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Page 1: Ncert class 11 physics part 1
Page 2: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

C K

CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii

PREFACE v

A NOTE FOR THE TEACHER x

C H A P T E R 1

PHYSICAL WORLD

1.1 What is physics ? 1

1.2 Scope and excitement of physics 2

1.3 Physics, technology and society 5

1.4 Fundamental forces in nature 6

1.5 Nature of physical laws 10

C H A P T E R 2

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

2.1 Introduction 16

2.2 The international system of units 16

2.3 Measurement of length 18

2.4 Measurement of mass 21

2.5 Measurement of time 22

2.6 Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors in measurement 22

2.7 Significant figures 27

2.8 Dimensions of physical quantities 31

2.9 Dimensional formulae and dimensional equations 31

2.10 Dimensional analysis and its applications 32

C H A P T E R 3

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

3.1 Introduction 39

3.2 Position, path length and displacement 39

3.3 Average velocity and average speed 42

3.4 Instantaneous velocity and speed 43

3.5 Acceleration 45

3.6 Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion 47

3.7 Relative velocity 51

C H A P T E R 4

MOTION IN A PLANE

4.1 Introduction 65

4.2 Scalars and vectors 65

4.3 Multiplication of vectors by real numbers 67

4.4 Addition and subtraction of vectors – graphical method 67

4.5 Resolution of vectors 69

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4.6 Vector addition – analytical method 71

4.7 Motion in a plane 72

4.8 Motion in a plane with constant acceleration 75

4.9 Relative velocity in two dimensions 76

4.10 Projectile motion 77

4.11 Uniform circular motion 79

C H A P T E R 5

LAWS OF MOTION

5.1 Introduction 89

5.2 Aristotle’s fallacy 90

5.3 The law of inertia 90

5.4 Newton’s first law of motion 91

5.5 Newton’s second law of motion 93

5.6 Newton’s third law of motion 96

5.7 Conservation of momentum 98

5.8 Equilibrium of a particle 99

5.9 Common forces in mechanics 100

5.10 Circular motion 104

5.11 Solving problems in mechanics 105

C H A P T E R 6

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

6.1 Introduction 114

6.2 Notions of work and kinetic energy : The work-energy theorem 116

6.3 Work 116

6.4 Kinetic energy 117

6.5 Work done by a variable force 118

6.6 The work-energy theorem for a variable force 119

6.7 The concept of potential energy 120

6.8 The conservation of mechanical energy 121

6.9 The potential energy of a spring 123

6.10 Various forms of energy : the law of conservation of energy 126

6.11 Power 128

6.12 Collisions 129

C H A P T E R 7

SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

7.1 Introduction 141

7.2 Centre of mass 144

7.3 Motion of centre of mass 148

7.4 Linear momentum of a system of particles 149

7.5 Vector product of two vectors 150

7.6 Angular velocity and its relation with linear velocity 152

7.7 Torque and angular momentum 154

7.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body 158

7.9 Moment of inertia 163

7.10 Theorems of perpendicular and parallel axes 164

xii

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7.11 Kinematics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 167

7.12 Dynamics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 169

7.13 Angular momentum in case of rotations about a fixed axis 171

7.14 Rolling motion 173

C H A P T E R 8

GRAVITATION

8.1 Introduction 183

8.2 Kepler’s laws 184

8.3 Universal law of gravitation 185

8.4 The gravitational constant 189

8.5 Acceleration due to gravity of the earth 189

8.6 Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth 190

8.7 Gravitational potential energy 191

8.8 Escape speed 193

8.9 Earth satellite 194

8.10 Energy of an orbiting satellite 195

8.11 Geostationary and polar satellites 196

8.12 Weightlessness 197

APPENDICES 203

ANSWERS 219

xiii

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1.1 WHAT IS PHYSICS ?

Humans have always been curious about the world aroundthem. The night sky with its bright celestial objects hasfascinated humans since time immemorial. The regularrepetitions of the day and night, the annual cycle of seasons,the eclipses, the tides, the volcanoes, the rainbow have alwaysbeen a source of wonder. The world has an astonishing varietyof materials and a bewildering diversity of life and behaviour.The inquiring and imaginative human mind has respondedto the wonder and awe of nature in different ways. One kindof response from the earliest times has been to observe thephysical environment carefully, look for any meaningfulpatterns and relations in natural phenomena, and build anduse new tools to interact with nature. This human endeavourled, in course of time, to modern science and technology.

The word Science originates from the Latin verb Scientia

meaning ‘to know’. The Sanskrit word Vijnan and the Arabicword Ilm convey similar meaning, namely ‘knowledge’.Science, in a broad sense, is as old as human species. Theearly civilisations of Egypt, India, China, Greece, Mesopotamiaand many others made vital contributions to its progress.From the sixteenth century onwards, great strides were madein science in Europe. By the middle of the twentieth century,science had become a truly international enterprise, withmany cultures and countries contributing to its rapid growth.

What is Science and what is the so-called ScientificMethod? Science is a systematic attempt to understandnatural phenomena in as much detail and depth as possible,and use the knowledge so gained to predict, modify andcontrol phenomena. Science is exploring, experimenting andpredicting from what we see around us. The curiosity to learnabout the world, unravelling the secrets of nature is the firststep towards the discovery of science. The scientific methodinvolves several interconnected steps : Systematicobservations, controlled experiments, qualitative and

CHAPTER ONE

PHYSICAL WORLD

1.1 What is physics ?

1.2 Scope and excitement of

physics

1.3 Physics, technology and

society

1.4 Fundamental forces in

nature

1.5 Nature of physical laws

Summary

Exercises

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PHYSICS2

quantitative reasoning, mathematicalmodelling, prediction and verification orfalsification of theories. Speculation andconjecture also have a place in science; butultimately, a scientific theory, to be acceptable,must be verified by relevant observations orexperiments. There is much philosophicaldebate about the nature and method of sciencethat we need not discuss here.

The interplay of theory and observation (orexperiment) is basic to the progress of science.Science is ever dynamic. There is no ‘final’theory in science and no unquestionedauthority among scientists. As observationsimprove in detail and precision or experimentsyield new results, theories must account forthem, if necessary, by introducing modifications.Sometimes the modifications may not be drasticand may lie within the framework of existingtheory. For example, when Johannes Kepler(1571-1630) examined the extensive data onplanetary motion collected by Tycho Brahe(1546-1601), the planetary circular orbits inheliocentric theory (sun at the centre of thesolar system) imagined by Nicolas Copernicus(1473–1543) had to be replaced by ellipticalorbits to fit the data better. Occasionally,however, the existing theory is simply unableto explain new observations. This causes amajor upheaval in science. In the beginning ofthe twentieth century, it was realised thatNewtonian mechanics, till then a verysuccessful theory, could not explain some of themost basic features of atomic phenomena.Similarly, the then accepted wave picture of lightfailed to explain the photoelectric effect properly.This led to the development of a radically newtheory (Quantum Mechanics) to deal with atomicand molecular phenomena.

Just as a new experiment may suggest analternative theoretical model, a theoreticaladvance may suggest what to look for in someexperiments. The result of experiment ofscattering of alpha particles by gold foil, in 1911by Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) establishedthe nuclear model of the atom, which thenbecame the basis of the quantum theory ofhydrogen atom given in 1913 by Niels Bohr(1885–1962). On the other hand, the concept ofantiparticle was first introduced theoretically byPaul Dirac (1902–1984) in 1930 and confirmedtwo years later by the experimental discovery ofpositron (antielectron) by Carl Anderson.

Physics is a basic discipline in the categoryof Natural Sciences, which also includes otherdisciplines like Chemistry and Biology. The wordPhysics comes from a Greek word meaningnature. Its Sanskrit equivalent is Bhautiki thatis used to refer to the study of the physical world.A precise definition of this discipline is neitherpossible nor necessary. We can broadly describephysics as a study of the basic laws of natureand their manifestation in different naturalphenomena. The scope of physics is describedbriefly in the next section. Here we remark ontwo principal thrusts in physics : unificationand reduction.

In Physics, we attempt to explain diversephysical phenomena in terms of a few conceptsand laws. The effort is to see the physical worldas manifestation of some universal laws indifferent domains and conditions. For example,the same law of gravitation (given by Newton)describes the fall of an apple to the ground, themotion of the moon around the earth and themotion of planets around the sun. Similarly, thebasic laws of electromagnetism (Maxwell’sequations) govern all electric and magneticphenomena. The attempts to unify fundamentalforces of nature (section 1.4) reflect this samequest for unification.

A related effort is to derive the properties of abigger, more complex, system from the propertiesand interactions of its constituent simpler parts.This approach is called reductionism and isat the heart of physics. For example, the subjectof thermodynamics, developed in the nineteenthcentury, deals with bulk systems in terms ofmacroscopic quantities such as temperature,internal energy, entropy, etc. Subsequently, thesubjects of kinetic theory and statisticalmechanics interpreted these quantities in termsof the properties of the molecular constituentsof the bulk system. In particular, thetemperature was seen to be related to the averagekinetic energy of molecules of the system.

1.2 SCOPE AND EXCITEMENT OF PHYSICS

We can get some idea of the scope of physics bylooking at its various sub-disciplines. Basically,there are two domains of interest : macroscopicand microscopic. The macroscopic domainincludes phenomena at the laboratory, terrestrialand astronomical scales. The microscopic domainincludes atomic, molecular and nuclear

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PHYSICAL WORLD 3

Ampere and Faraday, and encapsulated byMaxwell in his famous set of equations. Themotion of a current-carrying conductor in amagnetic field, the response of a circuit to an acvoltage (signal), the working of an antenna, thepropagation of radio waves in the ionosphere, etc.,are problems of electrodynamics. Optics dealswith the phenomena involving light. The workingof telescopes and microscopes, colours exhibitedby thin films, etc., are topics in optics.Thermodynamics, in contrast to mechanics, doesnot deal with the motion of bodies as a whole.Rather, it deals with systems in macroscopicequilibrium and is concerned with changes ininternal energy, temperature, entropy, etc., of thesystem through external work and transfer ofheat. The efficiency of heat engines andrefrigerators, the direction of a physical or

You can now see that the scope of physics is

truly vast. It covers a tremendous range of

magnitude of physical quantities like length,

mass, time, energy, etc. At one end, it studies

phenomena at the very small scale of length

(10-14

m or even less) involving electrons, protons,

etc.; at the other end, it deals with astronomical

phenomena at the scale of galaxies or even the

entire universe whose extent is of the order of

1026

m. The two length scales differ by a factor of

1040

or even more. The range of time scales can

be obtained by dividing the length scales by the

speed of light : 10–22

s to 1018 s. The range of

masses goes from, say, 10–30 kg (mass of an

electron) to 1055

kg (mass of known observable

universe). Terrestrial phenomena lie somewhere

in the middle of this range.

Fig. 1.1 Theory and experiment go hand in hand in physics and help each other’s progress. The alpha scattering

experiments of Rutherford gave the nuclear model of the atom.

* Recently, the domain intermediate between the macroscopic and the microscopic (the so-called mesoscopic

physics), dealing with a few tens or hundreds of atoms, has emerged as an exciting field of research.

phenomena*. Classical Physics deals mainlywith macroscopic phenomena and includessubjects like Mechanics, Electrodynamics,Optics and Thermodynamics. Mechanicsfounded on Newton’s laws of motion and the lawof gravitation is concerned with the motion (orequilibrium) of particles, rigid and deformablebodies, and general systems of particles. Thepropulsion of a rocket by a jet of ejecting gases,propagation of water waves or sound waves inair, the equilibrium of a bent rod under a load,etc., are problems of mechanics. Electrodynamicsdeals with electric and magnetic phenomenaassociated with charged and magnetic bodies.Its basic laws were given by Coulomb, Oersted,

chemical process, etc., are problems of interest

in thermodynamics.

The microscopic domain of physics deals with

the constitution and structure of matter at the

minute scales of atoms and nuclei (and even

lower scales of length) and their interaction with

different probes such as electrons, photons and

other elementary particles. Classical physics is

inadequate to handle this domain and Quantum

Theory is currently accepted as the proper

framework for explaining microscopic

phenomena. Overall, the edifice of physics is

beautiful and imposing and you will appreciate

it more as you pursue the subject.

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PHYSICS4

Physics is exciting in many ways. To some peoplethe excitement comes from the elegance anduniversality of its basic theories, from the fact thata few basic concepts and laws can explainphenomena covering a large range of magnitudeof physical quantities. To some others, the challengein carrying out imaginative new experiments tounlock the secrets of nature, to verify or refutetheories, is thrilling. Applied physics is equallydemanding. Application and exploitation ofphysical laws to make useful devices is the mostinteresting and exciting part and requires greatingenuity and persistence of effort.

What lies behind the phenomenal progressof physics in the last few centuries? Greatprogress usually accompanies changes in ourbasic perceptions. First, it was realised that forscientific progress, only qualitative thinking,though no doubt important, is not enough.Quantitative measurement is central to thegrowth of science, especially physics, becausethe laws of nature happen to be expressible inprecise mathematical equations. The secondmost important insight was that the basic lawsof physics are universal — the same laws applyin widely different contexts. Lastly, the strategyof approximation turned out to be verysuccessful. Most observed phenomena in dailylife are rather complicated manifestations of thebasic laws. Scientists recognised the importanceof extracting the essential features of aphenomenon from its less significant aspects.It is not practical to take into account all thecomplexities of a phenomenon in one go. A goodstrategy is to focus first on the essential features,discover the basic principles and then introducecorrections to build a more refined theory of thephenomenon. For example, a stone and a featherdropped from the same height do not reach theground at the same time. The reason is that theessential aspect of the phenomenon, namely freefall under gravity, is complicated by thepresence of air resistance. To get the law of freefall under gravity, it is better to create asituation wherein the air resistance isnegligible. We can, for example, let the stone andthe feather fall through a long evacuated tube.In that case, the two objects will fall almost atthe same rate, giving the basic law thatacceleration due to gravity is independent of themass of the object. With the basic law thusfound, we can go back to the feather, introducecorrections due to air resistance, modify theexisting theory and try to build a more realistic

Hypothesis, axioms and models

One should not think that everything can be provedwith physics and mathematics. All physics, and alsomathematics, is based on assumptions, each ofwhich is variously called a hypothesis or axiom orpostulate, etc.

