries, but also to the wider community as examples of methodology development and implementation.

The ‘Minerals from Waste’ project has been led by a team at the British Geological Survey comprising David Harrison, Andrew Bloodworth, Clive Mitchell and Ellie Evans. Other UK-based collaborators have included Professor Peter Scott and John Eyre from the Camborne School of Mines (University of Exeter) and Dr Magnus Macfarlane and Professor Alyson Warhurst from the Corporate Citizenship Unit at the University of Warwick.

More information about the ‘Minerals from Waste’ project can be obtained from contacting the project manager David Harrison at the British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham. email diha@bns.ac.uk

1.2 Mineral waste

A waste is generally understood to be something that is discarded or will be discarded.

This study considers mineral waste from raw materials extraction and processing. It does not include mineral waste from industrial processes or waste from construction and engineering works.

The principal materials studied (from which marketable industrial minerals and construction materials may potentially be recovered) are the following:

e Waste from hard rock extraction - mostly limestone, sandstone, igneous and metamorphic rocks for aggregate use Waste from sand and gravel extraction S late waste Colliery spoil China clay (kaolin) waste Waste from building stone quarrying Waste from other workings - silica sand, talc, mineral sands etc. Waste from metal mining

The following materials are not considered:

Secondary waste - slags, foundry sands, synthetic gypsum, PFA etc. Recycling waste -- demolition rubble, bricks/blocks, concrete etc.

3

Processed waste

1.3 Classification of mineral waste

Colliery spoil Fill, brickmaking Silica sand waste Silica sand, kaolin, brick clay

For the purpose of evaluating mineral waste a classification should take account of economically important characteristics of the waste, in particular the potential end use and the amount of processing required to produce potentially saleable products.

There is no universally recognised classification of mineral waste. A simple classification scheme is proposed in Table 1 . Each mineral waste can be classified into one of four descriptive categories.

Unprocessed waste I Quarry scalpings I Fill, low grade roadstone

reclaimed mineral - I Mineral filler, Aglime I Building s t o n e a r (-

Processed waste - I Leadzinc waste I Fluorite, baryte added-value products I Pegmatite waste 1 Feldspar, rare earths, mica

I Silica sand waste I Heavy minerals p Y F e Beneficiated waste I Certain mine waste I Gemstones, high value metals 'l'able 1.Classification of mineral waste

Type 1 mineral waste requires minimal processing and generate low value bulk commodities. Their market is most likely to be local to the mine site. Large amounts U 1 Wcl?iLC Illay uc lC1llUVCU l lU l l l LllC quil11y U 1 111111E; SILC.

Type 2 waste utilise minor amounts of processing to reclaim a mineral product which occurs in large amounts within the waste. Significant amounts of waste may be removed, but smaller amounts of secondary waste will be created. The market is local, possibly national.

Type 3 waste contain small quantities of a mineral which may be extracted as an added-value product by mineral processing. Significant capital investment may be needed for the processing plant and large amounts of waste may still remain at the mine site. The market for the added-value products are mostly national, possibly internat ional.

Type 4 mineral waste contain very small amounts of a target mineral within the waste, but it is of sufficiently high value to warrant extensive mineral beneficiation to recover it. A significant disadvantage IS that virtually all the waste remains and major capital investment may be needed for a sophisticated processing plant. The market for such products are usually international.

The classification serves to describe the range of mineral waste which is produced by the extractive industry. On many quarry or mine sites mineral waste will be derived directly from the chief mineral being exploited, but most sites will contain additional materials. Quarry waste may result from the extraction of overburden or interburden,

4

or from the quarrying of inferior quality mineral which does not rneei the specification requirements for the present markets for the mineral. Residues are also generated during mineral processing , from the crushing and screening process or from the grinding, liberation and select ion of target minerals.

The creation of mineral waste with a mixed lithology and texture creates opportunity for choice. The selection of the most appropriate product from mine and quarry waste needs to take into account a range of market, technical and economic factors. The decision making involved in selection requires as a starting point detailed information on each material available. In most cases the physical, mineralogical and chemical properties of the waste themselves are most important.

1.4 Structure of the Report

In Chapter 2 the report provides an overview of the main mineral waste focusing on their sources and volume statistics, their composition and likely properties, their potential end uses and general technical, economic and environmental constraints. A ‘fact-sheet’ approach is used to present a mini-profile of each mineral waste and its main downstream products or derivatives.

Chapter 3 provides an account of the economic factors involved in the utilisation of mining and quarrying waste, summarising the main factors cited as constraints on economic viability. The report lists the evaluation criteria (technical. costing, marketing, cash-flow etc) which need to be addressed in a mineral development project. A separate section deals with the economic viability o f small-scale mining.

Chapter 4 provides a summary of the diverse social impacts (including environmental impacts) generated by mining and quarrying activities and provides best practice procedures and methodologies for assessing the social impacts of mineral development. More detailed information on social and environmental impacts, and on social impact assessment is provided in the appendices to this report.

Conclusions are given in Chapter 5. Appendix 1 , 2 and 3 are detailed descriptions of social impact assessment and methodologies.

5

2. MINERAL WASTE FACTSHEETS

Building stone quarry waste

Coal mine waste

Crushed rock aggregate waste

Kaolin waste

Limestone and dolomite waste

Silica sand waste

Slate waste

Waste from talc mining

Waste from phosphate mining

Waste from metal mining

Waste from mineral sand mining

Waste from mining of pegmatites

Sand and gravel quarry waste

1 Specific gravity ~ 2.31 I Particle density ~ Soluble sulphate 1 PH 1 4.2-8.5 i Silica 1 38-60% ~ Alurnina I 14-30°/o I Iron oxide 1 31-11yo I

I 2.51-2.90 Mg/rn2 1 0.6-7.0 SOJlitre

- -- - - - _- - - - ___ -. - -_-_ _- _- - - - - - - - Table 2. Typical properties of colliery spoil in Britain (from ClRIA report CS13)

J

Uses

The main use of colliery spoil is as constructional fill in road embankments, building sites arid in landscaping and land reclamation. Some is also used in the lower layers of road construction. The main problem with the use of colliery spoil is its variability within a deposit. For this reason generally colliery spoil is suitable for use only in undemanding situations, although in some circumstances it can be upgraded by processing (washing, screening, blending) with a consequent increase in cost. In many developed countries government policies encourage the use of reclaimed materials wherever possible to reduce demand for primary aggregates. Such policies encourage usage of colliery spoil and other secondary aggregates and provide guidance on usage in various aspects of construction.

Other commercial outlets for colliery spoil include brickmaking and the inanufacture of lightweight aggregate for concrete blocks. There are also some examples of colliery waste being used as the argillaceous component in cement manufacture. Some former tips of coal waste also have the potential to be reprocessed to extract residual coal.

Constraints

The greatest problem tor use of mine waste is its variable quality and in road construction, its poor durability, although this may be mitigated by lime stabiliwtion.

Chemical problems may limit the application of the waste. Soluble sulphates create a risk of sulphate attack on concrete structures. Pyrite may become oxidised and result in acid leachates and acidic ground conditions if used in landscaping and reclamat ion. The acid may also react with calcium carbonate, if present, forming gypsum; a chemical reaction which can cause heave.

Despite these problems, mine waste often occurs in large volumes and is widely used, primarily as a fill material but also, in smaller quantitie\, as a sub-hrise or base material for road construction. I f the mine waste occurs in a remote area then transport cost\ x e ii major harrier to be overcome.

and lignite, the latter as a cheap energy source. Some operations in sedimentary kaolin deposits already produce silica sand as a co-product.

Constituents and Properties

The china clay sand in the U K is typically a quartz sand (8S% - 88% quartz) with some tourmaline (9% - I 1%) and smaller amounts of feldspar (2% - 3%) and mica ( 1 % - 1.5%). Due to its consistency, china clay sand has the greatest potential for reuse of all the constituents of kaolin waste. When the sand is processed through a basic wiishlng and grading plant it is likely that it will meet the required specificat ions for building and concreting sands. Details o f some physical and chemical properties of the sand are given in ‘Table 3 .

The accessory minerals in the granite, which may include cassiterite and titanium, tantalum, zirconium, hafnium and niobium minerals, are released during the kaolinisation process. They can be recovered as a by-product during processing using dense media or gravity separation (Scott and others, 1998).

1 Physical Properties 1 Specific Gravity 1-2.60to 2.65 1 Water Absorption (%) r FukDensity - loose (Kg/m3)

1 -Chemica/Properties (Wt%):

_._ -

. _ _ _ _

~ - 0.5tO -1.9 r540--- - - - . - _________ __ __ I_ _.._._

Bulk Density - compact& (Kg/m3) [ 1650

I Silica 187.20 _ . ._

p.40 - ~ _ __

1 Alumina j Iron Oxide 1 59

Titanium Oxide io.19 ( Calcium Oxide 1 0.10

Potash 1 1.12

, - -

, Magnesium Oxide 1 0.29

j Soda I 0 0 8 i LOSS on ignition i 1 0 6

‘Table 3 l yp ica l physical and chemical chararteristic\ of china clav sand (from Humphreys and other\, 1996).

IJses

In south west England the sand is used extensively in the construction industry as fine aggregate for concrete, as a mortar sand, in road sub-bases and constructional fill. About I .S million tonnes per year are used in the local consfruction industry, with occasional schemes using large amounts for fill and embankment construction.

Constraints

The major kaolin by-products (such a s china clay sand) have properties similar to primary aggregates. The constraints associated with tht. utilisation ot china clay sand arc.

0 transport costs (this is the most scrious drawback tor increased utilisation)

19

The residues from quarry processing are mostly line grained limestone powders with a range o f particle siLes. Typically. such crushed rock sands contain a high proportion of 5- 1 mm material and a large proportion of very fine grained material (less than I S O pm), with a deficiency in the ‘middle size’ ranges. Such material may be suitable for use in the construction industry as a substitute for natural fine aggregate as described in the factsheet o n crushed rock aggregate waste.

Both limestone and dolomite are widely quarried to produce coarse to fine ground limestone powders for a range of applications which require raw materials with certain physical and chemical properties. The fine grained quarry residues produced from general limestone and dolomite quarrying may also be suitable for these more specialist end uses, although further grinding and processing may be required. Relatively coarse limestone powders are used for agricultural lime to reduce soil acidity and increase levels of calcium and magnesium in the soil. Such relatively coarse fillers are also used as a filler in asphalt, in animal feedstuffs and in carpet backings, floor tiles and other applications. If the limestone powders are even finer ground ( S O % < 2pm) they may be utilised as fillers in papers, rubbers, plastics and paints. I t is essential that the limestone or dolomite powders are very white in colour.

Constraints

Transport costs are likely to be a major constraint on usage as quarries may be distant from industrial zones or other areas of market demand. The distance of a source of raw material t o the market is a critical factor in determining the competitiveness of a product.

Filler specifications, particularly for the higher value tiner grained fillers, are demanding and the quality of quarry fines produced as residues of coarse aggregate production is likely to be variable. It may be difficult, therefore, to achieve the required consistency of product quality for these ‘high value’ applications , although this may no t be such a problem for residues used in agriculture or as ‘low value’ mineral fillers. A further constraint in many countries may be the limited domestic market for by-products and strong competition from other primary raw materials.

Environmental issues

Liinestones and dolomites tend to form attractive scenery and, although the quarrying of limestone c;iuses environmental impact, the disposal of waste i n such areas of natural beauty o r high visual sensitivity will further deteriorate the erivironment. There IS theretort. a benefit i n utilising the quarry waste, particularly if the residues are used in site restoration or in landscaping the quarry sites.

1,iincstonc and dolomite quarry waste art: non-toxic materials and no environrrlc~ntal ham-d is expected i f they itre used a s raw materials.

21

_ _ _ - _ _ 2 4

therefore be split into two types; a relatively small volume of heavy minerals, and a much larger volume of ‘light’ mineral\ (principally quartL sand). This fact sheet concentrates on utilisation of the heavy niineral residucs.

. _ _ ~ - - Hornblende, garnet, pyroxene , magnetite, epidote, staurolite, kyanite, sphene, pyrite

The proportion o f heavy minerals can vary from less than 3% to more than 20%, depending on the deposit. The proportions and types of heavy minerals can also show considerable variation (see Table 4). Principal by-product minerals from heavy mineral sand waste inay include garnet, sillimanite, staurolite and monazite.

