ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Navigating the ‘invisible nets’: challenges and opportunities for women intraditionally male-dominated South Asian newsrooms1

Elanie Steyn and Kathryn Jenson White*

Gaylord College of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Oklahoma, Norman,USA

(Received 23 September 2010; final version received 15 March 2011)

‘Invisible nets,’ ‘labyrinths’ and ‘glass ceilings’ are a sampling of the metaphorsused to describe the impediments and challenges women face along their pathstoward professional advancement, including those in media settings. Expandingon previous research, this article investigates newsroom management expectationsand experiences related to communication and teamwork as managerialcompetencies among a sample of female journalists in Nepal, Bangladesh andPakistan. Using a quantitative research design, the researchers outline opportu-nities and challenges for women in navigating the various obvious and subtleobstacles they face as they seek to advance professionally in traditionally male-dominated South Asian newsrooms.

Keywords: managerial competencies; communication; teamwork; media; SouthAsia; transactional leadership; transformational leadership

Introduction

Organizations worldwide are realizing that investing in human resources is essential

for organizational success (Hellriegel, Jackson, & Slocum, 2005, pp. 4�5; Raspa, 2008;

Schwab, 2008, p. v; Solnik, 2005). However, in many countries, religious, political and

cultural barriers continue to prevent decision-makers from acknowledging women’s

potential, especially in leadership (see Kiamba, 2008). This results in (among other

outcomes) ‘significant gaps in the job opportunities . . . and . . . wages paid to (them)

compared with their male counterparts’ (Hausmann, Tyson, & Zahidi, 2009; Schwab,

2008, p. v). Moreover, it results in what Peet and Hartwick (1999, p. 165) describe as

a situation in which women are deprived of playing an active role in shaping

policy-making and decisions that affect their lives and the lives of those around them.

Women in American newsrooms today, after significant strides since the 1970s, are

in a ‘holding pattern’ in terms of occupying decision-making positions (Goodman,

2009, p. xviii). Their peers in other countries face even more challenging realities.Of 134 countries covered in the Gender Gap Report (Hausmann, Tyson, &

Zahidi, 2009, pp. 68, 145, 152), the three countries relevant to this study were rated

110th (Nepal), 94th (Bangladesh) and 132nd (Pakistan) on the Gender Gap Index.

The same report indicates that the female-to-male ratio in the labor force is

0.79 (Nepal), 0.69 (Bangladesh) and 0.25 (Pakistan) (Hausmann, Tyson, & Zahidi,

2009, p. 68, 145, 152).

*Corresponding author. Email: elanie@ou.edu

Asian Journal of Communication

Vol. 21, No. 4, August 2011, 409�426

ISSN 0129-2986 print/ISSN 1742-0911 online

# 2011 AMIC/SCI-NTU

DOI: 10.1080/01292986.2011.574712

http://www.informaworld.com

Despite some success stories, women in these (and other) countries clearly still

struggle to find their way through what Ridgeway (2001) calls ‘invisible nets,’

‘performance expectations and legitimacy reactions created by gender status

beliefs . . . that catch women as they push forward to achieve positions of leadershipand authority’ (p. 652). Similarly, Erkut (2001) refers to these as ‘institutional,’ rather

than ‘individual’ roadblocks.

These ‘nets’ often limit women’s ability to advance in their professions, gain

positional and financial parity with their male counterparts (see Rana, 2003, with

reference to Nepal), attain fair representation in media workplaces (John, 2010, with

reference to Pakistan) and ultimately attain leadership positions (see Bangladesh

Human Rights Network, 2006; Khan, 1997; with reference to Bangladesh).

In addition to the religious and cultural barriers mentioned earlier (also seeKhan, 1997), male-dominated and transactional (rather than transformational)

management environments and styles (Berryman-Fink, 1985, pp. 307�313; Broad-

bridge & Hearn, 2008, pp. S38�S49; Chapman, 1975, pp. 645�650; Glennon, 2008,

p. 15) have a powerful negative impact on women’s ability to excel in their

professional activities, creating, perhaps, the most difficult ‘net’ for them to navigate

through.

This study outlines and compares the similarities and differences related to

communication and teamwork as managerial competencies (see Hellriegel et al.,2005, pp. 4�5; Hellriegel, Jackson, Slocum, Staude, Amos, Klopper, et al., 2004, p. 5;

Steyn, 2006)2 relevant to transactional and transformational leadership approaches

(see Burns, 1978). The researchers then use these concepts to determine whether gaps

exist between the importance a sample of female journalists in Nepal, Pakistan and

Bangladesh attach to these competencies and their experience of their (predomi-

nantly) male managers’ implementation thereof (also see Steyn & Jenson White,

2010). The research results show that these differences (in combination with religious

and societal perspectives and stereotypes) contribute toward the cultural, at both thesocietal and work-environment level, construction of ‘labyrinths’ (Eagly & Carli,

2007) that female media professionals in these countries have to navigate through on

their path to professional success.

