Natural Wonders: A Guide to Early Childhood … · Natural Wonders A Guide to Early Childhood for Environmental Educators Created by the Minnesota Early Childhood Environmental Education

Natural WondersA Guide to Early Childhood

for Environmental Educators

Created by the Minnesota Early Childhood Environmental Education Consortium

Marcie Oltman, Editor

Natural WondersA Guide to Early Childhood for Environmental Educators

Created by the Minnesota Early Childhood Environmental Education Consortium

EditorMarcie Oltman

Minnesota Children’s Museum

This project would not have been possible without the generous funding provided by the Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance.

© 2002 MN Early Childhood Environmental Education Consortium

ContributorsJenny Eckman

Tri District Community Cultures/Environmental Science School

Sandra Hudson Tamarack Nature Center

Mark Granlund Como Park Zoo & Conservatory

Julie Powers Dodge Nature Preschool

April Rust Project ⁄

Department of Natural Resources

Nikki SchneiderDodge Nature Center

Design/LayoutNora L. Koch

Gravel Pit Publications

Copy EditorMary Kate Boylan

Indigo Ink Communications

IllustratorPeter Quinlan

Cover DesignTara Lundborg

© Minnesota Children’s Museum and theMinnesota Office of Environmental Assistance.This publication may be reproduced in portionsor its entirety for educational or non-profitpurposes only. You may not distribute, copy orotherwise reproduce any of this guide for sale orcommercial use without written permissionfrom the publisher. Permitted users shall givecredit to the author(s) and include this copy-right notice.

To request additional copies and alternativeformats, contact—

Printed on paper with % total recycled fiberand % post-consumer waste.

Minnesota Children’sMuseum W. 7th St.St. Paul, MN ---- (fax)

Clearinghouse CoordinatorMinnesota Office ofEnvironmental Assistance Lafayette Rd N Floor 2St. Paul, MN ----- (fax)-- (toll free)

About this Guide iv

Acknowledgements v

About the Authors vi

Introduction: Reed’s Story viii

Section l: Understanding Young Children

Developmentally Appropriate Practice 2

Developmental Stages 4

Constructivism 6

Egocentrism 8

Teaching to the Whole Child 10

Multiple Intelligence Theory 14

Diverse Learners 16

Learning through Play 20

What You Need to Know About Children Under Six 22

Section ll: Planning for Active Learning

Teaching vs. Learning Objectives 24

Appropriate Topics 26

Authentic Experiences 26

Inquiry-Based Learning 30

Guiding Children’s Behavior 32

Section lll: Essential Ingredients for Active Learning

Hands-On Learning 36

Open-Ended Activities 38

Choice 40

Section lV: Supporting Active Learning

Learning Stations 44

Art 46

Story Time 48

Outdoor Exploration 52

Section V: Possible Program Formats

Infant and Toddler Programs 56

Adult-Child Programs 57

Drop-Off and Camp Programs 58

School Groups 59

Section VI: Developing and Evaluating Your Program

Program Components 62

Developmentally appropriate Practice at a Glance 64

How Developmentally Appropriate Is Your Program? 67

Epilogue: Reed Returns 68

Section VII: Resources

Resources 69

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Contents

About this Guide

Environmental education organizations andother informal education venues have recentlyrecognized the need to provide specialized pro-gramming for infants, toddlers, preschoolers andtheir families. Likewise, record numbers of par-ents, daycare providers and early childhood edu-cators have begun seeking out nature centers,zoos and museums as places to help their not-yetschool-aged children learn, grow and develop anappreciation of and love for nature. On the sur-face, it’s a match made in heaven. However,unlike teachers in the formal school system whospecialize in certain age groups, informal educa-tors have to be ready and able to provide dynam-ic, interesting, relevant and appropriate programsfor all ages—from preschool to senior citizens—often at a moment’s notice.

While this kind of versatility is necessary, itcan lead to one-size-fits-all programming thatleaves preschoolers behind. But the more welearn about the brain and how experienceaffects growth and development, the more wesee the need to specialize our approach to edu-cating young children. Thanks to educators andresearchers like Rousseau, Piaget, Froebel andMontessori, we’ve known for decades that chil-dren are not just smaller versions of adults, norare preschoolers smaller versions of school-agedchildren. From years of research and practice,we know that very young children—infants,toddlers and preschoolers—are fundamentallydifferent than older children and need to betaught in fundamentally different ways.

Since the late ’s, the National Associationfor the Education of Young Children ()has led the way in defining what those ways are.This information has been available to earlychildhood educators for years, but has not beentranslated for use in environmental educationalsettings—until now.

This guide was written especially for natural-ists and environmental educators who are inter-ested in learning more about how and whyyoung children think and act and how they canuse this information to design developmentallyappropriate programs and activities. However, itis not intended to be a recipe book. You won’tfind a prescribed method for teaching aboutmaple syruping or pond study. Although we doprovide guidelines on what makes a program oractivity developmentally appropriate, we recog-nize that everyone’s situation is different andallow for as much flexibility as possible.

How to use this guide

The sections of this guide become progressivelymore practical and specific—from understand-ing the basics of how young children think toevaluating the developmental appropriateness ofprograms and everything in between. Each sec-tion contains specific topics that explain ingreater detail the elements of child developmentand what it means to facilitate young children’slearning.

At the end of each topic, a chart is provideddetailing information and examples of mostappropriate, somewhat appropriate or leastappropriate practices associated with those top-ics. We have provided this chart as a gauge edu-cators can use to identify where their teachingmethods currently are on the developmentallyappropriate continuum and what they canchange about their methods to make themmore developmentally appropriate. No one isdevelopmentally appropriate percent of thetime. But if you challenge yourself to keep pro-gressing along the continuum, you’ll find itbecomes easier and more rewarding for you andthe children.

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Practicing developmentally appropriate edu-cation is a constant and evolving process. Evenveteran early childhood educators must evaluatetheir practices on a regular basis and adaptthem to changing situations and children. Thebest way to evaluate your programs for develop-mental appropriateness is by being an activelearner yourself—experiment, explore, seekquestions and answers, test theories and inventnew ways of approaching learning.

And don’t forget to have fun!

AcknowledgementsThis guide is the culmination of a two-yearproject of the Minnesota Early ChildhoodEnvironmental Education Consortium withgenerous funding from the Minnesota Office ofEnvironmental Assistance. The authors wouldlike to gratefully acknowledge everyoneinvolved in the project and the creation of thisguide.

To the sponsoring organizations that offeredsupport, meeting space and in-kind financialassistance: Minnesota Children’s Museum,Tamarack Nature Center, Ramsey CountyParks and Recreation, Como Zoo andConservatory, City of St. Paul, Dodge NatureCenter, Dodge Nature Preschool, Tri DistrictCommunity Cultures/Environmental ScienceSchool, Project , Minnesota Department ofNatural Resources, Duluth Aquarium, NeyEnvironmental Center, Moorhead StateUniversity Regional Science Center, QuarryHill Nature Center and the Minnesota Officeof Environmental Assistance.

To the individuals who supported the projectby contributing ideas, time, expertise andencouragement: Karen Stimpson, Myra Smisek,Jeff Ledermann, Kelly Finnerty, BekahStendahl, Joey Schoen, Kathleen Mountain,Barb Poblete, Michelle Blodgett, Sheila

Williams Ridge, Dave Metzen, Sarah Sivright,Jim Roe, Ken Finch, Kelly Osborn, and MarkHoffman.

To the individuals who served as reviewers ofearly drafts of the guide and provided valuablefeedback and editorial comments: Mary Adams,Michelle Anderson, Patti Bailie, Helen Bartee,Cheryl Bauer, Arta Cheney, Kathleen Cohen,Jenna Daire, Sandra Gavin, Judy Gibbs, BethGirard, Paige Guetter, Jen Hagen, KarrieHoller, Margie Jones, Michelle Kelly, LouieKolberg, Shelly Lewis, Corinne Lines, ElaineLoranz, Christine Lukes, Becky McConnell,Lori Olson, Jennifer Perry, Becky Rosendahl,Pat Rummenie, Kim Schilla, Sue Shockey,Glenn Shoemaker, Bekah Stendahl, AlyssaSzepi, Suzanne Trapp and Terry Wittnebel.

Special thanks to Colleen Schoenecker of theOffice of Environmental Assistance and GregAllen of Minnesota Children’s Museum forhelp and support in managing the project.

And last but not least, to the individuals whopatiently worked with naïve writers, met verytight deadlines with grace and good humor andwho helped produce this wonderful resource:Nora L. Koch, Mary Kate Boylan, PeterQuinlan and Tara Lundborg.

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About the Authors

Marcie Oltman

Marcie Oltman has a bachelor of science inbiology from the University of Northern Iowaand a master of science in environmental educa-tion and interpretation from the University ofWisconsin-Stevens Point. She is a state-certi-fied early childhood educator with a master ofeducation in early childhood education fromthe University of Minnesota. An advocate forthe inclusion of young children in the environ-mental education agenda, Marcie has shared herearly childhood environmental educationexpertise with educators in numerous work-shops and conferences across the nation since.

Marcie has published articles in the mono-graph Environmental Education at the EarlyChildhood Level, Cooperative Learning, andLegacy and serves as a consultant on exhibit andbuilding design, early childhood environmentsand early childhood environmental curricula forclients around the country. She is on the boardof the Minnesota Association of EnvironmentalEducation and an advisor to the EarlyChildhood Outdoors Institute in Omaha andthe Dodge Nature Preschool in West St. Paul,Minnesota. Marcie has worked at MinnesotaChildren’s Museum since in exhibit andcurriculum development, interpretation and asthe coordinator for Project GreenStart, theMuseum’s environmental education initiativefor young children.

Mark Granlund

Mark Granlund has been the resident artist atthe Como Park Zoo and Conservatory, in St.Paul since and is currently the arts andcommunity gardening coordinator for St. PaulParks and Recreation. In this capacity, he coor-dinates art classes and programs for adults andchildren, develops and implements public artprojects and oversees the more than commu-nity gardens in St. Paul’s parks. Mark receivedhis masters degree in painting and drawingfrom Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, New York in and has exhibited his environmentally-themed art work in New York and throughoutthe upper-Midwest. He has taught undergradu-ate art classes at Brooklyn College; BethelCollege, Arden Hills, Minnesota; LakewoodCommunity College, White Bear Lake,Minnesota; and the Vermont Studio Colony,Johnson, Vermont.

Mark owns and operates an environmentalconsulting business, Green Crayon, and pub-lished articles in Orion Magazine and theAmerican Community Garden AssociationNewsletter.

April Rust

April Rust earned a bachelor of science in natu-ral resources and environmental studies fromthe University of Minnesota in . Aprilworked as an intern naturalist at WilliamO’Brien State Park in Minnesota, where shetaught seasonally from to . As part ofher master of science in forestry, she studiedsocial forestry programs in Kitui, Kenyathrough the Minnesota Studies in InternationalDevelopment program. Her master’s focus wasenvironmental education and internationalenvironmental issues. After graduating in ,she developed and established an elementary-level, sustainability-focused environmental cur-riculum for the nonprofit organization, FullCircle Institute () in Minneapolis. Whileworking at , April joined the EarlyChildhood Environmental EducationConsortium Project. In , April became the

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Minnesota Project (Water Education forTeachers) coordinator and was elected in to serve on the national Project council.She continues to be an active environmentaleducator in Minnesota.

Julie Powers

Julie Powers holds a bachelor of science in childdevelopment from the University of Arizonaand a master of science in human developmentwith specialization in early childhood and par-ent and community work from Pacific OaksCollege in Pasadena, California. She was thefounding director of Dodge Nature Preschool atthe Dodge Nature Center in West St. Paul,Minnesota and now serves as a consultant tothe program. Julie also serves as a validator forthe National Association for the Education ofYoung Children, making site visits to earlychildhood programs that are seeking certifica-tion. She works as a consultant in the areas ofearly childhood programming, early childhoodenvironmental education and natural play areas.Julie currently lives in Telluride, Colorado.

Jenny Eckman

Jenny Eckman is a primary, multiage teacher atthe Tri-District Community Cultures andEnvironmental Science Elementary School inMaplewood, Minnesota. She is a national boardcertified teacher in early childhood educationand was named a Minnesota Teacher ofExcellence in through the MinnesotaTeacher of the Year program.

Jenny has been involved in environmentaleducation with ages birth to adult and was inte-gral in the creation and cultivation of the Tri-District garden program. Her teaching empha-sizes making connections between environmen-tal education and multicultural and antibiasissues. Before joining the world of elementaryeducation, she spent eight years in the companyof young children and their families in variousroles including Head Start teacher and homevisitor, early childhood educator and work intherapeutic preschools.

Sandra Hudson

Sandra Hudson is a naturalist at the TamarackNature Center in Ramsey County, Minnesota,specializing in preschool environmental educa-tion. She has also worked as a seasonal natural-ist for Wisconsin State Parks and the DodgeNature Center in West St. Paul, Minnesota.Sandra has a bachelor of science in biologyfrom the University of Wisconsin-River Fallsand has done graduate work at Iowa State andthe University of Wisconsin-River Falls.

Nikki Schneider

Nikki Schneider has bachelor of science in biol-ogy from Stetson University. She is currentlyworking on her master of education in earlychildhood education at the University ofMinnesota. She is a certified trainer in theNational Guidelines for Excellence inEnvironmental Education and the MaterialGuidelines for Excellence in EnvironmentalEducation. Nikki has shared her expertise inthe best practices for environmental educationat local, state and national conferences since.

Nikki is the current president of theMinnesota Association for EnvironmentalEducation and has served on their board since. She is a city-appointed board member forthe Lino Lakes Environmental Advisory Board.She also served as the chairperson for theEnvironmental Education Consortium from to , creating partnerships betweenenvironmental educators and formal teachers todevelop age-appropriate curriculum in environ-mental education. She is the director of educa-tion at the Dodge Nature Center, West St.Paul, Minnesota, developing curriculum andcoordinating early childhood, elementary andmiddle school environmental education pro-grams.

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IntroductionReed’s Story

Reed, a naturalist at a community nature centerplanned a presentation on animal homes for agroup of three-year-olds and their parents.Reed modified a minute program into a minute one thinking that young children haveshort attention spans, have trouble staying inone place, like to touch things and have diffi-culty taking turns. Several activities were to lastonly a few minutes each. She marked the floorwith tape so children would know where to sit,collected real examples of animal homes andeliminated the need for turn-taking by decidingto choose only one child to help her put feltanimals in their felt homes. Reed planned toend her program with a hike through the forestin search of real animal homes.

Despite those plans, the program did not gowell for Reed, the children or their parents.Distracted by an aquarium and other objects inthe room, it took ten minutes to get everyonesettled. As soon as she brought out an old hor-net’s nest, all fifteen children mobbed Reed,eager to get their hands on it. She managed toget everyone back in place by promising to passthe nest around which ended up shredded intopieces. Using only one helper for the felt animalhome activity was disastrous as it was accompa-nied by cries of “I want to do it!” and “When isit my turn?”

The craft activity was no more successful. AsReed carefully explained each step in the craftshe noticed that the parents were making the

craft while the children stood idly by. Knowingshe was running short on time, she herdedeveryone to the door for the hike. She hurriedalong the trail, attempting to point out animalhomes along the way. The group quicklybecame spread out, several children needed togo back to the building to the bathroom andthe program fizzled out. Needless to say, Reeddecided that preschoolers weren’t her cup of tea.