For example, the universal law of gravitationproposed by Newton is an assumption or hypothesis,which he proposed out of his ingenuity. Before him,there were several observations, experiments anddata, on the motion of planets around the sun,motion of the moon around the earth, pendulums,bodies falling towards the earth etc. Each of theserequired a separate explanation, which was moreor less qualitative. What the universal law ofgravitation says is that, if we assume that any twobodies in the universe attract each other with aforce proportional to the product of their massesand inversely proportional to the square of thedistance between them, then we can explain allthese observations in one stroke. It not only explainsthese phenomena, it also allows us to predict theresults of future experiments.

A hypothesis is a supposition without assumingthat it is true. It would not be fair to ask anybodyto prove the universal law of gravitation, becauseit cannot be proved. It can be verified andsubstantiated by experiments and observations.

An axiom is a self-evident truth while a modelis a theory proposed to explain observedphenomena. But you need not worry at this stageabout the nuances in using these words. Forexample, next year you will learn about Bohr’s modelof hydrogen atom, in which Bohr assumed that anelectron in the hydrogen atom follows certain rules(postutates). Why did he do that? There was a largeamount of spectroscopic data before him which noother theory could explain. So Bohr said that if weassume that an atom behaves in such a manner,we can explain all these things at once.

Einstein’s special theory of relativity is alsobased on two postulates, the constancy of the speedof electromagnetic radiation and the validity ofphysical laws in all inertial frame of reference. Itwould not be wise to ask somebody to prove thatthe speed of light in vacuum is constant,independent of the source or observer.

In mathematics too, we need axioms andhypotheses at every stage. Euclid’s statement thatparallel lines never meet, is a hypothesis. This meansthat if we assume this statement, we can explainseveral properties of straight lines and two or threedimensional figures made out of them. But if youdon’t assume it, you are free to use a different axiomand get a new geometry, as has indeed happened inthe past few centuries and decades.

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PHYSICAL WORLD 5

Table 1.1 Some physicists from different countries of the world and their major contributions

theory of objects falling to the earth undergravity.

1.3 PHYSICS, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

The connection between physics, technologyand society can be seen in many examples. Thediscipline of thermodynamics arose from theneed to understand and improve the working ofheat engines. The steam engine, as we know,is inseparable from the Industrial Revolution inEngland in the eighteenth century, which hadgreat impact on the course of humancivilisation. Sometimes technology gives rise tonew physics; at other times physics generatesnew technology. An example of the latter is thewireless communication technology that followedthe discovery of the basic laws of electricity andmagnetism in the nineteenth century. Theapplications of physics are not always easy toforesee. As late as 1933, the great physicistErnest Rutherford had dismissed the possibilityof tapping energy from atoms. But only a fewyears later, in 1938, Hahn and Meitnerdiscovered the phenomenon of neutron-inducedfission of uranium, which would serve as thebasis of nuclear power reactors and nuclearweapons. Yet another important example ofphysics giving rise to technology is the silicon‘chip’ that triggered the computer revolution inthe last three decades of the twentieth century.

A most significant area to which physics hasand will contribute is the development ofalternative energy resources. The fossil fuels ofthe planet are dwindling fast and there is anurgent need to discover new and affordablesources of energy. Considerable progress hasalready been made in this direction (forexample, in conversion of solar energy,geothermal energy, etc., into electricity), butmuch more is still to be accomplished.

Table1.1 lists some of the great physicists,their major contribution and the country oforigin. You will appreciate from this table themulti-cultural, international character of thescientific endeavour. Table 1.2 lists someimportant technologies and the principles ofphysics they are based on. Obviously, thesetables are not exhaustive. We urge you to try toadd many names and items to these tables withthe help of your teachers, good books andwebsites on science. You will find that thisexercise is very educative and also great fun.And, assuredly, it will never end. The progressof science is unstoppable!

Physics is the study of nature and naturalphenomena. Physicists try to discover the rulesthat are operating in nature, on the basis ofobservations, experimentation and analysis.Physics deals with certain basic rules/lawsgoverning the natural world. What is the nature

Name Major contribution/discovery Country ofOrigin

Archimedes Principle of buoyancy; Principle of the lever Greece

Galileo Galilei Law of inertia Italy

Christiaan Huygens Wave theory of light Holland

Isaac Newton Universal law of gravitation; Laws of motion; U.K.Reflecting telescope

Michael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction U.K.

James Clerk Maxwell Electromagnetic theory; Light-an U.K.electromagnetic wave

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves Germany

J.C. Bose Ultra short radio waves India

W.K. Roentgen X-rays Germany

J.J. Thomson Electron U.K.

Marie Sklodowska Curie Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on Polandnatural radioactivity

Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectric effect; Germany

Theory of relativity

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PHYSICS6

* Sections 1.4 and 1.5 contain several ideas that you may not grasp fully in your first reading. However, we

advise you to read them carefully to develop a feel for some basic aspects of physics. These are some of the

areas which continue to occupy the physicists today.

of physical laws? We shall now discuss thenature of fundamental forces and the laws thatgovern the diverse phenomena of the physicalworld.

1.4 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE*

We all have an intuitive notion of force. In ourexperience, force is needed to push, carry orthrow objects, deform or break them. We alsoexperience the impact of forces on us, like whena moving object hits us or we are in a merry-go-round. Going from this intuitive notion to theproper scientific concept of force is not a trivialmatter. Early thinkers like Aristotle had wrong

ideas about it. The correct notion of force wasarrived at by Isaac Newton in his famous laws ofmotion. He also gave an explicit form for the forcefor gravitational attraction between two bodies.We shall learn these matters in subsequentchapters.

In the macroscopic world, besides thegravitational force, we encounter several kindsof forces: muscular force, contact forces betweenbodies, friction (which is also a contact forceparallel to the surfaces in contact), the forcesexerted by compressed or elongated springs andtaut strings and ropes (tension), the force ofbuoyancy and viscous force when solids are in

Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation Austria

R.A. Millikan Measurement of electronic charge U.S.A.

Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom New Zealand

Niels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom Denmark

C.V. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules India

Louis Victor de Borglie Wave nature of matter France

M.N. Saha Thermal ionisation India

S.N. Bose Quantum statistics India

Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle Austria

Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Italy

Werner Heisenberg Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty principle Germany

Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron; U.K.Quantum statistics

Edwin Hubble Expanding universe U.S.A.

Ernest Orlando Lawrence Cyclotron U.S.A.

James Chadwick Neutron U.K.

Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces Japan

Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cascade process of cosmic radiation India

Lev Davidovich Landau Theory of condensed matter; Liquid helium Russia

S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution Indiaof stars

John Bardeen Transistors; Theory of super conductivity U.S.A.

C.H. Townes Maser; Laser U.S.A.

Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic Pakistaninteractions

Name Major contribution/discovery Country ofOrigin

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PHYSICAL WORLD 7

contact with fluids, the force due to pressure ofa fluid, the force due to surface tension of a liquid,and so on. There are also forces involving chargedand magnetic bodies. In the microscopic domainagain, we have electric and magnetic forces,nuclear forces involving protons and neutrons,interatomic and intermolecular forces, etc. Weshall get familiar with some of these forces in laterparts of this course.

A great insight of the twentieth centuryphysics is that these different forces occurringin different contexts actually arise from only asmall number of fundamental forces in nature.For example, the elastic spring force arises due

to the net attraction/repulsion between theneighbouring atoms of the spring when thespring is elongated/compressed. This netattraction/repulsion can be traced to the(unbalanced) sum of electric forces between thecharged constituents of the atoms.

In principle, this means that the laws for‘derived’ forces (such as spring force, friction)are not independent of the laws of fundamentalforces in nature. The origin of these derivedforces is, however, very complex.

At the present stage of our understanding,we know of four fundamental forces in nature,which are described in brief here :

Table 1.2 Link between technology and physics

Technology Scientific principle(s)

Steam engine Laws of thermodynamics

Nuclear reactor Controlled nuclear fission

Radio and Television Generation, propagation and detection

of electromagnetic waves

Computers Digital logic

Lasers Light amplification by stimulated emission ofradiation

Production of ultra high magnetic Superconductivityfields

Rocket propulsion Newton’s laws of motion

Electric generator Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction

Hydroelectric power Conversion of gravitational potential energy intoelectrical energy

Aeroplane Bernoulli’s principle in fluid dynamics

Particle accelerators Motion of charged particles in electromagneticfields

Sonar Reflection of ultrasonic waves

Optical fibres Total internal reflection of light

Non-reflecting coatings Thin film optical interference

Electron microscope Wave nature of electrons

Photocell Photoelectric effect

Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) Magnetic confinement of plasma

Giant Metrewave Radio Detection of cosmic radio wavesTelescope (GMRT)

Bose-Einstein condensate Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams andmagnetic fields.

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PHYSICS8

1.4.1 Gravitational Force

The gravitational force is the force of mutualattraction between any two objects by virtue oftheir masses. It is a universal force. Every objectexperiences this force due to every other objectin the universe. All objects on the earth, forexample, experience the force of gravity due tothe earth. In particular, gravity governs themotion of the moon and artificial satellites aroundthe earth, motion of the earth and planetsaround the sun, and, of course, the motion ofbodies falling to the earth. It plays a key role inthe large-scale phenomena of the universe, suchas formation and evolution of stars, galaxies andgalactic clusters.

1.4.2 Electromagnetic Force

Electromagnetic force is the force betweencharged particles. In the simpler case whencharges are at rest, the force is given byCoulomb’s law : attractive for unlike charges andrepulsive for like charges. Charges in motionproduce magnetic effects and a magnetic fieldgives rise to a force on a moving charge. Electricand magnetic effects are, in general,inseparable – hence the name electromagneticforce. Like the gravitational force,electromagnetic force acts over large distancesand does not need any intervening medium. Itis enormously strong compared to gravity. The

electric force between two protons, for example,

is 1036

times the gravitational force between

them, for any fixed distance.

Matter, as we know, consists of elementary

charged constituents like electrons and

protons. Since the electromagnetic force is so

much stronger than the gravitational force, it

dominates all phenomena at atomic and

molecular scales. (The other two forces, as we

shall see, operate only at nuclear scales.) Thus

it is mainly the electromagnetic force that

governs the structure of atoms and molecules,

the dynamics of chemical reactions and the

mechanical, thermal and other properties of

materials. It underlies the macroscopic forces

like ‘tension’, ‘friction’, ‘normal force’, ‘spring

force’, etc.

Gravity is always attractive, while

electromagnetic force can be attractive or

repulsive. Another way of putting it is that mass

comes only in one variety (there is no negative

mass), but charge comes in two varieties :

positive and negative charge. This is what

makes all the difference. Matter is mostly

electrically neutral (net charge is zero). Thus,

electric force is largely zero and gravitational

force dominates terrestrial phenomena. Electric

force manifests itself in atmosphere where the

atoms are ionised and that leads to lightning.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Albert Einstein, born in Ulm, Germany in 1879, is universally regarded asone of the greatest physicists of all time. His astonishing scientific careerbegan with the publication of three path-breaking papers in 1905. In thefirst paper, he introduced the notion of light quanta (now called photons)and used it to explain the features of photoelectric effect that the classicalwave theory of radiation could not account for. In the second paper, hedeveloped a theory of Brownian motion that was confirmed experimentallya few years later and provided a convincing evidence of the atomic picture ofmatter. The third paper gave birth to the special theory of relativity that

made Einstein a legend in his own life time. In the next decade, he explored the consequences of hisnew theory which included, among other things, the mass-energy equivalence enshrined in his famousequation E = mc2. He also created the general version of relativity (The General Theory of Relativity),which is the modern theory of gravitation. Some of Einstein’s most significant later contributions are:the notion of stimulated emission introduced in an alternative derivation of Planck’s blackbody radiationlaw, static model of the universe which started modern cosmology, quantum statistics of a gas ofmassive bosons, and a critical analysis of the foundations of quantum mechanics. The year 2005 wasdeclared as International Year of Physics, in recognition of Einstein’s monumental contribution tophysics, in year 1905, describing revolutionary scientific ideas that have since influenced all of modernphysics.

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PHYSICAL WORLD 9

If we reflect a little, the enormous strengthof the electromagnetic force compared togravity is evident in our daily life. When wehold a book in our hand, we are balancing thegravitational force on the book due to the hugemass of the earth by the ‘normal force’provided by our hand. The latter is nothingbut the net electromagnetic force between thecharged constituents of our hand andthe book, at the surface in contact. Ifelectromagnetic force were not intrinsically somuch stronger than gravity, the hand of thestrongest man would crumble under theweight of a feather ! Indeed, to be consistent,in that circumstance, we ourselves wouldcrumble under our own weight !

1.4.3 Strong Nuclear Force

The strong nuclear force binds protons andneutrons in a nucleus. It is evident that withoutsome attractive force, a nucleus will beunstable due to the electric repulsion betweenits protons. This attractive force cannot begravitational since force of gravity is negligiblecompared to the electric force. A new basic forcemust, therefore, be invoked. The strong nuclearforce is the strongest of all fundamental forces,about 100 times the electromagnetic force in

strength. It is charge-independent and actsequally between a proton and a proton, aneutron and a neutron, and a proton and aneutron. Its range is, however, extremely small,of about nuclear dimensions (10

–15m). It is

responsible for the stability of nuclei. Theelectron, it must be noted, does not experiencethis force.

Recent developments have, however,indicated that protons and neutrons are builtout of still more elementary constituents calledquarks.

1.4.4 Weak Nuclear Force

The weak nuclear force appears only in certain

nuclear processes such as the ✂-decay of anucleus. In ✂-decay, the nucleus emits anelectron and an uncharged particle calledneutrino. The weak nuclear force is not as weak

as the gravitational force, but much weakerthan the strong nuclear and electromagneticforces. The range of weak nuclear force isexceedingly small, of the order of 10-16 m.

1.4.5 Towards Unification of Forces

We remarked in section 1.1 that unification is abasic quest in physics. Great advances inphysics often amount to unification of different

Satyendranath Bose (1894-1974)

Satyendranath Bose, born in Calcutta in 1894, is among the great Indianphysicists who made a fundamental contribution to the advance of sciencein the twentieth century. An outstanding student throughout, Bose startedhis career in 1916 as a lecturer in physics in Calcutta University; five yearslater he joined Dacca University. Here in 1924, in a brilliant flash of insight,Bose gave a new derivation of Planck’s law, treating radiation as a gas ofphotons and employing new statistical methods of counting of photon states.He wrote a short paper on the subject and sent it to Einstein whoimmediately recognised its great significance, translated it in German andforwarded it for publication. Einstein then applied the same method to a

gas of molecules.The key new conceptual ingredient in Bose’s work was that the particles were regarded as

indistinguishable, a radical departure from the assumption that underlies the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. It was soon realised that the new Bose-Einstein statistics was applicable toparticles with integers spins, and a new quantum statistics (Fermi-Dirac statistics) was needed forparticles with half integers spins satisfying Pauli’s exclusion principle. Particles with integers spinsare now known as bosons in honour of Bose.