The next section reviews the social, cultural and media realities in each of the

three countries relevant to the study. This serves as a background for measuring the

theoretical concepts and discussing the study’s results.

Social, cultural and media realities in Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan

Nepal

Media freedoms in Nepal, in which Hindu is the dominant religion, have been

precarious since 2005, when King Gyandendra dismissed the government, instituted

direct rule and imposed strict media controls, including arresting journalists

(Reporters Without Borders, 2008). In April 2006, the Jana Andolan (People’sMovement) forced the government of King Gyanendra to abdicate, leaving

members of the Maoist Communist Party of Nepal to rule the country. Calling

itself a ‘democratic’ government, it announced it would end all media restrictions.

One of its first acts was to form a High Level Media Commission.

410 E. Steyn and K.J. White

About a dozen international organizations have undertaken several joint

International Press Freedom and Freedom of Expression Missions to Nepal.

A February 2009 mission found prevailing turbulence, continued violence against

journalists (International Freedom of Expression Exchange, 2009) and a mediaindustry ‘constrained by inadequate legislation and/or implementation or lack of

implementation of the laws where they exist � as well as the lack of institutional

capacity and resources (human and material)’ (International Press Freedom and

Freedom of Expression Mission to Nepal, 2008, p. 8). In short, it concluded,

‘Violence against the media rose after November 2006.’ In 2008 alone, the Federation

of Nepali Journalists recorded 342 press freedom violations in the country

(International Media Support, 2009).

Focusing on gender equity, the International Press Freedom and Freedom ofExpression Mission to Nepal Report (2008) indicates that women’s position in terms

of media representation, policy-making and decision-making has improved some-

what. However, only one of the 12 members of Press Council Nepal is a woman

(presscouncilnepal.org/board.php) and only 12 per cent of the media workforce is

female; that cohort has negligible decision-making power and influence (Ananta,

2007).

Bangladesh

Freedom House (2009), a non-government, independent watchdog organization

supporting the expansion of freedom around the world, cites an improved media

situation in Bangladesh. This follows the lifting of restrictions enacted after a 2007

military takeover and the election of a new government at the end of 2008.

Bangladesh’s constitution ‘provides for freedom of expression subject to ‘‘reasonablerestrictions,’’’ but national security legislation and sedition and criminal libel laws

exist. The 1974 Special Powers Act allows detentions in reprisal for stories that are

critical of government officials or policies. Police brutality during the coverage of

political protests as well as detentions, threats and other harassment by authorities

continue despite the easing of restrictions.

The World Bank (2008) reports that officials still restrict critical reporting and

that the Official Secrets Act, authorizing the government to curb freedom of speech

on subjects including the constitution itself, the armed forces, the judiciary andreligion, and harsh blasphemy laws are often used against journalists. Reporters

Without Borders (2009) places Bangladesh at 121 out of 175 countries on its Press

Freedom Index for 2009, but with two arrows up, a symbol suggesting ongoing

improvement. However, the Committee to Protect Journalists places it 12th on its

Impunity Index, a list of countries in which journalists have been killed and

governments have failed to bring their killers to justice. CPJ’s findings state that,

‘South Asian journalists face particularly severe risks. The region’s nations make up

nearly half of CPJ’s index. Six are included on the 2009 list: Sri Lanka, Afghanistan,Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, (emphasis ours) and India.’

Bangladesh is a secular democracy in which Muslims make up 80 per cent of the

population (Bangla, 2000). Its constitution says specifically that ‘Women shall have

equal rights with men in all spheres of State and of public life’, yet UNICEF (2007)

Asian Journal of Communication 411

reports approximately 1.5 million primary school-aged girls are not in school and

that low-quality education and ‘limited options for girls and women within the

greater society exacerbate the problems of inadequate schooling for girls.’ While

organizations like the Bangladesh Centre for Development, Journalism and

Communication (BCDJC) and universities offer training and education for women

journalists and while women have moved into both print and electronic media,

attendees at a 2004 regional conference of The South Asian Free Media Association

(SAFMA) heard that ‘women in media (are) rarely known to have risen to the

position of decision-making, except for a few examples.’ The 1997 National Policy

for the Advancement of Women commits to ending discrimination against women

and girls in all spheres and promoting women’s equality in areas such as education

and training. Nevertheless, gender gaps in all areas continue (NAM Institute for the

Empowerment of Women, 2007).

Pakistan

About 97 per cent of Pakistan’s population is Muslim and political and social

instability threaten the constitutionally defined democracy. Islamist parties are

calling for the countrywide imposition of sharia, Islamic law, after the successful

adoption of it in a large region in the northwest (Roggio, 2009). A November 2007

imposition of martial law suspended Article 19 of the constitution, which relates to

freedom of the press, and ordinances now bar print and electronic media from

presenting negative information about the head of state and members of the military

or any other segments of the state. Harassment and arrest of and physical attacks on

journalists by police, security forces and military intelligence officers continue

(Freedom House, 2009). According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, at least

five journalists were killed in 2008.