Richards Bay, South Africa

Location i Total heavy % of total 1

- - --/35-- 14

Nile Delta,

TamiI-Nadu, 1 4 India

_... ____ - __ - EgY Pt 55

50 _ _ _ ~

12% garnet, 2% sillimanite, m onazi te

Table 4. Composition of some typical heavy mineral sand deposits.

Uses

Garnet: This mineral is used in a variety o f applications including abrasives (mainly fo r sand blasting to remove paint and corro\ion from steel structures, and also for water jet cutting ot a variety of hard materials) and water filtration (as ;I heavy sand filter media). Almandine (iron garnet) or andradite (calciurn iron garnet) are preferred because of their high specific gravity.

Sillimanite: The principal use of this mineral is as a refractory for the metallurgical industry. Sillimanite used for this purpose must meet strict chemical specifications (particularly maximum levels of iron, titanium, calcium and magnesium). Other applications include specialist ceramics, foundry moulding sand and non-slip tlooring.

Stuurofite: This mineral can be used as an abrasive (for \and blasting , stone cleaning and engraving). Staurolite sand is used extensively in metal foundry work.

MonuTite: This mineral is a major source of rare earth oxides (REOs), particularly the ‘light’ KEOs, such as Cerium, Lanthanum and Neodyniuni. KEOs are a vital group of chemicals which are used in metallurgy (chiefly in the desulphurisation of steel), in the manutiicturc of catalysts and in glass and ceramics. Monazite is generally supplied a s concentrates containing 55-650/0 REO.

Constraints

The bulk of the waste produced in a niineral sand operation will be used foi restoration o1’arc‘;is where extraction has raken place. This maicrial will consist predominantly o f the ‘light., quartz-rich fraction. Constraints on the extraclion of by- products lrom the heavy mineral fraction are likely to be econoniic. Market dcmand for by-products will be required t o justity investment in the additioniil mincral processing plant required to separate out olher minerals. Reworking o f backi’illcd

24

[-Quartz (often known as ‘lascas’)

uses

High quality optis, 1 %ltra-low impurities; Relatively low- piezoelectric often graded on 1 volume, high cost 1 devices, feedstock clarity and absence 1 material. Usually

Table 5 l i s ts potential industrial mineral by-products and their uses.

~ __ - _ _ - Glass and ceramics, aluminium smelting, I- minimum Li contents

Maximum iron and I rCl;i-Cum minerals (spodumene,

__ - Growing market but ~

preferred source of

Pegmatite mining operations are generally small and are often unsuited to mechanised methods. This, coupled with their inherent geological complexity and unpredictahility, means that they are generally less likely to be of interest t o larger mining companies and are often the preserve of SMEs and artisanal miners. Despite

r- -- Beryl

_ _ - I

Bentonite (white)-

1 i Kaolin

I

1 - - - ,-- I .- - Source of beryhm

metal used in 1 2% ’ dependent on I

aerospace, defence relatively high-tech 1 I I

and nuclear , industries industries. Alloyed 1 with copper for use 1 in electronics

pharmaceuticals, food, plastics, ceramics chemical

Be0 content 10- I Market is small and

i ._ .

High brightness and- Forms by secondary

of strict physical and minerals and/ or ~

I must meet a range alteration of lithium

feldspar Relatively high value but specifications are

White filler in High brightness, I Small, pegmatite- ceramics and paint particle size related deposits I

distribution critical might be significant 1

- Paints,

1 specifications

j strict

in supplying local l markets

33

constraint on production. In the North Wales slate mining area ot'the UK, it is estimated that capital funding (for infrastructure improvements to the rail network) in the order ofL30 million is required to transport slate waste from this remote area to markets throughout the OK.

The flaky shape of slate waste can exclude its general use in concrete and may reduce the strength of roadstone mixes.

Environmental issues

Waste from slate quarrying occurs in very large volumes and is usually loose tipped o n land around the quarry sites. The material is not normally a chemical pollutant as it is inert (unless it contains pyrite which can break down to give acid drainage problems) and the main environmental impact of the waste tips is therefore visual intrusion. Such tips can dominate the landscape and in certain circumstances they may be unstable, although the material is generally free draining. Also, it is often difficult to revegetate and restore the tips, because of the coarse, angular and resistant nature of the block waste.

Utilisation of the waste would create environmental impacts from the processing and transportation of the slate raw materials. There may therefore be a clear environmental loss in working and transporting slate waste, particularly from historical tips which have blended in with the natural landscape.

41

- - __ I - - ___ - - - - - . -

-- r Process of ore accumulation 1 Major metals

__ - - __ Waste Relative

size of ore 1 body

Examples

___ _ _ _ South Africa (Bushveld), Canada (Sudbury), Zimbabwe (Great Dyke), USA (Stillwater)

I

Crystal settling of ore minerals. liquid immiscibility followed by crystallisation or some other process of ore mineral segregation during cooling of a basic or ultrabasic magma

Proterozoic iron-oxide deposit with strong hydrothermal alteration and iron metasomatism in extensional tectonic environment Not clearly defined or understood as yet

_ _ - - _ _ ~ _ _

Cr, Cu, Ni,

(Ti), (Fe), V, PGE

Pyrite, pyrrhotite. serpentinite, anorthosite, magnetite

Very large to small

Mafic Segregation

I

Olympic Dam-

Type

Pyrite, hematite, magnetite, REE oxides, uraninite,

apatite

Very large to medium

Australia (Olympic Dam), Bayan Obo (China)

Sedimentary stratiform sulphides

Concentration of metal ores within ancient sediments of marine or deltaic origin by precipitation and often subsequent recrystallisation. They are often associated with organic-rich shales.

Cu, (Pb), (Zn). CO

Pyrite, pyrrhotite. shale, sandstone

Very large to medium-

Zambia -Congo Copperbelt

. __ - __ -

Pyrite (can be very fine grained), shale,

_ _ _ -

Very large to medium

-~

Brazil (Morro- Agudo), Namibia (Rosh Pinah), Australia (Broken Hill, Mt Isa). Canada (Sullivan)

USA (Carlin. Nevada)

-

Sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX)

Accumulations of ore by precipitation on or near the sea floor by hot saline watery fluids which dissolve the metals by circulating through the oceanic crust

Hot watery fluids from igneous or other sources contain the metals in solution and precipitate the ores as they pass through carbonate andor carbonaceous sediments

Carlin-type gold Pyrite (often very fine grained). Can

contain traces of TI and Hg

Very large to medium

Volcanic massive sulphides

(VMS)

Accuniulations between and within lava tlows and dSSOCiated sediments by exhalation ot hot saline watery fluids dissolving metals from older volcanic and other rocks and precipitating ores onto an ancient Ocean floor, usually at or near a site of sea- floor spreading

Very large to small

1 Canada (Abitibr Belt i

I - Kidd Creek, Noranda). Burkino Faso (Perkoa), Namibia (Matchless Belt), lberiari Pyrite Belt, RSA

(Aggeneys)

Pyrite. pyrrhotite, magnetite, barite, altered host rock

I 1 Table 6 (continue

. -~ - _ _ 1 Metals dissolved in water j migrating through sediments are ~ precipated in permeable 1 sandstones and conglomerates by

chemical reduction The

, sediments have formed in a

I

Mississippi Val I ey-T ype

(MVT)

U. v. (CUI.

(Ag). (MO)

Hydrothermal base metal

I veins

I

i

r Sandstone uranium vanadium base

Archaen vein

gold

volcano or beneath hot springs. by I convection

- _ _ Carbonatites and kimberlites (see also Phosphates '

Epithermal precious metals

I Types of metal ore deposfts and typlcal mineral waste

Process of ore accumulation

Epigenetic ores occurring in undeformed platform margin carbonate (mainly dolostones) platforms Wide range of local depositional habits , including collapse breccia replacements, vein and manto deposits lndivdual deposits are generally small (<2Mt) but occur in clusters which can cover thousands of km2 eg type MVT district

Hot watery fluids of an igneous. or deep rirculating meteoric source, or hot water trapped in sediments, migrate, dissolve, and re- precipitate metals as ores in veins and other fractures or cavities in sedimentary and/or volcanic rocks Replacement of limestone or other rock adlacent to the vein may also occur

- __ -

Fluids flow through metamorphosed volcanic rocks and sediments becoming enriched in gold and precipitate it in veins and by reaction with the wallrock.

Explosive intrusion of dykes and pipes of carbonated ultrabasic rock into overlying hostrocks in Archeaen cratons and some Proterozoic mobile belts

Major metals

Sn, W, Cu. Zn. Pb.

(Fe). (MO) Bi, As, Sb,

Hg, (Au),

(Ag), U

Au

I Waste I Relative

size of ore ~ body

Pyrite, fluorite, i Large to barite, small limestone, dolomite ~

-

Pyrite. arsenopyrite, quartz, altered to barren host rock

- -

Pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite. quartz, carbonate, altered hostrock

Host rock, apatite. pyrite. fluorite. barite, monazite.

.__

i Host rock

Large to small

Medium to

small

Large to

small

Small

I I

I I

I j I

I I

I Quartz. ' Mdiurn to

1 sericite 1 small ' carbonate 1 I I I I

I

I Examples

1 USA (SE Missouri, 1 Viburnum Trend, 1 Tri-State District), I , South Africa ~ (Pering), Peru (San ' Vicente) I

1 UK (Cornwall), I i Australia (Bendigo- 1 Ballarat), Spain , (Almaden)

Brazil (Morro Velho), Australia (Kalgoorlie. Timmins,)

South Africa (Kimberly, Phalarborwa)) Angola, Brazil, Russia

i USA (Colorado ' plateau)

' Andes. Japan

43

Relative size of ore

body

E xamples

Contact

Process of ore accumulation Type

metasomatic (Skarns)

Major 1 -waste metals I

Greisens

(see also 'Pegmatites' factsheet)

Enrichment in-ores created by fluids from the magma reacting with an intruded rock, often limestone, adjacent to an intrusion, usually granitic in composition Highley variable morphology and rnineralogy makes generalisation difficult

- 1 (Fe), (Cu), 1 W, (Au) (Zn). (Pb)

I

- - ___ - - -~

Hot watery fluids rich cause alteration of crystallised granite and also bring in metal ores, the source of the metals being from the magma

watery silicate fluid during cooling of granite magma Some minerals form large or giant crystals I ..

Placers

- I 1 Secondary

enrichment

I

Accumulation of dense minerals containing the metals in recent sedimentary rocks. typically sand and gravels, or ancient equivalents in rivers or beach environments Palaeoplacers known - largest and best known is the Witwatersrand

- - . - - . - - - . - _. - .

Dissolution of a low concentration of a metal ore from the surface during weathering and forming an increased concentration by re- precipation below the water table

at depth

Sn, W, Li. REE. U, Ta, Nb, Be

Ti, Zr, Au,

(PGE).

(U). (Fe)

__ - Cu, (Zn)

Granite, quartz, micas, altered host rock

Granite, micas, altered host rock

Granite, feldspar, micas, quartz

Quartz, feldspar, magnetite,

- -

Quartz. Iimonite, hematite

Small, but can be in groups around a granite

Generally small

Indonesia (parts of Ertsberg), Mexico (Durango , Chihuahua)

UK (Cltgga ), Nova Scotia (East Kemptville), Germany (Erzgebirge) _ _ - ___ .

veins

Very large to small Strandlines or river valleys

- - _ Medium to

small

Artisanal gold, tin. tantalum across developing world Heavy mineral sands (Ti. Zr) in Australia. South Africa and USA Palaeoplacer (W itwatersrand South Africa)

Zambia, DR Conqo. many porphyry coppers in Arizona and Chile

- . _

Note:Virtually all of the world's iriajor metal ore deposits have accumulated by one of these prtxesses, or cxcasionally by ;I combination of inore than one process. There is some overlap ktween some types (eg. VMS and SEDEX) as the p r t ~ e s s of concentration is almost the same. They are separated here hecause they ;ire separately defined in the geological literature and the names of the types are well known i n the mining industry. ( ) denotes that this process is not the nia-jor source of this metal. although some important deposits exist. and the rnetal muy be ;in in iportant by-product ii-oin so iw iiiiws.

PGF - Platinuni group cleinents (Pt, I'd. Ir, Kh. Ku, O s ) KEE - Rare earth elenicrits (Ce, I,a, etc).

Metal mining operations produce waste which fits into all four categories ot'the mine waste classiiicatioii set out in the introduction to this report . Like any other mineral extract ion operation, metal mining ciiii produce large volumes of overburden material. Ideally this should he used as restoration material, although it may have other uses (such as aggregate), depending on its proximity to miirkets.