The best intentions

Reed is not alone in her experience. We’ve allbeen there or done something like it. Thinkingwe are planning with young children’s bestinterests in mind, we inadvertently plan inap-propriate programs based on meeting our needsinstead of the children’s developmental needs.In Reed’s case for example, it seems logical torespond to short attention spans by planningshort activities. In reality, this doesn’t help chil-dren extend their attending abilities and mayonly exacerbate the problem. Adults tend toreact to the nature of young children by placinglimits on individual behavior rather than creat-ing supportive situations where they can freelyand actively participate. By doing so, we may becreating negative experiences with natureinstead of the intended positive experiences andmaking more work for ourselves in the process.Reed made her program choices on deficit-based assumptions (what she thought childrencouldn’t do) instead of on how she, the programand the environment could best support theemerging abilities of her young audience.

Following the guidelines offered in this man-ual will help you plan appropriate, productiveand joyful early childhood environmental edu-cation programs. Children will have room andtime to play, explore, experiment, run, leap, bal-ance and climb; time to nurture friendships andlearn about caring and sharing; and a chance todiscover for themselves the beauty and wondersof nature.

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Section I:Understanding Young Children

Understanding Young Children

Developmentally AppropriatePractice

What does it mean?

Developmentally appropriate practice () isan early childhood education standard that wasfirst described by the National Association forthe Education of Young Children. According to, developmentally appropriate practice ismatching the learning environment—the physi-cal set-up, materials, schedule, curriculum,teaching methods and so forth—to the devel-opmental levels of children. It means under-standing the developmental changes that typi-cally occur from birth through age eight (andbeyond), variations in development for individ-uals and how we can best support their learningand development during these years.

There is no magic formula for developmen-tally appropriate practice. Educators make deci-sions day by day, minute by minute, based onknowledge of how children develop and learn,the individual children and families in questionand the environmental, social and cultural con-text (Bredekamp & Copple, ).

Developmentally appropriate practice in earlychildhood environmental education meansmaking program choices that emphasize andsupport both the individual and collective abili-ties of children.

Why is it important?

Developmentally appropriate practice is based

on decades of research and knowledge of howchildren grow and develop and are guidelines bywhich we can measure our effectiveness. Thepower of developmentally appropriate practicelies in the educator’s ability to make choices anddecisions about what is best for the children andfamilies he or she serves. We all know that edu-cational practices are most effective when theyare attuned to the way children develop andlearn—that is, when they are developmentallyappropriate.

What are the benefits of using developmentally appropriate practice?

Children have better comprehension and retention.Because material is presented in a mannerbest suited to their developmental stage, thematerial is absorbed better than it would havebeen if it was designed for older children.

There are fewer struggles to get children to engage in the program.Material presented in a developmentallyappropriate manner is more interesting tostudents and naturally grabs their attention.

Children and adults can learn together.Following a child’s lead often takes us in amuch more interesting direction than anyadult prescribed curriculum.

More diverse programming can reach morestudents.Creating developmentally appropriate materi-als requires more diverse forms of interactionand presentation and reaches more diverselearning styles.

Why don’t educators use developmentallyappropriate practices?

We tend to stay with a teaching style we are mostcomfortable with.We tend to rely heavily on props, scripts orvisual aides to do the teaching instead ofallowing for more personal discovery, interac-tion and relationship building.

Natural Wondersa Guide to Early Childhood Environmental Education

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Understanding Young ChildrenDevelopmentally Appropriate Practice

3

We tend to focus more on sharing facts aboutnature than on the process of learning.

What are possible behavior issues relatedto developmentally appropriate practice?

Often there are perceived behavior concernswhen, in fact, the opposite is usually the case.In developmentally appropriate programs,children have more freedom to think and dofor themselves. Providing well-structured pro-grams with the freedom to make choicesactually keeps behavioral issues to a mini-mum. There are usually more behavior-basedproblems in programs that are rigidly didac-tic, require children to sit and listen for longperiods of time or don’t encourage open-ended exploration. However, it may be

necessary to change approaches for certainindividuals, cultures and or abilities. Somechildren may require more structure, feweroptions or less stimulation. Developmentallyappropriate practice is by definition, tailoringprograms to meet the needs of particularindividuals and groups.

Want to know more? Bredekamp, S & Copple, C. .

Developmentally Appropriate Practice in EarlyChildhood Programs, revised edition.Washington D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children. ---. Excerpts available atnewhorizons.org/naeyc.html

Activities are attuned to thechild’s level of cognitive, physicaland social development includingprops, setting, language and tim-ing. Learning is easier for thechild and teacher.

Various learning stations such aswater table with pond life, paint-ing table with water colors, pondpuppets and costumes and soforth are set up around the gath-ering area. Children are encour-aged to choose at will betweenthe activities offered. They arefree to move about the area, playalone or with others, and explorematerials at their own pace.

Programs are presented at anappropriate level in language butother aspects may be inappropri-ate. There is some struggle butmost of the concepts are compre-hended.

Various learning stations are set-up around the gathering area andchildren rotate from station tostation at the teacher’s direction.Specific outcomes are expected ateach station.

Information is presented at aninappropriate level involvingprops, setting, language and tim-ing. Children learn little and areeither bored or overwhelmed.

Children sit quietly while a natu-ralist explains the water cycleusing words like transpiration andprecipitation.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Constructivism


Developmental Stages

What does it mean?

Psychologist Jean Piaget first described youngchildren as having a unique set of physical, cog-nitive, social and emotional attributes that dif-ferentiates them from any other age group. Hedescribed the constructivist theory—that childrenconstruct knowledge out of their exploratoryactions on the environment. This theory formsthe basis of the modern interactive, hands-onapproach to learning.

Piaget also described how children’s thinkingchanged over time. By observing children’sbehavior, he noted four distinct stages: sensori-motor, preoperational, concrete operational andformal operational. (See accompanying chart.)


Young children think differently than adults.Because of this, we have difficulty interpretingtheir actions, emotions and reactions. They havelittle concept of the past, present and future;they confuse reality with fantasy; they thinkthat everyone feels, thinks and acts like they do.It is essential for us to understand not only howyoung children think but why they think whatthey do and change our methods accordingly.

What are the benefits to recognizingdevelopmental stages and characteristics?

Knowing your audience.Knowing how young children think and feel

is essential to developmentally appropriatepractice and good teaching in any setting.

It helps us respond to children appropriately.Our first response to a child’s burst of illogi-cal thought is too often to either correct themor dismiss it as cute. However, if we respondby asking questions, we can find out a lotabout the mysteries of learning and thought.

What are the challenges to recognizingdevelopmental stages and characteristics?

It’s difficult for adults to really think like children.Once you’ve gone through the developmentalstages yourself, it’s nearly impossible to back-track. Try to imagine having no concept ofthe past, present and future or believing inthe tooth fairy. The best we can do is toincorporate theory into our teaching practicesand try to remember what life was like with-out logical thought.

Why don’t we recognize developmentalstages and characteristics more?

We weren’t taught to recognize these stages.Unless you’ve taken classes specifically forearly childhood education, it’s likely youweren’t exposed to the developmental theoriesof learning in young children. It takes prac-tice to recognize certain characteristics.It’s hard to master the mysteries of youngchildren when you teach them infrequently.But once you catch on, the payoffs areimmense.

What are possible behavior issues relatedto not recognizing developmental characteristics?

Unrealistic expectations.Expecting too much or too little from chil-dren almost guarantees difficult or “inappro-priate” behavior. The more you know aboutchildren’s abilities the better chance you’llhave for a successful program.


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Want to know more?

Miller, Karen. . Ages and Stages:Developmental Descriptions And Activities,Birth through Eight Years. Beltsville, MD:Telshare Publishing. : ---.

Understanding Young Children Developmental Stages

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Babies and toddlers, birth to two

Preschoolers, two to six

School age, six to eleven

Adolescents, twelve to nineteen

• Babies are a bundle of reflexes.• Very little intention to their movements.• Rely on adults and environment for stimulation.• Cannot think of an object when it is out of sight.• Increasing awareness of relation between own

actions, objects and environment.• Major milestone is object permanence—holding

an image or event in memory.

• Little knowledge of cause and effect.• Difficulty taking another’s point of view.• Think inanimate objects have human feelings.• Cannot understand that something remains the

same even though it changes form. For example, apeanut butter sandwich cut into four pieces ismore than one cut into two pieces.

• Lack logical thought. For example, a child mightthink that the moon follows him wherever hegoes.

• Major milestone is the emergence of logicalthought—thinking is no longer limited by perception.

• Begin to think more logically.• Begin to reason and understand abstract concepts.• Understand moral concepts of rules, intentionality

and justice.• Major milestone of this stage is the mastery of

logical thought.

• Can reason about the past, present and future.• Can think about their own thoughts and feelings

as if they were objects.• Major milestone is the development of hypotheti-

cal and deductive reasoning abilities.

Piaget’s Four Stages of Development

According to this concept, there are four stages of cognitive development:


Constructivism

What does it mean?

One of the most widely used theories describ-ing how young children learn is the construc-tivist theory by Jean Piaget. It states that allknowledge comes from an individual’s interac-tion with the environment. Piaget proposedthat children construct knowledge out of theirexploratory actions—either physical (manipula-tion of objects) or mental (wondering aboutsomething). Exploration is then focused onconstructing or making sense of the world byactively interpreting experiences. They willoften make up or construct answers to theirmany questions in an attempt to make sense ofsomething that is puzzling them. Because theylack the ability to think logically, these “naïve”theories can be interesting and lead to creativeconclusions. For example, a four-year-old mayconclude that the sun goes down because shegoes to bed, and in her limited experience thisseems true. Attempting to correct her with ascientifically accurate explanation will probablybe fruitless because she’s in the throes of preop-erational, illogical thought. The educator’s job isto provide her with rich experiences, askthought-provoking questions like “Does it godown when I go to bed?” encouraging her torevise her theories and most of all, to trust theprocess.


Understanding and promoting constructivism isfundamental to teaching young children. It canalso be the most challenging to naturalists andenvironmental educators. We are scientists, eagerto share our own knowledge of the outdoors. It iseasy to lose sight of the importance of the indi-vidual experience and opportunity for creativethought. The preoperational child needs to makethe transition into logical thought. Effective edu-cators need to facilitate and support children’slearning at the children’s level not the educator’s.In the words of Jean Piaget, “Every time weteach a child something, we keep him frominventing it himself . . . that which we allow himto discover himself will remain with him.”

What are the benefits of constructivism?

It is active, hands-on learning at its best.It is the heart and soul of environmentaleducation.

Why don’t we use constructivism more?

We may be afraid children aren’t learninganything or are learning the wrong things.Children are learning beings. It is not possiblefor them to go though an experience and notlearn from it. However, mastery and under-standing take a long time, and there is a lot fora little person to learn. For example, it’ll prob-ably take more than an afternoon with eventhe most talented educator for a young child totruly understand the life cycle of the frog.

It takes time and effort to learn the process.Just like breaking a bad habit, it takes practiceand careful thought to encourage creativethinking. But it’s all worth it when you seethat light bulb go on!

What are possible behavior issues relatedto constructivism?

Children feel trusted.Children recognize that their ideas arerespected and not trivialized. This can lead tomutual trust and excitement about learning.


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Give an inch and they’ll take a yard.Be prepared for creativity and experimenta-tion to explode! Your tolerance levels formessiness and noise might be challenged butif you relinquish a little control, the rewardsare priceless.

Want to know more?

DeVries, Rita, et.al. . DevelopingConstructivist Early Childhood Curriculum:Practical Principles and Activities. New York:Teachers College Press. ---.

Forman, George & Kuschner, David. . TheChild’s Construction of Knowledge: Piaget ForTeaching Children. Washington D.C.:National Association for the Education ofYoung Children. ---.

Forman, George & Hill, Fleet, .Constructive Play: Applying Piaget In ThePreschool. London: Addison-Wesley. ---.

Understanding Young ChildrenConstructivism

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Children are encouraged toexplore, invent and create theo-ries about life, death and every-thing in between. Adults askopen-ended questions and pro-vide resources to aid children intheir “constructions.”

Listening (without correcting orinterrupting) to children discusswhat’s frozen in the ice on thepond. Asking questions such as“What do you think is under theice?” and “How do you think theice got on the pond?” then takingthem out on the frozen pond anddrilling a hole with an auger andother ice activities.

Children are encouraged toinvent explanations for thingsand adults respond by choosingbooks and other resources for thechildren that give factual infor-mation.

When overhearing children dis-cussing what’s frozen in the iceon the pond, the teacher inter-rupts their conversation to readthem a book about water andexplains the three phases of waterand what makes it freeze.

Children are discouraged fromcreating their own theories.Adults react to theories in appro-priately.

Listening to a child’s theoryabout how ice got on the pondand responding with either aneutral, “Oh, that’s nice,” a scien-tific, “Water turns to ice whenthe temperature is degrees orcolder.” or worse yet, an incredu-lous, “That’s not how ice gets onthe pond! Where’d you get thatidea?”

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Constructivism


Egocentrism

What does it mean?

When talking about young children, egocen-trism does not mean selfish or arrogant. Rather,it means that a child experiences everythingfrom only one point-of-view—his or her own.They assume everyone else sees, feels and expe-riences things just as they do. Much of the waychildren behave can be attributed to their ego-centrism and their inability to see things fromanother’s perspective. For instance, in describinga sibling’s birthday party, a three-year-old mightdescribe it like this. “My sister had a birthdayyesterday and I had birthday cake and I went toChuck E. Cheese and I ate fish pizza and thenI threw-up.” Nothing is more important toyoung children than sharing things that are per-sonally happening to them.


Egocentrism is the cornerstone of how youngchildren think.Understanding the limits to how young chil-dren think enables us to tailor our programs tomeet their needs. Lecturing young children onthe wonders of the water cycle has nothing todo with them personally. However, playing inrain puddles and catching raindrops on theirtongues has everything to do with them.

What are the benefits to recognizingegocentrism?

Fewer behavior problems.Recognizing egocentrism and planningaccordingly can make a large difference inyour programs. For example, if you plan onillustrating plant adaptations to a group offour-year-olds by asking for one volunteer tostand up in front and put on pieces of a plantcostume, you’ll soon have preschoolerswondering when it will be their turn. Mostwould be so focused on their own desire todress up they couldn’t listen to or enjoyanother’s experience. Allowing every child tosimultaneously act out a sprouting plant withall its parts is a more effective way to partici-pate for preschool children.

Why don’t educators recognizeegocentrism more?

Our own egos get in the way.We tend to be so focused on our own agendasand teaching everything we know about oursubject, we forget to make it relevant toyoung children. The best way to make it rele-vant to them is by including each individualand their whole bodies in the experience.

We don’t make the time.In trying to do too many things in a shortperiod of time, we don’t allow for young chil-dren to share things with us. For example,when reading storybooks, we tend to dislikeinterruptions from children because it slowsus down. From their point of view however,sharing their thoughts as they occur is just asimportant as listening to the story.

What are possible behavior issues relatedto egocentrism?

Children may have difficulty waiting their turnor sharing.This may result in excessive fidgeting, talkingor disruption. Avoid activities that only oneor two children can do while others wait theirturn. Emphasize activities that everyone can


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do at once and make sure you have an abun-dance of materials to avoid the hoardinginstinct.

Children have an intense, yet skewed, sense offairness.Make sure there is enough of the same thingfor everyone. For example, you’ve discoveredthat you don’t have enough Teddy Grahamsfor the whole group so you add regular gra-ham crackers, figuring they are just about thesame thing. Any three-year-old can andprobably will tell you, “ That’s not fair.” Inother words, everyone should get the sameamount of the exact same thing. If it’s notpossible for everyone to have exactly the samething, let children choose their own items.

Want to know more?

Elkind, David. . Child Development andEducation: A Piagetian Perspective.Oxford University Press. : ---.

Peterson, Rosemary & Felton, Victoria. .Piaget Handbook For Teachers and Parents.Early Childhood Series. NY: TeachersCollege Press. ---.

