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NATURAL GAS
• Natural gas, consisting mostly of methane, is often found above reservoirs of crude oil.– When a natural gas-field is tapped, gasses are
liquefied and removed as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
• Coal beds and bubbles of methane trapped in ice crystals deep under the arctic permafrost and beneath deep-ocean sediments are unconventional sources of natural gas.
NATURAL GAS
• Russia and Iran have almost half of the world’s reserves of conventional gas, and global reserves should last 62-125 years.
• Natural gas is versatile and clean-burning fuel, but it releases the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (when burned) and methane (from leaks) into the troposphere.
COAL
• Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is formed in several stages as the buried remains of land plants that lived 300-400 million years ago.
Figure 16-12Figure 16-12
Fig. 16-12, p. 368
Increasing heat and carbon content
Increasing moisture content
Peat (not a coal)
Lignite (brown coal)
Bituminous
(soft coal)
Anthracite
(hard coal)Heat Heat Heat
Pressure Pressure Pressure
Partially decayed plant matter in swamps and bogs; low heat content
Low heat content; low sulfur content; limited supplies in most areas
Extensively used as a fuel because of its high heat content and large supplies; normally has a high sulfur content
Highly desirable fuel because of its high heat content and low sulfur content; supplies are limited in most areas
Fig. 16-13, p. 369
Waste heat
Coal bunker TurbineCooling tower
transfers waste heat to
atmosphere
Generator
Cooling loop
Stack
Pulverizing mill
Condenser Filter
Boiler
Toxic ash disposal
COAL
• Coal reserves in the United States, Russia, and China could last hundreds to over a thousand years.– The U.S. has 27% of the world’s proven coal
reserves, followed by Russia (17%), and China (13%).
– In 2005, China and the U.S. accounted for 53% of the global coal consumption.
TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES
• About 99% of the energy we use for heat comes from the sun and the other 1% comes mostly from burning fossil fuels.– Solar energy indirectly supports wind power,
hydropower, and biomass.• About 76% of the commercial energy we use
comes from nonrenewable fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) with the remainder coming from renewable sources.
TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES
• Nonrenewable energy resources and geothermal energy in the earth’s crust.
Figure 16-2Figure 16-2
Fig. 16-2, p. 357
Oil and natural gasOil and natural gasFloating oil drilling
platform Oil storage CoalCoalContour strip miningOil drilling
platform on legs
Geothermal Geothermal energyenergy
Hot water storageOil well
Pipeline Geothermal power plant
Gas well Valves Mined coal
Pump Area strip mining Drilling
tower
Pipeline
Impervious rock
Underground coal mineNatural gasWaterOil
Water is heated and brought up as dry
steam or wet steamWater
Coal seam Hot rock
Water penetrates
down through the rock
Magma
TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES
• Commercial energy use by source for the world (left) and the U.S. (right).
Figure 16-3Figure 16-3
REDUCING ENERGY WASTE AND IMPROVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY• Four widely used devices waste large amounts of
energy:– Incandescent light bulb: 95% is lost as heat.– Internal combustion engine: 94% of the energy in its
fuel is wasted.– Nuclear power plant: 92% of energy is wasted through
nuclear fuel and energy needed for waste management.– Coal-burning power plant: 66% of the energy released
by burning coal is lost.
USING RENEWABLE SOLAR ENERGY TO PROVIDE HEAT AND ELECTRICITY
• A variety of renewable-energy resources are available but their use has been hindered by a lack of government support compared to nonrenewable fossil fuels and nuclear power.– Direct solar – Moving water – Wind – Geothermal
USING RENEWABLE SOLAR ENERGY TO PROVIDE HEAT AND ELECTRICITY
• The European Union aims to get 22% of its electricity from renewable energy by 2010.
• Costa Rica gets 92% of its energy from renewable resources.
• China aims to get 10% of its total energy from renewable resources by 2020.
• In 2004, California got about 12% of its electricity from wind and plans to increase this to 50% by 2030.
USING RENEWABLE SOLAR ENERGY TO PROVIDE HEAT AND ELECTRICITY
• Denmark now gets 20% of its electricity from wind and plans to increase this to 50% by 2030.
• Brazil gets 20% of its gasoline from sugarcane residue.
• In 2004, the world’s renewable-energy industries provided 1.7 million jobs.