45

3. ECONOMIC FACTORS IN MINE WASTE UlII,ISATION

3.1 Introduction

The economic recovery of minerals from mine and quarry waste requires initial investment and/or continuous application of resources in terms of time, space, labour and plant. If it can be shown that the recovery is technically feasible, then the incentive to produce those minerals will only arise if the costs involved are less than the market value of the minerals and the cost of disposing of them.

This section lists the information required to make a preliminary assessment of the economic viability of developing an industrial mineral product from mining and quarrying waste. I n terms of internationally accepted del‘init ions of mining assessment exercises it falls between the UN-ECE definitions of a Geological Study at the pre- investment stage arid a Pre-Feasibility Study (See: United Nations - European CO m m is s io n for E u rope 1 n t er nat i o n a 1 Framework Pro po sa I , Proposed N o me n c 1 at u re and Draft Definitions of Terms).

A separate section deals with the economic viability of small-scale mining.

3.2 Evaluation criteria

There are a number of inter-related technical and economic categories which need to be addressed in any Pre-Development Project involving mineral extraction, including mine waste utilisation. Government agencies and private investors undertake mineral property evaluation, in each case the evaluation criteria need t o be clearly defined in order to provide the basis for evaluation. In the case of mineral waste, inany of these points would have already been addressed when the mine or quarry was originally put into operation. These criteria can loosely be described under the following headings, which may be useful in transforming the site-based proJect ideas into broad invest men t pro po s i t ions :

‘Technical Costing Marketing Economic Viability Other factors

3.3 l‘echnical

Thih includes background information of the origin and composition o f the wilsle, The information needed includes a description of the geology of the deposit, information on the primary product(s), details of the extraction and processing which generate the waste, and a description o f the mineralogy, chemistry and physical properties of the waste. Knowledge of the extraction and processing methods i n production of the primary rock o r mineral will give an indication of thc variation in quality of the waste.

Estimates of the waste resource need to be classified into ‘inferred’, ‘indicated’ o r ‘measured’ categories. Which of‘ these categories is appropriate will depend on the extcnt o f knowleclgc o f t he ;inioilnts 01’ waste niaterial (tonnages), iind thc quality and variation in the properties of the waste. A thorough appraisal ot‘the waste s o that it can be placed into the ‘measured’ category requires an extensive sampling programme, by drilling and/or trenching, with the properties of the waste measured in terms of its potential use(s). An estimate of the total tonnage of product(s) from t h e waste is needed for an abandoned site, and a rate of production of waste for the given life of the mine or quarry is needed from an active site.

In order to determine if it is technically feasible to extract a given mineral resource from a waste pile, it will be necessary to select the most appropriate t‘actor from the 10 Ilo w 1ng.

Method of extraction- this will depend upon the method of placement and nature of the mine waste. The most common method of placement is likely to be i i

tailings pond for fine grained fractions of processing waste o r a waste dump for coarse dry material. In these cases, dredging, hydraulic mining or quarrying methods may be employed. The reasons for selection must be specified, and geotechnical testwork will be required in order to determine the most appropriate design and sequence for the extraction process. Forecast - the ore tonnage, grade, waste and production schedule recovery rates and efficiencies will need t o be estimated. Equipment selection - the availability of major itenis of plant and equipment should be researched, together with their rating and nuniber, utilisation and productivity. provision of spares, working life and replacement schetlulcs. Manpower requirements - the provision o f manpower, working schedules, manning levels and management is fundamental to the success o f the venture, Working environment and safety requirements - the legal and social requirements for the provision of a safe working environment will have an influence o n the method of’extraction to he adopted. Waste disposal arrangements - the correct siting and method of placemeni of any waste arising from the process will need to be established.

A basic proce\\ description together with a summary of studies justifying tht. choice of tht. intended route is rrquircd Details of testwork, scale-up and p r o p o d extrapolation Factors used are needed. If the treatment is based on proven iind te\ted processes, this should be noted.

Typically the following data should be provided:

Testwork and derivation of m;i.jor design parameters; Design criteria and nssumpt ions; Process tlow diagrams, plant layout and descriptions; Myjor equipment list, including ratings and capacitics;

47

Working schedule, manning levels;

Environmental factors.

Product and co-product specifications and tolerances;

Fuel, power, consumables usage factors;

Infrustruc.turc~ und Services

Infrastructure and services, especially transportat ion , are likely to be major cost items and often determine the overall economic viability of a mining operation. However where the mineral to be recovered arises f r o m the waste resulting from an existing mining operation it niay be assumed that basic facilities arc in place. Adequate provision will need t o be made for items such as:

Water/power supplies and services Maintenance facilities Transport facilities.

Construct ion.

Details of engineering, procurement, construction and management functions will be required. In addition, decisions need to made relating to the following:

Manpower requirements - the capabilities and qualifications required for construction operations will determine whether in-house or contract workers can be employed to set up the site. Construction schedule - a list of items required during the construction phase and the time for each stage should be prepared.

3.4 Costing

Capital and operating cost estimates can be made after selecting the most appropriate mining method, processing method and recovery rate. Detailed, itemised cost estimating is not necessary due t o the low level o f confidence at the pre-feasibility study stage. I t IS recommended that cost information from known and similar mining and quarrying operations, or from rnanufrtcturers literature is used for ttvaluat ions of’ this type. Simplified, mathematical cost models have been developed to cover a range of mineral operations. The Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and US Bureau of Mines provide the most notable sources for this type of estimating.

Cupittrl Cost Estiniute

Capital cos^ estimates and the basis for estimates should be prepared for all phases of development through construction, equipment and labour, including calculations for contingencies, escalation and pre-production interest costs where necessary. Due to the preliminary character of the investigation, it should be noted that the error litnits are usually greater than +/- 50% for an evaluation of this type.

A typical ti-arneworh 01’ base cost estirnatc will usually c-otisist o f the following major coinponeni s

Direct costs -these should be subdivided into cost categories li)r m;i.jor equipment, bulk materials, and direct labour. Distributable costs -these should cover the services at the site to support the direct labour and installat ion of materials elements. Gross margin - this should include allowances for overhead costs plus a profit margin.

0

The estimate should provide as many of the following f;ictorx as can be determined:

0

Sources of major equipment 0

Summary of costs into identifiable categories and by major equipment purchases

Allocation of freight duties, landing costs and sales taxes Inflation and money-of-the-day cost estimates.

The presentation in this section should be consistent with the technical descriptions and is likely t o include:

0

e

0

e

0

0

0

0

0

0

Method of cost derivation - past o r comparative te\twork o r design est imatcs. Labour cost rates. Manning levels. Allowances for training. Equipment running cost assumptions. Materials, power, fuels and consumable usage factors. Freight, royalty rates and selling expenses. Effects on future costs due to variation in quality of product and changes in market conditions. Capitalisation costs. Working capital levels.

3.5 Marketing

Establishing a market for an industrial mineral product requires knowledge about the consuming industries, an assessment of the demand through understanding current trading structures in those industries, and an awareness of the overall economic framework of the country or region into which the product is to he sold. I>epending on the nature o f the product, the market structure can be relatively simple Ccg. ti,r ;I low value aggregate product for local use near to the source of the waste). or extremely complex (eg. a procc ed mineral commodity extracted from the waste, which competes regionally and/or internationally with similar products from elsewhere). I n the latter case a knowledge of the world market for the industrial mineral and its competitors is needed. The information required tor a complex marketing structure is listed below. Not all will be relevant where ;I simple marketing s t r i i ~ t u r ~ ;rpplic,s.

Marketing Ovcrvi(~w

Knowledge o f the total market situation for the industrial mineral product is required 21s follows:

49

Structure of the consuming industry (or industries, where there is potential tor use of the industrial mineral in more than one product). I t includes information about ownership, size of the industry, and location in respect to the source o f the mining waste. Supply - demand relationships, including historical, present and estimates about the future. Determinants of demand. The factors which control the demand. ‘This may require knowledge of other down-stream industries. (eg. ( 1 ) Design is an important parameter in the sale of pottery products. Thus design quality is a determining factor in the market for kaolin in the ceramic industry; (2) The state of the construction industry dictates the market for cement, and hence the market for the limestone which goes to make the cement). Pricing trends. Knowledge of the current prices and trends, relating the latter to the overall economic situation and the historic supply - demand relationship. Knowledge of price in relationship to quality is also required. Basis of competition. Industrial mineral products can compete with each other on the basis of price, quality or reliability, or various combinations of these. The competition may be national or international depending on the type of product. I f the mineral product can suhstitutc- tor one which is currently imported. then there may be a considerable market advantage.

Spec@ Murket Aspects

This information has a direct affect on the revenue obtained from the sale of the industrial mineral product

Selling arrangements. The nature of the relationship between the producer and the consumer andor any intermediate purchaser, such as an agent. Many industrial minerals are traded as international commodities. These are sold to the consumer through miner a 1 brokers. Price forecasting and justification for product. An examination of existing prices for comparable mineral products in the same markets. Account needs to be taken of the relative transport costs to the consumer, so that a true comparison can be made. This can lead to a decision being made o n the maximum price the market will hear. Price basis. The production cost of’ the mineral (incorporating depreciation of‘ plnnl, interesr payments etc.), plus cost o i transport gives a m ~ n i m u ~ n price for the mineral product. Other I’actors, including the initial cost ot‘ product ion and d isposul o t’ the waste, env i ron nient i d improvement costs, royalty pay nient s, and others may alter the basis for establishing the price of the mineral product. Currency exchange risk. Int‘ormation o n trends in the currency markets may be needed to identify the currency to be used i n selling the miricrnl product. ‘I’he currency used in trading cornparable mineral products may dictate that t o be used. Volume limxast,,An estiination ot the amount of’mineral that can he sold into the market initially and how it can increase over a period of time, eventually establishing a steady state. Number and size of buyers. The names of organisations who may be purchasing the mineral product, and the amounts they are likely to consume. Possible contract agreements and trading structures. Different contracts and trading structures are used for different industrial mineral products (eg. direct

5 0

sales to consumer; via an industrial minerals agent; captive market; part ot'a vertically integrated industry). A review of these is necessary. I f the mineral is to be consumed by only one company, then a binding contract may be needed to ensure a continuing source of revenue, compared with that required if there are several unrelated purchasers. The cost of transport o f the mineral to the consumcr may be included or excluded in the contract agreement. Government requirements. Information about any government policies and legislation which will affect the sale of the mineral product is required. Examples of these are: direct taxation; specific controls and taxes on exports and imports of mineral products; temporary inducements to encourage exports; protectionist policies iind other controls on price levels. The stability o f the government in the country may a l s o be an issue worthy of consideration. Marketing advantages / disadvantages. These include actual and perceived factors. They include items such as import substitution; higher or lower quality and/or price; environmental gain; fashion; consumer prejudice; specifications; proximity to market; increased or reduced quality variation; and, knowledge that the product is a waste material.

Note :

Markets for industrial minerals are different to those for other mineral cornmodit ies. Metals and energy resources, such as oil, have world-wide demand and are traded ;is commodities with published, known prices on a daily basis. Prices and markets of industrial minerals vary considerably depending on the quality and quantity of the product. There can be substitution of different mineral5 for the \ame market in some cases. The market may be intermittent, and can change suddenly due to developments in technology, the availability of alternative cheaper sources of the mineral, and increased quality requirements, which makes production uneconomic. Most industrial minerals have a significant place value and a relatively low unit value (less than & I 0 to a few ElOOs per tonne). Thus, those which are situated a long way from the market and/or a major transport route, and/or from a loading facility giving cheap bulk transport costs are unlikely to find markets other than very locally. This may be advantageous or a disadvantage for the use of an industrial mineral product made from mining waste. depending on the location of the consuming industry.

In general industrial minerals fall into one o f the following categories.

1 . Very high place value, and low unit value, used locally only. Most constriiction rilw materials come into this category.

2. Minerals for basic industry. Used regionally (ie within a single country, or with transport to an adjacent country). Relatively high place value and moderate uni t value. Minerals in this category are: limestone for agriculture and lime; silica sand for thc glass industry; kaolin for ceramics; gypsum for plaster; salt and potash for chcmicnls and fertilisers.

3. Traded mineral commodities. These have a higher unit value and less significant place value and are transported in bulk between countries. They include inagnesite {'or c hem iciil a rid refractory magnesia; anda lusit e iis ;I refractory grog: harit e iind bent o n i t c. for oil-well drilling; tluoritc Ihr t h c steel and chernical industry; t'cltispar ti)r ccrirmics

51

and glass; Lircon for refractory use; ilmenite and rutile for TiOl manufacture; kaolin for paper manufacture.