Understanding Young Children Egocentrism

9

All children are allowed to expe-rience the same activities at thesame time. Children are continu-ally supported and encouraged toshare their stories, thoughts andfeelings.

Listening to children tell theirown stories without hurrying orinterrupting them. Everyone canparticipate at their own pace.

All children have a chance toparticipate but each person has towait for everyone else in thegroup to have a turn before goingon to another activity.

Reading or telling a story andencouraging children to commentor ask questions throughout.

Children are expected to listen tothe instructor and answer ques-tions without embellishment orstory telling.

Requiring all children to sit andlisten to a story without allowingquestions, interruptions or pro-viding an alternate activity.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Egocentrism


Teaching to the Whole Child

What does it mean?For children to learn effectively and joyfully, theymust be engaged. It is impossible to separate thecognitive, physical and social and emotionalaspects of development when discussing andplanning activities and programs for young chil-dren. Children are learning about everything, allthe time and with every fiber of their being. Ifyou want something to stick in the brain, it mustfirst go through the body and heart.


This is the prime time in life when all threeaspects of development converge and must betreated with equal importance and relevancy.Learning how to make friends and maintainfriendships is just as important as learning howto count or read. For typically developing chil-dren neither can be accomplished without mov-ing and mastering one’s own body in space.

What is important about the mind, heartand body of preschoolers?

The mindAs discussed previously, a major characteristicof the preschooler is egocentricity. They havedifficulty taking another’s point of view andthink everyone thinks, sees and acts like theydo. They frequently talk to themselves or totheir toys rather than to each other. They may

think that inanimate objects such as trees orstuffed animals have human feelings anddesires. They are bound by their perceptionsof the world and therefore can think in onlyconcrete terms. One way children begin tobroaden their egocentric perceptions is byadopting roles and acting out make-believescenarios and stories. This helps them seethings from different perspectives.

Because preschoolers lack logicalthought, they often confuse appearance andreality. Toddlers and preschoolers often thinkthat a Halloween mask changes the identityof the person wearing it and believe that astraight stick partially submerged in wateractually gets bent because it appears that way.They begin to reason by making simple, butoften mistaken associations between ideas.For example, a child may think that the sungoes down because it’s time to go to bed.

The heartThe social and emotional life of preschoolersis filled with constant challenges. They arenavigating their way through a sea of socialrules and contexts and finding out throughtrial and error which rules work. They strug-gle with recognizing, accepting and express-ing feelings as well as responding to the feel-ings and needs of others.

Developing strategies for initiating andmaintaining play with other children is amajor challenge and gradually moves fromsolitary to cooperative play. Providing chil-dren with the time, place and freedom tointeract with each other is essential to goodpreschool programming in any setting.

The bodyPreschool children are learning about howtheir bodies move and becoming aware ofhow to manage this movement. They needlots of experiences with lots of differentobjects and types of movement to master awide variety of physical skills. Gross motorexperiences such as running, balancing,climbing, throwing, kicking, swinging and soforth, enhance physical and motor fitness.Fine motor control is developed through


10

manipulating small objects like blocks, puz-zles, beads and play dough as well as point-ing. A well-rounded program includes a bal-ance of gross motor and fine motor activities.

What are the benefits to teaching to thewhole child?

When you attend to the whole child, you willengage children more fully and make a greaterimpact on their thinking.If you work with young children, you aregoing to deal with their physical, social, andemotional needs whether you plan to or not.By taking the whole child into considerationwhen planning, your plans are not derailed bythese needs.

Working with joyful children is fun!Attend to their social needs, and enjoywatching them make connections with youand each other.

Deal with their physical needs, and watchthem learn to keep their balance when walkingover varied terrain, handle tweezers and othertools for researching nature, and manage eye-hand coordination to use magnifying glasses.

Attend to their emotional needs, andexperience emotional connection with chil-dren and their connection with nature.

Why don’t we teach to the whole childmore often?

If naturalists don’t have background in childdevelopment, they may not understand theimportance of including emotional, social, andphysical needs as well as cognitive needs.Young children’s emotions can be overwhelming.

Rather than getting emotionally involvedwith children, some people find it easier topretend they don’t have feelings.

If your experience is with older children,

you are less accustomed to dealing with otheraspects of development. Older children findit easier to compartmentalize their learning.

Naturalists tend to think of teaching con-tent as being their job and do not understandthe need to engage all areas of developmentto help children learn.

What are possible behavioral issuesrelated to teaching to the whole child?

If children are allowed or encouraged to interactwith each other, conflicts will come up. Theywill come up anyway, but this allows theinstructor to maintain some control thoughanticipating problems and planning for theirresolution. When children are allowed physicaloutlets, they need to move enough to satisfytheir needs before they are ready to sit stillagain. Instead of unfocused, short-term run-ning around, involve children physically inlearning for longer periods of time.

Encouraging children to express their feelingstakes time. You can’t let one child make a per-sonal connection out-loud (“My dog died justlike the dog in the story!”) and not expect theother children to also express their feelings.Plan time for this to happen.

If children develop an emotional connectionwith you, you may experience conflicts withthem. Addressing children’s feelings createsmore complex relationships, even if you onlyknow them for a few hours.

Want to know more?

Gurewitz, Sydney. The Sun’s Not Broken, Acloud’s Just in the Way. Mt. Rainier, MD:Gryphon House. ---.

Griffen, Elinor Fitch. . Island of Childhood.New York: Teacher’s College Press. ---.

Understanding Young Children Teaching to the Whole Child

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Activities and programs engagechildren’s physical, social, emo-tional and intellectual needs.

In a program about birds, chil-dren are read books that are bothnon-fiction cognitive ) and fic-tion (emotional). They dramatizebeing fed in the nest (emotional,social), touch bird feathers (phys-ical), climb trees to view birdnests

Activities and programs engagechildren’s cognitive and physicalneeds but emphasize cognitive.

Children play a matching gameof birds and their eggs (cogni-tive), learn the names of backyardbirds (cognitive) and fly aroundlike birds (physical).

Activities and programs concen-trate on content and cognitiveskills.

Children listen and watch as anaturalist teaches them to identi-fy birds using flash cards.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Teaching to the Whole Child

Notes

Understanding Young Children Teaching the Whole Child

13


Multiple Intelligence Theory

What does it mean?

Multiple Intelligence () is a theory developedby Howard Gardner of Harvard University in. He theorized that people have at leasteight different intelligences. Every person hascapabilities in each area but some areas arestronger than others. The following are theeight intelligences:Logical-mathematical (numbers, reasoning)Linguistic (reading, talking)Bodily-kinesthetic (moving, doing things with

your body)Musical (songs, patterns, sound)Interpersonal (understanding other people and

social interactions)Intrapersonal (self knowledge)Spatial (drawing, mapping)Naturalist (understanding of the physical world,

nature)


Young children do not compartmentalize theirlearning. Just focusing on science curriculumwithout looking at all ways children can developunderstanding makes the program less effective.As educators we can use this concept to seechildren as individuals with specific areas ofstrengths and limitations and adjust our teach-ing accordingly. In doing so, we can combinemany of the intelligences into one activity andmeet several children’s needs at a time.

What are the benefits to teaching to multiple intelligences?

You can reach more children in less time.Informal educators rarely get to know indi-vidual children well because our contact islimited. If subjects are taught in many ways,we will reach more children than the tradi-tional methods of teaching—using lectures,books or demonstrations.

It makes planning easier.Using multiple intelligence helps to provide variety in programming options.

Why don't educators use multiple intelligence theory more?

We think of ourselves as scientists.Naturalists often focus their lessons on get-ting children to understand concepts andfacts. As a consequence, we often plan for thenaturalist intelligence, neglecting the others.

We’re unfamiliar with multiple intelligence theory.We often do what is comfortable and familiarrather than try new techniques.

What are possible behavior issues relatedto multiple intelligence theory?

If children are truly engaged, they are less likelyto behave inappropriately.By offering a variety of activities that addressmany of the multiple intelligences, educatorsshould experience fewer behavior issues.


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Want to Know More?

Campbell, Linda & Dickinson, Dee. .Teaching And Learning Through MultipleIntelligence. Upper Saddle River, N.J.:Prentice Hall. : ---.

Understanding Young Children Multiple Intelligence Theory

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Educators consciously plan activ-ities and provide materials thatspan all of the eight intelligencesequally.

• A class about birds mightinclude the following:

• Listening to bird calls (musi-cal)

• Playing a bird identificationlotto game (logical-mathemat-ical)

• Dramatizing with bird puppets(interpersonal)

• Talking about personal experi-ences with birds (intraperson-al)

• Making bird feeders (spatial)• Moving like a bird (Bodily-

kinesthetic)• Reading stories about birds

(linguistic)• Examining bird nests (natural-

ist)

Instructors incorporate the mostobvious and convenient intelli-gences when planning activities.


• Playing a bird identificationlotto game (logical-mathemat-ical)

• Reading stories about birds(linguistic)

• Lecturing about bird identifi-cation (linguistic)

Instructors focus on just one ortwo methods of teaching withoutconsidering different learningstyles or intelligence.


• Lecturing about bird identifi-cation (linguistic)

• Examining bird nests (natural-ist)

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Multiple Intelligence


Diverse Learners

What does it mean?

In order to create the best possible experiencefor children, diversity can and should beaddressed and planned for. Diversity includesrace, language, socio-economic status, disabilityand even learning style. A quality program willtake these areas of diversity into account andwill make every effort to address them sensi-tively.

Programs that strive to create an environmentand curriculum that is inclusive go beyond thesurface level of “political correctness” andunderstand that it is in all children’s best inter-est to be provided with a larger, more accuratepicture of the world.

This means being aware that all students arenot coming from homogenous backgroundswith the same base of knowledge. It meansmaking a genuine effort to create programs thatconnect familiar things to children.

Educator Emily Styles of the SeekingEducation, Equity and Diversity () projectencourages teachers to develop experiences forstudents that create both windows and mirrors.Mirrors are opportunities for children see theirown experiences reflected. Windows allow themto see the experiences of others. Activities orexperiences that may be a window for one childcould be a mirror for another. If children do not

see themselves in an educational experience,they are less likely to retain the information.Connecting learning that occurs in yourprograms to children’s home and communityexperiences is respectful and sets a foundationfor learning.


The United States’ population is becomingincreasingly diverse. Some of the most obviousand quantifiable changes are happening in theracial make up of our nation. The Bureau ofEducational Statistics predicts that by ,children of color will make up over half of thestudents in U.S. schools. A Children of 2010report published in the Los Angeles Times(March ) predicted that by no singleethnic group will constitute a majority of theU.S population. These statistics have enormoussignificance for all educators. If the goal of anenvironmental education program is to create apositive connection between children and theenvironment, not taking diverse factors intoaccount can sabotage the goal.

What are the benefits of diverse learning?

Providing experiences that children can connectto prior knowledge increases their learning.We know from research in educational psy-chology and brain function that childrenlearn new things based on what is alreadyestablished. New knowledge is categorizedinto what already makes sense. Learning thatis isolated from what is familiar or known isless likely to be long term.

Early childhood pioneer Lev Vygotskystated the idea of socio-cultural development,in which learning and psychological develop-ment occur through experiences that happenin a social and cultural context. Although thisis now a widely accepted concept, many edu-cators overlook the experience of a studentthat may be different from their own experi-ences. By making an extra effort to provide aninclusive experience, the learning becomesmore meaningful for all students.


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Why don’t educators take diversity into account more often?

Educators may see multicultural education as aseparate field from environmental education.This couldn’t be farther from the truth. Thefuture of our planet is a concern for all peopleand learning to make connections with thenatural world is crucial for all people toensure its survival.

Educators think that a great deal of backgroundknowledge is needed.While there is a wealth of information aboutdiverse populations and about how to workmost effectively with diversity, the mostimportant piece is awareness. Educators whoare aware that diversity exists and who makean effort to be inclusive are taking an essen-tial first step.

Educators feel uncomfortable talking aboutdiversity.Young children are aware of differences inpeople. When these differences are ignored oroverlooked, they get the message there issomething wrong with the differences. Themore that human diversity is discussed andcelebrated, the more children will understandand feel comfortable with the diversityaround them.

Educators think taking diversity into account isonly necessary if there is a noticeably diversegroup.Inclusive education is the best practice nomatter what the group. A child in summercamp may be in a much more homogeneousgroup during summer than she is in her pub-lic school during the rest of the year.

What does representing diversity looklike?

Represent reality and avoid stereotypes.Books and materials used (posters, photo-graphs, music, props and so forth) shouldshow a diverse group of people. Addressingdiversity does not mean that every program

and every project has to have a specific cul-tural focus, but the underlying message mustbe one of inclusion.

Varying levels of comfort and knowledge areaccepted.For example, a child living in an apartmentbuilding may have had minimal contact withthe world outside of his or her apartment.Venturing out into a nonurban area might befrightening. Another child from the samebuilding may have no fears of the same area.Inclusive instructors provide a variety of waysto participate and value all kinds of knowl-edge.

Welcome diversity.Educators should find out as much as possi-ble about the children attending a programand adapt accordingly. This could be as sim-ple as learning some common Hmong pro-nunciations of children’s names or giving awelcome greeting in one of the children’shome languages.

Want to know more?

Derman-Sparks, Louise. . The Anti-BiasCurriculum: Tools for Empowering YoungChildren. Washington D.C.: NationalAssociation for the Education of YoungChildren. ---.

Menkart, D., Lee, E., Okazawa-Rey, M. .Beyond Heroes and Holidays: A Practical Guideto K-12 Anti-Racist, Multicultural Educationand Staff Development. Washington D.C.:Network of Educators on the Americas. ---.

Understanding Young Children Diverse Learners

17


18

Fear is dealt with respectfully.Diverse tools and props are used.An effort is made to obtain andinclude knowledge about localcultural groups. There is an accu-rate representation of gender,ability, race and culture.

During a program in December,a naturalist reads The Snowy Dayand other books that show a vari-ety of people enjoying the snow.Children act out poems aboutanimals getting ready for winter.Children are given a choicebetween going on a walk throughthe forest or exploring close tothe building. Stories are toldabout people who have neverseen snow before because it isalways hot where they live.Natural winter events are empha-sized instead of the holidays.

Fear is handled but with annoy-ance. Some diversity is represent-ed. Some effort is made to beinclusive but it isn’t considered anintegral piece of the learning.Expectations are that all childrenwill be comfortable and familiarwith outside activities, gettingdirty, and actively participating.Minimal effort is made to repre-sent diversity in materials or cur-riculum.

During a program in December,a naturalist reads The Snowy Dayand everyone sings Jingle Bells.Books about snow are availablethat only represent one racialgroup or gender enjoying thesnow. During a walk through theforest, a few children becomeconcerned about being so farfrom the building. The naturalistmakes a joke and says they’ll goback to the building soon.

It is assumed that all children arecomfortable and familiar withoutside activities, getting dirtyand actively participating. Noeffort is made to represent diver-sity in materials or curriculum.Stereotypes are reinforced.

During a program in December,a naturalist reads a book thatshows only white children sled-ding in the snow. The group isled in singing Christmas songsand the children are asked whatthey want Santa to bring themfor Christmas. The naturalistleads everyone on a hike to theforest to see the newly fallensnow, even though several chil-dren do not have hats or boots.Precut paper trees are decoratedwith Christmas ornaments.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Diverse Learners

Notes

Understanding Young Children Diverse Learners

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Learning through Play

What does it mean?

Play is the natural activity of children. It is amental or physical activity whose sole consciousaim is amusement, relaxation, enjoyment and/orself-expression. Researchers have described sixelements of play, known as the disposition ofplay (Rubin as referenced in Rodgers andSawyer, ):. Play is intrinsically motivated.. Play is relatively free of externally imposed

rules.. Play is carried out as if the activity were

real.. Play focuses on the process rather than any

product.. The players dominate play.. Play requires the active involvement of the

player.