An important consequence of Bose-Einstein statistics is that a gas of molecules below a certaintemperature will undergo a phase transition to a state where a large fraction of atoms populate thesame lowest energy state. Some seventy years were to pass before the pioneering ideas of Bose, developedfurther by Einstein, were dramatically confirmed in the observation of a new state of matter in a dilutegas of ultra cold alkali atoms - the Bose-Eintein condensate.

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theories and domains. Newton unified terrestrialand celestial domains under a common law ofgravitation. The experimental discoveries ofOersted and Faraday showed that electric andmagnetic phenomena are in generalinseparable. Maxwell unified electromagnetismand optics with the discovery that light is anelectromagnetic wave. Einstein attempted tounify gravity and electromagnetism but couldnot succeed in this venture. But this did notdeter physicists from zealously pursuing thegoal of unification of forces.

Recent decades have seen much progress onthis front. The electromagnetic and the weaknuclear force have now been unified and areseen as aspects of a single ‘electro-weak’ force.What this unification actually means cannotbe explained here. Attempts have been (and arebeing) made to unify the electro-weak and thestrong force and even to unify the gravitationalforce with the rest of the fundamental forces.Many of these ideas are still speculative andinconclusive. Table 1.4 summarises some of themilestones in the progress towards unificationof forces in nature.

1.5 NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS

Physicists explore the universe. Theirinvestigations, based on scientific processes,range from particles that are smaller thanatoms in size to stars that are very far away. Inaddition to finding the facts by observation andexperimentation, physicists attempt to discoverthe laws that summarise (often as mathematicalequations) these facts.

In any physical phenomenon governed bydifferent forces, several quantities may changewith time. A remarkable fact is that some specialphysical quantities, however, remain constantin time. They are the conserved quantities ofnature. Understanding these conservationprinciples is very important to describe theobserved phenomena quantitatively.

For motion under an external conservativeforce, the total mechanical energy i.e. the sumof kinetic and potential energy of a body is aconstant. The familiar example is the free fall ofan object under gravity. Both the kinetic energyof the object and its potential energy changecontinuously with time, but the sum remainsfixed. If the object is released from rest, the initial

Table 1.4 Progress in unification of different forces/domains in nature

Table 1.3 Fundamental forces of nature

Name Relative Range Operates amongstrength

Gravitational force 10–39 Infinite All objects in the universe

Weak nuclear force 10–13 Very short, Sub-nuclear Some elementary particles,size (✄10–16m) particularly electron and

neutrino

Electromagnetic force 10–2 Infinite Charged particles

Strong nuclear force 1 Short, nuclear Nucleons, heaviersize (✄10–15m) elementary particles

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potential energy is completely converted into thekinetic energy of the object just before it hitsthe ground. This law restricted for a conservativeforce should not be confused with the generallaw of conservation of energy of an isolatedsystem (which is the basis of the First Law ofThermodynamics).

The concept of energy is central to physicsand the expressions for energy can be writtenfor every physical system. When all forms ofenergy e.g., heat, mechanical energy, electricalenergy etc., are counted, it turns out that energyis conserved. The general law of conservation ofenergy is true for all forces and for any kind oftransformation between different forms ofenergy. In the falling object example, if youinclude the effect of air resistance during thefall and see the situation after the object hitsthe ground and stays there, the totalmechanical energy is obviously not conserved.The general law of energy conservation, however,is still applicable. The initial potential energyof the stone gets transformed into other formsof energy : heat and sound. (Ultimately, soundafter it is absorbed becomes heat.) The totalenergy of the system (stone plus thesurroundings) remains unchanged.

The law of conservation of energy is thoughtto be valid across all domains of nature, fromthe microscopic to the macroscopic. It isroutinely applied in the analysis of atomic,nuclear and elementary particle processes. At

the other end, all kinds of violent phenomenaoccur in the universe all the time. Yet the totalenergy of the universe (the most ideal isolatedsystem possible !) is believed to remainunchanged.

Until the advent of Einstein’s theory ofrelativity, the law of conservation of mass wasregarded as another basic conservation law ofnature, since matter was thought to beindestructible. It was (and still is) an importantprinciple used, for example, in the analysis ofchemical reactions. A chemical reaction isbasically a rearrangement of atoms amongdifferent molecules. If the total binding energyof the reacting molecules is less than the totalbinding energy of the product molecules, thedifference appears as heat and the reaction isexothermic. The opposite is true for energyabsorbing (endothermic) reactions. However,since the atoms are merely rearranged but notdestroyed, the total mass of the reactants is thesame as the total mass of the products in achemical reaction. The changes in the bindingenergy are too small to be measured as changesin mass.

According to Einstein’s theory, mass m isequivalent to energy E given by the relationE= mc

2, where c is speed of light in vacuum.

In a nuclear process mass gets converted toenergy (or vice-versa). This is the energy whichis released in a nuclear power generation andnuclear explosions.

Sir C.V. Raman (1888-1970)

Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman was born on 07 Nov 1888 in Thiruvanaikkaval.He finished his schooling by the age of eleven. He graduated from PresidencyCollege, Madras. After finishing his education he joined financial services of theIndian Government.

While in Kolkata, he started working on his area of interest at Indian Asso-ciation for Cultivation of Science founded by Dr. Mahendra Lal Sirkar, during hisevening hours. His area of interest included vibrations, variety of musical instru-ments, ultrasonics, diffraction and so on.

In 1917 he was offered Professorship at Calcutta University. In 1924 he waselected ‘Fellow’ of the Royal Society of London and received Nobel prize in Physicsin 1930 for his discovery, now known as Raman Effect.

The Raman Effect deals with scattering of light by molecules of a mediumwhen they are excited to vibrational energy levels. This work opened totally newavenues for research for years to come.

He spent his later years at Bangalore, first at Indian Institute of Science and then at Raman Re-search Institute. His work has inspired generation of young students.

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Energy is a scalar quantity. But all conservedquantities are not necessarily scalars. The totallinear momentum and the total angular

momentum (both vectors) of an isolated systemare also conserved quantities. These laws canbe derived from Newton’s laws of motion inmechanics. But their validity goes beyond

mechanics. They are the basic conservationlaws of nature in all domains, even in thosewhere Newton’s laws may not be valid.

Besides their great simplicity and generality,

the conservation laws of nature are very usefulin practice too. It often happens that we cannotsolve the full dynamics of a complex probleminvolving different particles and forces. The

conservation laws can still provide usefulresults. For example, we may not know thecomplicated forces that act during a collisionof two automobiles; yet momentum

conservation law enables us to bypass thecomplications and predict or rule out possibleoutcomes of the collision. In nuclear andelementary particle phenomena also, the

conservation laws are important tools ofanalysis. Indeed, using the conservation lawsof energy and momentum for ✂-decay, WolfgangPauli (1900-1958) correctly predicted in 1931

the existence of a new particle (now calledneutrino) emitted in ✂-decay along with theelectron.

Conservation laws have a deep connection

with symmetries of nature that you will explorein more advanced courses in physics. Forexample, an important observation is that thelaws of nature do not change with time! If you

perform an experiment in your laboratory todayand repeat the same experiment (on the sameobjects under identical conditions) after a year,the results are bound to be the same. It turns

out that this symmetry of nature with respect totranslation (i.e. displacement) in time isequivalent to the law of conservation of energy.Likewise, space is homogeneous and there is no

(intrinsically) preferred location in the universe.To put it more clearly, the laws of nature are thesame everywhere in the universe. (Caution : the

phenomena may differ from place to place

because of differing conditions at differentlocations. For example, the acceleration due to

gravity at the moon is one-sixth that at the earth,

but the law of gravitation is the same both onthe moon and the earth.) This symmetry of the

laws of nature with respect to translation in

space gives rise to conservation of linearmomentum. In the same way isotropy of space

(no intrinsically preferred direction in space)

underlies the law of conservation of angularmomentum*. The conservation laws of charge and

other attributes of elementary particles can also

be related to certain abstract symmetries.Symmetries of space and time and other abstract

symmetries play a central role in modern theories

of fundamental forces in nature.

* See Chapter 7

Conservation laws in physics

Conservation of energy, momentum, angularmomentum, charge, etc are considered to befundamental laws in physics. At this moment,there are many such conservation laws. Apart fromthe above four, there are others which mostly dealwith quantities which have been introduced innuclear and particle physics. Some of theconserved quantities are called spin, baryonnumber, strangeness, hypercharge, etc, but youneed not worry about them.

A conservation law is a hypothesis, based onobservations and experiments. It is important toremember that a conservation law cannot beproved. It can be verified, or disproved, byexperiments. An experiment whose result is inconformity with the law verifies or substantiatesthe law; it does not prove the law. On the otherhand, a single experiment whose result goesagainst the law is enough to disprove it.

It would be wrong to ask somebody to provethe law of conservation of energy. This law is anoutcome of our experience over several centuries,and it has been found to be valid in allexperiments, in mechanics, thermodynamics,electromagnetism, optics, atomic and nuclearphysics, or any other area.

Some students feel that they can prove theconservation of mechanical energy from a bodyfalling under gravity, by adding the kinetic andpotential energies at a point and showing that itturns out to be constant. As pointed out above,this is only a verification of the law, not its proof.

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SUMMARY

1. Physics deals with the study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation indifferent phenomena. The basic laws of physics are universal and apply in widely differentcontexts and conditions.

2. The scope of physics is wide, covering a tremendous range of magnitude of physicalquantities.

3. Physics and technology are related to each other. Sometimes technology gives rise tonew physics; at other times physics generates new technology. Both have direct impacton society.

4. There are four fundamental forces in nature that govern the diverse phenomena of themacroscopic and the microscopic world. These are the ‘gravitational force’, the‘electromagnetic force’, the ‘strong nuclear force’, and the ‘weak nuclear force’. Unificationof different forces/domains in nature is a basic quest in physics.

5. The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called conservedquantities. Some of the general conservation laws in nature include the laws ofconservation of mass, energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, charge, parity,etc. Some conservation laws are true for one fundamental force but not for the other.

6. Conservation laws have a deep connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries ofspace and time, and other types of symmetries play a central role in modern theories offundamental forces in nature.

EXERCISES

Note for the student

The exercises given here are meant to enhance your awareness about the issues surroundingscience, technology and society and to encourage you to think and formulate your viewsabout them. The questions may not have clear-cut ‘objective’ answers.

Note for the teacher

The exercises given here are not for the purpose of a formal examination.

1.1 Some of the most profound statements on the nature of science have come fromAlbert Einstein, one of the greatest scientists of all time. What do you think didEinstein mean when he said : “The most incomprehensible thing about the world isthat it is comprehensible”?

1.2 “Every great physical theory starts as a heresy and ends as a dogma”. Give someexamples from the history of science of the validity of this incisive remark.

1.3 “Politics is the art of the possible”. Similarly, “Science is the art of the soluble”.Explain this beautiful aphorism on the nature and practice of science.

1.4 Though India now has a large base in science and technology, which is fast expanding,it is still a long way from realising its potential of becoming a world leader in science.Name some important factors, which in your view have hindered the advancement ofscience in India.

1.5 No physicist has ever “seen” an electron. Yet, all physicists believe in the existence ofelectrons. An intelligent but superstitious man advances this analogy to argue that‘ghosts’ exist even though no one has ‘seen’ one. How will you refute his argument ?

1.6 The shells of crabs found around a particular coastal location in Japan seem mostlyto resemble the legendary face of a Samurai. Given below are two explanations of thisobserved fact. Which of these strikes you as a scientific explanation ?

(a) A tragic sea accident several centuries ago drowned a young Samurai. As a tributeto his bravery, nature through its inscrutable ways immortalised his face byimprinting it on the crab shells in that area.

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(b) After the sea tragedy, fishermen in that area, in a gesture of honour to theirdead hero, let free any crab shell caught by them which accidentally had a shaperesembling the face of a Samurai. Consequently, the particular shape of thecrab shell survived longer and therefore in course of time the shape was geneticallypropagated. This is an example of evolution by artificial selection.

[Note : This interesting illustration taken from Carl Sagan’s ‘The Cosmos’ highlightsthe fact that often strange and inexplicable facts which on the first sight appear‘supernatural’ actually turn out to have simple scientific explanations. Try to thinkout other examples of this kind].

1.7 The industrial revolution in England and Western Europe more than two centuriesago was triggered by some key scientific and technological advances. What were theseadvances ?

1.8 It is often said that the world is witnessing now a second industrial revolution, whichwill transform the society as radically as did the first. List some key contemporary areasof science and technology, which are responsible for this revolution.

1.9 Write in about 1000 words a fiction piece based on your speculation on the scienceand technology of the twenty-second century.

1.10 Attempt to formulate your ‘moral’ views on the practice of science. Imagine yourselfstumbling upon a discovery, which has great academic interest but is certain to havenothing but dangerous consequences for the human society. How, if at all, will youresolve your dilemma ?

1.11 Science, like any knowledge, can be put to good or bad use, depending on the user.Given below are some of the applications of science. Formulate your views on whetherthe particular application is good, bad or something that cannot be so clearlycategorised :(a) Mass vaccination against small pox to curb and finally eradicate this disease

from the population. (This has already been successfully done in India).(b) Television for eradication of illiteracy and for mass communication of news and

ideas.(c) Prenatal sex determination(d) Computers for increase in work efficiency(e) Putting artificial satellites into orbits around the Earth(f ) Development of nuclear weapons(g) Development of new and powerful techniques of chemical and biological warfare).(h) Purification of water for drinking(i) Plastic surgery(j ) Cloning

1.12 India has had a long and unbroken tradition of great scholarship — in mathematics,astronomy, linguistics, logic and ethics. Yet, in parallel with this, several superstitiousand obscurantistic attitudes and practices flourished in our society and unfortunatelycontinue even today — among many educated people too. How will you use yourknowledge of science to develop strategies to counter these attitudes ?