4. Very high intrinsic value minerals and minerals with considerable added value through extended processing. They have n o place value. Examples include semi- precious and precious gemstones; industrial diamonds; acid-activated and other treated bentonites; quartz for piezoelectric use o r hydrothermal silica manufacture.

3.6 Economic Viability

For completeness, the economic evaluation should contain a cash-flow analysis, that measures profitability by comparing capital and operating costs with revenues generated throughout the life of the operation. The mining and extraction industries invariably use the discounted cash-tlow (DCF) technique. This technique allows different extractive operations with varying lives to be compared on a comrnon basis by calculating the present value of an income stream receivable over thc loiig-term.

The main test for overall economic viability, from a lender’s point of view, will be through cash-flow analysis. Many financial assumptions will need to be made in order to perform these analyses. Mineral evaluations tend to be extremely complex in the nature o f tax considerations. Depletion, depreciation, acquisition, exploration and development costs may be offset against future profits from mineral working and the situation regarding the tax status of minerals within a waste or discarded product needs to be established. These costs will materially affect the cash-flow of an operation to recover such minerals and are likely to be highly variable from country to country. As a result of these variations it may be more appropriate t o average and standardise as many factors as possible. Pre-feasibility assumptions relating t o these factors would include:

e

e

e

e

e

e

e

e

e

e

Construction and development cash expenditures. Eq U it y fu nd x co n t r i bu t ion . L o ; ~ x draw d o w n . Receipts from sales. Savings in waste disposal/storage. Operating cost expenditure. Movenient in working capital Taxation and royalty payments Scheciuleti debt service payments. Overall cash surplus/deficit. In tl at ion effects.

After conducting an assessment of mining and processing parameters, costs and charges, cumulative cash-tlow and DCF and NPV (not preset value) summaries it will be necessary to re-evaluate the operation to account for variations in selected parameters. Marginally economic schemes may show that the lili: of the operation is too \hart o r that there arc insufficient reserve\ o f a given quality to producc ii profit,

5 2

or transport charges are too high, reducing the commodity t o an unprofitable condition. A sensitivity analysis should therefore be performed to provide evaluation dilta such iis minimum tonniige and quality of product required fhr break-even cconoinics or minimum commodity price requirements. ’This type ot’i~nalysis will identify and quantify those factors, which have the most significant effect on thc profitability of the scheme. The effect of the variations in the base case assumptions should therefore be shown, covering changes in:

Salt\ prict. 0 Variation in product quality

Opcrat ing t w \ t \

Production delays 0 De\ignated output. 0 Targeted (;ale\.

3.7 Other factors

Stututory Requiremmts

Legal, environmental and social factors can materially affect the economic feasibility of a scheme. The impact of the following factors will need t o be addressed in order to determine whether a scheme to recover industrial minerals from mining waste is viable:

Special Government Conditions Rights and ownership matters En v iron me nt a I co 11s iderat io 11 s and CO n st ra i nt s S oc io - eco nc ) mic i rn pac t Closure design and cost

Terms and conditions of a mining lease

3.8 Economic factors in waste utilisation from small-scale mining

Small-scale mining is ;i relative term geared to output, manpower and capital investment levels, which will also vary according to the commodity and country i n

which it is applied. This type of operation ranges from subsistence activities (artisanal) to small co-operative ventures and ‘junior’ companies.

Thr United Nations Economic iind Social Council Committee on Natural Resoiirces ( 1 094) examined the implications of small-scale mining iind environment;iI protection. The report states tha t in order to encourage the development of small-scale mining a s a means of increasing income and to alleviate poverty, ;I stablc system of’ law must be set in place along with mc;isures to protect the environment.

For large scale operations, a company will be required to submit lull details 01‘ mining and processing methods and technology, the financial package, ;in environmental inanagemerit plan and t he mining and local benefit\ t o be achieved. I t is riot p r x t ical for the same level of submission to be involved in a small-scale venture. bul there still

53

(e.g. farming)? How will time be divided between the various parts of the operation?

needs to be a proposal as t o what will be inined and with what method\ and how financing will be arranged.

I 1 has been shown that small-scale miners lack fundamental skills in geology, mining methods, accounting and finance. 'There is a danger that their inethods may bc found to be inadequate and could result in harmful or illegal mining activities. As such, a small-scale miner may need assistance in defining the geological potential, in obtaining funds for the project and in implementing proper mining procedures.

I t is the intention o f this part of the study to outline simply and logically the steps which should be followed by any person who is considering the recovery of industrial minerals from mining waste.

Whilst the strategy for assessing the techno-economic environment under which large scale mining operates is well documented, the circumstances of small-scale/artisanal mining are somewhat different. In many respects the same factors as those outlined in the preceding section need to be addressed. In essence the questions which need to be answered may be intuit ive but would follow the step:, outlined below:

Geological ___ - _. - - - __- _ _ -_ -

I Question 1 Methodology

I What is in the waste heap? -_ - --_ - __ - _ _ - _______ - __ - - - _ _ _ _ - - __ __ __ r Establish what useful minerals are in the dump.

I i How did it get there? Determine the-history of the dump material and the I

processing techniques used when the material was I

~ emplaced. Establish the most likely areas of interest within ~

I I the waste pile. 1 How big IS it? I Estimate size and extent-of usable resource.

- -

M in i n g/P roc essi n g

.. .- - _. _ _ - - - - -- - _. - ____ _ _ ' Question , Methodology i How can the resource be recovered?

1 W'hat equipment will be needed? I

1 What services are needed?

i Is there enough working space? 1

r -

Determine the-best minincJprocessing method to

I Is any special equipment needed7 Where and at ' what cost can this be obtained7

Electrical power, water supplies and transport

Land will be required for fixed processing I equipment, disposal of waste material and

stockpile of the finished product, which does not interfere with working in the unmined parts of the deposit

I , be used to achieve the best possible recovery.

I links may be required.

j When will working be carried out? I

j Will any help be needed?

What regulations need to be followed7 How will health and safety or environmental legislation affect the operation?

54

i

Marketing

service charges and sales costs will need to be accounted for.

j Question- 1 Methodology

i Wh&e is the market?

I

I The demand may be international, regional or local. If the market is international or regional, transport links will be i required to bring the product to market This may involve selling

I ’ the product to a ‘middleman’ with marketing and sales I : expertise If the market is local, can this be served directly? A

How big is the market? Will the market support continuous operation or is it limited, so as to restrict the size of the operation?

/What isthe:omp<tition? 1-1s there anyone already producing the same product, if so, can I I it be produced at a competitive price or volume7

I 1 plan or strategy will need to be developed.

-

Finance

I t is recognised that there technical and financial constraints t o the development of small-scale ventures. The introduction of modern mining and processing techniques is essential to increase efficiency, recovery and income. Mechanisms t o overcome credit constraints should he explored. Options to finance without collateral by the format ion of co-operative groups and third party o r mutual guarantee hinds inay hclp to reduce the costs and improve access t o loans. Artisanal workers should also be encouraged t o save and invest in equipment. A well managed small-scale operation has the potential t o recover industrial minerals economically and profitably from waste. Small-scale mining can make a useful contribution to global mineral production and in underdeveloped regions it can recover minerals that would otherwise he sterilised o r remain unexploited.

References

The United Nations Economic and Social Council Committee on Natural Resources. I 994. Economic rind .soc*ial dtw~loprncwt nwds in thp niinrrul swtor: Snrtill v c w l c mining activitirs in rievrloping cwuntries iind oconomicJv in trtin.cition, I 2- 1 6pp

55

4. SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS GENERATED BY MINING AND QUARRYING ACTIVITIES

The reworking of mine waste is associated with the same social and environmental impacts as mining and quarrying in general. An overview of both positive and negative social and environmental impacts identified for mining and quarrying in the developing world is therefore set out in this sect ion. There is a review of the direct, indirect and cumulative social impacts, along with linked environmental impacts. Best practise procedures to r assessment of the social impact of mining are also outlined. Background detail on social and environmental impact assessment can be found in Appendices 1 and 2.

4.1 Direct Social Impacts

Displacement from land by new or existing patterns of mineral ownership can impact on the social and cultural fabric of the indigenous community. I t can also alienate existing communities from their traditional livelihoods like farming, hunting and artisanal mining.

Compensation for the use of the land and the damage done to it can contribute significantly to the livelihoods of recipients, but can be misused. Impacts can also stem from inequitable payments, conflict over land entitlement claims and distribution of compensation to landlords rather than tenants.

Relocation maintains social cohesion and minimises disruption to other aspects of corninunity life but is also potentially lraught with its own problems including the provision o f unprornising replacement agricultural land.

Population increases caused by a large and diverse migratory population seeking employrnent. This can lead to housing shortages, inflationary pressures and extreme income disparit ieh. 'The contrasl between newcorners and entrenched population can also destroy existing informal mechanisnis of' social control.

Prostitution can become rife in areas where it had been rare or non-existent, because of lack of alternative employment options for women.

Mining can provide a significant source of national revenue through profit related royalty payments and through fixed taxation. Mine developments can also potentially benefit the local economy through the payment of local taxes and governnient royalties if they are fed back through localised minerals development arid le- invest nient funds.

Mining's employment generation is well expounded. With appropriate training local people may gain employment at the mine. However, in many mines. most o f the employ mcnt be ne fits of mining are not loca I ised.

Unemployment at closure is particularly problematic because of lack of transferable skills and the miners typical psychological profile. In isolated mining areas closure i nip act s t he who le c' o i n mu n i t y .

4.2 Indirect social impacts (including environmental impacts)

While the potential for direct employment at mining projects is decreasing the potential for localised, secondary or ‘spin off’ employment remains high. In the gold mining industry this is generally calculated on the basis ofthe ratio, 10 indirect jobs to cvery I direct job.

The impact of mine closure on people in ‘spin-off’ employnient will vary according to the degree t o which the local economy has become dependent on mining Mint. communities that have evolved over many generations <ire likely to experience the most \evere wcial problem\ at clowre.

Diets of the local people have often been greatly transf’ormed by mine development, in some areas contributing to improved nutrition, although in other areas a growing dependence on imported foods has led to a rise in non-communicable diseases.

Many mining companies now directly facilitate and financially support community infrastructure development, house building, institution building and development, ag r ic u 1 tu ra 1 methods training , he a 1 t h and ed u c at io n pro mo t i o n .

The effects of mine blasting can damage buildings and can also have an adverse impact on the mental and physical health of local people.

The generation of excessive at mospheric particulates or dust from mining itctivit ies raise the incidence of respiratory infections such as tuberculosis in mining co m mu n it ies.

The release of mine oxides is linked to the generation of acid mine water. Low pH minewaters inay contain high concentrations of heavy metals -- pollute river systems, kill fish and affect the quality o f drinking water.

Chemical solutions resulting from processing of ore (such i ts cyanide, mercury and arsenic) may he left untreated either in pools, o r allowed to seep into the groundwater, posing a health risk. Exposure to such pollution can be fdral or result in disorders like conjunctivitis, delirium, dermatitis, blindness, liver failure ;ind deafness

I n Iropical regions mining ma) significantly increase the risk of’ malaria. The excavations and tailings ponds associated with mining may create stagnililt wilters t hat can become breeding grounds for malaria carrying mosquitoes.

Following mining activity land is often scarred by excavations, stripped of its vegetation and marked by waste dumps. [inless these landscape effects ~ I T C mitigated the aesthetic appeal o f an area can be dramatically reduced. The reworking of’ wirste dumps may have a positive environmental impact by reducing their volume.

Mining threatens ecological integrity and natural habitats by rcnioving the protective vegetative cover. Deforestation has left land exposed to heavy rains that c;tuse exrcnsive \oil erosion ;ind the loss o f soil fertility.

57

4.3 Cumulative Social Impacts

The cumulative impacts of mining development are associated with the ‘boomtown’ scenario that is characierised by increa\ed level\ of crime and violence, drug and alcohol abuse, co~nmunity instdbil~ty, school dropout, juvenilc dchnquency. welfare case load \, drunkenness, suicide and chi Id abuse.

Drug and alcohol abuse are often the most serious incremental impacts of mining. Excessive drinking rarely characterises whole communities, but thc minority involved impact the whole community with problems of‘ domestic violerice, neglect of responsibilities and accidents.

I n the longer-term mining causes both subtle and explicit cultural changes. The influx of migrant workers, can lead to the dissolution of traditional cultures and the emulation of western culture among indigenous community members. This has resulted in rapid rural-urban migration with its attendant social and economic impacts.