Solar
• Types – photovoltaic cells (convert sunlight directly to electricity with a 10% efficiency) and solar thermal systems (sun’s heat is used to heat bodies of water enough to produce steam that can be used to make electricity)
• Energy conversion – radiant/heat to electrical, heat or mechanical
• Benefits – pollution-free, unlimited source• Costs – not useful in cloudy areas or at night, we do
not have the technology needed to use very efficiently
Producing Electricity with Solar Cells
• Photovoltaic (PV) cells can provide electricity for a house of building using solar-cell roof shingles.
Figure 17-17Figure 17-17
Fig. 17-17, p. 398
Single solar cellSolar-cell roof
–
Boron enriched silicon
+
Junction
Phosphorus enriched silicon
Roof options
Panels of solar cells
Solar shingles
Producing Electricity with Solar Cells
• Solar cells can be used in rural villages with ample sunlight who are not connected to an electrical grid.
Figure 17-18Figure 17-18
Core Case Study: The Coming Energy-Efficiency and Renewable-Energy
Revolution
• It is possible to get electricity from solar cells that convert sunlight into electricity.– Can be attached like shingles on a roof.– Can be applied to window glass as a coating.– Can be mounted on racks almost anywhere.
Core Case Study: The Coming Energy-Efficiency and Renewable-Energy
Revolution
• The heating bill for this energy-efficient passive solar radiation office in Colorado is $50 a year.
Figure 17-1Figure 17-1
Passive Solar Heating
• Passive solar heating system absorbs and stores heat from the sun directly within a structure without the need for pumps to distribute the heat.
Figure 17-13Figure 17-13
Fig. 17-13, p. 396
Direct Gain
Summer sunHot air
Warm air
Super-insulated windows
Winter sun
Cool air
Earth tubes
Ceiling and north wall heavily insulated
Fig. 17-13, p. 396
Greenhouse, Sunspace, or Attached Solarium
Summer cooling vent
Warm air
Insulated windows
Cool air
Fig. 17-13, p. 396
Earth Sheltered
Reinforced concrete, carefully waterproofed walls and roof
Triple-paned or superwindowsEarth
Flagstone floor for heat storage
Fig. 17-14, p. 396
Trade-Offs
Passive or Active Solar Heating
Advantages Disadvantages
Energy is free Need access to sun 60% of time
Net energy is moderate (active) to high (passive)
Sun blocked by other structures
Need heat storage system
Quick installation
No CO2 emissions
Very low air and water pollution
High cost (active)
Very low land disturbance (built into roof or window)
Active system needs maintenance and repair
Moderate cost (passive)
Active collectors unattractive
Cooling Houses Naturally
• We can cool houses by:– Superinsulating them.– Taking advantages of breezes. – Shading them.– Having light colored or green roofs.– Using geothermal cooling.
Wind
• Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical
• Benefits – pollution-free, source is free (used in West Texas, Hawaii, California, and more)
• Costs – can only be used in places with lots of wind
PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM WIND
• Wind power is the world’s most promising energy resource because it is abundant, inexhaustible, widely distributed, cheap, clean, and emits no greenhouse gases.
• Much of the world’s potential for wind power remains untapped.
• Capturing only 20% of the wind energy at the world’s best energy sites could meet all the world’s energy demands.
PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM WIND
• Wind turbines can be used individually to produce electricity. They are also used interconnected in arrays on wind farms.
Figure 17-21Figure 17-21
PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM WIND
• The United States once led the wind power industry, but Europe now leads this rapidly growing business.– The U.S. government lacked subsidies, tax breaks and
other financial incentives.
• European companies manufacture 80% of the wind turbines sold in the global market– The success has been aided by strong government
subsidies.
Biomass• Description – any type of organic matter (forest products, crop
wastes, animal wastes, people wastes, etc.) that can be used to produce energy; currently used for about 5% of U.S. energy
• Energy conversion – chemical to electrical or heat• Benefits – cheap, less toxic pollutants, using wastes effectively,
currently used in Rio Grande Valley with the burning of sugar cane residue, also produces food, feed, and fiber
• Costs – we don’t have all the technology needed to use this well right now, not useful in every location, some pollution is produced
PRODUCING ENERGY FROM BIOMASS
• Plant materials and animal wastes can be burned to provide heat or electricity or converted into gaseous or liquid biofuels.
Figure 17-23Figure 17-23
PRODUCING ENERGY FROM BIOMASS
• The scarcity of fuelwood causes people to make fuel briquettes from cow dung in India. This deprives soil of plant nutrients.