The most important things in life are learnedthrough play. Although play is often consideredfrivolous or ineffective, play actually benefitschildren’s learning in several ways. Physical playis necessary for children to learn through theirkinesthetic intelligence. During play, childrenform their own context from things they arelearning and experiencing in everyday life.Imaginative play allows children to becomesomeone or something else, to do things they’venever done before or have seen others do often.Play allows children to explore lines of thought,

either extending or breaking patterns. It giveschildren opportunities for success with a mini-mum of risk or penalties for mistakes. Play iswhere it all comes together—the mind, heart andbody are fully engaged and —voila—learninghappens!

What are the benefits of play?

Playing is fun.Play is open ended and not goal oriented.

Everyone can do it.Play naturally falls to the level, or varying lev-els, of participants.

Learning can be spontaneous.Children will introduce new ideas based onwhat they are experiencing at that moment.

Play can relieve children’s stress.Stress can build up from too many teacher-directed activities, emotional or social tensionand worry. Play can be used as a release, dis-traction or as a means to work out stressfulscenarios.

Why don’t educators use play more often?

Play is not seen as effective.Educators often worry that children are notlearning if they are playing. They may feel aneed to control what children are learning bylecturing or providing study sheets.

There isn’t time in the schedule.If it feels like there is no time to play, reex-amine the schedule. How much time is spentin teacher-directed activities? In transitioningfrom one activity to another? In explainingrules and directions? Play should be at theheart of every program.

What are possible behavior issuesrelated to play?

Inevitable conflicts between children.When two or more children play togetherthere are bound to be conflicts. Resist thetemptation to rush in and solve the problemfor them unless there is danger of people orproperty getting hurt. Instead, help children


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solve their problems by helping them expresshow they feel and what they need.

Want to know more?

Jones, Elizabeth & Reynolds, Gretchen. .The Play's The Thing. NY: Teachers CollegePress. ---.

Rogers, Cosby & Sawyers, Janet K. . Play inthe Lives of Children. Washington D.C.:National Association for the Education ofYoung Children. ---.

Smilansky, Sara & Shefatya, Leah. .Facilitating Play. Psychosocial andEducational Publications. ---.

Van Hoorn, Judith, et al. . Play At TheCenter Of The Curriculum. Saddlebrook, NJ:Prentice Hall. ---.

21Understanding Young Children Learning through Play

Open-ended playtime is providedwith several options includingdramatic, block and sensory play.Spontaneous play is interwoventhroughout activities. Instructorfollows the child’s lead.

Various play stations with a vari-ety of materials are set-up aroundthe room or gathering area.Children are encouraged tochoose among the play materialsand are allowed to play for aminimum of continuous minutes.

A limited amount of time is setaside for play. Activities are set-up with some choices for stu-dents, but end result is predeter-mined.

Children are given only a fewminutes at the end of the sessionto play an organized game suchas tag.

Teacher’s agenda is followed pre-cisely. Activities do not allow forcreative interpretation.

Children are given a preselectedactivity such as a coloring sheet tocomplete in a given time period.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Play

What You Need to Know About Children Under 6


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Choose topics relevant to their lives and limitedexperience.

Choose concrete topics—clouds vs. weather, squir-rels vs. mammals.

Use simple language—avoid clichés. Use mystery,puppets, etc. to capture attention. Avoid refer-ring to the past or future. Give one or twodirections at a time and repeat activities.

Use puppets, costumes and dramatic play to givechildren a change of perspective.

Make sure everyone can participate to the sameextent.

Provide enough time and materials for everyone.

Instead of correcting inaccurate information, findout why they think what they do.

Use open-ended questions to challenge them tothink in different ways.

Facilitate learning rather than teach facts.

Provide lots of materials for experimentation.Provide choice whenever possible.Provide enough time and space to explore things

thoroughly.

Integrate natural concepts in with social play,material manipulation and hands-on experi-mentation.

Incorporate movement into programs.

Use familiar stories, songs, nursery rhymes and soforth but add a new verse or twist.

Don’t jump into teaching facts before childrenhave had a chance to explore and experiment.

They think differently than we do.(developmental stages)• Concrete thinkers.• No concept of time.• Appearance is reality.• Cannot think logically or abstractly.• Think inanimate objects have feelings, thoughts

and desires.• Can think of only a few things at one time.

Everything is about “Me!” (egocentrism)• Think everyone thinks, feels and acts like they

do.• Rigid sense of equality and fairness.• Unable to distinguish between intentional and

unintentional acts.

When in doubt, they make it up.(constructivism)

• They construct their own understandings ofhow the world works.

• Develop their own theories about the worldbased on prior knowledge and experience.

They can do it themselves!(play, constructivism)

• Learn best when they can decide for themselveswhat, when and how to do things.

They are learning about everything all atonce, all the time. (Teaching to the wholechild)

• Learning occurs through every domain—social,cognitive, physical, emotional, and so forth.Playing is learning.

They make sense of their world through play.(play)

• Like to experience new things in familiar waysand familiar things in new ways.

• Approach materials in four stages: awareness,exploration, inquiry and utilization.

Section II:Planning for Active Learning

Planning for Active Learning

Teaching Vs. Learning Objectives

What does it mean?

Many who were trained as formal educatorsrecognize learning objectives as a way to clarifythe purpose of programs. These are usually con-crete statements that describe what the studentis expected to know after participating in thelesson. However, when teaching very youngchildren it is unrealistic to set these types ofexpectations. Instead, we should set the goalsand objectives for ourselves as facilitators andsupporters of learning. This allows for ecologi-cal concepts and developmental skill-buildingto be combined into an appropriate activity forthe age group.

Learning objective example: At the end of thislesson each student will be able to list three animalsthat use camouflage as protection.

Teaching objective example: The purpose ofthis activity is to provide opportunities for outdoorexploration and to introduce the concept of camou-flage through a game of animal hide and seek.


Stating your teaching objective helps keep thefocus on the child’s experience and addressesthe learning needs of the whole child ratherthan just factual, cognitive information. In thisway, the process, not the product, of learning isemphasized.

What are the benefits to teaching objectives?

Keeps expectations realistic and appropriate.Remember, as a teacher of young children,your goal is to facilitate learning and helpchildren discover things for themselves. Youhave little control over what children areactually learning, especially in an informalsetting with limited time. Be realistic aboutthe experience you want them to have versusfacts you want them to know.

Teaches to the whole child.Young children are learning every minute ofevery day. However, they are learning in moreways than just cognitive. They learn abouttheir world through language, physical move-ment, social interaction, emotional challenges,music and more.

Encourages open-ended activities.Providing open-ended exploration of topicsleads to more questions and many possibleanswers. This is inquiry-based learning at itsbest.

Why don’t educators use teaching objectives more?

We aren’t trained to use teaching objectives.Formal - systems tend to train teachers touse learning objectives in order to measuresuccess efficiently. Early childhood systemsfavor teaching objectives and observation,which tend to emphasize learning effective-ness.

Results aren’t easily measurable.We often want and expect instant measures ofsuccess. Young children develop in their owntime. Educators of young children need to notexpect them to know what we want them toknow when we want them to know it.


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What are possible behavior issues relatedto objectives?

Inappropriate objectives often lead to cranki-ness, oppositional behavior, failure to completethe objectives and disappointment—and that’sjust the teachers! Keep your expectations realis-tic and you’ll have a great class.

Want to know more?

Katz, Lilian & Chard, Sylvia. . EngagingChildren’s Minds: The Project Approach (nded.). Greenwich, CT: Ablex Publishing. ---.

Planning for Active LearningAppropriate Topics

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Teaching objectives are processoriented with both content anddevelopmental goals included.

• The purpose of this activity isto provide opportunities forchildren to classify differenttypes of animals through asorting game.

• The purpose of this activity isto introduce children to sala-manders and to practicematching skills by finding twosalamanders that look alike.

Teaching objectives are processoriented but contain content, notdevelopmental, goals.

• Children will learn amphibiansfrom reptiles.

• Children will learn the differ-ence between a marble and aspotted salamander.

Learning objectives are productoriented and emphasize factuallearning only.

• After this lesson, children willbe able to describe the differ-ence between a reptile and anamphibian.

• After this lesson, children willbe able to list the names ofthree native salamanders.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Teaching Objectives


Appropriate Topics

What does it mean?

Naturalists and environmental educators areblessed with a plethora of topics and themes onwhich to plan a program. Nature provides aninexhaustible supply of interesting topics fromamphibians to zooplankton. However, what isappropriate for one age group may not beappropriate for another age group for a varietyof reasons. Young children are concretethinkers. They have difficulty thinking aboutabstract concepts. For this reason, program top-ics must be boiled down to their simplest com-ponents—things that you can see, feel, smell, hearor taste are appropriate topics for young children.Another guideline is to stick to local topics thatchildren see every day.


Preschoolers learn best from concrete examples,things they can experience first hand. Abstracttopics confuse children and frustrate theirefforts to learn. For example, the water cycle istoo abstract for preschoolers to understand.However, a program on rain would be perfectand programming could center on playing inthings that rain makes—mud and puddles.Starting with simple, concrete topics sets thestage for understanding more abstract topics inlater years.

Are there any exceptions?

Sometimes you’ll meet a child who is extremelyinterested in advanced and abstract conceptssuch as dinosaurs, space exploration or Africanwildlife. Their enthusiasm may even spread tothe rest of the group. By all means, follow theirlead and provide as many resources (books, toys,pictures, games, music) as you can to feed theircuriosity. For the most part, however, plan pro-grams about local and familiar topics and relateit to special interests whenever possible.

What are the benefits to usingappropriate topics?

It’s more enjoyable.By using age-appropriate topics the wholeprogram becomes easier to design. Both youand the children will enjoy the program.

It provides more opportunities to use all or mostof the senses.For example, think of all the ways you canexperience apples first hand—picking, eating,cutting, baking, making cider and so forth.

Why don’t educators use appropriatetopics more?

We forget that young children don’t think like us.Not understanding how young children thinkand learn can lead to the misperception that achild’s program can simply be a watereddown version of an adult program. Butbecause their brains haven’t caught up withus, they need the basics.

What are possible behavior issues relatedto inappropriate topics?

Children may become frustrated anddisinterested.Children are more likely to behave inappropri-ately if they don’t see a direct connectionbetween themselves and what they’re learning.


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Want to know more?

Bredekamp, S & Copple, C. .Developmentally Appropriate Practice in EarlyChildhood Programs, (revised edition).Washington D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children. ---. Excerpts available atnewhorizons.org/naeyc.html.

Planning for Active LearningAppropriate Topics

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Topics are simple and easy forchildren to experience immedi-ately and first hand. If you cansee, touch, taste, hear or smell it,it’s a concrete topic.

FlowersButterflies/beesAnimal tracksFrogsSquirrelsWindTurtlesLeavesApplesWinter birdsSnowDirt/soil/mudInsectsGardening

Topics are concrete but difficultto experience first hand.

MonkeysTigersPlants of the desertSea lifeRain forest animals

* With the exception of special-ized facilities such as zoos, andsimilar facilities.

Topics are abstract and childrenhave a difficult time understand-ing or relating to them.

EcosystemsWeatherHabitats/biomesRain forests Geologic time Universe Invasive or endangered species

E X A M P L E S

-- *

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Appropriate Topics


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Authentic Experiences

What does it mean?

Authentic experiences are real or as close to realas you can get. Anyone who has had meaning-ful encounters in their lives knows the differ-ence between real, simulated and fake. Imaginethe difference between seeing a grizzly bear inthe Alaska wilderness, viewing one at the zoo,playing a simulated grizzly bear computer gameor watching a cartoon of a generic bear raidinga picnic basket. Each experience is less authen-tic than the previous one and teaches us less asa result.

These may be extreme examples, but count-less everyday experiences have the potential forauthenticity. As adults, we benefit from a life-time of experiences to enjoy and remember.When we choose to buy bread from the store itis as a timesaving convenience, not to deny our-selves the pleasure of homemade bread. But ifwe have experienced making bread from scratchor eating it fresh from the oven, we know therichness of that experience is undeniable—espe-cially so for young children.


Young children want, need and deserve authen-tic experiences with real objects. Because theyare concrete thinkers, real experiences helpthem to learn about their immediate world andthings that are relevant to their lives. In this ageof technology, authentic experiences with realobjects and environments can be hard to come

by. Computer games take us into abstractworlds that don’t exist. Toys with bells andwhistles leave little to the imagination andeverything, it seems, can be made into a plastictoy.

What are the benefits to authenticexperiences?

They extend learning.Real, authentic experiences provide the foun-dation to countless learning opportunities.They provide the context or hat rack uponwhich other experiences are hung. Learningcan be extended farther and faster if it isbased on the real thing.

Children should experience the real thing beforeother experiences.For example, asking children to “fish” fornumbered construction-paper fish cutoutswithout any prior experience with ponds, fish,or even aquariums, is an inauthentic experi-ence. Contrast that with visiting a real pondand examining all kinds of creatures livingthere. That real experience can be laterextended by looking at pond photographs,drawing or painting pond critters and thencreating a game from what you know.

They are easily remembered.Children’s senses are heightened duringauthentic experiences—feeling the cool waterof a mountain stream, smelling fresh pineneedles, hearing a beaver slap her tail—areeasily recalled once they’ve been experienced.

Why don’t educators use authenticexperiences more?

It takes a lot of work.It is much easier to watch a video about pondlife than go through the hassle of taking afield trip to the pond. Environmental educa-tors are the exception to this concept. Mostof the time, we are the field trip. We have theopportunity to provide the authentic, relevantexperiences so many children are lacking. Ourchallenge then is to push ourselves to evaluate

all of our practices to ensure that we’re prac-ticing what we preach.

What are possible behavior issues relatedto authentic experiences?

Young children are still learning how to controltheir own impulses.Real items often take a beating in the hands-on department. If an item is truly irreplace-able and can’t be touched, put it in a clearcase for viewing only. Don’t handle it yourselfwhile simultaneously telling kids they aren’tallowed to touch it—this sends mixed mes-sages. Always supervise small groups of chil-dren when handling fragile objects like birdnests or animal skins and demonstrate how toproperly touch or hold them.

Want to know more?

Rivkin, Mary. . The Great Outdoors:Restoring Children’s Right To Play Outside.Washington D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children.: ---.

Planning for Active Learning Authentic Experiences

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Children experience an activity orenvironment first-hand, usingreal objects, processes and appro-priate equipment.

Children visit a real pond and usenets to collect insects, crayfishand other pond creatures. Anaquarium or water table is set upin the classroom that containsreal pond life. Children play withrealistic replicas of frogs and fishin the water table.

Children have a simulated expe-rience via video or computerwithout ever having seen the realthing.

Children read a book or watch avideo on things that live in thepond. A water table is set up withplastic frogs, fish and other ani-mals and children catch themwith small nets.

Children see only two-dimen-sional, (often cartoons or chara-catures) representations ofobjects, animals, processes orproducts.

Commercial posters of cartoonfish and flowers are hung uparound the classroom. Childrenplay Go Fish or Hungry Hippoduring free choice time.

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Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Authentic Experience


Inquiry-Based Learning

What does it mean?

Inquiry-based learning is focusing on childrenmaking discoveries independently or as mem-bers of a group. Children are encouraged to askquestions, experiment, use trial and error, dis-cuss and evaluate. Inquiry is the point of theactivity, not a way of getting children to theright answer.