Mining activities may also lead to a marked rise in crime due to mining’s displacement of traditional livelihoods and exposure to migrant material goods.

4.4 Assessment of social impacts of mine development

The procedures and methodologies used to assess and manage social impacts of mine development are summarised in Table 7 (over page). A more detailed account can be found in Appendix 2.

Social Impact Assessment Procedures Public involvement Project stakeholders are consulted and participate in the design of the

assessment, the identification of impacts and the development of mitigation measures I

1 Description of baseline Analysis of existing social conditions including such things as social I conditions resource profiles, cultural attitudes, population characteristics I

1 Scoping of issues I I I

‘ Pred%on and projection of estimated 1 impacts

EsGmaion of indirect I and cumulative impacts

- __.

I

‘ Mitigation of negative 1 impacts

Clarifies the issues relevant to the project including the key social variables I

to be considered for analyses Scoping should include the identification ot , impacts at all phases of the development positive as well as negative. direct, indirect, or cumulative, permanent or temporary

Investigation of probable impacts of the proposal and the responses of ~

affected stakeholders It is considered to be one of the most difficult stages I

Determination of social/economic/biophysical i p a c t links and other projects likely to interact with the proposed project Cumulative impacts are more difficult to estimate than direct impacts, but are important to identify and predict Avoidancebf adverse impacts, minimising adverse impacts that cannot be , avoided, and compensating for unavoidable adverse impacts ldentification of deviations and unanticipated impacts from the proposed action and ngorous analysis of such impacts.

1

- ..._

of the assessment. I __ I ___ -. - - . __ - -

, i I

Comparison of predicted impacts with actual impacts, making it possible to refine existing methods to maximise their utility

_~ _ I

I

mathematical functions, ranging from simple direct ‘input-output’ , relationships to more complex dynamic systems with a wide array of social, 1 economic and biophysical interrelationships I

1

I- Simple matrices direct attention to inter-dependencies between various 1 social components and development actions Magnitude matrices go 1 beyond the identification and proiectiorl or impacts by quantifying the

I Auditing _ _ __ ~

i Social Impact Assessment ResearchMethods

- - -

- - _ _ _ i Mathematical projec%& -Describe and utilise established cause-effect relationships in the form of

_ __ 1 Matrices

, I j impacts according to their magnitude and duration

Geographlcal ! - information systems

I Expert opinion

i General secondary ’ sources and case 1 studies ~

1 sources

-_

I

Local secondary

1 Workshops

I Semi-structured / Interviews

I

j ~ l N e y s

k i o w j o r abundantinformatlon 6 be handled and different significance ~

weightings to be assigned to the social impacts In particular, overlay maps ! and GIS provide a good way of determining the spatial distnbution of I

They can contnbute to the identification and prediction of impacts possibly

Reference to existing literature and to past case studies or analogues of similar project types and settings will contnbute to the early identification and projection of the potential impacts of a proposed development as impacts tend to be repeated from case to case A body of lxerature is often available containing documentation of immediate ’ relevance to the social environment in which the project IS Droposed This can include local sources such as census data, administrative and community accounts, and newspaper reports Allows project stakeholders to collectively identify community needs, , communicate project plans and predict potential social impacts. This may be facilitated through ‘brainstorming’, problem solving or discussion I

Unlike pre-established and formal questionnaires, a semi-structured interview is based on a checklist of general questions that can be revised at any lime This leaves a degree of flexibility, so that if other questions are raised dunng the interview they can be explored Determination of -the attitudes of area residents toward A proposed prolect

impacts ~

neglected by the public or by mandatory considerations

I

I I -_ -- -_. - - - _ -

I

I

i 1 panel

1 01 to tacilitate the prediction of the responses ot residerits to the project Most surveys are cross-sectional, but they may also be trend, cohort or

Table 7. Social impact assessment procedures and research methtdologie\.

6. REFERENCES Bhandari, L. 1994 Importance of Socio-Economic Considerations in Environmental Appraisal of Mining Pro-jects. In Socio-Economic, Impacts (?/'Environment, Vol. 1 (ed. B. Dhar). New Delhi: Ashish Publishing.

Bisset, R. & Tomlinson, P. 1994 Monitoring and Auditing of Impacts. In Environmentul Impact Assessment (ed. P. Wathern). London: Unwin Hyman.

Boothroyd, P., Knight, N., Eberle, M., Kawaguchi, J . & Gagnon, C. I995 The Need for Retrospective Impact Assessment: The Megaprojects Example. Impact Assessment BullPtin 13, 253-27 1.

Branch, K., Hamm, R. & Grampling, J . 1984 Guide to Social A.s.se.ssment. Fargo: Westview.

Bulmer, M. I . A.. 1975 Sociological models of the mining community, Sociologic.ul Review, 23, 61.

Burdge, K.J 1991 A Brief History and Major 'Trends in Impact Assessment. Imptrct Assessment Bulletin 9, 93- 104.

Burdge, R.J & Vanclay , F. 1995 Social Impact Assessment. In Environmentul und Social Impact Assessment, vol. 1 (ed. F. Vanclay & D. Bronstein). Chichester: Wiley & Sons.

Burdge, R.1 & Vanclay, F. 1996 Social Impact Assessment. A Contribution to the State of the Art Series. Impact A.s.se.rsment 14, 59-86.

Carley, M.J 1983 A Review of Selected Methods. In Social Impuct AxsPssmcwt Methods (ed. K. Finsterbusch, L. Llewellyn & C. Wolf). London: Sage.

ClRlA 1999, The reclaimed and recycled construction materials handbook. Construction Industry Research and Information Association. CS 13.

Connell, J. & Howitt, R. 1991 Mining and Indigenous People in Austrulia. Sydney: SIJP Rr. 01JP.

Dale, A. & Lane, M. 1994 Strategic Perspectives Analysis: A Procedure f h i - Participatory and Political SIA. .S'ociet\* trnd Nuturul Kr.voirrws ' 7 , 253-67

Finsterbusch, K., Ingersoll, J . & Llewellyn, L. 1990 Methods.for Socitrl Anuly,vi.s in Developing Countries. Boulder, CO: Westview.

Freudenburg, W.R & Grampling, R. 1994 Natural Resources and Rural Poverty: A Closer Look. Society and Natural Kesourcvs 7, 5-22.

Harben, P W. 1999. The Industrial Mineruls Handyhook (3"' Edition). lndust rial Minerals Information Ltd. London.

Harben, P W & Kuzvart, M. 1996. 1ndu.striul Mineruls: A Glohnl Geology. Metal Bulletin, London.

61

Howitt, R. 1989 A Different Kimberley: Aboriginal Marginalisation and the Argyll Diamond Mine. Geogruphy 74, 232-8.

Howitt, R. 1989 SIA and Resource Ilevelopment: Issues from the Australian Experience. Au.stru/iun Geogrupher 20, 153- 166.

Howitt, R. 1992 Aborigines and Gold Mining in Central Australia. I n Mining and Indigenous Peoplos in Austmla.sia (ed. J. Connell & R. Howitt). Sydney: SUP/OUP.

Huniphreys, B, Cloates, ‘T, Wtakiss, M & Harrison, D 1996. Beach recharge materials - demand and resources ClRIA report 154.

ICGP. 1995 Guidelines and Principles for Social Impact Assessment. Environmental Imputct Assr.s.sment Review 15, 1 1-43.

Kesteven, S . 1984 Alcohol and Family Life: The Social Impact of Mining. Canberra: AI AS.

Lanning, G. & Mueller, N. 1990 Ajricu Undermined: Mining Companies and the Undc~rdevelopment of Africa. London: Rout ledge.

Neil, C., Tykkylainen, M., and O’Faircheallaigh, C. 1992 Planning for closure, dealing with crisis, in Coping With Closure: An Inlrmutioriul Cornpurison of Mine Town Experience.\, Neil, C., ‘Tykklalnen, M., and Bradbury, J., Eds., Routledge, London, 369.

Notholt, A J G, Highley. D E & Deans, T. 1990. Economic minerals in carbonatites and associated alkaline igneous rocks. Truns. Istn. Min. Merull. (Sect. B App/ earth .sc .~ . ) 99, May- August 1990.

O’Faircheallaigh, C. I984 Mining und I>cwelopment: Foreign-Financed Mines in Au.srrulia, Irolund, Pmpua New Guinru and Zumhiu. London: Croom Helm.

O‘Faircheallaigh, C. I99 1 The Mutinatioriul Mining Incfusrn as an Agent of Social I)c.iir/o/,rrzr.nt. London: Routledge.

Pint/, W. I984 OX ‘ l d i : Evolution ofu l‘hird World MiriinR Pro jw . London: Mining J o u r n a I Books.

Quodling, P. 1991 Bouguinville: The Mine und the People. Pacific Papers. Auckland: Centre for I dependent St udics.

Scott, P W, Pascoe, R D & Hart, F W 1998. Columbite-tantalite, rutile and other accessory minerals from the St Autstell T o p a ~ Granite, Geoscience in South West England, 9, 165- 170.

Sharan, R. & Sharnia, G. 1994 Impact of Coal Mining on Social Ecology. i n Socio- Economic Impucts of Erzvironmmt, vol. I (ed. B. Ilhar). New Delhi: Ashish Pu bl ish i ng.

S lansky, M. 1986. Grologv ~ ) ~ ‘ . s ~ ~ ~ f i r ? i ~ J t i t ~ I r ~ ~ phosphutr~s. No1111 O x h r d Acadenitc. London.

United Nations Economic and Social Council Committee on Natural Kewurcc\ 1994. Economic und soc*ial devt4opment nwds in the minorul w . t o r Small- \ ( Y J I P mininh) uc.tivities in doveloping countric\ und oc*onomio\ in trcinsrtiori

Vanclay, F I999 Social Impact Assessment. In Hanclhook of EnvironmPnt(il Impact Assessmcvzt, vol. 1 (ed. J . Petts), pp. 301 -326. Oxford: Blackwell Science.

Warhurst, A. & Macfarlane, M. 1999 The Socio-economic Impacts of Mine Closure. In Planning.fiw Closure in the Mining Industry (ed. A. Warhurst). hmion: DFlD.

Wildman. 1990 Methodological and Social Policy Issues in Social Impact Assessment. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 14, 69-79.

World Bank. 1992 Environmental Impact Assessment Sourcebook. Washington, DC.

Young, E. 1995 Third World in the First: Development and Indigenous People. London: Rout ledge.

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APPENDIX 1

SOCI A I , I MYA CTS O F M 1 N E WASTE: I J ‘1 I1,I SA11 O N

Introduction

This section draws o n mining, sociology and stwial impact assessment (SIA) literature to provide an overview of ( I ) the diverse stwial impacts generated by mining activities including the reworking of mine waste and (2) best practice procedures and methods available for assessing the social impacts of mining.

According to the Interorganisational Committee for Guidelines and Principles of Social Assessment (ICGP 1995: 107):

Social impacts also include changes to the norms, values and beliefs o f individuals and the stwiety in which they live (Burdge & Vanclay 1995).

A simple way of describing the nature of social impacts would be as changes to one or more of the following:

People’s ways of life - how they live, work, play and interact with one another. Their culture - shared beliefs, customs and values. Their community - its cohesion, stability, character, services and facilities. Their environment - the quality of the air and water people use, the availability and quality ot’ the food they eat, the level of dust and noise they are exposed to, their safety, and their access to and control over resources (Vanclay 1999).

Social impacts may be positive or negative in nature. Pmjects or policies that enhance the quality of people’s lives. making people feel better about themselves and where they live, have positive social impacts. In contrast. projects or policies that debilitate the vitality of ;I

community, or make peoj)le feel worse iihout t heniselves and where they live, have negative social impacts (/hid. 1999).

A distinction can be made between processes and impacts. Relocating a community, for example, is not. i n itself. ;I social impact. I t is a social p r ~ c s s that can cause social impacts such ;IS ;I breakdown in ii community’s social fabric. disruption and anxiety. Similarly, pollution of the atmosphere is not. in itself. ;i social impact. I t is ii biophysical prtxess that can c;iusc soxiill impacts such ;IS respiratory infections ( i h i t l . I909).

Direct social impacts are the social impacts resulting from stwial processes (e.g. displacement of people from land). Indirect social impacts are the social impacts resulting from economic or biophysical processes (e.g. the pollution of air). Cumulative social impacts are the stwial impacts resulting from the interaction of more than one social, economic. or biophysical process (Kapelus Kr Pinter 1998).