While many new private cable and satellite television news channels have begun

to provide live domestic news coverage, commentary and call-in talk shows,

authorities continue to wield control over media content in many ways (Freedom

House, 2009). Reporters Without Borders (2009) ranks Pakistan at 159 out of 175

countries on its Press Freedom Index (2009) with one arrow down, a symbol

indicating deteriorating conditions. The Committee to Protect Journalists (2009)

places Pakistan 10th on its March 2009 Impunity Index; three unsolved murders of

journalists in 2008 brought the total to 10 since 2000.

UNESCO (2009) reports that, despite a series of government programs to

promote literacy among women, various political, social and cultural obstacles

hamper this. In the media, specifically, ‘underlying factors like family restrictions,

male dominance and unfavourable workplace environment, discriminatory salary

packages, lack of appreciation, (and) lack of security services, transport facilities

(and) flexible working hours often result in women themselves avoiding this

profession’ (Internews, 2009). And while the Khyber Union of Journalists was the

first such organization in a male-dominated society to elect a woman as general

secretary in February 2010, only 37 female journalists are among its 10,000 members.

The next section of the article focuses on the theoretical concepts important to

this study. First, it presents the dimensions of communication and teamwork as

managerial competencies and, second, it explores gender-based leadership styles.

412 E. Steyn and K.J. White

Theoretical background: dimensions of communication and teamwork as managerial

competencies

In their endeavors to achieve organizational goals and objectives, managers are

required to obtain, organize and control organizational resources effectively and

efficiently (DuBrin, 2003, p. 5; Lussier, 2003, p. 5). A cycle of activities and a set of

managerial competencies guide them through this process (Rue & Byars, 2000, p. 4).

These activities and competencies are similar across industries (Hellriegel et al., 2004,

p. 10; Rue & Byars, 2000, p. 6; Starbuck, 2005, p. 2).

In a media management environment, research has shown that two of these

managerial competencies are particularly important in helping media managers

succeed. These are communication (see Dal Zotto & Van Kranenburg, 2008, p. 221;

Hendrickson, 2009; Wicks et al., 2004, p. 89) and teamwork (see Herrick, 2003,

p. 265; Quinn, 2002, p. 94; Stepp, 2008, p. 68).

Effective communication, in the broadest definition of that concept, facilitates

understanding between and among communicating parties by improving informa-

tion transfer and exchange. Properly designed and delivered formal (e.g. reports,

letters, memoranda) and informal (e.g. discussions, social networking and interac-

tion) communication messages as well as the ability to properly negotiate help

promote good communication.

In today’s rapidly changing and increasingly interactive media environment,

communication with both internal and external audiences is of growing importance.

However, research shows that media managers often struggle with this skill (Markus,

2001, p. 15; Peters, 2004, p. 5). And although technological advances, downsizing of

staff and the search for alternative business models (Young, 2003, pp. 26�29) increase

the need for effective communication, these same factors often hamper the clear and

consistent transmission of information.

In addition, a teamwork approach toward reaching organizational goals and

objectives implies that managers accomplish tasks through small, interdependent

and jointly responsible groups (Hellriegel, Jackson, Slocum, Staude, Amos, Klopper,

et al., 2001, p. 18). This necessitates a management environment that supports proper

teamwork design (i.e. creating teams to make the best use of individual skills and

experience) and a supportive teamwork environment (one that empowers employees

and helps them access resources). It also requires a manager with the ability to

manage team dynamics in the most effective way possible (see Heller, 2006).

In a media management context, scholars increasingly realize the need for media

organizations to break down barriers that traditionally have divided the newsroom

from other departments (see Herrick, 2003, p. 265; Stepp, 2008, p. 68) and for

organizational teams to collaborate. However, even though research shows that

teamwork approaches in newsrooms (compared to the beat approach) have

contributed toward more coverage of issues and better alignment of organizational

resources (see Gade & Perry, 2003, p. 330), other results point toward challenges in

effectively implementing collaborative newsroom teams (e.g. see Biech, 2008, p. 4;

Gade & Perry, 2003, p. 339; Vobic, 2009).

Although women’s communication and teamwork abilities are strong potential

resources to use in addressing the above-mentioned struggles toward incorporating

effective communication and efficient teamwork into a newsroom management

environment, research shows that these strengths too often remain untapped (see

Asian Journal of Communication 413

Nicholson, 2009, p. 9). Fisher (2009, pp. 35�36) outlines how women ‘swap

information more freely, encourage employees more . . . emphasize more shared

power, inclusion, consultation, consensus, and collaboration.’ These characteristics,

found commonly in women’s leadership approaches, are key elements in Burns’(1978) distinction between transactional and transformational leadership styles, as

discussed in the next section of this article.