To facilitate inquiry, ask open-ended ques-tions whenever possible. When interacting withyoung children, adults often fall into the quizbowl trap. Questions like “What color is that?”or “How many dinosaurs are there?” come easilyto us but too many may inhibit a child’s abilityto reflect and reveal their own thoughts andperspectives. Instead, ask questions that youdon’t know the answers to. “What do you thinkwould happen if . . .” or “If you were a birdwhere would you fly?” By asking questions withno right or wrong answer you’ll find out howchildren think, not just what they know.


Young children learn best through finding theirown answers. This is a time for learning to learnrather than learning facts. When children dis-cover that they can find answers to what puz-zles them, they are learning the basics of scien-tific principles.

What are the benefits of inquiry-basedlearning?

Instruction will be individually appropriate.Children will find the answers they are readyto understand. The focus remains on theprocess of learning rather than the facts.

Children learn to think scientifically.Children who learn early to think creativelyand problem-solve are more likely continuethis type of thinking as they get older.

They can ask their own questions and find theirown answers.It is empowering for children to learn thatthey can find answers rather than needing torelying on others to give them answers.

Why don’t educators use more inquiry-based learning?

Fear of losing control.This kind of learning can get loud and mayappear chaotic to someone unfamiliar withthis type of education. Once instructorsbecome accustomed to the activity level ofchildren involved in inquiry, they recognize itas the sound of minds at work.

Concern that children won’t learn.Children will be less likely to have facts toparrot back than they would in a skills-drivenprogram. Recognition of what childrenshould be learning at this age, which includesattitude, passion and confidence, helpsinstructors to let go of the desire for childrento know facts.

Concern that they will learn misinformation.When children find their own answers andconstruct their own knowledge, sometimesthey come up with less than the wholeanswer. Educators need to encourage childrento revise their theories until they are develop-mentally able to achieve true understanding.


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What are possible behavior issues ofinquiry-based learning?

As with most creative ways of learning, inquirycan get messy, loud and perhaps chaotic but it’sworth it!

Want to Know More?

Katz, Lilian & Chard, Sylvia. . EngagingChildren’s Minds: The Project Approach(nd.ed.). Greenwich, CT: Ablex Publishing. ---.

Planning for Active Learning Inquiry-Based Learning

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Educators listen to children andpick up on their interests andquestions. They ask guidingquestions to steer children tofinding solutions. Educators findmaterials and create opportunitiesfor children to follow their ideas.They challenge children’s ideas(both correct and incorrect) tofurther their thinking rather thanto direct them to the right con-clusion.

Children search for butterflies;observe where they land; look forclues to find out what they eat;look through books, at mountsand live butterflies; hypothesizeabout what makes a butterfly dif-ferent than a moth throughobservation and so forth.Instructors challenge children’sideas and lead them into findingout more information.

Focus is on children’s learningthrough discovery, but educatorsmake sure children have accurateinformation rather than allowingchildren to find out for them-selves. Some discovery activitiesare included.

Children are allowed and encour-aged to observe butterflies, askquestions about and ruminateabout the answers. However,incorrect information or theoriesare corrected by the naturalist.

Educators develop plans to con-trol the outcome. Focus is ongaining factual information.Instructor tells or shows childrenand children repeat back whatthey were told.

The naturalist holds up differentpictures of a butterfly’s life cycle,telling children about each stageand ask the children to repeat theinformation.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Inquiry


Guiding Children's Behavior

What does it mean?

Guiding children’s behavior means managing thebehavior of young children in positive andrespectful ways. It helps children recognize whatit means to be part of a group and behave insocially acceptable ways. This self-regulation is amajor part of social development and many fac-tors influence a child’s ability to control impulses,maintain friendships and solve conflicts. A largepart of guiding children’s behavior is creating anenvironment that minimizes stress and conflictand encourages appropriate, social behavior.


It allows you to keep conflicts from being the focusof the experience.Being proactive when dealing with children’sbehavior is the first step. You need to haveclear expectations, create an environment thatencourages cooperation and know how youwill react to misbehaviors.

The good news is that adults still tend tobe a greater influence on preschool childrenthan their peers. Preschoolers are generallyinterested in pleasing adults. The less-than-good news is they have been less indoctrinatedto school (and group) expectations than olderchildren. Begin by assuming that children willbehave if expectations are reasonable, theirneeds are being met and there is a climate ofcooperation. Problems will then be minimized.

It is important to recognize that it is eas-ier for an educator to change his or herexpectations and offering more appropriateactivities, schedules and interactions than it isto change the behavior of children.

What are the benefits of guiding children’sbehavior?

By focusing on appropriate expectations,instructors will spend less time engaged inpower struggles.The less time spent on trying to make chil-dren behave appropriately, the more time canbe spent on the learning experience.

It is less frustrating and stressful for everyone.Everyone—children, parents, staff—are allnegatively affected by conflict and struggle.By being proactive you minimize the level ofstress affecting the group and feel more incontrol.

Why don’t educators focus more onguiding positive behavior?

It is difficult to discipline children when you havelimited contact (perhaps just one class).Many factors determine how children willbehave on a given day. We’ve all gotten up onthe wrong side of the bed, had too little sleepor been out of sorts at one time or another.Have a doable plan for dealing with minorand major problems and stick to it.

It can be uncomfortable to discipline childrenwith their parents or other adults present.An unwritten societal rule seems to prohibitus from disciplining another’s child, especiallywhen the parent is present. It’s best to consultwith the parent directly and privately if achild’s behavior is disrupting the class.

Most educators have minimal training in thisarea.There are ways to offset this. One suggestionis to volunteer in an early childhood class-room and observe how seasoned teachers dealwith behavioral issues. Keep a journal ofbehavioral issues that are challenging to you.


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Seek out other professionals for advice, readreputable early childhood behavioral guidesand soon you’ll see patterns and solutionsemerge.

Preschoolers are most likely to behavecooperatively if the following occurs:

There is enough space and materials to go around.If children must push ahead to see or receivematerials, conflicts increase.

Their physiological needs are met (food, rest,temperature).Make sure children are dressed appropriatelyfor outdoor activities, the indoor temperatureis moderate, the time of day is optimal forpreschoolers (programs that conflict with naptime may be a problem) and offer a snack fora program longer than ½ hours.

There is an optimal level of stimulation (not toomuch or too little).A good guideline is to provide at least twoslots per activity during free choice or gather-ing time. For example, if you are expectingtwelve children for a program, offer six activi-ties with enough space and materials toaccommodate at least two children at a time.

The group size is manageable.Even with small adult-to-child ratios, a largegroup size (more than ) has too many per-sonalities for easy cooperation.

There are more child-initiated than adult-directed activities.You will find more misbehavior if children areexpected to sit and listen to adults for extend-ed periods of time.

Activities and class topic are developmentallyappropriate.If activities are interesting and understandableto children and topics are concrete, childrenare more likely to be appropriately engaged inlearning and play.

When children behave inappropriately:

Even with the best planning, challengingbehaviors will still come up. Steps for reducing

the reoccurrence of these behaviors include thefollowing:Give children simple, clear expectations when a

new activity begins.For example, “We are taking a walk on thetrail. We will leave the sticks on the groundas we walk.”

Give children reasons for these rules.“We leave the sticks on the ground because itis unsafe to walk or run with sticks.”

If children break the rules, remind them of therule and why.“Please leave the stick on the ground. It isn’tsafe to run with the stick.”

Giving children a choice often diffuses a powerstruggle.“You can put the stick on the ground, or youcan give it to me and I’ll put the stick on theground.”

Don’t phrase directives as questions or childrenbelieve compliance is optional.“Leave the stick on the ground, please.”rather than “Can you leave the stick on theground?” If children do not respond to verbaldirections, take action calmly and firmly. Takethe stick from the child’s hand and place it onthe ground. “This is where the stick belongs.”

If children repeat misbehavior, allow for anatural or logical consequence.A natural consequence is something thatwould naturally happen—if you don’t watchwhere you are walking you may trip over astone. A logical consequence is somethingyou as the adult would do as a result of anaction. For example, taking hold of a child’shand if he doesn’t watch where he is walking.If you use a logical consequence, explain whatyou are doing in a matter of fact way, lettingthe child hear that he has some control overwhat happened. “It seems hard for you towalk alone without picking up sticks. I willhold your hand to help you remember.”

Planning for Active Learning Guiding Children’s Behavior

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If children behave dangerously or aggressively

Educators often don’t know children well, if atall, before programs. If it is possible to receiveinformation regarding children’s special needs(including behavioral) before class, do so. If not,you may find children who do not respond tolow-key behavior management techniques.When this happens do the following:Maintain safety first.

Protect children from others and from them-selves. Hold out-of-control children if need-ed. Tell the child, “I won’t let you hurt anyoneand I won’t let anyone here hurt you.”

Have a plan for getting additional adult support.Know if another instructor or office personnelcan help you if a situation gets out of hand.

If a child is out-of-control on a hike or other less-secure environment, return to a buildingimmediately.Make a plan with her responsible adult (par-ent or teacher) for avoiding the conflict in thefuture if the child will return for other pro-grams.

Want to know more?

Nelson, J., Duffy, R., & Erwin, C. . PositiveDiscipline for Preschoolers: For Their EarlyYears-Raising Children Who Are Responsible,Respectful, and Resourceful. Rocklin, CA:Prima Publishing. ---.


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Children are given clear direc-tions with just a few steps.Expectations are reasonable andlogical. Children are given thebenefit of the doubt, but hurtfulor disruptive behavior is handledfirmly and kindly.

When a child grabs a raccoonmount roughly, the adult givesthe child a reason for handlingthe mount carefully. If child con-tinues to harm the mount, adultredirects the child to a differentactivity.

Adults try to manipulate childreninto behaving with rewards andpunishments.

When a child grabs a raccoonmount roughly, the adult says“Mrs. Raccoon will cry if you pullon her.”

Rules are arbitrary or inconsis-tent. Authority of adults is moreimportant than children’s learn-ing. Children’s behavior is rigidlycontrolled.

When a child grabs a raccoonmount roughly, the adult shameshim and sends him to the time-out chair.

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Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Guiding Behavior

Section IIIEssential Ingredients for Active Learning

Essential Ingredients

for Active Learning

Hands-on Learning

What does it mean?

Hands-on learning is much more than touchingand manipulating objects. It means actively par-ticipating in the learning process. It includes allthe elements of good teaching—experimenting,testing cause and effect, discussing the variouspossibilities and making choices about what todo next. The more children have control overtheir own actions and choice, the more hands-on learning becomes.


This is the heart of the constructivist learningtheory (see Constructivism). Children need tobe active agents in their own learning in orderto transform their ideas and naïve theories intotrue understanding of the world around them.

What are the benefits of offering hands-on activities?

Young children learn best through hands-onactivities.They can involve all of their senses, theirminds, bodies and hearts in the learningprocess.

Children like them.Children are drawn to activities they cantouch, transform and examine and they needless encouragement to become involved.

Children learn from each other.When children are doing rather than listen-ing, they will talk more and share their dis-coveries with each other.

Why don’t educators offer more hands-onactivities?

It requires a lot of materials and equipment.It is less expensive to have a class that onlyuses written notes than a class that requiresmaterials and equipment for each child touse. Using as much recycled, donated, rentedor borrowed equipment as possible can allevi-ate this problem.

They worry that children will damage props.Equipment like animal mounts are expensiveand delicate. However, even very young chil-dren can be taught to handle equipment withcare and respect.

Class preparation takes more time.A class with hands-on activities needs a fairamount of preparation but the ease of theclass experience makes it time well spent.

Tips

• Use low tables. Children will need to reachmaterials to handle them

• Use the floor. Many activities can be donesitting on the floor.

• Organize storage. Having materials easilyaccessible in labeled tubs or another systemwill keep it easier to access.

What are possible behavioral issues inhands on learning?

You must have enough equipment to involve allof the children at the same time.Expecting some to participate and others towatch them participate will create conflict.

Children need to know limits in handlingmaterials and props.Handing a child a delicate skull and beingangry when it is broken is not reasonable. Issomething is very fragile, hold it “with” thechild.


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Essential Ingredients for Active Learning Hands-On Learning

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If children sit before handling an object,they will be able to keep their balance betterand are less likely to drop or break it.

Children are likely to take learning to the nextlevel.When using hands-on learning, don’t expectchildren to just do what you have instructedthem to do and then wait for the next direc-tion. They will find a new and imaginative(and perhaps dangerous or destructive) usefor materials and props once they are nolonger interested in what you have directedthem to do.

Want to know more?

Hohmann, Mary & Wiekart, David. .Educating Young Children. Yipsilanti, MI:High/Scope Press ---.

All props and materials are usedby children freely. Adults demon-strate the expected use of propsand then allow children to handlethem.

Children have an opportunity toexamine insect specimens upclose with lenses and other tools.While examining insects, chil-dren are verbally encouraged tonotice body parts and comparedifferent kinds of insect to eachother. Children walk to look forinsects in their natural habitatand notice what attracts insectsto this particular place. Childrencan construct habitats to attractinsects.

Some props and materials arehandled by children. Others areshown or explained withoutopportunities for hands-on experiences.

Children are given a lectureabout insect body parts. Later,they take a walk to look forinsects.

Adults demonstrate with propsand then show children theprops. All lessons are done as lec-ture or demonstration only.

Children are shown parts of aninsect’s body with pictures andare told the names of each part.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Hands-on Learning


for Active Learning

Open-Ended Activities

What does it mean?

Open-ended activities are activities that can beused in more than one way. Block play and dra-matic play are good examples of open-endedactivities. The opposite is closed or self-correctingactivities that can only be used correctly oneway. Examples of closed activities include puz-zles and matching games with only one rightanswer.


Young children learn best through making dis-coveries for themselves. Through taking part inopen-ended experiences, children can learnwhat they are ready to understand. For example,if children are given a stack of pictures of ani-mals and told to make one pile of animals thatlive in the water and one that live on land, chil-dren either have the knowledge to complete thetask or not. If they are able to complete thetask, then the learning is done. If instead, chil-dren are given a stack of pictures and are askedhow they can go together, children can catego-rize based on where they live, what they eat,which animals they like or do not like, whichlive in the wild or can be pets, which lay eggs orgive live birth and so forth. The learning con-tinues and everyone can complete the taskbecause the task is open-ended.

What are the benefits to offering open-ended activities?

Everyone can learn.With closed activities, there is a narrow rangeof children who will benefit. Children whohave enough understanding to complete andmaster the activity have no opportunity to gofarther. With open-ended activities, childrencan naturally tailor the activity to their inter-ests and abilities.

Children are empowered to learn.Giving children open-ended activitiesencourages them to pose their own questions,test their ideas, share with their peers andtake part in the scientific method.

Learning can be more spontaneous.With closed activities, instructors must puteach activity together to be used in one way.With open-ended activities, the same materi-als can be used over and over with differentlearning happening each time.

Educators have more opportunities for catchingthe teachable moment.Open-ended activities help adults take on therole of facilitator, supporting rather than dic-tating what and how children learn. It allowsfor more flexibility, experimentation and dis-covery.

Why don’t educators offer more open-ended activities?

Concern about what children are learning.Educators may worry that if children are notfollowing instructions for a closed activity,they won’t be learning anything. By offeringopen-ended activities and observing howlearning occurs, educators should becomemore confident in this style of teaching.

They want a product to send home.Educators may worry that parents won’t thinkthey “got their money’s worth” if the childrendon’t bring something home. Instructors willsee the parents responding to the excitementin their children’s eyes and can be educated tonot expect the pay off of a product.


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Essential Ingredients for Active Learning Open-Ended Activities

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They think children need closed activities to learnto follow directions.Instructors may view closed activities as anappropriate way for children to learn to followdirections. There are many opportunities forchildren to learn to follow directions.Following directions to use snowshoes withoutfalling over or following a recipe in a cookingexperience are more useful ways to learn direc-tional skills.