0’ Faircheallaigh’s ( 1991 ) broad overview of the minerals industry considers the nature of mining impacts under three main headings: economic, biophysical and social. As he stresscs, these impacts rarely occur in isolation and usually affect and interact with one another.

Nevertheless, much of the literature to date relating to mining impacts has concentrated on economic or biophysical impacts to the neglect of social impacts.

Given their significance, their connectivity to economic and biophysical impacts and the effort spent on predicting them, the paucity of literature related to mining’s stwial impacts is concerning. However, if literature related to mining’s social impacts is scarce, literature related to the social impacts of artisinal mining and reworking mine waste specifically is almost non-existent. Given these constraints, this section concentrates on the social impacts of mining generally, supplementing, where available, with more specific examples of the social impacts of artisinal mining arid the reworking of mine waste.

Direct Social Impacts of Mining

Some of the most significant direct social impacts of mining are ;isstw:i;tted with the process of displacing people from the land to be mined. In rural communities land is often the ma.ior economic and social resource available to its members. I t can serve as a basis for livelihoods, a place of habitation, a medium of social exchange, a focus of cultural and spiritual belief and a sign of power arid status for contemporary and future populations (Koper 1983). Therefore, displacement froin this land by new or existing patterns of mineral ownership c m be ;I very emotional issue for recipient communities and often leads to ma.jor conflicts with the mineral developers (Misra 1904).

The issue of land conflict was particularly stark and well documented at BCL’s Rougainville mine in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Increased social agitation at the mine led to Applied Geology Associates (AGA) being contracted to determine the cause of the unrest. The conclusion of their report gets to the heart of the problem - alienation of communities from their land (AGA 19x9). Like AGA, Emberson-Bain (1994) concluded that the most serious social impact of the Rougainville mine derived from land seizures and clearances twcurring during project development. The following passage from a villager displaced by the mine offers some insight into the impact of displacement:

1,iteriiturr t’rorn Austr;ilia fun her illustriites the destructive social impacts that (he loss of’ Iiind to mining c x n have on communities. Koss ( 1 090) writes about the ‘cultural decay ... and scnsc of failure’ Aboriginal people felt iilier losing their ancestral lands to mining. The author stresses that Aboriginal people continue to be gravely concerned for the future generarions. seeing the loss as evidence of their own failure to preserve their ancestral land for their children. Researching the Walpiri Aborigines of the Northern Territories, Howitt ( 1092) found that the landscape involved an important synthesis for them; ‘. ..the country not o n l y contains the bodies of the ancestors inside it, but i t is also thought of as being thc metamorphosed forms and imprints of their body parts’.

Rickson et al’s (1995) study of the traditional Jawoyn Aboriginals iit Coroniition H i l l i n t h e Northern Territories reveals a community polarized on the spiritual significance of the area (Gururhu). Traditional custtxiians of the land ob.jected to mine tievelopments. feeling thiit

irlteratioris to the physicnl contour of the area would have widesprciici c o ~ i s c ~ ~ u e ~ i c ~ ~ s ;ind ‘sickness’ that would spread throughout lociil settlements i i n d beyond, 10 (tic. rest of Aiistriilia and the world. For the older Iawoyn, mining would result in critical spiritu;il i i i i d ‘synibolic’ losses. An SIA at Coronation Hill by 1,ane r i trl. (1090) concluded that thc symbolic cost ol‘

65

mining to traditional Jawoyn would be too great. At the wme time, however, Lane ct (11. recognised that the younger Jawoyn tended t o favour mining with its accompanying employment, service and compensation prospects.

At many new mining sites indigenous landowners have received cornpensation for the use of their land and the damage done to it. This can present ii positive social impact for local communities affected by mining. O’Faircheallaigh (1984) highlights the case in 1981, of an Aboriginal group in the Alligator Rivers uranium mining area receiving compensation payments which averaged $6,500 per head, when their annual income prior t o mining was o n l y averaged $230 per head. These incomes are far short of warranting the held assumption that the Aborigines had become ‘uranium sheiks’, but such payments can contribute significantly to the existing livelihocxls of the recipients.

However, mine compensation can have negative impacts, often introducing the most mercenary elements of a cash-based system of exchange. Howitt ( 1992) reports that the distribution of mine compensation payments caused constant competition and antagonism among the aforementioned Walpiri. Another concern is that increases i n disposable incomes from compensation payments can create significantly higher expectations among the recipients that may be difficult to fulfill once the mine has been terminated. Other negative social impacts can emanate from inequitable compensation payments caused by arbitrary land valuation procedures: confusion over land entitlement claims; fluctuations in the profits of the companies; and a tendency to distribute compensation exclusively to landlords rather than tenants ( Robinson 1992).

Recognition of these problems has led some mining companies to adopt the alternative policy of relocation. This refers t o the provision of land and property for community members at a more distant place. Relocation maintains social cohesion and minimises disruption t o other aspects of community life. However, relocation is also fraught with problems. After evaluating a mine relocation program i n Northern India, Bhandari ( 1994) cominents that, ‘the ;ire;i to be designated for the relocation of Kampura village is unpromising land for iin

agricultural community.. . it will result in a severely disadvantaged community’. Similarly, a study of Sierra Rutile Limited’s (SKL) mine in Sierra Leone by Friends of the Earth, concluded that while the new settlements offered enhanced infrastructure, associated land was too poor to establish crops (Kamara 1997). According to Watkins ot al. ( 1902) hulldozing of the land left behind:

‘.su h - s o i l in c u p hlo of support ing p l unt growl h, cuusing dqfic d t y in t hc cstiihlishmc~tit ojtree crops us wc.11 us shude and wind hrruks in such vi1lugo.s. Also, .some villuges had to hr rrspttlrd in pluws whrrr cornmunity needs .such ( I S wuter und furmlund wrrr grossly inadequute. General sunitation in tliesr rillug:cj.s has hem, und still is. critical. In a f iw other cusoLv, vi1lagc.s h u v r hriw sited in places whew tho immrdiatr ,furmlunds uvro ,flooded or axurn c , l r ~ i red , I t ) r mining uctivitit~s

Mining is historically linked to substantial population increases and tends to attract a large and diverse migratory population seeking employment that frequently outnumbers the entrenched population. Assessing the impacts of privatising Brazil’s Timbopeba mine, Wt-ight ( I 998) found thal during the first decade of operation the population of towns i n the surrounding complex doubled or tripled in size. In the short term this was considered beneficial. with the influx of new migrants contributing to a revival of the demographic structures of the receiving areas. However, i n the longer term, 85% of the residents interviewed considered the impacts of the population increase to be negative, indicating particuli1r concern over housing shortages and inflationilry rents.

As well i i s impacting o n t h c iivii1l:ibility of housing and t h e level of' r e n t h . thert. arc inipacts stemming t'rorn the contrast between the characteristics o f the newcomers ;iiid thoscx of thc entrenched population. Many of these differences derive from rural and urb;iri norms, dtwumented in the stxiologic;rl tradition of Durkheim ( 1933) 'l'hcsc 1.ontr;ists c;iii pl;icx considerable stress o n existing stxial relationships, based a s they :ire o n i i specilk set of riiles iind expwtiitions. People often feel overwhelmed by this ch;mgc, ancl iinablc to adapt. Freudenburg (1980) goes as far as to say that this change can be completely destructive to the existing informal mechanisms of social control in the host communities. On this point his analysis is particularly explicit:

The rate of population growth can be a critical determinant of subsequent stxial impacts (Sharan & Sharma 1994). Gilmore ( I 976) estimated that resource based communities can readily absorb a S percent annual population increase but experience many problems when growth rates exceed IS percent, which can be common in mining communities (Himelfiirb 1983). Such problems are compounded by the transience of migrant workers who are iittriicted to the community for short-term gain, with little incentive to form attachments to the area or adapt to local social norms. Moreover, migrant workers are typically young and skilled and more likely than locals to be gainfully employed in the mine (RSS 1993). The wages they receive can cause huge disparities of wealth in a concentrated ;ireii anti contribute to the consolidation of a <.ash based economy, in traditionally subsistence b;iseti communities (('lark 1996, Warhurst & Macf;irlane 1999).

I n addition t o debilitating the vitality and spirit of the community t h e influx of a migrant population can increase the potential for conflict. Burdge ( 1 987) lists antagonism between established community members and newcomers t o industrial projects a s ;I mki.jor category of stxial impact. Thc conflict is generally multifacered and can encompass religious. customary, mor;il iind n;itural resource issues. According to Clark ( 1996). where there i \ ;I cwlturc of' respect and power iic.cording to seniority or ;I disdain for Indlvidllill cwwiimptive weiilt h. ii

major a x i s of conflict tends to emerge between the younger migrant workcrs ;ind the older generation of host c*omrnunities. The money earned by younger migrant workers can niakc them a very influential group able to challenge the traditional lines of power and authority i i i

host coinmunities.

A p i rt icu I ii r I y w i tie I y docu nient ed 5 ou rce of conflict concerns sex ua I practice . K csea rc h i n g Guyana's mining sector Canterbury ( 1997) found that Aboriginals were especially angcred by migrant workers engaging in the sexual exploitation of Aboriginal women. Similarly. Tsinoung et ul. ( 1989) note that Bougainville residents expressed consitier:ible discontent that CRA staff were trying to turn Bougainvillian women into prostitutes. At the Ok 'Tedi mine i n

Indonesia, Hyndman ( 1992) found that the incidence of adultery and prostitution had beconic rife where it had previously been rare. Howitt ( I 989) reports on Aboriginal wonicn who became the vict im of sexual 'relief' sought by Hamersley workers oit the Koebourne reserve in ,4u~lri1li;i. He documents the problem of the 'kids that ;ire not true' I'roni sexu;il 1i;iisons

67

between migrant mine workers and local women, rarely in receipt of subsequent financial or paternal support.

The social impacts of mining referred to thus far have been largely negative. However, common arguments favouring mining, particularly in developing countries, are that positive social impacts will result from its investment activities and revenue generating capacity. Mining can provide a significant source of revenue through profit related royalty payments and through fixed taxation (Waelde 1992). However, it is mining’s potential for employment creation that is particularly well expounded.

Redwood ( 1997) cites Companhia Vale do Rio Dcxe’s Carajas Iron Ore project in Brazil where employment is of the order of 4,200, and at the peak of construction activities nearly 24.000 contract workers were engaged in project implementation. Quodling ( 1 991 ) found that Bougainville mine also provided an excellent example of mining generating employment and imparting skills locally. BCL’s strategy was to train locals in technical and administrative roles through an apprenticeship and educational scholarship scheme. By December 1988, BCL employed 3,560 people, 83% of whom were PNG nationals and 20-25% of whom were indigenous Bougainvillians.

There is increasing concern, however, that local employment strategies like those at BCL inay be the exception rather than the rule and that most of the employment benefits of‘ inining are not Icxalised. Boothroyd’s (1995) review o t large scale mining i n Canada suggests that the proportion of mining jobs filled by existing local residents were generally less than 5 % and that these tended to be in low paid, low skilled and temporary positions. This is partly because many mines now operate on a fly-in, fly-out basis, utilising available skilled workers from the city (Neil et al 1984). In addition, Lanning and Mueller ( 1990) argue that mining’s local employment benefits are being reduced by a capital-intensive trend which means mining relies o n ‘ . . . a relatively small core of permanent expatriate employees’ (Cox 1994).

The only ameliorative feature of this trend towards mechanisation is that i t reduces the impact of unemployment at mine closure. The problems of coping with unemployment among mine workers are made particularly problematic because of what Nygren and Karlsson ( 1992) describe ;IS the ‘lonely mountain man culture’, a prevailing masculine trait amid mine workers against self-disclosure and an unwillingness to seek help. This is arguably compounded by ;i

general ’destruction and dissolution of a worker’s culture. which eased unemployment through collective methods of coping’. This means that unemployment today has becornc a morc individual inatter (Kieselbach 1987).

While coping with unemployment has become ;I less collective matter, ii study by Mckee and Hell ( 1986) suggests that i t is no less a family or community matter. They found that traditional gender roles are actually reasserted following inale redundancy and that spouses became more likely to postpone a return to work or resign from their present eniploymenl activities. ‘This is a particularly likely scenario within mining areas given the strongly masculine culture associated with the activity (Niel et al 1992). In rural mining areas closure also clearly impacts the community as a whole, as tensions and divisions that existed between migrant workers and the indigenous community even during boon) periods, become particularly exacerbated.