Theoretical background: gender-based leadership styles

Discussions of and research into gender-based leadership styles have grown not only

in number but also in nuance and theoretical complexity over the last four decades

(see Eagly & Carli, 2007, pp. 119�135). However, a simple truth remains: Catalyst(2007) research confirms men are still largely seen as leaders by default. In fact,

researchers find the continued prevalence of the ‘think-leader-think-male’ mindset,

with women leaders being perceived of as ‘atypical’ and facing the so-called double-

bind dilemma: ‘damned if you do (exhibit masculine behaviors associated with

leadership), doomed if you don’t’ (see Catalyst, 2007; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Ridgeway,

2001).

The above perspective forms the basis from which gender-based leadership styles

are investigated in this study, although the researchers acknowledge the more recentmove away from ‘gender-based leadership’ and toward ‘personality-based leadership’

(Cummings, 2005; Eagly & Carli, 2007, pp. 39�47) or leadership based on ‘. . .character, integrity, energy, resilience, perseverance, and passion,‘ as McFarlin puts it

(see Reed, 2009, p. 114).

In his research, Burns (1978) distinguished between ‘transactional’ and ‘trans-

formational’ styles of leadership, indicating that traditional management styles

generally correspond with the former leadership approach. Given the reality that the

majority of people in management/decision making positions have traditionally been(and still are) male, transactional leadership approaches continue to dominate the

management environment worldwide (see Nicholson, 2009, pp. 10�11).

Within this framework, Hay (2007) points out that transactional leadership

characteristics include: motivating people to perform as leaders expect them to;

initiating structure to clarify people’s roles and tasks; emphasizing the connection

between achieving goals and receiving rewards; using agreed-upon performance

guidelines to motivate people; appealing to followers’ self-interest (e.g. pay,

promotion); emphasizing short-term goals and quantitative information; anddevaluing long-term, evolving relationships (also see Rosener, 1990).

Burns (1978) defined a ‘transformational’ leadership style as one different from

and opposed to transactional leadership in many areas. These include (see Caliper,

2005; Erkut, 2001; Hay, 2007; also see Rosener, 1990): motivating people for

performance beyond expectations; inspiring them to achieve goals beyond self-

interest; instilling self-confidence in people to improve performance; transcending

short-term goals to focus on people’s long-term achievements and relationships;

emphasizing missions and strategies for achieving them; striving for higher levels ofmotivation and morale; and seeking to develop followers into leaders. As Nicholson

(2009, p. 9) points out, these activities all require proper communication and good

teamwork; they also encompass ‘leadership traits and skills that women bring to the

workplace.’

414 E. Steyn and K.J. White

The general research question for this study is, therefore, this: to what extent do

anticipated gaps between the importance female employees attach to communication

and teamwork as managerial competencies and their managers’ implementation

thereof create individual, institutional and cultural ‘roadblocks’ or ‘nets’ that preventwomen from advancing professionally and ultimately attaining leadership roles in the

media environment of South Asia? The next section of the article outlines the

research methodology relevant to this study.

Research methodology

This study is an extension of an exploratory investigation into management and

leadership approaches in Nepali newsrooms (Steyn & Jenson White, 2010). The

research initiative originated within a six-year program called ‘Leadership for

Women Journalists’ sponsored by the US State Department and administered by the

Gaylord College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of

Oklahoma with the support of media partners in Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh

(Steyn & Jenson White, 2010).

Research design

This phase of the project focuses on results obtained by means of a predominantly

quantitative research design (Struwig & Stead, 2001, p. 19) to increase the

researchers’ familiarity with the concepts they are studying, gain a general ‘mental

picture of conditions’ and formulate questions for future research (see Neuman,2004). Through this study, the researchers hope to highlight trends in Nepali,

Pakistani and Bangladeshi media management environments on which to build for

future research through both qualitative and quantitative research designs.

Research population and sample

The research population (N�59) for this study consisted of all female participants in

three ‘Leadership for Women Journalists’ workshops presented in Kathmandu

(Nepal), Dhaka (Bangladesh) and Islamabad (Pakistan) between 2008 and 2010. In

addition, the researchers surveyed women attending a similar workshop in Norman,

USA, in the same time period. Participants’ interest in and selection for these

workshops were initial indicators that they were interested in professional advance-

ment, to the point that they would seek leadership and decision-making roles.

The researchers used this research population to conduct a census (see Davis,1997; Hocking, Stacks, & McDermott, 2003, p. 181), including 22 respondents from

Nepal, 21 from Bangladesh and 16 from Pakistan. Very few of these women (only

6.7%, n�2) have received any formal management/leadership training before and the

views they expressed in this research are, therefore, predominantly experiential.

Table 1 summarizes the respondents’ professional profile.

Research instruments and data collection

The researchers used self-administered questionnaires to collect data. Questionnaires

contained nominal and ordinal level questions, as well as open-ended questions. The

Asian Journal of Communication 415

former set of questions was predominantly used to gather data on respondents’

professional profile and their general attitude about newsroom management.