Want to know more?

MacDonald, Sharon, . Block Play: TheComplete Guide To Learning and Playing withBlocks. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House. ---.

Forman, George & Hill, Fleet, .Constructive Play: Applying Piaget in thePreschool. London: Addison-Wesley. ---.

Appropriate, safe and durablematerials are made available tochildren to use at will. Noinstructions are given.

During free-choice time, childrenbuild whimsical structures withtree blocks.

Adults know what they want thechildren to make (a person, apumpkin) but they are allowed toselect their own materials.

During free-choice time, childrenare told to build shelters for ani-mals out of tree blocks.

Activities are set up for childrenwith a demonstration, a model tofollow, or other methods foradults to maintain control overthe end result. Children are cor-rected if they use the materialswrong. Adults may also fix up thefinished product so it looks right.

During free-choice time, childrenmake a home for a groundhog bycoloring a photocopy of agroundhog, gluing it onto a craftstick and poking it into the cen-ter of a paper cup. The teachershows everyone a sample of whatit should look like.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Open-Ended Activities


for Active Learning

Choice

What does it mean?Including choice in programs means that chil-dren may choose between more than one activi-ty, and children have the choice not to partici-pate in some activities.

Why is it important? Most young children learn best through self-selected activity. Preschoolers have a longerattention span for self-selected activity thanthey do for activities mandated by adults. Whenthey attend to an activity longer, they develop agreater understanding of the topic. For example,a preschooler may only be able to last throughten minutes of block play and then they areready to try something new. However, this samechild may work on an art activity or play in asensory table for more than thirty minutes.Making good choices is one of the most impor-tant tasks for preschool children.

What are the benefits to offering choices?

Fewer power struggles.When children are allowed to choose whatthey would like to do, they are more excitedabout activities and less resistant of directions.This makes a big difference when educatorswork with children for short periods of timeand don’t have the luxury of learning what

strategies work best for avoiding powerstruggles.

Individualized learning.Everyone has different strengths and weak-nesses in their learning. This is easy to seewith young children. Some learn best throughtrial and error, others want to learn collabora-tively and work with peers, others need itexplained while still others need to see forthemselves. Through offering choices, educa-tors enable children can learn about a topic inthe best way for them.

Easier rhythm to the program.When the educator has all of the childrendoing the same thing together, it is easy to runout of time or run out of planned activities.When children are given choices, the activitiesthat go well get more time and the activitiesthat don’t go well can be ignored.

Why don’t educators offer more choices?

Not trusting that children are learning.Some people feel children are not learningabout a topic if they are not controlling thechildren’s activity.

Educators may believe that if all of thechildren are doing the same activity at thesame time, they can be sure everyone gets it.

Unfortunately, they are underestimatingchildren’s ability to tune out what they are notinterested in. Young children will actually getmore out of an activity they have chosen.

Limited space.It can be a challenge to find space for severalactivities at the same time in small rooms. Ifyou offer four activities at the same time, andeach activity accommodates four children,you’ll have enough room for sixteen children.

Concern about supervising more than oneactivity at a time.This is less important if you offer activitiesthat children can do independently. If anadult must stand over a group to be sure theyare doing an activity correctly, it is probablytoo complicated to begin with.


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What are possible behavior issues relatedto providing choice?

Some choices are more popular than others.Try to make all choices attractive and offerthe most space and time to the most popularactivities.

Children need to work independently.Offering several activities at the same timemeans children need to be able to work with-out adult direction. Ensure that activities areopen-ended enough (see Open-EndedActivities) to allow as much independence aspossible.

Want to know more?

Bredekamp, S & Copple, C. .Developmentally Appropriate Practice in EarlyChildhood Programs, (revised edition).Washington D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children. ---. Excerpts available atnewhorizons.org/naeyc.html.

Essential Ingredients for Active Learning Choice

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Program offers choice for childrenduring as much of the program aspossible. No activitiesare required, alternative choicesare presented.

Stations or activity centers onbirds allow several activities to takeplace simultaneously. One centermight be painting with feathers,another looking at books aboutbirds, another listening to a tape ofbird calls, another examining kindsof nests, another group going on abird hike and another acting out astory with bird puppets.

Selected activities are offered.Some activities are required, someare a choice.

Several activities are offered butall children must complete featherpainting and listen to a storyabout birds.

Teachers decide what activitycomes next and children are givenlittle if any clue about what comesnext.

Time is divided into incrementsand children move as a groupfrom one activity to the next. Allchildren hear a bird story, then lis-ten to birdcalls, then paint withfeathers and finally take a walk.

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Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Choice


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Section IV:Supporting Active Learning

Supporting Active Learning

Learning Stations

What does it mean?

Learning stations are learning zones set up inthe outside gathering area or meeting room.Children are given the time and opportunity toexplore them at their own pace. Stations aregenerally grouped to promote certain activities:books and writing area, block or building area,sensory area with water or sand play or playdough, art area, dramatic play area with cos-tumes and props, science area and so forth.

Why are they important?

Learning stations promote choice and freedomof movement. They convey a sense of trust inthe children by allowing children to choosewhat is important to them. As a result, the pro-gram is more responsive to the needs of indi-vidual children, rather than herding themaround and treating them as a group.

What are the benefits to teaching withlearning stations?

Learning stations create a welcomingenvironment.When children arrive they may be feelingapprehensive. Having familiar activities set-up for them to choose from helps to easethem into a new space and routine.

It shows you have anticipated their needs.Setting up an appropriate environment foryoung children is half the battle. The right

environment encourages learning and playand discourages inappropriate behavior. Itdoesn’t hurt your credibility with parents,either.

It says, “You belong here.”

Why don’t educators teach with learningstations more?

There is a feeling of lack of control.Educators who are used to controlling chil-dren’s activities may view learning stations aschaotic and unorganized.

There isn’t enough time for “play.”Then make your programs longer. Childrenwill have a more positive experience andprobably learn more from free-choice activi-ties than from other organized activities.

It takes a lot of time and effort.Yes, it does but it’s worth it! The more com-fortable you become with this teaching style,the less time it will take to prepare.

What are possible behavior issues relatedto learning stations?

Conflicts between children.These are inevitable because children are justlearning how to relate to their peers. You canminimize conflicts by providing enough toysand materials to go around.

Learning stations generally alleviate problems.Giving children the freedom to choose helpsto avoid defiant behavior and acting out.

Want to know more?

Trister Dodge, D. & Colker, L. . CreativeCurriculum for Early Childhood. WashingtonD.C.: Teaching Strategies. ---.


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Supporting Active LearningLearning Stations

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Various activities are set uparound the meeting space.Children are given sufficient timeat the beginning of the programto explore at their own pace. Theteacher interacts with individualchildren as they play.

Children arrive at the picnicshelter for a program on frogs.There are four areas set up forthem to choose from: a watertable with lily pads and rubberfrogs; play dough with rollers andcookie cutters; pond puzzles andwater colors. Children play forten to fifteen minutes beforecoming together for a welcomingcircle.

Learning stations are set uparound the room. Activities aregenerally closed with an intendedoutcome. Children rotate fromone area to the next.

Children arrive at the picnicshelter for a program on frogs.There are three areas set up: afrog song identification activitysheet; a frog and toad coloringsheet with green and browncrayons and frog puzzles.Children are asked to completeone or more activities but nomore than three people can be ata station at a time.

Children are greeted in the meet-ing room but given no time toexplore the room. They areexpected to sit and listen beforegoing onto the next group activity.

Children arrive at the picnicshelter and told to sit on thebenches. The teacher tells themabout frogs and how to identifythem.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Learning Stations


Art

What does it mean?

Art is the making or doing of things that displayform, beauty and unusual perception. It includespainting, sculpture, architecture and othermedia. It is the distinctly human ability to makethings based on creativity, skill and beauty.


One of the most important gifts we can giveyoung children is the opportunity for creativethinking and expression. Exploring and experi-menting with a variety of materials and tech-niques is an essential part of creating. Art is anactivity based on sensory experience, similar toour experience of nature. It allows children toexplore and experiment with creating somethingfor its own sake or to express their knowledge ofa subject with their own perspective and associa-tions. Art in the early childhood years is child-oriented, as opposed to craft, which is teacher-oriented. For example, a craft activity (such ascreating a snowman by gluing down three whitecircles) focuses on producing a finished productthat matches a model, and may include matchinga process or technique. Art is about expressing aconcept in an individualized manner (like creat-ing a three-dimensional wire sculpture) with achild’s ability, energy and experience as a filter.

What are the benefits of offering artactivities?

Exploration and experimentationChildren need to freely explore several artmedia, just for the sake of experience. Forexample, very young children are often morefascinated with the cause and effect aspects ofpainting for example, then they are with cre-ating something specific.

Individualized expression and learningChildren are free to express, at their own levelof ability with their own perspective, whatthey have learned.

Learning is sensory-based.The more sensory the learning experience thegreater the retention. Poetry and music relateto hearing. Drawing and painting relate tothe visual. Dance relates to the kinesthetic.Sculpture and ceramics relate to touch.

Why don’t educators offer more arts activities?

Crafts are so cute!We often substitute craft projects for art forthis very reason. But children learn morefrom making their own choices. We also usecrafts as a way to help children learn to followdirections. This is an example of an inappro-priate match between objectives and activity.When offering an art activity, your primeobjective should be to encourage creativeexpression. There are more appropriate andmeaningful ways to help children follow step-by-step directions.

Children’s choices may not conform to the theme.What is more important, conforming or cre-ating? Adjust your expectations so it’s not abig deal.

Parents like crafts.Parents will love anything their child creates.Help them to appreciate the art for its ownsake, rather than as a tool to compare theirchild’s progress with others.

Material cost.Crafts can be more expensive than free art


46

projects. Art can be created from reused orrecycled materials, scraps and odds and ends.

Possible behavior management issuesrelated to art activities.

A child may get upset over a forgotten or ruinedproject.Because it is such a personal activity, childrenare often very protective of their individualworks. Make sure children have a safe placeto store art projects, their names are clearlymarked and they have an opportunity to taketheir masterpieces home.

Children do not want to participate.Many children are afraid to express them-selves in front of others or art may not betheir thing. Respect their choices but try toengage them in different ways. Frame theproject in terms of play or find other relatedjobs for them to do, such as assistant dancedirector or dispenser of materials.

Tips• Have plenty of art materials on hand and

accessible to all children.• Do not limit the amount or kind of materi-

als children may use in their art.• Show examples or copies of professional

artists’ work for inspiration.• Have a display area for finished pieces.• Art proof your space: no carpets, a slop

sink, storage and so forth.

Want to know more?Bos, Bev. . Don’t Move The Muffin Tins.

Roseville, CA: Turn the Page Press.: .

Lasky Lila & Mukerji-Bergeson, Rose. .Art: Basic For Young Children. WashingtonD.C.: National Association for the Educationof Young Children.

Supporting Active LearningArt

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Children are free to use materialsfor creative expression. Childrenare free to interact spontaneouslywith materials. The process ofcreating art is emphasized overthe product or how it looks.

Children are given a variety ofnatural collage materials, glue,tape, staplers and other items toexplore and experiment withwhen creating an art project.

Children are free to express andinteract with materials but activi-ty is still product-oriented.

Children make stuffed paper-bagpumpkins but can choose whatcolor they want to paint it.

Activity designed to recreate anexample already created by theteacher (i.e. product-oriented).Focus is on following instructionsinstead of spontaneous interac-tion with materials.

All children work at the sametime, each following step-by-stepinstructions for making stuffedpumpkins, painted orange withgreen pipe cleaner vines.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Art


Story Time

What does it mean?

Gathering together with a relevant book can bea great way to either generate interest or bringclosure to a session with young children. It canbe as simple as reading a picture book aloud, oras elaborate as acting out a favorite fairy tale.Many children who may not be at all familiarwith the environment of a nature center arefamiliar with books and stories. Story time isalso very flexible. A book can be shared to a fewchildren during gathering or free choice time,along the trail or during snack. Story time isengaging for many children and has a highchance of being successful.


The single most important activity for buildingthe understandings and skills essential for read-ings success is reading aloud to children(Newman, et. al. ). And the early child-hood years—from birth through age eight—arethe most important period for literacy develop-ment. It aids in language development, buildsknowledge and comprehension, fosters familiar-ity with letters and words and builds communi-ty.

Fiction or nonfiction?

Young children are more likely to be familiarwith the story structure of fiction books andengaged by the characters. The predictable

patterns and repetition encourage child partici-pation and hold attention. However, youngchildren are just grasping differences betweenwhat is real and what is imaginary. This pro-vides a challenge in finding books that areengaging but also contain factual information.Even books with pertinent factual informationoften anthropomorphize animals. Use this as anopportunity to discuss various possibilities. Doyou think bunnies talk to each other the sameway people do? How do you think they com-municate?

It is also possible to adapt more complicatednon-fiction books by using pertinent informa-tion and quality illustrations or photos whilechanging the delivery. Try doing a “picturewalk” where the pictures are shown but the textis paraphrased in a more kid-friendly style. Insmall groups, showing the pictures and askingfor predictions from the children about whatwill happen next is engaging and allows you toimpart some information while keeping it with-in their level of understanding.

What are the benefits to a well thoughtout story time?

Most children love to be read to.Because most children are familiar with storytime, it can be a calming and rewarding expe-rience.

Good way to introduce subject.Activates prior knowledge or summarizes keyconcepts.

Why don’t educators use story time moreoften?

It can be frustrating.If story time is unsuccessful re-examine yourtechnique. Choose appropriate books with largeillustrations, that encourage participation, andkeep it short.


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Common roadblocks to a successful storytime.

Reading books that cover abstract concepts or arenot age appropriate.The availability of books covering sciencetopics can create the temptation to give moreinformation than is needed or can beabsorbed. Young children learning about thefood chain can grasp the basic ideas but don’tneed to hear details about how energy is cre-ated and stored in cells.

Expecting young children to sit quietly and listen.Educators can become frustrated whenprompting questions and comments especiallywhen several children start talking at onceabout what seems to us to be unrelated issues.Choose stories that children can actively par-ticipate in to alleviate this issue.

What are the possible behavior issuesrelated to story time?

Is it really a problem?Behaviors that are seen as problems are lesslikely to occur when the educator adapts thestructure to fit the group. With a small group,gathering in a circle and using props to pro-vide active involvement can extend theamount of time children will be engaged.With any group, use an easel, big book orchart and take care to limit the amount oftime children are expected to sit.

Children seem bored and start acting-up.One way to avoid this is to create ways forthe children to be actively involved. With alarger group, individual response and action issometimes impossible. A well-orchestratedstory time will provide opportunities for

group response and choice. This can happenin simple ways by asking children to predictwith a thumbs up or thumbs down, askingthem to show the emotions of a character inthe book, or through actions that match thewords (such as making the noise of a bear inthe woods by stomping feet or pretending tolook through binoculars). Choosing bookswith a pattern and repetition allows for choralresponse and engagement.

Not everyone is interested in story time.Try to have other quiet options for childrento do if they are not interested in listening toa story. A puzzle or play dough often works.

Want to know more?

Conlon, A. . Giving Mrs. Jones a hand:Making Group Storytime More Pleasurable andMeaningful for Young Children. YoungChildren (): -.

Fox, Mem. . Reading Magic: Why ReadingAloud to Your Children will Change Their LivesForever. Orlando, FL, Harcourt:: ---

Neuman, S., Copple, C., Bredekamp, S. .Learning to Read and Write: DevelopmentallyAppropriate Practices for Young Children.Washington, D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children. ---.

Supporting Active LearningStory Time

49


50

A well-chosen book is read usingprops or puppets to activelyengage children and allows for avariety of ways to participate.