Indirect Social Impacts of Mining

Radetski ( I 994) shows that. in addition to the initial capital investment. the operational investment of mining can extend further into the domestic economy through bLickwiird and forward linkages and the development of infrastructure. Theretore, increasingly. the relatively low rates of direct mine employment arc being justified on the basis of‘ its potential for ‘spin off employment. Howitt ( I99 I ) and Young ( I 995), for cxample, note that the

Y irrkala Business Enterprises (YRE) , an Aboriginal company concerned with i t number of‘ subsidiary activities associated with the Nabiilco bauxite mine on Arnhem I .and’s Cove peninsular in Australia has been particularly successful in terms 01‘ securing ‘spin off’ employment. Its activities now include contracts for; earthworks; rehabilitation; beautification; garbage collection and a contract with the Northern Territories Depitrtrncnt of Transport to maintain mine roads.

According t o Redwood ( I 997) the (‘arajas Iron Ore Project had a significant impact on ‘spin off” employment through the economic linkages i t encouraged and, particulilrly, through the project’s investment in inlrastructure. A major railway line XOO km long and XO meters wide was constructed from Carajas to Sao h i s on the coast creating the ‘Caraias cwrridor’ that cupports ;I much I;irger zone of intluence. estimated to he some 300,000 squijrr kilometers in size. A number of townships ;tlong the corridor, including Parauapehas and its unplanned satellite Rio-Verde, grew up and now support an economically active population of 1 .S million who provide a wide variety of goods and services to employees of the Cara.jas project. The corridor has also opened the way for a combination of subsistence farmers, gold prospectors, ranchers and land speculators.

‘The subsequent affects of mine closure on people in spin-off cvnployment will vary according t o the degree to which the local economy has become dependent on t h e minc. I n their analysis 0 1 the social impacts of closure in Australia, Maude and Hugo (1992) distinguished between nine different types of mining community settlements ranging from ‘communities highly dependent upon mining’ t o ‘service centres with ii small mining component’ According to Holmes ( 1 9XX:X2) it is in the former ‘capital intenvive enchvcs, lacking any significant economic or social links to their surrounding regions’. that the most serious local social impacts are felt following closure, particularly if the community hits lost it

commitment t o self-help.

The lifespan of the mine will also influence the level of social and economic problems experienced by the impacted community. Residents in mine communities thitt have evolved over a number of generations (where diversification opportunities are limited, where the lifestyle that has evolved is very distinctive, where the population is relatively older. and where there is a high proportion of home ownership) are far more likely to experience severe s t~ral problems at closure than communities in which there has been a relatively recent boom in mining (Neil anti Brealey 1982, Eikeland 1992).

During operation, however, the injection of mining investment and revenues. with its c‘omimmsiir;ite impact on ‘spin-off’ cmployment. into ;treav [hat arc often i:;tc;h xr;rrved CiiiI

entail i t rise in material living stnntiards. This has enabled many miniri,c commiinities l o grearly extend the rilng: and quantity of. items they consunie. (~‘F.;ilrc~lieaIl~ll~h ( 199 I :24(3) cites comments from Aboriginal women at Oenpelli mine in Western Austriiliit about their pleasure at being able to afford washing machines and refrigerators. The possibility of‘ purchasing motor vehicles was also regarded its an important benef‘it, liberating i~ccess to services such as hospital care and food suppliers. Diets, in particuhr, have often been great ly transformed, in some areas contributing t o improved nutrition, although i n other ;irc;is ;I growing dependence on imported foods, often of low quality, has led to it growth in non- communicable diseases such ;IS obesity, hypertension and diabetes (llli~j;is7ek 19x7).

A number of commentators stress that the nature and extent of the positive social impacts from the investment activities and revenue generation o f mining projects may bc overemphasised. Reviewing the social impacts of investment initiatives by mining compnnies in Asia. Australia and Africa. O’Faircheallaigh ( 19x4) concludes Ihitt on the whole the iiiip,act I . . .IS largely determined by cxisting patterns of’ ecoiioiiilc and stxiiil i ict ivlty’. Furthcrmorc, Auty (199s) itnd Jauch (1996) argue that lower transport costs. through invcstnicnt in infrastructure, rnakc it easier tor mining projects to import their inputs and prtxess nc;irer the

69

markets, actually reducing the incentive to promote domestic linkages. In addition, Abugre and Akabzaa (1998) note that the bulk of new mining investment is in precious and metallic minerals, with limited investment in non-metallic ores (industrial minerals) which have higher linkages to domestic industry.

A growing realisation of the more limited benefits of current mining investment underlies the conclusions of the U N Economic Commission for Africa (ECA 1997) that ‘the African mining sector is making n o decisive contribution to the social and economic development of Africans’. Connell and Howitt (1991) are particularly critical of mining’s record on human development, finding ‘few circumstances where the indigenous group’s development goals have been successfully linked to those of the mining corporation’. Nevertheless, enough examples of mining companies making investments directly into the social and economic development of their local communities are now emerging to suggest that this situation is changing.

Western Mining Corporation is one company that has been at the forefront of community development in recent years. According to Davis ( 1 997b), management at their proposed Tampakan mine in the Philippines has made a commitment to a three year community development programme, which will proceed regardless of whether or not mining proceeds. The company’s community development workers live in the region and work with the Rla’an people to develop this programme, ‘based on their needs arid aspirations, recognising their right to plan their own future’ (Ihid. 1007). The community development initiatives implemented as a result of this prcxess include:

Infrastructure development - improved road access and housing, the construction of medical clinics, schools and community centres; Sustainable agricultural methods - assistance in improving technologies for subsistence far mi ng, I i vest oc k u pgr adi n g, and agrofores t r y ; Health initiatives - the delivery of on-site medical care, community health education, waste management, and provision of water and sanitation services; Education initiatives - the provision of primary education, adult functional literacy programs, and localhndigenous employment and training programs.

In addition to the aforementioned indirect social impacts of mining which result from economic processes, there are a number other indirect social impacts of mining which result from biophysical processes. Mining effects the biophysical environment through the media of air. water and land. These effects can range from minor, subtle and imperceptible ‘shadow effects’ involving dust, run-off, seepage and vibration t o ma.jor permanent and irreversible ecological transiorrnations, rendering mining districts useless for subsequent swio-economic developnient (Godoy 1985).

Mining activities can impact the atmosphere through the generation of excessive atmospheric particulates. The generation of’ excessive atmospheric paniculates or dust is of particular concern at open cast mining ventures where activities such as soil stripping and dumping, heap leach crushing. blasting, open pit drilling, ripping and haulage all act as particulate generators. Atmospheric dust caused by mining activities like these has thc atf‘ect ot raising the incidence o l respiratory infections such as tuberculosis i n the mining communities. Much of this dust can be made up of’ silica that has its own brand of‘ pneunioconiosix i n the torin of’ silicosis (SGS 1996a).

In addition, the processing of minerals by smelting is associated with the generation of excessive sulphur and nitrogen oxide emissions. The release of these oxides has been linked to the generation of acid rain. In wnie areas this has created acid lakes and a drastic decline i n fish stocks due to the ability of acids to leach aluminium from the soil t o surface waters which

7 0

poison fish by causing excess gill mucus production. ‘Trees may ;rlso he itil‘wted by acid rain due to the aforementioned ability of acids to leach key nutrients from the roots of trees. ‘These processes will impact on human health and nutrition through reduced fish stocks and reduced crop production (Franklin 1998).

The impact of mining on the aquatic environment is an issue that attracts considerable attention. In a paper specifically addressing the indirect social impacts of mining, Parker ( 1996) states that any adverse effects due to mining on the hytlrological environment of. developing countries will tend to have a corresponding affect on the health of Itxal communities. In many parts of’the developing world, mining communities depend on untreated surface and ground waters as their main water supplies, used for drinking, washing and food preparation. The use of chemical solutions such ;is cyanide, mercury and arsenic to extract soluble ore, known a s the ‘leaching’ prtxess. are often left untreated either in large pools or allowed to seep into the groundwater, posing ii particular health risk to those dependent on, or exposed to, this natural resource.

The US EPA (1993) notes that consumption or exposure to concentrations of cyanide greater than 100mg/m3 will cause death in humans. Consumption or exposure to lower concentrations will cause a variety of effects in humans such as weakness. tremors, headaches, nausea, hyperventilation and eye and skin irritation. Consumption and exposure to arsenic in concentrations greater than 25 PPM for a thirty minute period is also lethal in humans and in lower concentrations, over longer time periods, cause nausea, diarrhoea, hemolysis, central and peripheral nervous system disorders, dermatitis. conjunctivitis, skin lesions and liver or kidney damage. Acute exposure to high levels of mercury result in disorders to the central nervous system such as hallucinations, delirium, blindness and deafness.

Pintz ( 1984) identifies that the release of pollutants into the hydrological environment has been the principle legacy of the Ok Tedi mine in PNG. Waste from the mine, 100.000 tonnes a day of sediment and tailings containing chemicals like cyanide, dissolved copper, Lint and cadmium is routinely discharged into the headwaters of the river system. Chambers ( 1985) discovered that the mine waste is causing blockages t o the Maun river and its tributary streams, resulting in rebplar flooding and the deposition of vast quantities of sediment on the surfncc of I0,OOO hwtiires of formally fertile agricultural land and 1uxuri;int tropicill rainforest. Subsequent environmental evaluation by Dames anti Moore ( 1996) revealed that the mine tailings would contaminate the river for over two decades. affecting the health of ;in

estimated 35,000 people.

In troplciil region!, alterations by mining to the hydrological environment c;tn incrcasc the risk of iniihria. The excavations and tailings ponds ;isswiated with mining create stagnant waters that can become breeding grounds for malaria cxrying mosquitoes. Resurgence in t he incidence of malaria is one of the most worrying changes in disease patterns in recent years in the Amazon basin, where mining activities are most concentrated. This had a pnrticularly devastating effect on the indigenous lndian populations, who have no resistance to the emerging strains brought by migratory miners, and have little ;~ccess to modern metliciil facilities. In a paper evaluating the impact of mining on malarial incidence in Brazil. SilwyeI- ( I 992) reports that in 1990 the mortality of 60% of Yanomami Indians of northern Ainwwia, whose lands have been subject to mining incursions since the mid- 1 98Os, was attributable to malaria.

Following mining activity land is often denuded by ugly high profile waste dunips and excavations, and stripped of its vegetation. Unless these effects are mitigated through re- vegeti~tioil itnd lantlsc.aping the iicsthetic appeal of itn ;ire:i ciill bc. drilI11;1ticiIlly reducwl. Ai’teI visiting Weipir, Comalco 1 .td’s bauxite mine in Queensland, A u S t ~ ; 1 l i i ~ . Wilson ( 1982) declared, ‘if men ever established a base on mars, it will l o o k likc Weipa’ Howcver. i n

71

addition to the visual impact, Marcus ( 1997) notes that the loss or conversion of habitats associated with the clearing and exploration of mined iireas to be one of the inost signif‘icant impacts. Deforestation has had a particularly dramatic affect on habitats (Mondal et al. 1994). At Freeport’s Grassberg mine in Indonesia, Ondawame ( 1977) considered rainforest clearance to be responsible for heavy rains removing vegetation and reducing the fertility of soil used by Itxals for producing basic crops.

Cumulative Social Impact.. of Mining

The social, economic and biophysical processes responsible for the aforementioned direct and indirect social impacts can have subsequent cumulative social impacts when acting together or when added to the impacts of other concurrent developments in a given area. Acquah ( 1999) holds the view that the cumulative social impacts of mining tend to; manifest theinselves in alterations to the traditional stxial practice and the core cultural identity of the community; (ccur later in the project cycle than direct and indirect scxial impacts and; be more irreversible than direct and indirect stxial impacts. I t should also be added that the cumulative social impacts of mining are even more poorly documented in the literature than direct or indirect stxial impacts. Nevertheless, a small number can be discerned and are described below.

Boothroyd’s ( 199s) review of the social impacts of Canadian mega-projects, describes the cumulative impacts of ma-jor resource developments like mining as elements of the ‘boomtown’ scenario. This scenario is characterised by increased levels of crime and violence, drug and alcohol abuse, family stress, community instability, depression, school drop-out, juvenile delinquency, welfare caseloads, drunkenness, suicide, child abuse and teenage rebellion (Kohrs 1974). Wilson ( 1982) found that the social environment of the Weipa mine typified this scenario and included the highest rate of Aboriginal imprisonment in Australia, profoundly high levels of violent crime, self-inflicted harm and other signs of convincing stxial and psychological malaise. Wilson concludes that ‘traditions have disappeared and alcohol has wreaked havoc.. .’