Questionnaires also contained Likert-scale questions on which respondents had

to indicate (on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1�not important and 5�absolutely

important) the importance they attach to management tasks related to communica-

tion and teamwork as managerial competencies and their views on how their

managers implement these tasks in their day-to-day newsroom management

activities (again using a scale of 1 to 5, where 1�very bad and 5�excellent).3

The researchers have pre-tested and used the questionnaires in previous studies

conducted in media newsrooms of developing countries (Steyn, 2006; Steyn & Jenson

White, 2010). They used a modified version of an established scale (Steyn, 2006) for

which the validity and reliability have already been established. Exploratory Factor

Analysis (EFA) retained five factors for the communication and teamwork

competencies respectively, with the cumulative variances explained being above

68% in both cases (70.80% for the communication competency and 75.51% for the

teamwork competency). Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients for both the communication

and teamwork competencies were above 0.90 (0.901 for communication and 0.929 for

teamwork). These measures indicate that the data collection instrument is both valid

(see Stamm, 2003) and reliable (see Hocking et al., 2003).

One of the researchers explained the research objectives to respondents in each

country and all respondents completed the questionnaires in a single session. The

researchers ensured respondents of the data’s confidential and anonymous nature.

Data analysis

The researchers captured all quantitative data into the SPSS software program and

performed basic quantitative data analyses. In addition, the researchers performed

qualitative content analyses of the responses to the open-ended questions. They

collaborated in reading all open-ended responses and in identifying themes based on

‘words . . . meanings and themes’ (Struwig & Stead, 2001, p. 14) and identifying

content analysis categories. This gave them an ‘understanding’ of respondents’ views

on the management environments and approaches respondents experience (see

Table 1. Respondents’ professional profile.

Variable Percentage

Media type respondents work at Predominantly television (44.1%, n�26), but also daily

newspapers (20.3%, n�12) and radio (11.9%, n�7)

Period of time working there Relatively new at these media types � majority (76.3%,

n�45) has five years’ experience or less

Respondents’ current positions Range from executive producer to reporter to secretary

Some were in administrative or research positions for

NGOs

Period of time working in these

positions

Relatively new appointees: majority (63.8%, n�37) have

two years’ experience or less in their current positions

Respondents’ highest

educational qualification

Majority of respondents (55.9%, n�33) have a university

degree, while many (30.5%, n�18) also have a graduate

degree

416 E. Steyn and K.J. White

Welman, Kruger, & Mitchell, 2005, p. 8). The next section of the article outlines the

research results.

Research results

This section first highlights results pertaining to the general atmosphere and

management approaches in respondents’ newsrooms. It then outlines respondents’

views on the importance and implementation of management tasks related tocommunication and teamwork as managerial competencies.

Respondents’ views on newsroom management styles and atmospheres

As highlighted above, transactional and transformational leadership styles (Burns,

1978) comprise specific characteristics and behavior. These, inevitably, create certain

workplace atmospheres in which employees function. The questions about newsroom

styles and atmospheres were thus aimed at determining what characteristics or

behavior newsroom managers display in their day-to-day management activities and

what kind of professional atmosphere this creates for employees.

The majority of respondents (78%, n�46) have a male supervisor (less than 11%

of respondents [n�3] indicated that they ever had a female boss). Respondents alsoseem aware of differences in male and female leadership styles (80.8%, n�21). These

results created an expectation among the researchers that management styles in the

newsrooms under discussion would predominantly be transactional. However, results

showed that male bosses in these newsrooms predominantly follow a combination of

autocratic, democratic and delegative management styles (36.2%, n�21), an approach

respondents seem to agree with, as half of them (n�28) indicated that they would

follow the same approach if they were in decision-making positions. Again

contradicting the researchers’ expectations (based on the above literature review),respondents indicated that if they were to identify a single management style that

would best describe their managers’ approaches, it was being democratic (i.e.

everybody had a say in the decisions taken) (29.3%, n�17), a management approach

not commonly associated with transactional leadership styles.

Given the above newsroom management approaches, respondents consider the

general newsroom atmospheres in which they work as being friendly (69.5%, n�41),

relaxed (25.4%, n�15) and inviting (25.4%, n�15). However, many also find their

newsroom environments challenging (30.5%, n�18) and demanding (27.6%, n�16).The majority of respondents felt that their supervisors’ management approaches

played a role in shaping the newsroom atmosphere (66.1%, n�39).

The characteristics of transactional leadership indicate connections among goals,

performance guidelines and rewards to motivate employees. According to respon-

dents (64.9%, n�37), their managers use both negative and positive rewards to

motivate them. The majority of respondents seem to agree with this approach

(82.4%, n�42), as, they say, it motivates them to invest more in their work, increases

their enthusiasm and helps them address professional deficiencies and behave moreprofessionally.