Figure 17-24Figure 17-24
Fig. 17-25, p. 405
Trade-Offs
Solid Biomass
Advantages Disadvantages
Large potential supply in some areas
Nonrenewable if harvested unsustainably
Moderate costsModerate to high environmental impact
No net CO2 increase if harvested and burned sustainably
CO2 emissions if harvested and burned unsustainably
Low photosynthetic efficiencyPlantation can be located on semiarid land not needed for crops
Soil erosion, water pollution, and loss of wildlife habitat
Plantation can help restore degraded lands
Plantations could compete with cropland
Often burned in inefficient and polluting open fires and stoves
Can make use of agricultural, timber, and urban wastes
Water• Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical or heat• Benefits – already have the technology to do this,
pollution free, dams are also useful as water sources and flood controls; world’s largest source of electrical power
• Costs – there are environmental costs to building new dams, there are not rivers located everywhere
• Read James Bay Watershed Transfer Project Miller Page 304
PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM THE WATER CYCLE
• Water flowing in rivers and streams can be trapped in reservoirs behind dams and released as needed to spin turbines and produce electricity.
• There is little room for expansion in the U.S. – Dams and reservoirs have been created on 98% of suitable rivers.
Fig. 17-20, p. 400
Trade-Offs
Large-Scale Hydropower
Advantages Disadvantages
Moderate to high net energy High construction costs
Large untapped potential
High environmental impact from flooding land to form a reservoir
High efficiency (80%)
High CO2 emissions from biomass decay in shallow tropical reservoirs
Low-cost electricity
Long life span
No CO2 emissions during operation in temperate areas
Floods natural areas behind dam
May provide flood control below dam
Converts land habitat to lake habitat
Danger of collapse
Provides water for year-round irrigation of cropland
Uproots people
Decreases fish harvest below dam
Reservoir is useful for fishing and recreation
Decreases flow of natural fertilizer (silt) to land below dam
Geothermal
• Description – heat from deep within the earth is used to produce electricity
• This is the only energy source that doesn’t come from the sun!
• Energy conversion – thermal to electrical and heat
• Benefits – pollution-free, used near Waco and in Iceland
• Costs – not available everywhere, we don’t have all the technology needed to use it
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY• Geothermal energy consists of heat stored in
soil, underground rocks, and fluids in the earth’s mantle.
• We can use geothermal energy stored in the earth’s mantle to heat and cool buildings and to produce electricity.– A geothermal heat pump (GHP) can heat and cool a
house by exploiting the difference between the earth’s surface and underground temperatures.
Geothermal Heat Pump• The house is heated
in the winter by transferring heat from the ground into the house.
• The process is reversed in the summer to cool the house.
Figure 17-31Figure 17-31
Tidal Power
• Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical
• Benefits – pollution-free, cheap, renewable
• Costs – only two places in the U.S. have tides needed to do this
Wave Power
• Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical• Benefits – pollution-free, cheap, renewable• Costs - only suitable in areas facing the
open ocean (especially on the West Coasts of continents); tend to be destroyed in storms
PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM THE WATER CYCLE
• Ocean tides and waves and temperature differences between surface and bottom waters in tropical waters are not expected to provide much of the world’s electrical needs.
• Only two large tidal energy dams are currently operating: one in La Rance, France and Nova Scotia’s bay of Fundy where the tidal amplitude can be as high as 16 meters (63 feet).
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• When isotopes of uranium and plutonium undergo controlled nuclear fission, the resulting heat produces steam that spins turbines to generate electricity.– The uranium oxide consists of about 97%
nonfissionable uranium-238 and 3% fissionable uranium-235.
– The concentration of uranium-235 is increased through an enrichment process.
Fig. 16-16, p. 372
Small amounts of radioactive gases
Uranium fuel input (reactor core)
Control rodsContainment shell
Heat exchanger
Steam Turbine Generator
Waste heat
Electric power
Hot coolant
Useful energy 25%–30%Hot
water outputPumpPump
Coolant Pump Pump
Moderator
Cool water input
Waste heat
Shielding Pressure vessel
Coolant passage
Water CondenserPeriodic removal and storage of radioactive wastes and spent fuel assemblies
Periodic removal and storage of radioactive liquid wastes
Water source (river, lake, ocean)
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• After three or four years in a reactor, spent fuel rods are removed and stored in a deep pool of water contained in a steel-lined concrete container.
Figure 16-17Figure 16-17
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• After spent fuel rods are cooled considerably, they are sometimes moved to dry-storage containers made of steel or concrete.
Figure 16-17Figure 16-17
What Happened to Nuclear Power?• After more than 50 years of development and
enormous government subsidies, nuclear power has not lived up to its promise because:– Multi billion-dollar construction costs.– Higher operation costs and more malfunctions than
expected.– Poor management.– Public concerns about safety and stricter
government safety regulations.