1.13 Though the law gives women equal status in India, many people hold unscientificviews on a woman’s innate nature, capacity and intelligence, and in practice givethem a secondary status and role. Demolish this view using scientific arguments, andby quoting examples of great women in science and other spheres; and persuade yourselfand others that, given equal opportunity, women are on par with men.

1.14 “It is more important to have beauty in the equations of physics than to have themagree with experiments”. The great British physicist P. A. M. Dirac held this view.Criticize this statement. Look out for some equations and results in this book whichstrike you as beautiful.

1.15 Though the statement quoted above may be disputed, most physicists do have a feelingthat the great laws of physics are at once simple and beautiful. Some of the notablephysicists, besides Dirac, who have articulated this feeling, are : Einstein, Bohr,Heisenberg, Chandrasekhar and Feynman. You are urged to make special efforts to get

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access to the general books and writings by these and other great masters of physics.(See the Bibliography at the end of this book.) Their writings are truly inspiring !

1.16 Textbooks on science may give you a wrong impression that studying science is dryand all too serious and that scientists are absent-minded introverts who never laughor grin. This image of science and scientists is patently false. Scientists, like anyother group of humans, have their share of humorists, and many have led their liveswith a great sense of fun and adventure, even as they seriously pursued their scientificwork. Two great physicists of this genre are Gamow and Feynman. You will enjoyreading their books listed in the Bibliography.

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✇✗✛✗ ✘✙ ✦✤✬✬✤✇✙ ❱⑨ ❑✢ ▲❖❝ ✙✧✙✣✗✜ ✣✩✗✧ ✇✗✛✗ ✫✗✢✣✪✜✗✣✛✗✰ ✹✛✘✜ ✘✢❛ ✙✗✫✤✢❛✛✗✙★✗✫✣✪✮✗✬✧✴

⑨ ❑✢ P◗❝ ✙✧✙✣✗✜ ✣✩✗✧ ✇✗✛✗ ✦✤✤✣✰ ★✤✚✢❛ ✘✢❛ ✙✗✫✤✢❛✛✗✙★✗✫✣✪✮✗✬✧✴

⑨ ❑✢ ▼❙❝ ✙✧✙✣✗✜ ✣✩✗✧ ✇✗✛✗ ✜✗✣✛✗✰ ❦✪✬✤✹✛✘✜ ✘✢❛ ✙✗✫✤✢❛✛✗✙★✗✫✣✪✮✗✬✧✴✵✩✗ ✙✧✙✣✗✜ ✤✦ ✚✢✪✣✙ ✇✩✪✫✩ ✪✙ ✘✣ ★✛✗✙✗✢✣ ✪✢✣✗✛✢✘✣✪✤✢✘✬✬✧

✘✫✫✗★✣✗❛ ✦✤✛ ✜✗✘✙✚✛✗✜✗✢✣ ✪✙ ✣✩✗ ❳❨❩❬❭❪❫ ❴❵❬❫❡❵❣❬❤✐❵❣❥❫❧♦ ♣❵❤❬❫❩ ♥P✛✗✢✫✩ ✦✤✛ ❑✢✣✗✛✢✘✣✪✤✢✘✬ ❝✧✙✣✗✜ ✤✦ q✢✪✣✙✶✰✘✯✯✛✗✮✪✘✣✗❛ ✘✙ ❝❑✴ ✵✩✗ ❝❑✰ ✇✪✣✩ ✙✣✘✢❛✘✛❛ ✙✫✩✗✜✗ ✤✦ ✙✧✜✯✤✬✙✰✚✢✪✣✙ ✘✢❛ ✘✯✯✛✗✮✪✘✣✪✤✢✙✰ ✇✘✙ ❛✗✮✗✬✤★✗❛ ✘✢❛ ✛✗✫✤✜✜✗✢❛✗❛✯✧ ❖✗✢✗✛✘✬ ▲✤✢✦✗✛✗✢✫✗ ✤✢ r✗✪✹✩✣✙ ✘✢❛▼✗✘✙✚✛✗✙ ✪✢ t✈①t ✦✤✛

✷✍✎ ②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑩④❶⑥③✷✍✷ ❷❸❹ ❶③④❹⑤③❺④❶⑥③❺❻ ❼❽❼④❹❾ ⑥❿

⑧③❶④❼✷✍➀ ➁❹❺❼⑧⑤❹❾❹③④ ⑥❿ ❻❹③➂④❸✷✍➃ ➁❹❺❼⑧⑤❹❾❹③④ ⑥❿ ❾❺❼❼✷✍➄ ➁❹❺❼⑧⑤❹❾❹③④ ⑥❿ ④❶❾❹✷✍➅ ➆⑩⑩⑧⑤❺⑩❽➇ ➈⑤❹⑩❶❼❶⑥③ ⑥❿

❶③❼④⑤⑧❾❹③④❼ ❺③⑦ ❹⑤⑤⑥⑤❼ ❶③❾❹❺❼⑧⑤❹❾❹③④

✷✍➉ ➊❶➂③❶❿❶⑩❺③④ ❿❶➂⑧⑤❹❼✷✍➋ ➌❶❾❹③❼❶⑥③❼ ⑥❿ ➈❸❽❼❶⑩❺❻

➍⑧❺③④❶④❶❹❼✷✍➎ ➌❶❾❹③❼❶⑥③❺❻ ❿⑥⑤❾⑧❻❺❹ ❺③⑦

⑦❶❾❹③❼❶⑥③❺❻ ❹➍⑧❺④❶⑥③❼✷✍✎➏ ➌❶❾❹③❼❶⑥③❺❻ ❺③❺❻❽❼❶❼ ❺③⑦ ❶④❼

❺➈➈❻❶⑩❺④❶⑥③❼➊⑧❾❾❺⑤❽➐➑❹⑤⑩❶❼❹❼➆⑦⑦❶④❶⑥③❺❻ ❹➑❹⑤⑩❶❼❹❼

Page 21: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✐�✁✂✄�☎✁✐✆�☎✝ ✞✟☎✠✂ ✐� ✟✡✐✂�✁✐☛✐✡☞ ✁✂✡✌�✐✡☎✝☞

✐�✍✞✟✁✄✐☎✝ ☎�✍ ✡✆✎✎✂✄✡✐☎✝ ✏✆✄✑✒ ✓✂✡☎✞✟✂ ✔✕

✞�✐✁✟ ✞✟✂✍ ✍✂✡✐✎☎✝ ✟✉✟✁✂✎☞ ✡✆�✖✂✄✟✐✆�✟ ✏✐✁✌✐�

✁✌✂ ✟✉✟✁✂✎ ☎✄✂ ❡✞✐✁✂ ✟✐✎✗✝✂ ☎�✍ ✡✆�✖✂�✐✂�✁✒ ✘✂

✟✌☎✝✝ ☛✆✝✝✆✏ ✁✌✂ ✔✕ ✞�✐✁✟ ✐� ✁✌✐✟ s✆✆✑✒

✕� ✔✕☞ ✁✌✂✄✂ ☎✄✂ ✟✂✖✂� s☎✟✂ ✞�✐✁✟ ☎✟ ✠✐✖✂� ✐�

❚☎s✝✂ ✙✒✚✒ ✓✂✟✐✍✂✟ ✁✌✂ ✟✂✖✂� s☎✟✂ ✞�✐✁✟☞ ✁✌✂✄✂

☎✄✂ ✁✏✆✎✆✄✂ ✞�✐✁✟ ✁✌☎✁ ☎✄✂ ✍✂☛✐�✂✍ ☛✆✄ ❛☎✛ ✗✝☎�✂

☎�✠✝✂ ✍✜ ☎✟ ✁✌✂ ✄☎✁✐✆ ✆☛ ✝✂�✠✁✌ ✆☛ ☎✄✡ ✍✢ ✁✆ ✁✌✂

✄☎✍✐✞✟ r ☎�✍ ❛s✛ ✟✆✝✐✍ ☎�✠✝✂ ✍✣ ☎✟ ✁✌✂ ✄☎✁✐✆ ✆☛

✁✌✂ ✐�✁✂✄✡✂✗✁✂✍ ☎✄✂☎ ✍❆ ✆☛ ✁✌✂ ✟✗✌✂✄✐✡☎✝ ✟✞✄☛☎✡✂☞

✍✂✟✡✄✐s✂✍ ☎s✆✞✁ ✁✌✂ ☎✗✂❞ ✤ ☎✟ ✁✌✂ ✡✂�✁✄✂☞ ✁✆

✁✌✂ ✟❡✞☎✄✂ ✆☛ ✐✁✟ ✄☎✍✐✞✟ r☞ ☎✟ ✟✌✆✏� ✐� ✱✐✠✒ ✙✒✚❛☎✛

☎�✍ ❛s✛ ✄✂✟✗✂✡✁✐✖✂✝✉✒ ❚✌✂ ✞�✐✁ ☛✆✄ ✗✝☎�✂ ☎�✠✝✂ ✐✟

✄☎✍✐☎� ✏✐✁✌ ✁✌✂ ✟✉✎s✆✝ ✄☎✍ ☎�✍ ✁✌✂ ✞�✐✁ ☛✆✄ ✁✌✂

✟✆✝✐✍ ☎�✠✝✂ ✐✟ ✟✁✂✄☎✍✐☎� ✏✐✁✌ ✁✌✂ ✟✉✎s✆✝ ✟✄✒ ✓✆✁✌

✁✌✂✟✂ ☎✄✂ ✍✐✎✂�✟✐✆�✝✂✟✟ ❡✞☎�✁✐✁✐✂✟✒

✥✦✧★✩ ✪✫✬ ❙✭ ✮✦✯✩ ✰✲✦✳✴✵✴✵✩✯ ✦✳✶ ✷✳✵✴✯✸

❯✹✺✻✼ ✽✹✾ ✿❀✽✼❯❁❀✿❀✹✻ ❂❃

❄ ❅❇❈ ❉❊❋●❈❍ ■❈❏❑▲▼❏❈◆❇❈❖❈ ❏❈❈◆❏▼❑ P❈ ❖❈■❈■P❈❖❈◆▼❖ ❊❍◗❈◆ ▲❏ ❊ ❑❈❍❑❘ ❅❇❈❱ ❊❖❈ ❲▲❉❈❏❇❈❖❈ ▼❏❋❱ ❑▼ ▲❏◆▲❳❊❑❈ ❑❇❈

❈❨❑❈❏❑ ▼❩ ❊❳❳●❖❊❳❱ ❑▼ ❬❇▲❳❇ ❑❇❈❱ ❊❖❈ ■❈❊❍●❖❈◆❘ ❭▲❑❇ ❪❖▼❲❖❈❍❍ ▲❏ ❑❈❳❇❏▼❋▼❲❱❫ ❑❇❈ ■❈❊❍●❖▲❏❲ ❑❈❳❇❏▲❴●❈❍ ❲❈❑