During a book on animal noises,children are encouraged to makethe animal voice at the appropri-ate time in the story. The readerhas several animal puppets forthe children to use during thestory. Comments and questionsfrom children are welcomethroughout the story.

A book is chosen that is appro-priate and some attempt is madeto engage children in action,some variety is allowed in partici-pation.

During a book on animal noises,children are encouraged to makethe animal voice at the appropri-ate time in the story but are notallowed to ask questions or com-ment until the story is finished.

An inappropriate book is chosenand the expectations for childrenare unrealistic; sitting quietly andpassively for long periods of time;not responding, using props asvisuals that children aren’tallowed to touch.

During a book on animal noises,children are expected to sit quiet-ly without speaking. The educa-tor makes all the noises herself.Another book has small, abstractdrawings and makes no use ofrhyme or humor.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Story Time

Notes

Supporting Active LearningOutdoor Exploration

51


Outdoor Exploration

What does it mean?

For environmental educators, time outdoorsmeans exploring all the nooks and crannies offorests, fields and ponds. There is a constantpossibility for new discoveries and unfoldingmysteries. Unfortunately, this type of explo-ration is not available to many young childrenespecially those in formal daycare or preschoolsituations. Outdoor time for them may be lim-ited to a few minutes a day in a fenced-inplayground with a pea gravel surface and verylittle, if any, opportunities for interacting withnature.


Because young children learn through activeparticipation with their surroundings, the natu-ral environment provides an inexhaustible sup-ply of learning opportunities. Frequent, positiveand direct experience in the outdoors is essen-tial to developing positive attitudes toward theenvironment—attitudes that are formed veryearly in life.

What are the benefits to outdoorexploration?

This may be children’s only chance.Although you don’t have to have a wildernessexperience to appreciate nature, it does helpto have direct experience. As children’s livesare increasingly structured to accommodate

busy family schedules, there is less time evenfor backyard play.

It contributes to children’s physical, emotional andsocial development.Because the natural world is rich and dynamic,free outdoor exploration can increase children’sconfidence, comfort level and coordination.

Why don’t educators explore theoutdoors more?

Fear.It takes a lot of skill and confidence to lead agroup of children on a nature hike. Helpingother educators become comfortable in theoutdoors by modeling appropriate techniquescan be an indirect benefit of outdoor explo-ration.

What are the possible behavior issueswith exploring the outdoors?

Children may act inappropriately.Children who are inexperienced or uncom-fortable in the outdoors may act out in a vari-ety of ways—pestering others, running ahead,whining or throwing sticks. Help childrenfeel secure by letting them know what toexpect ahead of time, giving them a job or arole along the trail and by telling them it’s theadult’s job to keep them safe and unharmed.

Tips.

Keep track of your kids.• Do frequent head counts. This is especially

important after moving from inside to out-side and vice versa, after passing anothergroup on the trail and after each activity.Remember, it is your responsibility to keeptrack of them, not the other way around.Never blame a child for getting lost.

• Always have one adult in front and one inback. As long as there are children, therewill be stragglers and rushers. Honor theirpace as much as possible while still keepingthem safe.


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Supporting Active LearningStory Time

53

• State the rules in language children under-stand. For instance, if one of the rules is tostay behind the leader, say, “If you can seemy backpack, you’re in the right place!”instead of “Stay behind the leader.” Themore concrete your language is, the easier itis for children to understand the bound-aries. Keep rules to a minimum, give rea-sons, stay positive and make rule makinginto a game whenever possible.

Keep it active.• Use focusing tools. It is much easier and

enjoyable to give children tools to helpthem focus on certain tasks while on thetrail. Use toilet-paper tube binoculars in Ispy games, bring along paper bags, egg car-tons or other containers for collecting valu-ables and of course, magnifying lenses.Avoid handouts or check-off activities—they are not hands-on!

• Avoid Walk and Talks. This is a time forpersonal discovery not lecturing. Take thechildren’s lead and let discussions flow. Askopen-ended questions (those where thereare no right answers). Find places with nat-ural boundaries where children can play—arock or log pile, a fire ring in the forest orthe edge of the pond. Encourage dramaticplay. Stop on or near a stump and pretendto be squirrels building a nest or gatheringfood.

• Bring along pieces of clay to press into barkand discover the impression. Making rub-bings with tracing paper and crayons workswell.

Keep it comfortable.• Keep extra clothes on hand. You never

know what accidents are waiting to happen.Keep a full set of clothing on hand—underwear, socks, shoes, pants, shirts, coats,hats, mittens and so forth.

• Anticipate their needs. Remember, they’reegocentric. If they are uncomfortable in anyway, shape or form, they’ll let you know.Generally, they have less tolerance thanolder children. Therefore, bring a quilt tosit on instead of the grass, be aware of thetemperature and the need for sun or shade,bring water or snack if you’re going to beon the trail for a long time.

Want to know more?

Rivkin, M. . The Great Outdoors: RestoringChildren’s Right to Play Outside. WashingtonDC: National Association for the Educationof Young Children. ---.

Wilson, Ruth. . Environmental Education atthe Early Childhood Level. Troy, OH: NorthAmerican Association for EnvironmentalEducation. ---


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Children are encouraged to dis-cover things along the trail. Thegroup travels short distances,stopping frequently to regroupand provide time for free explo-ration and play. Discoveries aremade by the children and discus-sions are open-ended. There isalways at least one adult in frontand one in back.

A small group of three and four-year-olds and their teachers takea short walk to the field. Theyfind a group of hay bales to climband jump on. They then walkalong the trail to a pond wherethey look for sunfish and makepretend fishing poles. Some chil-dren play school bus on a nearbylog. Some children count earth-worm castings found in the mid-dle of the trail.

The group moves at a steady pacealong the trail and is told to lookfor specific things at occasionalstops. Information is conveyedabout things they see along theway.

A naturalist leads the groupalong the trail at a quick pace.He stops occasionally andencourages the children to lookfor things under rocks and logs.He tells the children the namesof things they find. They movequickly to the nearby field toidentify prairie flowers.

Children are taken on a walkand talk. They walk along thetrail and are expected to keep upand listen.

A naturalist stays in front andleads the children down the trail.They stop occasionally and hetells them interesting thingsabout forest ecology before mov-ing on.

E X A M P L E S

Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Outdoor Explorations

Section VPossible Program Formats

Possible Program Formats

Infant and Toddler Programs

Definition of the group.

Infants and toddlers are children between theages of and months, accompanied by anadult attending an organized program.

Why should we teach infants and toddlers?

The whole world is new and wonderful to one-year-olds, who have generally just begun towalk. Things in nature move on their own andchange. Colors, textures and sounds are real.This is the best time to introduce natural envi-ronments to toddlers as they begin to enjoy thefreedom to move, experience the freshness ofthe outdoors and become comfortable in thenatural environment.

Since most children this age are accompaniedby an adult, this is a unique opportunity forencouraging and fostering behaviors in adultsthat will allow them to encourage discovery,learning and respect for nature in their children.

Special considerations when teachinginfants and toddlers.

• Be sure to check outdoor areas carefully,know harmful plants and keep childrenaway from them. Know harmful animals inyour area.

• Keep hands and fingers out of holes.• Supervise the children closely for things

going into their mouths.

• Stay within a few yards of children at alltimes.

• Encourage clothing that protects childrenfrom sun, cold, rough and sharp naturalobjects.

• Provide program supplies in low containersor on the floor or ground.

• Choose supplies that cannot be swallowed.• Safety proof the indoor space so things

cannot be unplugged, pulled or pushed overand cover sharp edges and corners.

• Use strollers, wagons or sleds for longerdistances allowing children to choose whento walk or ride.

• Remove anything you don’t want toddlersto touch from their reach.

• Plan for diapering.

TipsInfants and toddlers need something to dowhen outdoors. If they can’t pick up flowers andleaves, they’ll need some alternatives.• Bring along a small stuffed animal or sprin-

kling can with water.• Redirect them to safe things that can be

picked up and carried.• Show them how to touch gently.How to involve adults• For outings beyond the building’s yard,

make sure there is one adult for everymobile child.

• Send a letter to participants prior to classindicating philosophy and expectations.

• Remind or instruct adults to talk to thetoddler about the things they do, see, hearand touch.

• Remind adults to encourage children toexplore with their senses.

• Encourage adults to show appreciation andrespect for nature.

• Instruct adults to be prepared with extraclothing after getting wet and dirty.

• Encourage adults to not obsess about chil-dren getting wet or dirty.

• Encourage adults to adjust to toddler’sinterests and pace indoors and out.


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Adult-Child Programs

Definition of the group

Classes are composed of an adult partner withone or two children, and activities are designedfor adults and children to do together.

Why should we provide adult-childprograms?

Children, when in the company of a caringadult, are in the best possible setting for gaininga life-long reverence for the natural world. Andit is a delight for an adult to see the world onceagain through the eyes of a child.

For the naturalist it is an opportunity to reachboth the children and the adults with them,though of course, the primary focus is children.For the children having an adult with themgives them the confidence to try new things, tointeract with the adult and to experience inter-actions with other children. For many childrenthese classes are one of their first experienceswith learning outside of the home.

Special considerations for teaching adult-child programs.

• Frequently an additional older child orinfant is also present.

• Give an older child a helping role or job.• Offer to hold the infant while the parent

participates with their other child.• Trail hikes need to be stroller friendly.

Distance is not important. Walks and hikes

do not need a destination, focus on a quali-ty experience. When using strollers, wagonsor sleds for longer distances, allow the chil-dren to choose when to walk or ride.

• Plan dressing time before and after goingoutside. If going outside, plan this portionof the program to be either at the begin-ning or end so the children only have totake off rain or cold weather clothing once.

• Remove all untouchable items from theprogram area so that children are encour-aged to touch everything in the area, and“don’t touch” isn’t an issue.

• Safety proof the indoor space so thingscannot be unplugged, pulled or pushed overand cover sharp edges and corners.

How to involve the adults in your program.

• Remind and or instruct the adults to talk tothe children about the things that they do,see, hear and touch. Make sure theyunderstand they are to follow their child’sinterests and the child does not have to doeach and every activity offered.

• Remind the adults that touching, gettingdirty and getting wet is in this class.

• Adults can encourage the children to touchgently and explore safe natural things withtheir senses.

• Stories, books, puzzles and puppets can beprovided for adults to share.

• Activities that require the child and adultto participate together are encouraged.

Want to know more?

Taylor, Katharine Whiteside. . Parents andChildren Learn Together. New York: TeachersCollege Press. ---

Stone, Jeannette Galambos. . Teacher-ParentRelationships. Washington D.C.: NationalAssociation for the Education of YoungChildren. ---.

Dodge, Diane Trister, et al. . The CreativeCurriculum for Infants and Toddlers.Washington D.C.: Teaching Strategies. ---.

Possible Program Formats 57


Drop-Off and Camp Programs

Definition of the GroupChildren are dropped off for programs andparents or guardians are generally not presentfor the program. Programs are usuallybetween ½ and three hours long.

Why should we teach drop-off programs?Foster independence in young children. Formany, it may be their first experience in beingin a group setting. It is a chance to encouragepeer relationships and exploration of naturalworld in a safe and secure setting.Special considerations for teaching drop-off

programs.• Children may be fearful of new surround-

ings and there may be separation anxiety onthe part of the child or adult. It is essentialto have enough staff at drop-off time to beable to distract the children with activitiesto lesson the stress of separation from theiradults.

• Plan to have a major portion of the pro-gram be child driven with plenty ofchoices.

• Communicate to parents that childrenwill be going outside in nearly all weatherconditions, insect repellent and sun-screens should be applied before the chil-dren come to the program. Childrenneed to be dressed for the weather.

• Adults delivering children to camp need

to be aware of the drop-off and pick-upprocedures. Use a check-in and sign-outsystem and get written permission fromthe parent if anyone other than them is topick up their child.

Tips

• Give each child a place of his or her own.This makes sorting out projects at theend of the day much easier and giveschildren a feeling that this is their space.

• Have books, puzzles, paper, crayons andtoys available for early arrivals.

• Have children bring their own snacks.This keeps camp costs down and childrenwill usually eat what they bring. You canalso avoid food allergy problems.

• Keep “safe snacks” raisins, pretzels,Cheerios and graham crackers on handfor children who may not have a snack.

• When planning camp, allow plenty oftime for play. Even though as an adult itmay seem “like a waste of time,” childrenare processing information through play(see Learning through Play).

• Try to schedule some time during camp, afew minutes on the last day for example,for parents or guardians to visit the campand take part in some of the activities.Children are thrilled to show off whatthey have learned and done.

Adapting the environment

• Use child-size chairs and tables or set upon the floor or ground.

• Childproof the room and outdoor envi-ronments for possible safety concerns.

• Set clear physical boundaries for childrenin the outdoors.

• Provide for space for large motor activities.• Use a lesson plan that provides for many

different types of learning, large and smallmuscle, science and discovery, sensory, art,math and manipulatives, reading, music,dramatic play and even cooking.


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School Groups

Definition of the group.

Preschool, daycare and kindergarten classeswithin the established public and private educa-tional system.

Why should we teach school groups?

One of the most obvious reasons to work withthis group is because there is a strong demandfor programming. Teachers want their studentsto have unique, hands-on educational experi-ences that nature centers can provide.Naturalists can provide expertise and materialsthat often classroom teachers do not have. Inaddition, naturalists are able to help preparestudents to learn about the natural world andlay the foundation for them to become environ-mentally aware citizens.

Special considerations for teachingschool groups

• Have a sufficient number of adults workingwith the group (one adult to eight childrenor lower is ideal).

• Children in a formal school group are acaptive audience and cannot choose to leavethe center, but they need the option not toparticipate in all activities (see Choice).

• If parents aren’t present and providing acertain comfort level, naturalists may haveto deal with children’s fears or concerns.

Tips.

• Learning stations should include someactivities that can be easily accomplished bystudents without adult assistance when theadult to child ratio is not one to one.

• Have enough supplies so that each childhas access to them.

• Include pre- and postvisit activities thatteachers can use in the classroom.

• Allow for bathroom breaks if program is -½ hours or longer.

How to involve adults.

Use teachers, aides and volunteers in program-ming to keep the adult-to-student ratio low, butplan ahead with the adults so that they have setroles (for example, give them instructions onhow to work with their children at each stationor during activities).

Adapting the environment.

• Set tables and chairs to lowest height ifpossible or sit on ground.

• Put visuals at children’s eye level.• Define areas for learning stations (e.g. can

use masking tape on the floor to make sta-tion boundaries, use carpet squares for chil-dren to sit on).

• Have enough materials so each student hasone of whatever’s being handled.

• Make sure learning stations are set upappropriately.

• Provide a variety of manipulatives.• Provide open-ended activities that accom-

modate multiple levels.• Allow for a variety of learning styles and

appeal to a variety of senses.• Remove all untouchable items from area.• If doing a hiking program, select trails that

are short distances, level and as free as pos-sible from hazards such as poison ivy.

• Hikes should not be destination-oriented.The experience of being outdoors is moreimportant than finishing the hike.

Possible Program Formats 59


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Section VI:Developing and Evaluating Your Program

Developing and Evaluating Your Program

Program ComponentsThis is a list of possible program components and sample activities you can use when

planning programs. Mix and match them according to your program area and timeline.

Gathering or Free ChoiceSet up five or six learning stations aroundan indoor or outdoor meeting space.Provide at least fifteen or twenty minutesfor children to explore the activities attheir own pace.

Sensory TablesLarge tubs filled with various materialsfor sensory exploration

Songs and Finger PlaysSing songs with simple or familiarmelodies and lots of motion.

Story TimeChoose short storybooks with clear, largeillustrations and appropriate story lines.