Respondents seem split between whether their supervisors’ management styles are

task-oriented (transactional) or relationship-oriented (transformational) (50% each,

n�29 each). They also seem split on how they would characterize their own

Asian Journal of Communication 417

management approaches. Just less than half (46.4%, n�26) characterized themselves

as being more relationship-oriented, indicating that the majority prefers a task-

oriented (or transactional) management approach. This finding again contradicts

literature on gender-based leadership approaches.The above perspective was also demonstrated in research findings related to

respondents’ beliefs concerning what constitutes values exhibited by male employees,

female employees, or both. These findings are outlined in Table 2 and show that (in

some cases) female respondents lack a clear, gender-based distinction of the values

listed. In some instances, they associate transactional leadership values with female

employees or transformational values with both male and female employees.

Although these views could indicate respondents’ perspectives of leadership shifting

from gender-based values toward personality-based approaches (as referred toearlier), the researchers will also argue that cultural and societal realities in the

countries under discussion could be responsible for these viewpoints.

Given the management styles and approaches prevalent in the newsrooms under

discussion (and the subsequent newsroom atmospheres) and given the importance

literature attaches to communication and teamwork in a management environment,

the researchers also wanted to determine whether gaps exist between the importance

female respondents attach to communication and teamwork as managerial

competencies and their experience of (predominantly male) managers’ implementa-tion thereof. Results pertaining to this question are subsequently discussed.

Importance and implementation of communication and teamwork as managerial

competencies

Respondents’ perspectives on communication

Table 3 shows the value respondents attach to communication, as well as their

evaluation of how effectively their managers communicate.4 In line with literature on

transformational leadership styles (Burns, 1978), Table 3 shows that respondents

Table 2. Gender-based values.

Predominantly practiced by:

Value Male Female Both

Acceptance of strengths and

weaknesses

36% (n�18) 36% (n�18) 28% (n�14)

Awareness of personal and

professional situations

16% (n�8) 44% (n�22) 40% (n�20)

Competition among employees 35.3% (n�18) 11.8% (n�6) 52.9% (n�27)

Control over other people 54% (n�27) 16.0% (n�8) 30% (n�15)

Cooperation (helping others) 15.4% (n�8) 36.5% (n�19) 48.1% (n�25)

Dependence on others 14% (n�7) 48% (n�24) 38% (n�19)

Difficulty working with others 22.9% (n�8) 22.9% (n�8) 54.3% (n�19)

Independence 38.5% (n�20) 17.3% (n�9) 44.2% (n�23)

Open to suggestions 15.7% (n�8) 41.2% (n�21) 43.1% (n�22)

Self-assertion (promoting only

their own views/interests)

36.0% (n�18) 32.0% (n�16) 32.0% (n�16)

418 E. Steyn and K.J. White

value all management tasks related to the communication competency as important.They also indicate that their managers could improve their formal communication

skills (task 1) and their ability to fairly handle difficult staff members (task 11).

However, given the importance they attach to the management tasks related to

communication, respondents consider their managers fairly good at implementing

these. They specifically value their managers’ language skills (task 14) and ability to

address multicultural differences (task 15), both important skills sets in an era of

change (see Wallace, 2009) and international/globalized journalism (see Carroll,

2009, p. 165).

Respondents’ perspectives on teamwork

Table 4 shows the importance respondents attach to teamwork, as well as theirevaluation of how effectively their managers implement this competency.

Various studies (Caliper, 2005; Erkut, 2001; Hay, 2007; Rosener, 1990) point

toward the collaborative nature of the transformational leadership style. In line with

respondents’ demographic, they rated all teamwork tasks important. However,

Table 3. Importance and implementation of communication as a managerial competency.

Importance (%) Management task Implementation (%)

Low High Bad Good

49.1 50.9 1. Originating formal communication through e-mail,

letters etc. to inform staff

54.2 45.8

5.3 94.7 2. Encouraging feedback and questions from staff 31 69

17.6 82.4 3. Using technology to accommodate individual

communication needs

37.5 62.5

14.1 85.9 4. Encouraging interpersonal communication

between themselves and staff

36.8 63.2

16.1 83.9 5. Maintaining sound interpersonal relationships

with staff

35.6 64.4

10.9 89.1 6. Taking into account people’s feelings when

communicating with them

40.4 59.6

16.3 83.7 7. Negotiating resources for staff to do their jobs 40 60

19.3 80.7 8. Developing relationships with higher levels of

management

43.6 56.4

29.6 70.4 9. Exercising influence within higher levels of

management

39.2 60.8

19.7 80.3 10. Decisively handling difficult staff members 46.4 53.6

16.1 83.9 11. Fairly handling difficult staff members 50.8 49.2

29.8 70.2 12. Promoting communication through

organizational hierarchies

39.7 60.3

8.9 91.1 13. Aligning goals to promote communication 38.6 61.4

17.6 82.4 14. Possessing language skills that promote

communication

21.9 78.1

19.3 80.7 15. Addressing multicultural differences to promote

communication

29.8 70.2

12.3 87.7 16. Addressing multilingual differences in attempts to

promote communication

36.9 63.1

Asian Journal of Communication 419

respondents consider praising staff in the department/section (task 18) and sharing

teamwork responsibilities (task 6) as the two most important elements of a

supporting teamwork environment. As was the case with communication, and in

line with results related to managers’ management styles, respondents view their

managers good at implementing most of the teamwork tasks.