▲■❪❖▼❉❈◆ ❋❈❊◆▲❏❲ ❑▼ ■❈❊❍●❖❈■❈❏❑❍ ❬▲❑❇ ❲❖❈❊❑❈❖ ❪❖❈❳▲❍▲▼❏❘ ❅❇❈ ◆❈❩▲❏▲❑▲▼❏❍ ▼❩ P❊❍❈ ●❏▲❑❍ ❊❖❈ ❖❈❉▲❍❈◆ ❑▼ ◗❈❈❪ ●❪

❬▲❑❇ ❑❇▲❍ ❪❖▼❲❖❈❍❍❘

❛☎✛

❛s✛

❵❜❝❢ ❣❢❤ ❥❈❍❳❖▲❪❑▲▼❏ ▼❩ ❦❊❧❪❋❊❏❈ ❊❏❲❋❈ ◆♠ ❊❏◆

❦P❧ ❍▼❋▲◆ ❊❏❲❋❈ ♥♦ ♣

qt✈✇ ①② ③④⑤⑥✈

⑦⑧t④⑥⑤⑥⑨ ⑩t❶✇ ①⑨❶❷❸❹ ❺✇❻⑤④⑤⑥⑤❸④

❼❽❾❿➀➁ ➂❽➀➃❽ ➂ ➄➁❽ ➂❽➀➃❽ ➅➆ ➀➁❽ ➇❽❾❿➀➁ ➈➉ ➀➁❽ ➊➋➀➁ ➀➃➋➌❽➇➇❽➍ ➎➏ ➇➅❿➁➀ ➅❾ ➌➋➐➑➑➂

➍➑➃➅❾❿ ➋ ➀➅➂❽ ➅❾➀❽➃➌➋➇ ➈➉ ➒➓➔→→➣↔→➔➣↕➙➛ ➈➉ ➋ ➆❽➐➈❾➍➜ ➝➒→➛➞➟

➠➋➆➆ ➡➅➇➈❿➃➋➂ ➡❿ ➄➁❽ ➡➅➇➈❿➃➋➂ ➅➆ ❽➢➑➋➇ ➀➈ ➀➁❽➂➋➆➆ ➈➉ ➀➁❽ ➅❾➀❽➃❾➋➀➅➈❾➋➇ ➊➃➈➀➈➀➏➊❽

➈➉ ➀➁❽ ➡➅➇➈❿➃➋➂ ➝➋ ➊➇➋➀➅❾➑➂➤➅➃➅➍➅➑➂ ➋➇➇➈➏ ➐➏➇➅❾➍❽➃➟ ➡❽➊➀ ➋➀

➅❾➀❽➃❾➋➀➅➈❾➋➇ ➥➑➃❽➋➑ ➈➉ ➦❽➅❿➁➀➆ ➋❾➍➠❽➋➆➑➃❽➆➣ ➋➀ ➧❽➌➃❽➆➣ ❾❽➋➃

➨➋➃➅➆➣ ➩➃➋❾➐❽➜ ➝➒➛➛→➟

➄➅➂❽ ➆❽➐➈❾➍ ➆ ➄➁❽ ➆❽➐➈❾➍ ➅➆ ➀➁❽ ➍➑➃➋➀➅➈❾ ➈➉ →➣➒→➔➣➫➞➒➣↔↔➭ ➊❽➃➅➈➍➆ ➈➉ ➀➁❽

➃➋➍➅➋➀➅➈❾ ➐➈➃➃❽➆➊➈❾➍➅❾❿ ➀➈ ➀➁❽ ➀➃➋❾➆➅➀➅➈❾ ➎❽➀➯❽❽❾ ➀➁❽ ➀➯➈

➁➏➊❽➃➉➅❾❽ ➇❽➌❽➇➆ ➈➉ ➀➁❽ ❿➃➈➑❾➍ ➆➀➋➀❽ ➈➉ ➀➁❽ ➐❽➆➅➑➂➤➒➞➞ ➋➀➈➂➜

➝➒→➫↔➟

➲➇❽➐➀➃➅➐ ➋➂➊❽➃❽ ➳ ➄➁❽ ➋➂➊❽➃❽ ➅➆ ➀➁➋➀ ➐➈❾➆➀➋❾➀ ➐➑➃➃❽❾➀ ➯➁➅➐➁➣ ➅➉ ➂➋➅❾➀➋➅❾❽➍ ➅❾

➐➑➃➃❽❾➀ ➀➯➈ ➆➀➃➋➅❿➁➀ ➊➋➃➋➇➇❽➇ ➐➈❾➍➑➐➀➈➃➆ ➈➉ ➅❾➉➅❾➅➀❽ ➇❽❾❿➀➁➣ ➈➉ ❾❽❿➇➅❿➅➎➇❽

➐➅➃➐➑➇➋➃ ➐➃➈➆➆➤➆❽➐➀➅➈❾➣ ➋❾➍ ➊➇➋➐❽➍ ➒ ➂❽➀➃❽ ➋➊➋➃➀ ➅❾ ➌➋➐➑➑➂➣

➯➈➑➇➍ ➊➃➈➍➑➐❽ ➎❽➀➯❽❽❾ ➀➁❽➆❽ ➐➈❾➍➑➐➀➈➃➆ ➋ ➉➈➃➐❽ ❽➢➑➋➇ ➀➈ ➔➵➒➭➸➺

❾❽➯➀➈❾ ➊❽➃ ➂❽➀➃❽ ➈➉ ➇❽❾❿➀➁➜ ➝➒→↕➛➟

➄➁❽➃➂➈ ➡❽➇➌➅❾ ➻ ➄➁❽ ➡❽➇➌➅❾➣ ➅➆ ➀➁❽ ➉➃➋➐➀➅➈❾ ➒➓➔↔➞➜➒➫ ➈➉ ➀➁❽ ➀➁❽➃➂➈➍➏❾➋➂➅➐

➍➏❾➋➂➅➐ ➀❽➂➊❽➃➋➀➑➃❽ ➈➉ ➀➁❽ ➀➃➅➊➇❽ ➊➈➅❾➀ ➈➉ ➯➋➀❽➃➜ ➝➒→➫↔➟

➄❽➂➊❽➃➋➀➑➃❽

➳➂➈➑❾➀ ➈➉ ➂➈➇❽ ➂➈➇ ➄➁❽➂➈➇❽ ➅➆ ➀➁❽ ➋➂➈➑❾➀ ➈➉ ➆➑➎➆➀➋❾➐❽ ➈➉ ➋ ➆➏➆➀❽➂➣➯➁➅➐➁ ➐➈❾➀➋➅❾➆

➆➑➎➆➀➋❾➐❽ ➋➆ ➂➋❾➏ ❽➇❽➂❽❾➀➋➃➏ ❽❾➀➅➀➅❽➆ ➋➆ ➀➁❽➃❽ ➋➃❽ ➋➀➈➂➆ ➅❾ ➭➜➭➒➔

➡➅➇➈❿➃➋➂ ➈➉ ➐➋➃➎➈❾ ➤ ➒➔➜ ➝➒→↔➒➟

❼➑➂➅❾➈➑➆ ➐➋❾➍❽➇➋ ➐➍ ➄➁❽ ➐➋❾➍❽➇➋ ➅➆ ➀➁❽ ➇➑➂➅❾➈➑➆ ➅❾➀❽❾➆➅➀➏➣ ➅❾ ➋ ❿➅➌❽❾

➅❾➀❽❾➆➅➀➏ ➍➅➃❽➐➀➅➈❾➣ ➈➉ ➋ ➆➈➑➃➐❽ ➀➁➋➀ ❽➂➅➀➆ ➂➈❾➈➐➁➃➈➂➋➀➅➐ ➃➋➍➅➋➀➅➈❾ ➈➉

➉➃❽➢➑❽❾➐➏ ➙↕➭➵➒➭➼➽ ➁❽➃➀➾ ➋❾➍ ➀➁➋➀ ➁➋➆ ➋ ➃➋➍➅➋❾➀ ➅❾➀❽❾➆➅➀➏ ➅❾

➀➁➋➀ ➍➅➃❽➐➀➅➈❾ ➈➉ ➒➓➫➛➞ ➯➋➀➀ ➊❽➃ ➆➀❽➃➋➍➅➋❾➜ ➝➒→↔→➟

Page 22: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆

❚✝✞✟✠ ✡☛✡ ❙☞✌✠ ✍✎✏✑✒ ✓✠✑✝✏✎✠✔ ✕☞✓ ✖✠✎✠✓✝✟ ✍✒✠ ✗❚✘☞✍✖✘ ☞✍✑✒✏✔✠ ❙✙✚

◆✛✜✢ ✜✣✤✜ ✥✣✢✦ ✧✛★✢ ✩✪ ✫✪✢✬✭ ✜✣✢ ✢★✢✧✢✦✜✤✮✯

✢✦✜✩✜✩✢✪ ✧✫✪✜ ❡✢ ✪✰✢✱✩✲✩✢✬✳ ✴✣✢✪✢ ✢✦✜✩✜✩✢✪

✧✤✯ ❡✢ ✤✜✛✧✪✭ ✧✛★✢✱✫★✢✪✭ ✩✛✦✪✭ ✢★✢✱✜✮✛✦✪✭

✛✜✣✢✮ ✰✤✮✜✩✱★✢✪ ✛✮ ✪✰✢✱✩✲✩✢✬ ♦✮✛✫✰✪ ✛✲ ✪✫✱✣

✰✤✮✜✩✱★✢✪✳

❲✢ ✢✧✰★✛✯ ✫✦✩✜✪ ✲✛✮ ✪✛✧✢ ✰✣✯✪✩✱✤★ ✵✫✤✦✜✩✜✩✢✪

✜✣✤✜ ✱✤✦ ❡✢ ✬✢✮✩t✢✬ ✲✮✛✧ ✜✣✢ ✪✢t✢✦ ❡✤✪✢ ✫✦✩✜✪

✷✸✰✰✢✦✬✩✹ ✸ ✺✻✳ ✼✛✧✢ ✬✢✮✩t✢✬ ✫✦✩✜✪ ✩✦ ✜✢✮✧✪ ✛✲

✜✣✢ ✼✽ ❡✤✪✢ ✫✦✩✜✪ ✤✮✢ ♦✩t✢✦ ✩✦ ✷✸✰✰✢✦✬✩✹ ✸ ✺✳✾✻✳

✼✛✧✢ ✼✽ ✬✢✮✩t✢✬ ✫✦✩✜✪ ✤✮✢ ♦✩t✢✦ ✪✰✢✱✩✤★ ✦✤✧✢✪

✷✸✰✰✢✦✬✩✹ ✸ ✺✳✿ ✻ ✤✦✬ ✪✛✧✢✬✢✮✩t✢✬ ✼✽✫✦✩✜✪ ✧✤❀✢

✫✪✢ ✛✲ ✜✣✢✪✢ ✫✦✩✜✪ ✥✩✜✣ ✪✰✢✱✩✤★ ✦✤✧✢✪ ✤✦✬ ✜✣✢

✪✢t✢✦ ❡✤✪✢ ✫✦✩✜✪ ✷✸✰✰✢✦✬✩✹ ✸ ✺✳s✻✳ ✴✣✢✪✢ ✤✮✢

♦✩t✢✦ ✩✦ ✸✰✰✢✦✬✩✹ ✸ ✺✳✿ ✤✦✬ ✸ ✺✳s ✲✛✮ ✯✛✫✮ ✮✢✤✬✯

✮✢✲✢✮✢✦✱✢✳ r✜✣✢✮ ✫✦✩✜✪ ✮✢✜✤✩✦✢✬ ✲✛✮ ♦✢✦✢✮✤★ ✫✪✢

✤✮✢ ♦✩t✢✦ ✩✦ ✴✤❡★✢ ✿✳✿✳

❈✛✧✧✛✦✼✽ ✰✮✢✲✩✹✢✪ ✤✦✬ ✪✯✧❡✛★✪ ✲✛✮✧✫★✜✩✰★✢✪

✤✦✬ ✪✫❡❛✧✫★✜✩✰★✢✪ ✤✮✢ ♦✩t✢✦ ✩✦ ✸✰✰✢✦✬✩✹ ✸✿✳

●✢✦✢✮✤★ ♦✫✩✬✢★✩✦✢✪ ✲✛✮ ✫✪✩✦♦ ✪✯✧❡✛★✪ ✲✛✮ ✰✣✯✪✩✱✤★

✵✫✤✦✜✩✜✩✢✪✭ ✱✣✢✧✩✱✤★ ✢★✢✧✢✦✜✪ ✤✦✬ ✦✫✱★✩✬✢✪ ✤✮✢

♦✩t✢✦ ✩✦ ✸✰✰✢✦✬✩✹ ✸❣ ✤✦✬ ✜✣✛✪✢ ✲✛✮ ✼✽ ✫✦✩✜✪ ✤✦✬

✪✛✧✢ ✛✜✣✢✮ ✫✦✩✜✪ ✤✮✢ ♦✩t✢✦ ✩✦ ✸✰✰✢✦✬✩✹ ✸❁ ✲✛✮

✯✛✫✮ ♦✫✩✬✤✦✱✢ ✤✦✬ ✮✢✤✬✯ ✮✢✲✢✮✢✦✱✢✳

❂❃❄ ▼❅❆❇❉❊❅▼❅❋❍ ■❏ ❑❅❋▲❍❖

❨✛✫✤✮✢✤★✮✢✤✬✯ ✲✤✧✩★✩✤✮✥✩✜✣✪✛✧✢✬✩✮✢✱✜✧✢✜✣✛✬✪

✲✛✮ ✜✣✢ ✧✢✤✪✫✮✢✧✢✦✜ ✛✲ ★✢✦♦✜✣✳ ♠✛✮ ✢✹✤✧✰★✢✭ ✤

✧✢✜✮✢ ✪✱✤★✢ ✩✪ ✫✪✢✬ ✲✛✮ ★✢✦♦✜✣✪ ✲✮✛✧ ✾◗➊❘✧ ✜✛ ✾◗❯

✧✳ ✸ t✢✮✦✩✢✮ ✱✤★★✩✰✢✮✪ ✩✪ ✫✪✢✬ ✲✛✮ ★✢✦♦✜✣✪ ✜✛ ✤✦

✤✱✱✫✮✤✱✯ ✛✲ ✾◗➊❱ ✧✳ ✸ ✪✱✮✢✥ ♦✤✫♦✢ ✤✦✬ ✤

✪✰✣✢✮✛✧✢✜✢✮ ✱✤✦ ❡✢ ✫✪✢✬ ✜✛ ✧✢✤✪✫✮✢ ★✢✦♦✜✣✪ ✤✪

★✢✪✪ ✤✪ ✜✛✾◗➊❳✧✳✴✛✧✢✤✪✫✮✢ ★✢✦♦✜✣✪❡✢✯✛✦✬ ✜✣✢✪✢

✮✤✦♦✢✪✭ ✥✢ ✧✤❀✢ ✫✪✢ ✛✲ ✪✛✧✢ ✪✰✢✱✩✤★ ✩✦✬✩✮✢✱✜

✧✢✜✣✛✬✪✳

❂❃❄❃❩ ▼❬❭❪❫❴❬❵❬❜❝ ❞❢ ❑❭❴❤❬ ✐❥❪❝❭❜❦❬❪

❧✤✮♦✢ ✬✩✪✜✤✦✱✢✪ ✪✫✱✣ ✤✪ ✜✣✢ ✬✩✪✜✤✦✱✢ ✛✲ ✤ ✰★✤✦✢✜

✛✮ ✤ ✪✜✤✮ ✲✮✛✧ ✜✣✢ ✢✤✮✜✣ ✱✤✦✦✛✜ ❡✢ ✧✢✤✪✫✮✢✬

✬✩✮✢✱✜★✯ ✥✩✜✣ ✤ ✧✢✜✮✢ ✪✱✤★✢✳ ✸✦ ✩✧✰✛✮✜✤✦✜✧✢✜✣✛✬

✩✦ ✪✫✱✣ ✱✤✪✢✪ ✩✪ ✜✣✢ ♣❭❴❭♥♥❭q ❵❬❝✉❞✈✇