The Ranger Uranium Enquiry (Fox o r al. 1977) foreshadowed alcoholism as the single most serious social impact to be created by the incremental effects of mine development. Although excessive drinking rarely impacts whole communities, the minority involved can disproportionately effect the rest of the community. Kesteven ( 1984) isolates associated problems of alcohol abuse in mining areas such as violence, accidents, neglect of community responsibilities and suicide. However, ;IS O’Faircheallaigh (1991) and Tatz (1982) point out, among Australian Aboriginals, it is difficult to know if alcoholism can be attributed to mining when drinking habits are often firmly entrenched prior to mine development. Nevertheless, both authors itgree that mine development increases overall alcohol consurnption anti the incidence of‘ iissoc iated problems.

Finally. the cumulative scxial impacts of mining are evidenced i n subtle and explicit cultural changes. particularly among youngei. community members i n rural areas. At the O k Tedi mine i n Indonesia, Hyndmnn (1992) observed that young Wopkaimin people acted out ;I kind of fantasy o f themselves ;IS being white by speaking in pidgin English and emulating western drcss and hair styles. Researching the Copper Belt of Zambia, O’Faircheallaigh ( 1984) notes that the concurrent mine developnients there had attracted many expatriates and urban dwellers and created a widespread consumerism. According to Lanning and Mueller ( I 990) ‘Zambia has acquired the consumption piittern of an advanced industrial nation without the structure to support it’. This has resulted i n rapid rural-urban migration with its attendant social and economic impacts.

1 2

Summary and Conclusion

Although the range of mining social impacts described in this section is not exhaustivc, a n indicative number of impacts have been noted. The literature suggests that both direct and indirect social impacts of mining are numerous. Although cumulative stxial impacts are less well documented and numerous, their effect is no less, ancl indeed may be more, significant than direct and indirect s t ~ i a l impacts. These direct, indirect and cumulative social impacts dre complex and a function of Itxation, timing, technology and the nature and strength of the pre-existing social system. Nevertheless, many social impacts are in n o way unique to particular projects and have been recurrently documented.

In addition to exhibiting generic or unique aspects. the social impacts stemming from mine developments may also exhibit positive or negative aspects. ‘The literature suggests that mining IS an ambivalent phenomenon presenting, on the one hand, opportunities for the procluction of substantial wealth, and on the other hand. social breakdown. ‘1’0 adopt ;I purely adversarial position against mining denies a number of developments that created ‘win-win’ situations for all stakeholders. In many cases, mining represents the only industry likely to be interested in locating and investing in potentially remote areas. I t is often the only meiins people have of securing involvement in the wider economy and it remains the case, tor most people, that isolation from the processes of economic development is not seen as possible or necessarily desirable (Jackson 1988).

Mining therefore poses a means of helping to achieve locally defined economic anti social goals. However, in a world economy that includes substantial international trade in mineral commodities, most major mining projects are orientated towards distant, usually international, opportunities rather than local development priorities (Connell & Howitt 1992). The literature reflects this and suggests that, to date, there have been more corporate than l(xxl winners in the process. In many parts of the world economic ‘booms and busts’, found in mining communities, have turned to continuous bust and persistent poverty (Freudenberg Kr Grampling 1994). Alienation, conflict and other. often tragic, impacts have been the legacy of vast numbers of mining operations. Songsore et al’s ( 1995) evaluation of mining’s role in promoting growth i n Ghana, concludes that:

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APPENDIX 2

ASSESSMENT OF SOCIAL lMPACTS OF MINE DEVELOPMENT

There needs to be a basis for anticipating how communities will be impacted by rnine developments. Many of the positive social impacts identified here result from careful planning based o n the prior assessment of the scxial environment. Conversely, nearly all the negative social impacts identified in this report might have been mitigated or avoided with prior social assessment (Davis 1997). A strategy for assessing mining scxial environments, that has the capacity to identify and manage social impacts prior to, and throughout, mine operations is demanded. This would reduce the long-term financial costs of mining and provide mining stakeholders ‘lead time’ with which to plan and ad.just to the project. The mechanisrn proposed to accomplish these ob.jectives is Social lmpact Assessment (SIA).

Becker ( 1997) defines SIA as the process of identtfying the future consequences ( f a current or proposed uction which ure reluted t o individuals, orgunisutions, und socio-t.conomic muc~rn-sy.stern.s. In common with the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) processes, SIA can be regarded as providing direction in:

( I ) The identification or scoping of likely issues stemming from societal change; (2) The projection and prediction o!’ likely impacts from change strategies; (3) The development of mitigation and monitoring strategies i n order to minimise potential or

unforeseen social and economic impacts (Vanclay 1999).

EIA is already a well-established activity within the mining sector and is a requirement of many legislative environments and multilateral and bilateral agencies. However, both within and outside the sector SIA was, until recently. an inconspicuous component of’ EIA process. I n the last few years recognition of the potential of SIA to contribute to the planning of mining projects and to the general philosophy of corporate social responsibility has grown considerably (McPhail and Davy 1998). This has been reinforced by mounting social awareness of affected communities and pressure from key stakeholders such as government, employees, NGO’s and the community.

SIA Procedures

The Impact Assessment (IA) literature reveals that unt i l recently any systematic procedural guidelines produced in IA tended to relate to EIA rather than SIA. The first comprehensive SIA procedures were established by Branch et ul. ( 1 984) in their Guitl. to Social A.s.scwnzrnt This formed a procedural benchmark that provided ii basis for subsequent prtxedural development ;ind revisiori. In the inain, however, the dearth ot‘comprchensive procedural guidelines led t o concern that SIA would increasingly evolve i n ;I disparate ni;uiner. In response. Burclge (1991) urgently called for, ‘...academics and practitioners of SIA to reach some tentative agreement on content and procedure’.

Burdge’s plea was answered, anti the last decade yielded the development of ii series of systematic guidelines tor SIA. In Mothorls ,fi)r Soriul Ana1,v.si.s in l l c w l o p i n ~ C’ounrric..s, Finstei-busch e/ ul. ( 1990) outlined basic niethods and procedures for SIA. Another niajor contribution was Burdge’s ( 1994) C’onrnlunitj- Guitlc to SIA, which offered :I concise and practical set of prtxedures specifically designed for use by comniunity members (Becker 1997). The World Bank ( 199 1 ) produced the Envir-onnientctl A.ssc~.s.srnr~nt S o i r r c ~ h o k , which incorporating distinct social prtxedures for SIA that are narrower in focus than earlier SIA guidelines, but are w iciel y recognised, gaining currency aniong NGOs. goverrirnent agencies and industry (Recs 199s).

A watershed in the development of SIA prtwedures, however, was the public;~tion of' Guidc4inr.s und Principles j i ) r Soc~ial 1nipric.t A,v.sos.vmcnt by t he I<'(;P ( I 09s ). Hurclgc ( I 996) declared the guidelines to be 'the most significant development in rcxent SIA history'. The guidelines produced comprehensive precondition and post-review procedures tor SIA that retlected the consensus of key academics and professionals in the SIA community. They itre based o n the regulatory environinent o f the US. but are adaptive enough to provide quality SIA in 3 wide variety of,jurisdictions (Hurdge & Vanclay 1905. Becker 1007). The prcxxxiures also emulate the EIA prwess outlined by t h e ('EQ, firmly integrating SIA within ;I recognised EIA framework (CEQ 1986). 'The key procedures set out in these guidelines are summarised below:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Public Involvement means that project stakeholders are consulted and may directly participate in the design of the assessment, the identification and prediction of impacts and issues and in generating appropriate mitigation measures (Ross I999 I .

Description of baseline conditions involves an analysis of existing social conditions including such things as social resource profiles, cultural attitudes, population characteristics (Wood 1993, Burdge & Vanclay 1995). Scoping of issues is the most important preparatory procedure in the S IA prtwess. I t clarifies the issues relevant to the project including the key social variables t o be considered for analyses. Scoping should include the identification of impacts at all phases of the development, positive ;1s well a s negative, direct, indirect. or cumulative, permanent o r temporary (EPA 1995, Vanclay 1999). Prediction and projection of estimated impacts is the key activity in SIA. This is considered to be one of the difficult stages of the assessment. I t investigates probable impacts of the proposal and the responses of affected stakeholders. Most of the >~nillytic;tl content of the SJA is at this stage (EPA 1995, Finsterbusch 1995). Estimation of indirect and cumulative impacts are more difficult to estimate than direct impacts, but are important t o attempt to identify and predict. Practitioners should determine sociaI/economic/biophysical impact links and other projects likely to interact with the proposed project (World Bank 1992). Mitigation of negative impacts involves firstly. m n i d i n ~ all ;idverse in~pi tc t~. secondly, ttiinitni.vin!: any adverse impacts that cannot be avoided, and thirdly c .o t t i i"r i . s ( i t i r i~ f o r unavoiti;ible adverse impacts (ICGP 19%). Monitoring will identify deviations and unailticipiited impacts froin the proposed action. Monitoring will allow for ii more exacting iinalysis of impacts and mitigation inwsiires and will inform the audit (World Rank 1992, ICGP 1995). Auditing allows for the comparison of projected and predicted impacts with ;tctu;il impacts. Auditing makes it possible to refine existing methods t o achieve their maximum utility (Bisset & Tomlinson 1994, Vanclay 1999).

The prtxcdural guidelines outlined above suggest that the starting point for SIA must be consultation with those most affected by the action to provide for the diverse interests of stakeholders in the assessment and management process. There is an ever growing need f o r an integrative resource management approach that through an appropriate participatory mechanism generates actions that are both in the interest of the company iind the i n the interest of its itffectetl stakeholders. World Bank requirements and recoiiiniendations lOr public involvement and s c ~ i a l responsibility in project assessment itnd tievelopment through Opcr(Jtion(rl D i r w t i ~ ~ o J.,OI is certing a globally recognised benchmark f o r public involvement in the socio-economic assessment prwe

75

The aforementioned criteria imply that the public should actively participate in critical stages of the assessment including assessment design, scoping, analysis, and prediction / recommended mitigation of impacts. Public involvement provides an essential basis for establishing stakeholder trust and stakeholder trust is an essential basis for continued and effective public involvement and support. A breakdown in trust, decreases the willingness of the public to evaluate change strategies on their own merits and in the light of improving design and control opportunities (Armour 199 I , Petts 1999).

SIA Methods

Given the complexity involved i n anticipating stxial futures, a much greater emphasis is placed on the methodological approach used in SIA research than in conventional ex-post social research (Finsterbusch 1995, Porter & Fittipaldi 1998). Inappropriate methodological approaches to SIA are held to be responsible for a lack of relevant and accurate information on which to base project decision-making. This can have the affect of turning SIA into a reactive prcxess rather than a proactive prtxess. for which it was intended. I t is therefore recognised that the legitimacy of SIA’s ex-ante orientation depends on the adoption of uppropriutc methodologies (W ildman 1990, Ross 1998).

Three contrasting methodological approaches to SIA can be identified in the literature. The technocratic approach, derived from the scientific and technical activities of cost-benefit analysis and EIA, is typically associated with quantitative methods orientated to the collection of value-free or ob.jective (lata, arid draws on expert specialist knowledge. The participatory approach evolved from a desire to incorporate actors’ perspectives into the assessment. It is typically associated with qualitative methods, orientated to the collection of value-laden or sub,jective data, and draws on indigenous community knowledge (sec Figure 1 below).

7 x

8. Semi-structured Interviews

lJnlike pre-established and fbrmal questionnaires, ii semi-structured intervtcw is h;iwd o n ;I checklist of general questions which can he revised i i t any time. 'This leaves ;I degrec of flexihility, so that if other questions arc raised during the interview they cat) be exploral. Interviewees are typically key informants, focus or mixed groups. It is important that those interviewed are inadc to feel ;it e ; ~ . 'Thus, it has been suggested that interviews start with general questions before moving to niorc' sensitive areas (WHO 1997).

9. Workshops

Workshops are a way of getting together the stakeholders of a project to identify community needs, communicate project plans, and identify and predict some of the potential social impacts of the project. This may be facilitated through 'brainstorming', problem solving or straighttorward discussion (Pratt & Loizos 1992). Stakeholders, to priwitise development alternatives, or 10 indicate the relative significance of soc'i;iI impacts on their lives. may use ranking and scoring.

79

APPENDIX 3

SOCIAL IMPACT REFERENCES

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