Case Study: The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident
• The world’s worst nuclear power plant accident occurred in 1986 in Ukraine.
• The disaster was caused by poor reactor design and human error.
• By 2005, 56 people had died from radiation released.– 4,000 more are expected from thyroid cancer and
leukemia.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• A 1,000 megawatt nuclear plant is refueled once a year, whereas a coal plant requires 80 rail cars a day.
Figure 16-20Figure 16-20
Fig. 16-20, p. 376
Coal vs. Nuclear
Trade-Offs
Coal Nuclear
Ample supply Ample supply of uranium
High net energy yield Low net energy yield
Very high air pollutionLow air pollution (mostly from fuel reprocessing)
High CO2 emissions Low CO2 emissions (mostly from fuel reprocessing)
High land disruption from surface mining Much lower land disruption
from surface mining
Low cost (with huge subsidies) High cost (even with huge subsidies)
High land use Moderate land use
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• Terrorists could attack nuclear power plants, especially poorly protected pools and casks that store spent nuclear fuel rods.
• Terrorists could wrap explosives around small amounts of radioactive materials that are fairly easy to get, detonate such bombs, and contaminate large areas for decades.
NUCLEAR ENERGY• When a nuclear reactor reaches the end of its
useful life, its highly radioactive materials must be kept from reaching the environment for thousands of years.
• At least 228 large commercial reactors worldwide (20 in the U.S.) are scheduled for retirement by 2012.– Many reactors are applying to extent their 40-year
license to 60 years.– Aging reactors are subject to embrittlement and
corrosion.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• Building more nuclear power plants will not lessen dependence on imported oil and will not reduce CO2 emissions as much as other alternatives.– The nuclear fuel cycle contributes to CO2 emissions.
– Wind turbines, solar cells, geothermal energy, and hydrogen contributes much less to CO2 emissions.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• Scientists disagree about the best methods for long-term storage of high-level radioactive waste:– Bury it deep underground.– Shoot it into space.– Bury it in the Antarctic ice sheet.– Bury it in the deep-ocean floor that is geologically
stable.– Change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes.
Nuclear
• Description – using fission to split large uranium atoms into smaller products and releasing tremendous amounts of heat energy which is used to make steam that turns turbines to create electricity
• Energy conversion – nuclear to electrical and heat• Benefits – pollution-free, very, very efficient• Costs – risk of accidents (spread of radioactivity);
transportation and disposal of radioactive wastes (Nimby!) It also produces a ton of thermal pollution!
WAYS TO IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY
• We can save energy in building by getting heat from the sun, superinsulating them, and using plant covered green roofs.
• We can save energy in existing buildings by insulating them, plugging leaks, and using energy-efficient heating and cooling systems, appliances, and lighting.
Strawbale House
• Strawbale is a superinsulator that is made from bales of low-cost straw covered with plaster or adobe. Depending on the thickness of the bales, its strength exceeds standard construction.
Figure 17-9Figure 17-9
Living Roofs• Roofs covered with
plants have been used for decades in Europe and Iceland.
• These roofs are built from a blend of light-weight compost, mulch and sponge-like materials that hold water.
Figure 17-10Figure 17-10
Saving Energy in Existing Buildings
• About one-third of the heated air in typical U.S. homes and buildings escapes through closed windows and holes and cracks.
Figure 17-11Figure 17-11
Definition
• Any fuel that meets certain emissions standards; i.e. they give off a certain amount of pollution (or less)
Alternative Fuels
Laws Involved
• Clean Air Act amendments of 1990• Energy Policy Act (EPACT) in Texas of
1992• Such laws have led to more research and
development of these fuels
Examples of Alternative Fuels• Biodiesel – made of vegetable oils and alcohols;
expensive
• Diesel – cleaner than “normal” gasoline, being more refined
• Biogas – by-product of decaying vegetation; need technology
• Hydrogen – expensive and we need more technology
Ethanol/Methanol – alcohols; not as efficient (Miles per gallon) and we don’t have all the technology ; also, if our grain supplies are used to make fuel, will we have enough to feed the world?Natural Gas – expensive and we need more technologyReformulated Gasoline (RFG) – regular gas that has been further refined to remove some of the more toxic pollutants
Propane – most usable form of alternative fuel; not as efficient (mpg)
Syngas – manmade gas made of hydrogen and carbon monoxide; need more technology to use it
HYDROGEN• Some energy experts view hydrogen gas as the
best fuel to replace oil during the last half of the century, but there are several hurdles to overcome:– Hydrogen is chemically locked up in water an organic
compounds.– It takes energy and money to produce it (net energy is
low).– Fuel cells are expensive.– Hydrogen may be produced by using fossil fuels.