❲✣✢✦ ✯✛✫ ✣✛★✬ ✤ ✰✢✦✱✩★ ✩✦ ✲✮✛✦✜ ✛✲ ✯✛✫ ✤♦✤✩✦✪✜

✪✛✧✢ ✪✰✢✱✩✲✩✱ ✰✛✩✦✜ ✛✦ ✜✣✢ ❡✤✱❀♦✮✛✫✦✬ ✷✤ ✥✤★★✻

✤✦✬ ★✛✛❀ ✤✜ ✜✣✢ ✰✢✦✱✩★ ✲✩✮✪✜ ✜✣✮✛✫♦✣ ✯✛✫✮ ★✢✲✜ ✢✯✢

✸ ✷✱★✛✪✩✦♦ ✜✣✢ ✮✩♦✣✜ ✢✯✢✻ ✤✦✬ ✜✣✢✦ ★✛✛❀ ✤✜ ✜✣✢

✰✢✦✱✩★ ✜✣✮✛✫♦✣ ✯✛✫✮ ✮✩♦✣✜ ✢✯✢ ① ✷✱★✛✪✩✦♦ ✜✣✢ ★✢✲✜

✢✯✢✻✭ ✯✛✫ ✥✛✫★✬ ✦✛✜✩✱✢ ✜✣✤✜ ✜✣✢ ✰✛✪✩✜✩✛✦ ✛✲ ✜✣✢

✰✢✦✱✩★ ✪✢✢✧✪ ✜✛ ✱✣✤✦♦✢ ✥✩✜✣ ✮✢✪✰✢✱✜ ✜✛ ✜✣✢ ✰✛✩✦✜

✛✦ ✜✣✢ ✥✤★★✳ ✴✣✩✪ ✩✪ ✱✤★★✢✬ ♣❭❴❭♥♥❭q✳ ✴✣✢

✬✩✪✜✤✦✱✢ ❡✢✜✥✢✢✦ ✜✣✢ ✜✥✛ ✰✛✩✦✜✪ ✛✲ ✛❡✪✢✮t✤✜✩✛✦

✩✪ ✱✤★★✢✬ ✜✣✢ ②❭❪❥❪✳ ✽✦ ✜✣✩✪ ✢✹✤✧✰★✢✭ ✜✣✢ ❡✤✪✩✪ ✩✪

✜✣✢ ✬✩✪✜✤✦✱✢ ❡✢✜✥✢✢✦ ✜✣✢ ✢✯✢✪✳

✴✛ ✧✢✤✪✫✮✢ ✜✣✢ ✬✩✪✜✤✦✱✢ ③ ✛✲ ✤ ✲✤✮ ✤✥✤✯

✰★✤✦✢✜ ✼ ❡✯ ✜✣✢ ✰✤✮✤★★✤✹ ✧✢✜✣✛✬✭ ✥✢ ✛❡✪✢✮t✢ ✩✜

✲✮✛✧ ✜✥✛ ✬✩✲✲✢✮✢✦✜ ✰✛✪✩✜✩✛✦✪ ✷✛❡✪✢✮t✤✜✛✮✩✢✪✻ ✸ ✤✦✬

① ✛✦ ✜✣✢ ④✤✮✜✣✭ ✪✢✰✤✮✤✜✢✬ ❡✯ ✬✩✪✜✤✦✱✢ ✸① ⑤ ⑥

✤✜ ✜✣✢ ✪✤✧✢ ✜✩✧✢ ✤✪ ✪✣✛✥✦ ✩✦ ♠✩♦✳ ✿✳✿✳ ❲✢

✧✢✤✪✫✮✢ ✜✣✢ ✤✦♦★✢ ❡✢✜✥✢✢✦ ✜✣✢ ✜✥✛ ✬✩✮✢✱✜✩✛✦✪

✤★✛✦♦ ✥✣✩✱✣ ✜✣✢ ✰★✤✦✢✜ ✩✪ t✩✢✥✢✬ ✤✜ ✜✣✢✪✢ ✜✥✛

✰✛✩✦✜✪✳ ✴✣✢ ⑦✸✼① ✩✦ ♠✩♦✳ ✿✳✿ ✮✢✰✮✢✪✢✦✜✢✬ ❡✯

✪✯✧❡✛★ ⑧ ✩✪ ✱✤★★✢✬ ✜✣✢ ♣❭❴❭♥♥❭q ❭❜❤♥❬ ✛✮

♣❭❴❭♥♥❭❦❝❥❦ ❭❜❤♥❬✇

✸✪ ✜✣✢ ✰★✤✦✢✜ ✩✪ t✢✮✯ ✲✤✮ ✤✥✤✯✭ ⑨⑩❶

❷❸❸ ✤✦✬

✜✣✢✮✢✲✛✮✢✭ ❹ ✩✪ t✢✮✯ ✪✧✤★★✳ ✴✣✢✦ ✥✢

✤✰✰✮✛✹✩✧✤✜✢★✯ ✜✤❀✢ ✸① ✤✪ ✤✦ ✤✮✱ ✛✲ ★✢✦♦✜✣ ⑥ ✛✲ ✤

✱✩✮✱★✢ ✥✩✜✣ ✱✢✦✜✮✢ ✤✜ ✼ ✤✦✬ ✜✣✢ ✬✩✪✜✤✦✱✢ ③ ✤✪

Page 23: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❯�✁✂✄ ☎�✆ ✝✞☎✄❯✟✞✝✞�✂ ✶✠

t☛☞ ✌✍✎✏✑✒ ✓✔ ✕ ✖✔ ✒✗ t☛✍t ✓✖ ✕ ❜ ✕ ❉ ✘ ✥☛☞✌☞✘ ✏✒ ✏✙ ✌✍✎✏✍✙✒✚

✛ ✜✢

✣✭✤✚✦✧

❍✍★✏✙✩ ✎☞t☞✌✪✏✙☞✎ ❉✱ ✥☞ ✫✍✙ ☞✪✬✮✗✯ ✍ ✒✏✪✏✮✍✌✪☞t☛✗✎ t✗ ✎☞t☞✌✪✏✙☞ t☛☞ ✒✏♠☞ ✗✌ ✍✙✩✑✮✍✌ ✎✏✍✪☞t☞✌✗♦ t☛☞ ✬✮✍✙☞t✚ ✰♦ ❞ ✏✒ t☛☞ ✎✏✍✪☞t☞✌ ✗♦ t☛☞ ✬✮✍✙☞t✍✙✎ ✲ t☛☞ ✍✙✩✑✮✍✌ ✒✏♠☞ ✗♦ t☛☞ ✬✮✍✙☞t ✭t☛☞ ✍✙✩✮☞✒✑st☞✙✎☞✎ s✯ ❞ ✍t t☛☞ ☞✍✌t☛✧✱ ✥☞ ☛✍★☞✲ ✕ ❞✳❉ ✭✤✚✤✧

❚☛☞ ✍✙✩✮☞ ✴ ✫✍✙ s☞ ✪☞✍✒✑✌☞✎ ♦✌✗✪ t☛☞ ✒✍✪☞✮✗✫✍t✏✗✙ ✗✙ t☛☞ ☞✍✌t☛✚ ✰t ✏✒ t☛☞ ✍✙✩✮☞ s☞t✥☞☞✙t☛☞ t✥✗ ✎✏✌☞✫t✏✗✙✒ ✥☛☞✙ t✥✗ ✎✏✍✪☞t✌✏✫✍✮✮✯✗✬✬✗✒✏t☞ ✬✗✏✙t✒ ✗♦ t☛☞ ✬✮✍✙☞t ✍✌☞ ★✏☞✥☞✎ t☛✌✗✑✩☛t☛☞ t☞✮☞✒✫✗✬☞✚ ✔✏✙✫☞ ❉ ✏✒ ✵✙✗✥✙✱ t☛☞ ✎✏✍✪☞t☞✌ ❞✗♦ t☛☞ ✬✮✍✙☞t ✫✍✙ s☞ ✎☞t☞✌✪✏✙☞✎ ✑✒✏✙✩ ✷✸✚ ✭✤✚✤✧✚

❊✹✺✻✼✽✾ ✿❀❁ ❈✍✮✫✑✮✍t☞ t☛☞ ✍✙✩✮☞ ✗♦✭✍✧ ✦❂ ✭✎☞✩✌☞☞✧ ✭s✧ ✦❃ ✭✪✏✙✑t☞ ✗♦ ✍✌✫ ✗✌ ✍✌✫✪✏✙✧✍✙✎ ✭✫✧ ✦❄ ✭✒☞✫✗✙✎ ✗♦ ✍✌✫ ✗✌ ✍✌✫ ✒☞✫✗✙✎✧ ✏✙✌✍✎✏✍✙✒✚ r✒☞ ❅❆❇❂✕✤❋ ✌✍✎✱ ✦❂✕❆❇❃ ✍✙✎✦❃ ✕❆❇ ❄

●■❏❑✾▲ ✭✍✧ ▼☞ ☛✍★☞ ❅❆❇❂✕ ✤❋ ✌✍✎✦❂ ✕ ✭❋ ◆✦❖❇✧ ✌✍✎ ✕ ✦✚P◗❘❙✦❇➊❱ ✌✍✎

✭s✧ ✦❂ ✕ ❆❇❃ ✕ ✦✚P◗❘❙✦❇➊❱ ✌✍✎✦❃ ✕ ✤✚❲❇❖❙✦❇➊❳ ✌✍✎ ; ✤✚❲✦❙✦❇➊❳ ✌✍✎

✭✫✧ ✦❃ ✕ ❆❇❄ ✕ ✤✚❲❇❖❙✦❇➊❳ ✌✍✎✦❄ ✕ ◗✚❖◗P❙✦❇➊❳ ✌✍✎ ; ◗✚❖❘❙✦❇➊❨ ✌✍✎ ❩

❊✹✺✻✼✽✾ ✿❀✿ ✓ ✪✍✙ ✥✏✒☛☞✒ t✗ ☞✒t✏✪✍t☞t☛☞ ✎✏✒t✍✙✫☞ ✗♦ ✍ ✙☞✍✌s✯ t✗✥☞✌ ♦✌✗✪ ☛✏✪✚❍☞ ✒t✍✙✎✒ ✍t ✍ ✬✗✏✙t ✓ ✏✙ ♦✌✗✙t ✗♦ t☛☞ t✗✥☞✌❈ ✍✙✎ ✒✬✗t✒ ✍ ★☞✌✯ ✎✏✒t✍✙t ✗s❬☞✫t ❭ ✏✙ ✮✏✙☞✥✏t☛ ✓❈✚ ❍☞ t☛☞✙ ✥✍✮✵✒ ✬☞✌✬☞✙✎✏✫✑✮✍✌ t✗✓❈ ✑✬ t✗ ✖✱ ✍ ✎✏✒t✍✙✫☞ ✗♦ ✦❇❇ ✪✱ ✍✙✎ ✮✗✗✵✒✍t ❭ ✍✙✎ ❈ ✍✩✍✏✙✚ ✔✏✙✫☞ ❭ ✏✒ ★☞✌✯ ✎✏✒t✍✙t✱t☛☞ ✎✏✌☞✫t✏✗✙ ✖❭ ✏✒ ✬✌✍✫t✏✫✍✮✮✯ t☛☞ ✒✍✪☞ ✍✒

✓❭❪ s✑t ☛☞ ♦✏✙✎✒ t☛☞ ✮✏✙☞ ✗♦ ✒✏✩☛t ✗♦ ❈ ✒☛✏♦t☞✎♦✌✗✪ t☛☞ ✗✌✏✩✏✙✍✮ ✮✏✙☞ ✗♦ ✒✏✩☛t s✯ ✍✙ ✍✙✩✮☞ ✘✕ ◗❇❂ ✭✘ ✏✒ ✵✙✗✥✙ ✍✒ ❫✬✍✌✍✮✮✍❴❵✧ ☞✒t✏✪✍t☞t☛☞ ✎✏✒t✍✙✫☞ ✗♦ t☛☞ t✗✥☞✌ ❈ ♦✌✗✪ ☛✏✒ ✗✌✏✩✏✙✍✮✬✗✒✏t✏✗✙ ✓✚

❛❝❡❢ ❣❢❤●■❏❑✾▲ ▼☞ ☛✍★☞✱ ✬✍✌✍✮✮✍❴ ✍✙✩✮☞ ✘ ✕ ◗❇❂

✐✌✗✪ ✐✏✩✚ ✤✚❅✱ ✓✖ ✕ ✓❈ t✍✙ ✘✓❈ ✕ ✓✖◆t✍✙✘ ✕ ✦❇❇ ✪◆t✍✙ ◗❇❂

✕ ✦❇❇ ✪◆❇✚❖❅❲✦ ✕ ✦✦❲ ✪ ❩

❊✹✺✻✼✽✾ ✿❀❥ ❚☛☞ ✪✗✗✙ ✏✒ ✗s✒☞✌★☞✎ ♦✌✗✪t✥✗ ✎✏✍✪☞t✌✏✫✍✮✮✯ ✗✬✬✗✒✏t☞ ✬✗✏✙t✒ ✓ ✍✙✎ ✖✗✙ ✷✍✌t☛✚ ❚☛☞ ✍✙✩✮☞ ✘ ✒✑st☞✙✎☞✎ ✍t t☛☞✪✗✗✙ s✯ t☛☞ t✥✗ ✎✏✌☞✫t✏✗✙✒ ✗♦ ✗s✒☞✌★✍t✏✗✙✏✒ ✦❦❘◗❧ ✚ ♥✏★☞✙ t☛☞ ✎✏✍✪☞t☞✌ ✗♦ t☛☞ ✷✍✌t☛ t✗s☞ ✍s✗✑t ✦✚✤P❆ × ✦❇♣ ✪✱ ✫✗✪✬✑t☞ t☛☞✎✏✒t✍✙✫☞ ✗♦ t☛☞ ✪✗✗✙ ♦✌✗✪ t☛☞ ✷✍✌t☛✚

●■❏❑✾▲ ▼☞ ☛✍★☞ ✘ ✕ ✦➦❘◗q ✕ ✦✦◗q

✉ ✈ ✇ ①②③④④⑤ ⑥⑦ ⑤⑧⑨⑩ ④⑦❶ ❷❷❸ ❸ ❸ ✌✍✎

❹ ❺❻❺❼❽ ❾❿➀ ➁ ➂➃➄➅

✒✏✙✫☞➆➇ ➈➉➋➌ ➇➍ ➉➎➏ ➐➑➒➓➔

✓✮✒✗ → ➣ ↔↕ ➙➛➜➝➞➟ ➠➡➛➢➤

❍☞✙✫☞ ♦✌✗✪ ✷✸✚ ✭✤✚✦✧✱ ✥☞ ☛✍★☞ t☛☞ ☞✍✌t☛➥✪✗✗✙✎✏✒t✍✙✫☞✱

➧ ➨➩ ➫➭

➯➲➳➵➸➺ ➲➻

➼➳➼➵ ➲➻

➾➚➪

➪➶➼➳➹➘ ➲➻ ➴➯ ➪ ❩

❊✹✺✻✼✽✾ ✿❀➷ ❚☛☞ ✔✑✙❵✒ ✍✙✩✑✮✍✌ ✎✏✍✪☞t☞✌✏✒ ✪☞✍✒✑✌☞✎ t✗ s☞ ✦❲✤❇❃ ❃✚ ❚☛☞ ✎✏✒t✍✙✫☞ ❉✗♦t☛☞ ✔✑✙ ♦✌✗✪ t☛☞ ✷✍✌t☛ ✏✒ ✦✚◗❲❆ ❙ ✦❇➬➬ ✪✚▼☛✍t ✏✒ t☛☞ ✎✏✍✪☞t☞✌ ✗♦ t☛☞ ✔✑✙ ➮