However, they indicated that their managers could improve their skills in several

areas: creating a newsroom environment that rewards teamwork (task 11), coaching

and mentoring staff (task 12), understanding individual strengths and weaknesses in

a team (task 15) and managing team conflict optimally (task 16). These are

characteristics of a relationship-oriented, long-term approach with a stronger focus

on the ‘quality of the work and its importance to people’ (Wallace, 2009, p. 96) rather

than a task-oriented, intellectual or short-term one (see Henkel, 2009, p. 127). This

long-term thinking and behavior are integral to transformational leadership as a

management approach.

Table 4. Importance and implementation of teamwork as a managerial competency.

Importance (%) Management task Implementation (%)

Low High Bad Good

14.0 86.0 1. Structuring the department/section to implement

teamwork principles

26.3 73.7

13.7 86.3 2. Organizing staff into teams 31 69

12.1 87.9 3. Assisting staff with specialized knowledge required

to work in a team

37.5 62.5

10.6 89.4 4. Formulating teamwork objectives 39.6 60.4

13.7 86.3 5. Motivating staff to perform satisfactorily within

teamwork situations

41.4 58.6

5.4 94.6 6. Sharing in the responsibilities associated with

teamwork

38.6 61.4

15.5 84.5 7. Compiling teams in a way that accommodate

diverse ideas

51.7 48.3

16.1 83.9 8. Compiling teams in a way that effectively utilize

staff ’s technical skills

33.9 66.1

12.5 87.5 9. Defining team objectives 35.8 64.2

23.6 76.4 10. Defining individual objectives 40 60

14.5 85.5 11. Creating an environment within the newsroom

that rewards teamwork

53.7 46.3

21.8 78.2 12. Coaching, mentoring and counseling staff

through a team project

57.5 42.5

10.7 89.3 13. Supporting teams in identifying resources to

achieve goals/objectives

48.2 51.8

5.7 94.4 14. Supporting teams in obtaining resources to

achieve goals/objectives

40.1 59.9

12.3 87.7 15. Understanding individual strengths/weaknesses in

a team

55.6 44.4

15.8 84.2 16. Managing team conflict optimally 54.4 45.6

9 91 17. Sharing recognition and credit with team

members

45.5 54.5

3.6 96.4 18. Praising staff in the department/section 38.6 61.4

420 E. Steyn and K.J. White

Conclusions and discussion

Despite the global emphasis now on technology in the workplace, organizations

continue to recognize people as their most important resource. However, in some

cultures, women are often not included in this resource pool, as many struggle to

navigate their way through ‘invisible nets’ and the perception that the female sphere

is inferior (Goodman, 2009; Peet & Hartwick, 1999). As Ridgeway (2001) and Erkut

(2001) point out, these ‘nets’ refer to institutional expectations and reactions that

‘catch’ women as they attempt to achieve goals associated with advancing

professionally.

Media workplaces are no exception, and in countries where political, cultural and

religious traditions dictate not only societal but also organizational behavior, this

struggle is even more prevalent (also see Peet & Hartwick, 1999, p. 185).

Despite instability in the broader media environment in these countries, the

media in all three nations relevant to this study are becoming increasingly important

and are changing and expanding, sometimes dramatically. Many private cable and

satellite television news channels have begun to provide live (often 24-hour) domestic

news coverage, commentary and call-in talk shows, despite authorities’ efforts to

wield control over media content (Freedom House, 2009).

Unfortunately, women’s position in terms of media representation, policy-making

and decision-making is still negligible in all three countries, as was discussed above.

Internews (2009) specifically reports that institutional barriers and other societal and

cultural factors hamper efforts to address this situation. Even though the aim of this

study was not to establish direct correlations between women’s lack of representation

in media leadership positions and the above-mentioned personal and institutional

barriers, respondents’ answers to the open-ended questions in the questionnaire did

provide some insight into these realities.

Some respondents mentioned how negative perceptions among their families

(and their husbands’ families) make it difficult for them to enter and advance in their

careers. Similarly, some respondents highlighted the impact of a lack of amenities for

women in media newsrooms on women’s ability to properly perform in their work

environments. It does seem, though, that this situation is improving, as some

mentioned improved restroom and praying facilities.

Another element highlighted by women in their responses to open-ended

questions is challenges getting home from work after working late shifts or night

shifts. Some respondents indicated how these affect their work schedules, despite the

fact that some media organizations are beginning to provide transportation to female

employees to address this challenge. In addition, respondents referred to disparities

in salaries, types of stories women cover and positions they attain in the newsroom as

additional ‘nets’ that ‘catch’ them as they strive toward professional advancement.