Dramatic PlayNarrate short plays for children to actout. Provide costumes and props for chil-dren to act out their own stories.

Large Motor GamesMake games instant and simple with veryfew directions and rules. Everyone shouldbe able, but not required, to participate.

Sensory tablesBlocksPuzzlesPlay doughCollage materialsPainting

Water with real or rubber pond animals,buckets, nets and similar items.

Sand with buried beach treasures, scoops,animals and so forth.

Bird seedSoil with trowels, vegetables, worms,

flowers, pots and related items.

Itsy Bitsy SpiderFive Green and Speckled FrogsTwo Little Blackbirds

Picture booksStory tellingFlannel board storiesBig books

How a seed growsHow spiderlings disperseBox turtles searching for strawberries

Join hands and make a snakeDuck, duck, goose (gray duck)Fly like geese


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Salamander concentrationMagnetic fishing for pond life

Paint with feathersFinger paint with clay or mudMake mud pies

Toilet paper tube binocularsEgg carton collecting boxesHunt for wormsClimb on a fallen tree

Small Group GamesA hands-on activity that everyone can doall at once or one at a time.

ArtCreate projects that offer lots of choicewith no particular end product and few, ifany directions.

Outdoor Explorations and Trail ActivitiesAlternate between structured andunstructured activities. Use focusing tech-niques or games.

Developing and Evaluating Your ProgramProgram Components

63

64 Natural Wondersa Guide to Early Childhood Environmental Education

ContentConcrete thinkers. They like to

learn about relevant thingsthey can experience directly.

Like familiar activities andmaterials because of thefeeling of master and com-petence.

Learning concepts aboutnature and the world.

• Activities are based on whatinterests children and whatis familiar to them.Concepts are concrete(clouds) instead of abstract(weather).

• Themes or concepts arebroad and abstract with lit-tle relevance to children'sprevious experiences orinterests. For example, pre-senting a unit on the tropi-cal rainforest for childrenyoung children in the mid-western U.S.

What Children are

Learning and Doing

Child-Centered Approach

Teacher-DirectedApproach

Developmentally Appropriate Practice at a GlanceEmphasizing and supporting the individual and collective abilities of young children.

Observational SkillsHave attention spans largely

determined by the activity,the interest level and theindividual.

Learning to focus and main-tain attention and how toshift focus from one thingto another.

Learning to follow routines andtransition from one programcomponent to another.

• Programs are one to threehours in length, providingadequate time for freeexploration of classroommaterials, social interactionand large motor activities.

• Transitions are kept to aminimum. Songs, games,rhymes and so forth areused to ease transitions.

• Knowing that children needtime to become engagedwith materials or each other,teachers allow adequateamounts of time for eachsection of the program.

• Teachers follow a pre-dictable routine to helpchildren feel comfortable,in control and to recognizelimits.

• Programs are limited to minutes or less becausechildren have short atten-tion spans.

• Teachers quickly movefrom one activity to anoth-er, never spending morethan a few minutes on onething at a time. Disruptionsare common during transi-tion times.

• Teachers give little or nowarning before going toanother activity. Lecturesand instructions used tomove children from onearea to another.

• Teachers decide what activ-ity comes next and childrenare given little if any clueabout what comes next.

65Developing and Evaluating Your ProgramDevelopmentally Appropriate Practice at a Glance

PlayLearning to become independ-

ent, to find and solve prob-lems, make comparisonsand experiment.

Learning how to initiate andmaintain play with othersand negotiate conflicts

Learn through active manipu-lation of materials.

• The gathering site or class-room is equipped with toysand activities that are famil-iar to children: animal puz-zles and puppets, playdough, blocks, animal fig-ures, sand or water play, andso forth

• At least minutes of freechoice time is provided.Children are free to choosefrom among several activi-ties presented around theroom or gathering site.

• Child-sized furniture isused whenever possible andonly for suitable activities.

• Children are encouraged toexplore and experimentwith a wide variety ofmaterials. They have ampleopportunities to discoverproblems and solutions.

• Children freely explore(within safe boundaries)their environment. Teachersfollow the children's lead,discovering along sidethem. The children orteacher initiates games andexploration activities.

• The gathering site or class-room has defined areas forblock play, messy play, quietreading, and so forthOutside, natural boundariesare used to guide children:trails, meadows, gardens,and similar things.

• The gathering site or class-room has little or no mate-rials or objects for play.Children are discouragedfrom exploring the roomand limited in their socialinteractions with others.

• Teacher directs the childrento move from one activityto the next as a group andall do the same thing at thesame time

• Children are expected to sitin adult-size tables andchairs for the majority ofthe program.

• Materials are limited inamount and variety.Children are instructed onthe “right” way to use mate-rials.

• Children are taken on a tra-ditional “walk and talk”hike where natural conceptsare pointed out and dis-cussed.

• There are few physicalboundaries to help childrenorganize their play.

What Children are

Learning and Doing




66

Self DiscoveryLearning to express themselves

creatively through differentmeans and imagination.

Learning to be self-confidentand self-directive.

Learning that there are differ-ent points of view and thatother people act and thinkdifferently than they do.

• Opportunities for creatingopen-ended art activities areoffered but not required.Children have easy and fullaccess to a wide variety ofart materials.

• Costumes and props areavailable to encouragespontaneous play-acting.

• Lots of time, choice andmaterials to play freely.

• Everyone makes identicalcraft project with the samematerials, directions andend result.

• No opportunities to“become” something orsomeone else throughdress-up, or dramatic play.

• No time, little choice, andfew materials to play freely.

What Children are

Learning and Doing



Developing and Evaluating Your ProgramHow Developmentally Appropriate is Your Program?

67

How Developmentally Appropriate is Your Program?For each category, rank your program from zero to four. Zero means it most closely resembles the descrip-tion on the left and four means it most closely resembles the description on the right. At the end, total yourprogram’s points to rate the developmental appropriateness of your activity or program.

DC: Focuses on cognitive or intellectualunderstandings only.

I E: Only indirect learning experiences(books, videos, cartoons or similaritems) offered. Unrealistic, cartoon-likeand/or inaccurate toys and images areused.

I T: Abstract topics or concepts.

P L: Children have a passive presence withthe activity.

L O: Objectives are product oriented andemphasize factual learning only.

D O: Activities represent the dominant cul-ture and normal range of abilities only.

H-O: Lectures or demonstrations only.

C A: Only one right way to do an activity.

N C: Children do what, when and how theinstructor says.

C: Product oriented.

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 4

DC: Fosters the development of the wholechild: social/emotional, cognitive, physi-cal, perceptual, language and so forth.

A E: Direct learning with real and authenticobjects. Realistic, accurate toys andimages used when the real thing is notavailable or practical.

A T: Concrete topics or concepts.

I-B L: Requires active involvement of children.

T O: Objectives are process oriented withboth content and developmental goalsinclude.

D V: Diverse cultures and abilities representedand celebrated.

H-O: All objects used by children freely.

O-E: Children use materials freely and at will.

C: Children choose from among severalactivities.

A: Process oriented.

Congratulations! Your program is developmentally appropriate!Has potential but needs improvement.Re-examine your approaches.Modify or eliminate the program

31-4021-3011-200-10

Key

Epilogue: Reed Returns

After attending a workshop on how to designprograms for preschoolers, Reed knew what shehad to do to improve her animal home programfor three-year-olds and their parents. Knowingthat young children think differently thanadults, tend to be egocentric, construct theirown meanings and are learning about every-thing all the time, Reed modified the program.She expanded the time from to minutesand set up the classroom with six learning sta-tions including blocks, puzzles, a sensory table,painting, play dough and book area. Sheplanned a short story time, a bathroom break, ahike through the woods with some time for freeoutdoor exploration and dramatic play.

The program was a huge success from theoutset. When the children and adults arrived inthe classroom, they knew exactly what to do.For almost minutes, adults and children

painted, read, built animal homes from theblocks and made bird nests out of play dough.Children greeted the fish in the aquarium andtalked about why fish live in water and whythey don’t have legs. Reed brought out a realhornet’s nest and taught the children how tocarefully touch the papery walls. Jose recalledgetting stung by a bee and Martha said her doghad fleas.

Everyone gathered for a story and songs,except Justin, who preferred to listen as heplayed with the play dough. Reed told a storyabout the different animals of the forest andwhere they make their homes. She passedaround a basketful of pictures of different ani-mals and let the children select the one theywanted. As she read the story, each child couldplace their picture on a mural of the forest.

After clean up and a bathroom break, thegroup headed out on the trail. Everyone wasbusy counting all the animal homes they couldfind. To help them keep track, Reed gave everypair a hole punch and told them to find a leafon the ground. Every time they found an ani-mal home, they could punch a hole in their leaf.

Half way down the trail they came upon asmall lean-to shelter someone had made fromtree branches. Children and adults began to playhouse and pretend to be animals in the forest.

Before long it was time to go. As Reed saidgoodbye, she heard Meta exclaim to her grand-father, “Next time we come, I’m going to findnature!”

Natural Wondersa Guide to Early Childhood Invironmental Education

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Section VIIResources

ResourcesBerk, L. E. & A. Winsler. . Scaffolding

Children’s Learning: Vygotsky and EarlyChildhood Education. Washington, D.C.:National Association for the Education ofYoung Children. ---.

Bos, Bev. . Before the Basics: CreatingConversations with Children. Roseville, CA:Turn-The-Page Press. ---.

Bos, Bev. Don’t Move the Muffin Tins: A Hands-off Guide to Art for the Young Child. Roseville,CA.: Turn-The-Page Press, . ---.

Bos, Bev. Together We’re Better: Establishing aCoactive Learning Environment. Roseville,CA.: Turn-The-Page Press, . .

Brazelton, T. B. . Toddlers and Parents. NewYork: Bantam Doubleday Publishers. ---.

Bredekamp, S. & C. Copple, eds. Developmentally Appropriate Practice in EarlyChildhood Programs. Washington, D.C.:National Association for the Education ofYoung Children, . ---.

Bredekamp, S. & T. Rosegrant. . ReachingPotentials: Appropriate Curriculum andAssessment for Young Children. Washington,D.C.: National Association for the Educationof Young Children. ---.

Campbell, B., L. Campbell & D. Dickinson.1999. Teaching and Learning through MultipleIntelligences. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:Prentice Hall. ---.

Chard, S. C. & L. Katz. . EngagingChildren’s Minds: The Project Approach.Westport, CT.: Greenwood PublishingGroup. ---.

Edwards, C. P. . Promoting Social and MoralDevelopment in Young Children: CreativeApproaches for the Classroom. New York:Teachers College Press. ---.

Elkind, D. & J. H. Flawell. . Studies inCognitive Development: Essays in Honor of JeanPiaget. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ---.

Feeney, Stephanie. . Who Am I in the Livesof Children: An Introduction to Teaching YoungChildren (th ed.). Saddle River, NJ: PrenticeHall. ---.

Felton-Collins, V. & R. Peterson. . PiagetHandbook for Teachers and Parents: Children inthe Age of Discovery, Preschool-Third Grade.New York: Teachers College PressPublication. ---.

Forman, G. & D. S. Kuschner. . The Child’sConstruction of Knowledge: Piaget for TeachingChildren. Washington D.C.: NationalAssociation for the Education of YoungChildren. ---.

Fraiberg, Selma H. . The Magic Years. NewYork: Simon & Schuster. ---.

Helm, J. H. & L. Katz. . YoungInvestigators: The Project Approach in the EarlyYears. New York: Teachers College Press.: ---.

Holt, Bess-Gene. . Science with YoungChildren. Washington D.C.: NationalAssociation for the Education of YoungChildren. : ---.

Jalongo, M. R. . Young Children and PictureBooks: Literature from Infancy to Six.Washington D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children. ---.

Jones, E. & G. Reynolds. . The Play’s theThing: Teachers’ Roles in Children’s Play. NewYork: Teachers College Press. ---.

Kamii, C. & R. DeVries. . Group Games inEarly Education: Implications of Piaget’sTheory. Washington D.C.: NationalAssociation for the Education of YoungChildren. ---.

Katz , L. & S. Chard. . Engaging Children’sMinds: The Project Approach (nd ed.).Greenwhich, CT: Ablex Publishing. ---.

Kohl, M. F. & D. K. Whelan. . PreschoolArt: It’s the Process not the Product. Beltsville,Maryland: Gryphon House. ---.


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Lasky, L. . Art: Basic for Young Children.Washington D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children. ---.

Miller, K. . The Outside Play and LearningBook: Activities for Young Children. Beltsville,MD: Gryphon House. ---.

Miller, K. . Ages and Stages: DevelopmentalDescriptions and Activities, Birth through EightYears. Chelsea, MA.: Telshare Publishing. ---.

Miller, K. . Things to do with Toddlers andTwos. Chelsea, MA.: Telshare Publishing. ---.

Nourot, P. M., B. Scales & J. Van Hoorn. .Play at the Center of the Curriculum (nd ed.).Saddlebrook, NJ: Prentice Hall. ---.

Rivkin, M. S. . The Great Outdoors:Restoring Children’s Right to Play Outside.Washington D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children, . ---.

Schickendanz, J. . Much More than ABCs.Washington D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children. ---.

Shefatya, L. & S. Smilansky. . FacilitatingPlay: A Medium for Promoting Cognitive,Socio-Emotional and Academic Development inYoung Children. Austin, TX: Bartleby Press. ---.

Shore, R. . Rethinking the Brain: NewInsights into Early Development. New York:Families and Work Institute. ---.

Stone, J. G. . Guide To Discipline.Washington D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children. ---.

Stone, J. . Teacher-Parent Relationships.Washington D.C.: National Association forthe Education of Young Children. ---.

Taylor, K. . Parents and Children LearnTogether. New York: Teachers College Press. ---.

Wadsworth, B. J. . Piaget’s Theory ofCognitive and Affective Development:Foundations of Constructivism. White Plains,NY: Longman Publishers. ---.

Waite-Stupiansky, S. . BuildingUnderstanding Together: A ConstructivistApproach to Early Childhood Education.Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers. ---.

Web Sites

Early Childhood Online:http://www.ume.maine.edu/-/

National Association for the Education ofYoung Children: http://www.naeyc.org/

Early Childhood Education Web Guide:http://www.ecewebguide.com/

Earlychildhood.com http://www.earlychild-hood.com/

Clearinghouse on Elementary and EarlyChildhood Education http://ericeece.org/

World Wide Web Sites Sponsored by/ http://ericps.crc.uiuc.edu/

Zero To Three http://www.zerotothree.org/

Inclusive Materials

Knowledge Unlimited, www.knowledgeunlimit-ed.com, ---

Minnesota International Center, www.mic-globe.org, ---

Asia Kids Catalog www.asiaforkids.com,---

Redleaf Press, www.redleafpress.org,---

Magazines

Young Children. Journal of the NationalAssociation for the Education of YoungChildren, 16th St., NW, Washington,D.C. -, ---.

Childhood Education. Journal of the Associationfor Childhood Education International, TheOlney Professional Building, GeorgiaAve., Suite 215, Olney, MD ,---.

Resources71

Early Childhood Today. Scholastic, Inc., Broadway, NY, NY, , ---.

Supply Resources

Lake Shore Learning – art supplies, dramaticplay, manipulatives, and more.www.lakeshorelearning.com

Discount School Supply – media, art supplies,dramatic play, manipulatives www.earlychildhood.com

Acorn Naturalists-Science and EE Materialswww.acornnaturalists.com/

Environmens, Inc., P.O. Box Beaufort, SC,-, --.


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Documents

Natural Wonders: A Guide to Early Childhood … · Natural Wonders A Guide to Early Childhood for Environmental Educators Created by the Minnesota Early Childhood Environmental Education