Energy Laws• Public Utility Holding Company Act (PUHCA) –
1935; regulated the interstate flow of energy; 1st law of its kind; a law designed to protect consumers from corporate abuse of electricity markets
• (so electric companies can’t price gouge.) This was happening during the great depression.
Corporate Average Fuel Economy Act (CAFÉ) –1975; focused attention on efficiency of cars; mpg stickers requiredPublic Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA)–1978; higher utility rates for increased electricity use
Converting Plants and Plant Wastes to Liquid Biofuels: An Overview
• Motor vehicles can run on ethanol, biodiesel, and methanol produced from plants and plant wastes.
• The major advantages of biofuels are:– Crops used for production can be grown almost
anywhere.– There is no net increase in CO2 emissions.
– Widely available and easy to store and transport.
Case Study: Producing Ethanol
• Crops such as sugarcane, corn, and switchgrass and agricultural, forestry and municipal wastes can be converted to ethanol. Switchgrass can remove
CO2 from the troposphere and store it in the soil.
Figure 17-26Figure 17-26
Case Study: Producing Ethanol
• 10-23% pure ethanol makes gasohol which can be run in conventional motors.
• 85% ethanol (E85) must be burned in flex-fuel cars.
• Processing all corn grown in the U.S. into ethanol would cover only about 55 days of current driving.
• Biodiesel is made by combining alcohol with vegetable oil made from a variety of different plants..
Case Study: Biodiesel and Methanol
• Growing crops for biodiesel could potentially promote deforestation.
• Methanol is made mostly from natural gas but can also be produced at a higher cost from CO2 from the atmosphere which could help slow global warming.– Can also be converted to other hydrocarbons to
produce chemicals that are now made from petroleum and natural gas.
WAYS TO IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY
• Average fuel economy of new vehicles sold in the U.S. between 1975-2006.
• The government Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) has not increased after 1985.
Figure 17-5Figure 17-5
Fig. 17-5, p. 388
Cars
Both
Ave
rag
e fu
el e
con
om
y (m
iles
per
gal
lon
, o
r m
pg
)
Model year
Pickups, vans, and sport utility vehicles
WAYS TO IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY
• General features of a car powered by a hybrid-electric engine.
• “Gas sipping” cars account for less than 1% of all new car sales in the U.S.
Figure 17-7Figure 17-7
Fig. 17-7, p. 389
Regulator: Controls flow of power between electric motor and battery bank.
Fuel tank: Liquid fuel such as gasoline, diesel, or ethanol runs small combustion engine.Transmission:
Efficient 5-speed automatic transmission.
Battery: High-density battery powers electric motor for increased power.
Combustion engine: Small, efficient internal combustion engine powers vehicle with low emmissions; shuts off at low speeds and stops.
Electric motor: Traction drive provides additional power for passing and acceleration; excess energy recovered during braking is used to help power motor.
Fuel Electricity
Hybrid Vehicles, Sustainable Wind Power, and Oil imports
• Hybrid gasoline-electric engines with an extra plug-in battery could be powered mostly by electricity produced by wind and get twice the mileage of current hybrid cars.– Currently plug-in batteries would by generated by coal
and nuclear power plants.– According to U.S. Department of Energy, a network of
wind farms in just four states could meet all U.S. electricity means.
Fuel-Cell Vehicles
• Fuel-efficient vehicles powered by a fuel cell that runs on hydrogen gas are being developed.
• Combines hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) fuel to produce electricity and water vapor (2H2+O2 2H2O).
• Emits no air pollution or CO2 if the hydrogen is produced from renewable-energy sources.
Fig. 17-8, p. 390
Body attachments Body attachments Mechanical locks that secure the Mechanical locks that secure the body to the chassisbody to the chassis
Air system management
Universal docking connection Connects the chassis with the
drive-by-wire system in the bodyFuel-cell stack Converts hydrogen fuel into electricity
Rear crush zone Absorbs crash energy
Drive-by-wire system controls
Cabin heating unit
Side-mounted radiators Release heat generated by the fuel cell, vehicle electronics, and wheel motors
Hydrogen fuel tanks
Front crush zone Absorbs crash energy
Electric wheel motors Provide four-wheel drive; have built-in brakes
• Renewable Energy and Technology Competitiveness Act – 1989; effort to develop renewable energy nationally
• Clean Air Act Amendments – 1990; set standards for cities and emissions
• Energy Policy Act – 1992; comprehensive effort to find renewable energy resources