Contrary to the researchers’ expectations that the female respondents would

strongly favor a more transformational approach to management and leadership

styles, results indicate that they are fairly comfortable with their superiors’

implementation of both transactional and transformational styles. Despite gender

differences between (predominantly male) supervisors and (exclusively female)

respondents, the latter group were of the opinion that they would probably

implement similar management and performance motivation styles if they were in

decision-making positions. Results also show that respondents see the boundaries

Asian Journal of Communication 421

between the values associated with typical male and female management styles as less

than definitive. In fact, they associate typical male management styles (e.g.

competition) and typical female management styles (e.g. cooperation) as values

shared by both genders. This finding again contradicts findings documented in the

literature (e.g. Burns, 1978; Rosener, 1990).

Despite the above views, respondents’ perspectives on the importance ofcommunication and teamwork as management competencies align with the

importance proponents of a transformational leadership style afford it. In general,

respondents were also relatively satisfied with their managers’ implementation of

both these competencies, given the importance they attach to it.

The researchers assert that the results from this study might, to a large extent, be

explained by the prevalence of ‘outside’ factors or larger societal perspective and

trends, as referred to earlier. These factors or trends could be explained through two

additional theories, namely gender status theory and implicit leadership theory.

One of the key tenets of gender status theory is the unconscious and shared

nature of gender bias. Ridgeway (2001, p. 652) found that when women exercise

authority outside traditionally female domains, gender status beliefs often lead to

negative sanctions for violating the expected status order and reduce their ability to

gain compliance with the directives they give subordinates. Rashotte and Webster

(2005) hold that these gender status beliefs exist unconsciously and that ‘gender

continues to have status significance in most groups in our world. Gender still

provides advantages and disadvantages, and produces and reproduces inequality inthe workplace.’ While laws, business codes and informal norms promoting gender

equality all are useful, Ridgeway’s analysis and results from the researchers’ original

(Steyn & Jenson White, 2010) and current study, identify unacknowledged status

beliefs as ‘‘engines’’ producing unequal outcomes in many situations’ (Eagly & Carli,

2007, p. 87).

Without training to raise consciousness concerning transformational leadership

styles and the potential for both women and men to be leaders, respondents might be

reflecting internalized views predominant not only in their media environments but

also in their cultures. They have many of the same gender status ideas as their male

supervisors and colleagues, as well as the same culturally defined definitions of

appropriate leadership qualities and management strategies. The small numbers of

women in leadership positions in all three countries clearly illustrate this.

In addition, underpinning all examinations of the understanding of leadership

and women’s abilities to move into decision-making positions of power are cultural

values shaping the very definition of leadership. Implicit leadership theory holds that‘individuals gradually develop, beginning as young children, a set of beliefs about the

behaviors and characteristics of leaders.’ For most individuals, details of their belief-

sets, or theories, are out of conscious awareness, i.e., they are ‘implicit’ (Grove, 2005).

Grove also asserts that those in an interacting group, from organizations to societies,

hold shared implicit leadership theories.

The extent to which these assumptions hold true for a larger sample of female

respondents working in South Asian newsrooms needs further investigation.

However, the results of this and the original study (Steyn & Jenson White, 2010)

suggest that the barriers women face in their move toward professional advancement

in the media environments of South Asia are many and the opportunities for

changing the status quo few. Only when women can find successful strategies for

422 E. Steyn and K.J. White

navigating their paths through the ‘invisible nets’ within each of these three cultures

will they will likely advance as leaders in their professional environments.

Notes

1. This article is based on two papers read in Commission on the Status of Women (CSW)sessions, Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC)Midwinter Conference (March 2010, Norman, Oklahoma) and Annual Convention(August 2010, Denver, Colorado).

2. These (and four other competencies, namely self-management, global awareness, strategicaction, and planning and administration) form part of a competency-based approach tomanagement across different industries, including the media (see Hellriegel et al., 2005).Although the other four competencies have been applied to similar newsroom contextsbefore (see Steyn, 2006), this study applies only communication and teamwork, as these arefundamental elements of transactional and transformational leadership styles, as outlinedby Burns (1978).

3. Questions using these scales typically looked like this:A. Using the scale on the left-hand side of the statement, indicate how important YOU

consider the task described (where 1�not important and 5�absolutely important).B. Using the scale on the right-hand side of the statement, indicate how well YOUR

BOSS implements the task described (where 1�very bad and 5�excellent).

4. Frequencies on the five points of the scale were collapsed into two categories, namely ‘low’and ‘bad’ (scales 1�3) for importance and implementation respectively, and ‘high’ and‘good’ (scales 4�5) for importance and implementation, respectively.

Notes on contributors

Elanie Steyn, PhD, is an assistant professor of journalism at the Gaylord College ofJournalism and Mass Communication, University of Oklahoma. She teaches in mediamanagement, business of media, and media leadership, with a specific focus on women inleadership. These topics also form the basis of her current national and international researchagenda.

Kathryn Jenson White is an associate professor at the Gaylord College of Journalism andMass Communication at the University of Oklahoma. Her areas of interest are magazinejournalism and feature writing, documentary film and women in media leadership. She is afreelance feature writer and editor as well as researcher.

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