❛❝❡❢ ❣❢❣ ➱✃❐✃❒❒✃❮ ❰ÏÐÑÒÓÔ

Page 24: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✷✆

❆✞✟✠✡☛ ❙☞✌✍✎ ✏✌✑☞✒✏✓ ✔✕✏✖✗✘✗✓ ✙

❂ ✶✚✛✜✢

✣ ✤ ✤❾

✥✾✦✧ ✹★✽✺ ✥✧ r❛❞✻

✩ ✪ ✫✬✭✸✮ ✮✵ ✯✰✱✲

❙☞✌✍✎ ✔✕✏✖✗✘✗✓

✳ ❉✴ ✼

✿ ❀❀❁❃✿❀ ❀❄ ❀❃❅❁❇ ❀❄ ♠❈ ❊ ❈ ❊❋ ●❋ ● ❍ ■❍ ■❏❑ ▲ ▲ ▲

▼◆❖◗❘❚ ❖❯ ❱× ❲

❳❨❩❨❳ ❬❭❪❫❴❵❪❫❜❝ ❜❢ ❡❣❤✐ ❥❴❵❦❦ ❧❫❭❪❵❝♥❣❭♦❥❫♣❣ ❜❢ ❵q❜❦❣♥s❦❣

t✉ ✖✗✏✎☞✓✗ ✏ ✈✗✓✇ ✎✖✏✒✒ ✎✕①✗ ✒✕②✗ ✘③✏✘ ✉④ ✏✖✉✒✗⑤☞✒✗ ⑥⑦⑧➊⑨ ✖ ✘✉ ⑦⑧➊⑩❶ ✖❷❸ ❹✗ ③✏✈✗ ✘✉ ✏✔✉❺✘✎❺✗⑤✕✏✒ ✖✗✘③✉✔✎❻ ❼✗ ⑤✏✌✌✉✘ ☞✎✗ ✏ ✎⑤✓✗❹ ✑✏☞✑✗✉✓ ✎✕✖✕✒✏✓ ✕✌✎✘✓☞✖✗✌✘✎❻ ❽✈✗✌ ✏ ✖✕⑤✓✉✎⑤✉❺✗ ③✏✎⑤✗✓✘✏✕✌ ✒✕✖✕✘✏✘✕✉✌✎❻ ❿✌ ✉❺✘✕⑤✏✒ ✖✕⑤✓✉✎⑤✉❺✗ ☞✎✗✎✈✕✎✕➀✒✗ ✒✕✑③✘ ✘✉ ➁✒✉✉②✍ ✏✘ ✘③✗ ✎✇✎✘✗✖ ☞✌✔✗✓✕✌✈✗✎✘✕✑✏✘✕✉✌❻ ❿✎ ✒✕✑③✘ ③✏✎ ❹✏✈✗ ✒✕②✗ ④✗✏✘☞✓✗✎❸

✘③✗ ✓✗✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌ ✘✉ ❹③✕⑤③ ✏✌ ✉❺✘✕⑤✏✒ ✖✕⑤✓✉✎⑤✉❺✗⑤✏✌ ➀✗ ☞✎✗✔ ✕✎ ✘③✗ ❹✏✈✗✒✗✌✑✘③ ✉④ ✒✕✑③✘ ⑥❿ ✔✗✘✏✕✒✗✔✗➂❺✒✏✌✏✘✕✉✌ ⑤✏✌ ➀✗ ④✉☞✌✔ ✕✌ ✘③✗ ➃✒✏✎✎ ➄➅➅➆③✇✎✕⑤✎ ✘✗➂✘➀✉✉②❷❻ ➇✉✓ ✈✕✎✕➀✒✗ ✒✕✑③✘ ✘③✗ ✓✏✌✑✗ ✉④❹✏✈✗✒✗✌✑✘③✎ ✕✎ ④✓✉✖ ✏➀✉☞✘ ➈⑧⑧⑧ ➉ ✘✉ ➋⑧⑧⑧ ➉⑥⑦ ✏✌✑✎✘✓✉✖ ➌ ⑦ ➉ ➌ ⑦⑧➍⑩❶ ✖❷❻ ➎✗✌⑤✗ ✏✌ ✉❺✘✕⑤✏✒✖✕⑤✓✉✎⑤✉❺✗ ⑤✏✌✌✉✘ ✓✗✎✉✒✈✗ ❺✏✓✘✕⑤✒✗✎ ❹✕✘③ ✎✕①✗✎✎✖✏✒✒✗✓ ✘③✏✌ ✘③✕✎❻ ➅✌✎✘✗✏✔ ✉④ ✈✕✎✕➀✒✗ ✒✕✑③✘❸ ❹✗ ⑤✏✌☞✎✗ ✏✌ ✗✒✗⑤✘✓✉✌ ➀✗✏✖❻ ❽✒✗⑤✘✓✉✌ ➀✗✏✖✎ ⑤✏✌ ➀✗④✉⑤☞✎✎✗✔ ➀✇ ❺✓✉❺✗✓✒✇ ✔✗✎✕✑✌✗✔ ✗✒✗⑤✘✓✕⑤ ✏✌✔✖✏✑✌✗✘✕⑤ ④✕✗✒✔✎❻ t③✗ ✓✗✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌ ✉④ ✎☞⑤③ ✏✌✗✒✗⑤✘✓✉✌ ✖✕⑤✓✉✎⑤✉❺✗ ✕✎ ✒✕✖✕✘✗✔ ④✕✌✏✒✒✇ ➀✇ ✘③✗ ④✏⑤✘✘③✏✘ ✗✒✗⑤✘✓✉✌✎ ⑤✏✌ ✏✒✎✉ ➀✗③✏✈✗ ✏✎ ❹✏✈✗✎ ➏ ⑥➐✉☞❹✕✒✒ ✒✗✏✓✌ ✖✉✓✗ ✏➀✉☞✘ ✘③✕✎ ✕✌ ⑤✒✏✎✎ ➄➅➅❷❻ t③✗❹✏✈✗✒✗✌✑✘③ ✉④ ✏✌ ✗✒✗⑤✘✓✉✌ ⑤✏✌ ➀✗ ✏✎ ✎✖✏✒✒ ✏✎ ✏④✓✏⑤✘✕✉✌ ✉④ ✏✌ ✏✌✑✎✘✓✉✖❻ ❙☞⑤③ ✗✒✗⑤✘✓✉✌✖✕⑤✓✉✎⑤✉❺✗✎ ❹✕✘③ ✏ ✓✗✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌ ✉④ ⑧❻➑ ➉ ③✏✈✗ ➀✗✗✌➀☞✕✒✘❻ t③✗✇ ⑤✏✌ ✏✒✖✉✎✘ ✓✗✎✉✒✈✗ ✏✘✉✖✎ ✏✌✔✖✉✒✗⑤☞✒✗✎ ✕✌ ✏ ✖✏✘✗✓✕✏✒❻ ➅✌ ✓✗⑤✗✌✘ ✘✕✖✗✎❸

✘☞✌✌✗✒✒✕✌✑ ✖✕⑤✓✉✎⑤✉❺✇ ③✏✎ ➀✗✗✌ ✔✗✈✗✒✉❺✗✔ ✕✌❹③✕⑤③ ✏✑✏✕✌ ✘③✗ ✒✕✖✕✘ ✉④ ✓✗✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌ ✕✎ ➀✗✘✘✗✓ ✘③✏✌✏✌ ✏✌✑✎✘✓✉✖❻ ➅✘ ✕✎ ❺✉✎✎✕➀✒✗ ✘✉ ✗✎✘✕✖✏✘✗ ✘③✗ ✎✕①✗✎✉④ ✖✉✒✗⑤☞✒✗✎❻

❿ ✎✕✖❺✒✗ ✖✗✘③✉✔ ④✉✓ ✗✎✘✕✖✏✘✕✌✑ ✘③✗✖✉✒✗⑤☞✒✏✓✎✕①✗ ✉④ ✉✒✗✕⑤ ✏⑤✕✔ ✕✎ ✑✕✈✗✌ ➀✗✒✉❹❻ ➒✒✗✕⑤ ✏⑤✕✔ ✕✎ ✏✎✉✏❺✇ ✒✕➓☞✕✔ ❹✕✘③ ✒✏✓✑✗ ✖✉✒✗⑤☞✒✏✓ ✎✕①✗ ✉④ ✘③✗✉✓✔✗✓ ✉④ ⑦⑧➊➔✖❻

t③✗ ✕✔✗✏ ✕✎ ✘✉ ④✕✓✎✘ ④✉✓✖✖✉✌✉→✖✉✒✗⑤☞✒✏✓ ✒✏✇✗✓✉④ ✉✒✗✕⑤ ✏⑤✕✔ ✉✌ ❹✏✘✗✓ ✎☞✓④✏⑤✗❻

❼✗ ✔✕✎✎✉✒✈✗ ⑦ ⑤✖➣ ✉④ ✉✒✗✕⑤ ✏⑤✕✔ ✕✌ ✏✒⑤✉③✉✒ ✘✉✖✏②✗ ✏ ✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌ ✉④ ↔⑧ ⑤✖➣❻ t③✗✌ ❹✗ ✘✏②✗ ⑦ ⑤✖➣

✉④ ✘③✕✎ ✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌ ✏✌✔ ✔✕✒☞✘✗ ✕✘ ✘✉ ↔⑧ ⑤✖➣❸ ☞✎✕✌✑✏✒⑤✉③✉✒❻ ❙✉❸ ✘③✗ ⑤✉✌⑤✗✌✘✓✏✘✕✉✌ ✉④ ✘③✗ ✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌ ✕✎

✗➓☞✏✒ ✘✉ ↕➙➛➜

➝➞ ➝➞➟ ➠➡ ➢➤ ➥➦

✉④ ✉✒✗✕⑤ ✏⑤✕✔➧⑤✖➣ ✉④

✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌❻ ➨✗➂✘ ❹✗ ✒✕✑③✘✒✇ ✎❺✓✕✌②✒✗ ✎✉✖✗

✒✇⑤✉❺✉✔✕☞✖ ❺✉❹✔✗✓ ✉✌ ✘③✗ ✎☞✓④✏⑤✗ ✉④ ❹✏✘✗✓ ✕✌ ✏

✒✏✓✑✗ ✘✓✉☞✑③ ✏✌✔ ❹✗ ❺☞✘ ✉✌✗ ✔✓✉❺ ✉④ ✘③✕✎ ✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌

✕✌ ✘③✗ ❹✏✘✗✓❻ t③✗ ✉✒✗✕⑤ ✏⑤✕✔ ✔✓✉❺ ✎❺✓✗✏✔✎ ✕✌✘✉ ✏

✘③✕✌❸ ✒✏✓✑✗ ✏✌✔ ✓✉☞✑③✒✇ ⑤✕✓⑤☞✒✏✓ ④✕✒✖ ✉④ ✖✉✒✗⑤☞✒✏✓

✘③✕⑤②✌✗✎✎ ✉✌ ❹✏✘✗✓ ✎☞✓④✏⑤✗❻ t③✗✌❸ ❹✗ ➓☞✕⑤②✒✇

✖✗✏✎☞✓✗ ✘③✗ ✔✕✏✖✗✘✗✓ ✉④ ✘③✗ ✘③✕✌ ④✕✒✖ ✘✉ ✑✗✘ ✕✘✎

✏✓✗✏ ➩❻ ❙☞❺❺✉✎✗ ❹✗ ③✏✈✗ ✔✓✉❺❺✗✔ ➫ ✔✓✉❺✎ ✕✌

✘③✗ ❹✏✘✗✓❻ ➅✌✕✘ ✕✏✒✒✇❸ ❹✗ ✔✗✘✗✓✖✕✌✗ ✘③✗

✏❺❺✓✉➂✕✖✏✘✗ ✈✉✒☞✖✗ ✉④ ✗✏⑤③ ✔✓✉❺ ⑥➭ ⑤✖➣❷❻

➯✉✒☞✖✗ ✉④ ➫ ✔✓✉❺✎ ✉④ ✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌➌ ➫➭ ⑤✖➣

❿✖✉☞✌✘ ✉④ ✉✒✗✕⑤ ✏⑤✕✔ ✕✌ ✘③✕✎ ✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌

➌ ➲➳➵

➸➺ ➸➺➻

➽➾

➪➶ ➹➘

t③✕✎ ✎✉✒☞✘✕✉✌ ✉④ ✉✒✗✕⑤ ✏⑤✕✔ ✎❺✓✗✏✔✎ ✈✗✓✇ ④✏✎✘✉✌ ✘③✗ ✎☞✓④✏⑤✗ ✉④ ❹✏✘✗✓ ✏✌✔ ④✉✓✖✎ ✏ ✈✗✓✇ ✘③✕✌✒✏✇✗✓ ✉④ ✘③✕⑤②✌✗✎✎ ➷❻ ➅④ ✘③✕✎ ✎❺✓✗✏✔✎ ✘✉ ④✉✓✖ ✏④✕✒✖ ✉④ ✏✓✗✏ ➩ ⑤✖➬❸ ✘③✗✌ ✘③✗ ✘③✕⑤②✌✗✎✎ ✉④ ✘③✗④✕✒✖

➮ ❂➱✃❐❒❮❰ ✃Ï ÐÑ❰ ÏÒ❐❮

ÓÔ❰Õ ✃Ï ÐÑ❰ ÏÒ❐❮

✉✓❸ Ö❮✛✜ ✛✜

ØÙ➮

Ú❂

Û⑥↔❻Ü❷

➅④❹✗ ✏✎✎☞✖✗✘③✏✘ ✘③✗ ④✕✒✖③✏✎✖✉✌✉→✖✉✒✗⑤☞✒✏✓✘③✕⑤②✌✗✎✎❸ ✘③✗✌ ✘③✕✎ ➀✗⑤✉✖✗✎ ✘③✗ ✎✕①✗ ✉✓ ✔✕✏✖✗✘✗✓✉④ ✏ ✖✉✒✗⑤☞✒✗ ✉④ ✉✒✗✕⑤ ✏⑤✕✔❻ t③✗ ✈✏✒☞✗ ✉④ ✘③✕✎✘③✕⑤②✌✗✎✎ ⑤✉✖✗✎ ✉☞✘ ✘✉ ➀✗ ✉④ ✘③✗ ✉✓✔✗✓ ✉④ ⑦⑧➊➔ ✖❻

ÝÞßàáâ✡ ãäå ➅④ ✘③✗ ✎✕①✗ ✉④ ✏ ✌☞⑤✒✗☞✎ ⑥✕✌✘③✗ ✓✏✌✑✗ ✉④ ⑦⑧➊⑩æ ✘✉ ⑦⑧➊⑩ç ✖❷ ✕✎ ✎⑤✏✒✗✔ ☞❺

✘✉ ✘③✗ ✘✕❺ ✉④ ✏ ✎③✏✓❺ ❺✕✌❸ ❹③✏✘ ✓✉☞✑③✒✇ ✕✎✘③✗ ✎✕①✗ ✉④ ✏✌ ✏✘✉✖ è ❿✎✎☞✖✗ ✘✕❺ ✉④ ✘③✗ ❺✕✌

✘✉ ➀✗ ✕✌ ✘③✗ ✓✏✌✑✗ ⑦⑧➊æ✖ ✘✉ ⑦⑧➊ç✖❻

❆✞✟✠✡☛ t③✗ ✎✕①✗ ✉④ ✏ ✌☞⑤✒✗☞✎ ✕✎ ✕✌ ✘③✗ ✓✏✌✑✗ ✉④⑦⑧➊⑩æ ✖ ✏✌✔ ⑦⑧➊⑩ç ✖❻ t③✗ ✘✕❺ ✉④ ✏ ✎③✏✓❺ ❺✕✌ ✕✎✘✏②✗✌ ✘✉ ➀✗ ✕✌ ✘③✗ ✓✏✌✑✗ ✉④ ⑦⑧➊æ ✖ ✏✌✔ ⑦⑧➊ç ✖❻t③☞✎ ❹✗ ✏✓✗ ✎⑤✏✒✕✌✑ ☞❺ ➀✇ ✏ ④✏⑤✘✉✓ ✉④ ⑦⑧⑩❶❻ ❿✌✏✘✉✖ ✓✉☞✑③✒✇ ✉④ ✎✕①✗ ⑦⑧➊⑩❶ ✖❹✕✒✒ ➀✗ ✎⑤✏✒✗✔ ☞❺ ✘✉ ✏✎✕①✗ ✉④ ⑦ ✖❻ t③☞✎ ✏✌☞⑤✒✗☞✎ ✕✌ ✏✌ ✏✘✉✖ ✕✎ ✏✎ ✎✖✏✒✒✕✌ ✎✕①✗ ✏✎ ✘③✗ ✘✕❺ ✉④ ✏ ✎③✏✓❺ ❺✕✌ ❺✒✏⑤✗✔ ✏✘ ✘③✗ ⑤✗✌✘✓✗✉④ ✏ ✎❺③✗✓✗ ✉④ ✓✏✔✕☞✎ ✏➀✉☞✘ ✏ ✖✗✘✓✗ ✒✉✌✑❻ ❲

Page 25: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❯�✁✂✄ ☎�✆ ✝✞☎✄❯✟✞✝✞�✂ ✷✠

✡☛☞☛☞ ❘✌✍✎✏ ✑✒ ✓✏✍✎✔✕✖

❚✗✘ ✙✚✛✘✙ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✜✤✥✘✦✣✙ ✧✘ ✦✜★✘ ✩✦✪✜✙✙ ✚✫ ✣✗✘✉✫✚✬✘✪✙✘ ✬✩✪✭ ✜✬✘✪ ✩ ✬✘✪✭ ✧✚✮✘ ✪✩✫✯✘✰ ❚✗✘✙✘ ★✩✭✬✩✪✭ ✢✪✜★ ✣✗✘ ✙✚✛✘ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✜✪✮✘✪ ✜✢ ✈✱➊✲✳ ★ ✜✢ ✣✗✘✣✚✫✭ ✫✉✦t✘✉✙ ✜✢ ✩✫ ✩✣✜★ ✣✜ ✣✗✘ ✙✚✛✘ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✜✪✮✘✪✜✢ ✈✱✴✵ ★ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✘✶✣✘✫✣ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✜✤✙✘✪✬✩✤t✘ ✉✫✚✬✘✪✙✘✰❚✩✤t✘ ✸✰✹ ✯✚✬✘✙ ✣✗✘ ✪✩✫✯✘ ✩✫✮ ✜✪✮✘✪ ✜✢ t✘✫✯✣✗✙✩✫✮ ✙✚✛✘✙ ✜✢ ✙✜★✘ ✜✢ ✣✗✘✙✘ ✜✤✥✘✦✣✙✰

❲✘ ✩t✙✜ ✉✙✘ ✦✘✪✣✩✚✫ ✙❡✘✦✚✩t t✘✫✯✣✗ ✉✫✚✣✙ ✢✜✪✙✗✜✪✣ ✩✫✮ t✩✪✯✘ t✘✫✯✣✗✙✰ ❚✗✘✙✘ ✩✪✘✈ ✢✘✪★✚ ❂ ✈ ✢ ❂ ✈✱➊✲✺ ★✈ ✩✫✯✙✣✪✜★ ❂ ✈ ✻ ❂ ✈✱➊✲✼ ★✈ ✩✙✣✪✜✫✜★✚✦✩t ✉✫✚✣ ❂ ✈ ❆✽ ✾✩✬✘✪✩✯✘ ✮✚✙✣✩✫✦✘

✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✿✉✫ ✢✪✜★ ✣✗✘ ❀✩✪✣✗❁❂ ✈✰❃❄✹ × ✈✱✲✲ ★

✈ t✚✯✗✣ ✭✘✩✪ ❂ ✈ t✭❂ ❄✰❃✹ × ✈✱✲✺ ★ ✾✮✚✙✣✩✫✦✘✣✗✩✣ t✚✯✗✣ ✣✪✩✬✘t✙ ✧✚✣✗ ✬✘t✜✦✚✣✭ ✜✢

❅ × ✈✱❇ ★ ✙➊✲ ✚✫ ✈ ✭✘✩✪❁✈ ❡✩✪✙✘✦ ❂ ❅✰✱❈ × ✈✱✲✵ ★ ✾❉✩✪✙✘✦ ✚✙ ✣✗✘✮✚✙✣✩✫✦✘ ✩✣ ✧✗✚✦✗ ✩✬✘✪✩✯✘ ✪✩✮✚✉✙ ✜✢ ✘✩✪✣✗❞✙ ✜✪✤✚✣✙✉✤✣✘✫✮✙ ✩✫ ✩✫✯t✘ ✜✢ ✈ ✩✪✦ ✙✘✦✜✫✮❁

✡☛❊ ▼❋●❍■❘❋▼❋❏❑ ▲◆ ▼●❍❍

❖✩✙✙ ✚✙ ✩ ✤✩✙✚✦ ❡✪✜❡✘✪✣✭ ✜✢ ★✩✣✣✘✪✰ P✣ ✮✜✘✙ ✫✜✣✮✘❡✘✫✮ ✜✫ ✣✗✘ ✣✘★❡✘✪✩✣✉✪✘◗ ❡✪✘✙✙✉✪✘ ✜✪ t✜✦✩✣✚✜✫✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✜✤✥✘✦✣ ✚✫ ✙❡✩✦✘✰ ❚✗✘ ✿P ✉✫✚✣ ✜✢ ★✩✙✙ ✚✙❦✚t✜✯✪✩★ ✾❦✯❁✰ ❚✗✘ ❡✪✜✣✜✣✭❡✘✙ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ P✫✣✘✪✫✩✣✚✜✫✩t✙✣✩✫✮✩✪✮ ❦✚t✜✯✪✩★ ✙✉❡❡t✚✘✮ ✤✭ ✣✗✘ P✫✣✘✪✫✩✣✚✜✫✩t❙✉✪✘✩✉ ✜✢ ❲✘✚✯✗✣✙ ✩✫✮ ❖✘✩✙✉✪✘✙ ✾❙P❉❖❁ ✩✪✘✩✬✩✚t✩✤t✘ ✚✫ ★✩✫✭ ✜✣✗✘✪ t✩✤✜✪✩✣✜✪✚✘✙ ✜✢ ✮✚✢✢✘✪✘✫✣✦✜✉✫✣✪✚✘✙✰ P✫ P✫✮✚✩◗ ✣✗✚✙ ✚✙ ✩✬✩✚t✩✤t✘ ✩✣ ✣✗✘❱✩✣✚✜✫✩t ❉✗✭✙✚✦✩t ❳✩✤✜✪✩✣✜✪✭ ✾❱❉❳❁◗ ❱✘✧ ❨✘t✗✚✰

❲✗✚t✘ ✮✘✩t✚✫✯ ✧✚✣✗ ✩✣✜★✙ ✩✫✮ ★✜t✘✦✉t✘✙◗ ✣✗✘❦✚t✜✯✪✩★ ✚✙ ✩✫ ✚✫✦✜✫✬✘✫✚✘✫✣ ✉✫✚✣✰ P✫ ✣✗✚✙ ✦✩✙✘◗✣✗✘✪✘ ✚✙ ✩✫ ✚★❡✜✪✣✩✫✣ ✙✣✩✫✮✩✪✮ ✉✫✚✣ ✜✢ ★✩✙✙◗✦✩tt✘✮ ✣✗✘ ❩✍❬✒❬✏❭ ✌✔✑❪❬❫ ❪✌✖✖ ❩✍❬✔ ✾✉❁◗ ✧✗✚✦✗✗✩✙ ✤✘✘✫ ✘✙✣✩✤t✚✙✗✘✮ ✢✜✪ ✘✶❡✪✘✙✙✚✫✯ ✣✗✘ ★✩✙✙✜✢ ✩✣✜★✙ ✩✙

✈ ✉✫✚✢✚✘✮ ✩✣✜★✚✦ ★✩✙✙ ✉✫✚✣ ❂ ✈✉❂ ✾✈❴✈✸❁ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ ★✩✙✙ ✜✢ ✩✫ ✩✣✜★ ✜✢ ✦✩✪✤✜✫❵✈✸

✚✙✜✣✜❡✘ ❛ ❜❝❢❣❤ ✚✫✦t✉✮✚✫✯ ✣✗✘ ★✩✙✙ ✜✢ ✘t✘✦✣✪✜✫✙

❂ ✈✰✹✹ ✐ ✈✱➊✴❥ ❦✯

❖✩✙✙ ✜✢ ✦✜★★✜✫t✭ ✩✬✩✚t✩✤t✘ ✜✤✥✘✦✣✙ ✦✩✫ ✤✘✮✘✣✘✪★✚✫✘✮ ✤✭ ✩ ✦✜★★✜✫ ✤✩t✩✫✦✘ t✚❦✘ ✣✗✘ ✜✫✘✉✙✘✮ ✚✫ ✩ ✯✪✜✦✘✪✭ ✙✗✜❡✰ ❳✩✪✯✘ ★✩✙✙✘✙ ✚✫ ✣✗✘✉✫✚✬✘✪✙✘ t✚❦✘ ❡t✩✫✘✣✙◗ ✙✣✩✪✙◗ ✘✣✦✰◗ ✤✩✙✘✮ ✜✫❱✘✧✣✜✫❞✙ t✩✧ ✜✢ ✯✪✩✬✚✣✩✣✚✜✫ ✦✩✫ ✤✘ ★✘✩✙✉✪✘✮ ✤✭✉✙✚✫✯ ✯✪✩✬✚✣✩✣✚✜✫✩t ★✘✣✗✜✮ ✾✿✘✘ ❧✗✩❡✣✘✪ ❈❁✰ ♠✜✪★✘✩✙✉✪✘★✘✫✣ ✜✢ ✙★✩tt ★✩✙✙✘✙ ✜✢ ✩✣✜★✚✦❴✙✉✤❵✩✣✜★✚✦ ❡✩✪✣✚✦t✘✙ ✘✣✦✰◗ ✧✘ ★✩❦✘ ✉✙✘ ✜✢ ★✩✙✙✙❡✘✦✣✪✜✯✪✩❡✗ ✚✫ ✧✗✚✦✗ ✪✩✮✚✉✙ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✣✪✩✥✘✦✣✜✪✭✚✙ ❡✪✜❡✜✪✣✚✜✫✩t ✣✜ ✣✗✘ ★✩✙✙ ✜✢ ✩ ✦✗✩✪✯✘✮ ❡✩✪✣✚✦t✘★✜✬✚✫✯ ✚✫ ✉✫✚✢✜✪★ ✘t✘✦✣✪✚✦ ✩✫✮ ★✩✯✫✘✣✚✦ ✢✚✘t✮✰

✡☛❊☛♥ ❘✌✍✎✏ ✑✒ ▼✌✖✖✏✖

❚✗✘ ★✩✙✙✘✙ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✜✤✥✘✦✣✙◗ ✧✘ ✦✜★✘ ✩✦✪✜✙✙ ✚✫✣✗✘ ✉✫✚✬✘✪✙✘◗ ✬✩✪✭ ✜✬✘✪ ✩ ✬✘✪✭ ✧✚✮✘ ✪✩✫✯✘✰ ❚✗✘✙✘★✩✭ ✬✩✪✭ ✢✪✜★ ✣✚✫✭ ★✩✙✙ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✜✪✮✘✪ ✜✢ ✈✱♦♣✼ ❦✯✜✢ ✩✫ ✘t✘✦✣✪✜✫ ✣✜ ✣✗✘ ✗✉✯✘ ★✩✙✙ ✜✢ ✩✤✜✉✣ ✈✱✺✺ ❦✯✜✢ ✣✗✘ ❦✫✜✧✫ ✉✫✚✬✘✪✙✘✰ ❚✩✤t✘ ✸✰❃ ✯✚✬✘✙ ✣✗✘ ✪✩✫✯✘✩✫✮ ✜✪✮✘✪ ✜✢ ✣✗✘ ✣✭❡✚✦✩t ★✩✙✙✘✙ ✜✢ ✬✩✪✚✜✉✙✜✤✥✘✦✣✙✰

qrs✇① ②③④ ⑤r⑥⑦① r⑥⑧ ⑨⑩⑧①⑩ ⑨❶ ✇①⑥⑦❷❸❹

Page 26: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✷✷

❚✆✝✞✟ ✠✡☛ ❘✆☞✌✟ ✆☞✍ ✎✏✍✟✏ ✎✑ ✒✆✓✓✟✓

✔✕✖ ✥✗✘✙✚✛✗✥✗✜✢✣✤ ✢✦✥✗

✧★ ✩✪✫✬✭✮✪ ✫✯✰ ✱✲✩✪ ✲✯✱✪✮✳✫✴ ✵✪ ✯✪✪✶ ✫ ✸✴★✸✹✺

❲✪ ✯★✵ ✭✬✪ ✫✯ ❛✻✼✽✾✿ ❀✻❛❁❂❛❃❂ ✼❞ ✻✾✽❄❅ ✵❆✲✸❆

✲✬ ✐✫✬✪✶ ★✯ ✱❆✪ ❇✪✮✲★✶✲✸ ✳✲✐✮✫✱✲★✯✬ ❇✮★✶✭✸✪✶ ✲✯

✫ ✸✪✬✲✭✩ ✫✱★✩✺ ✧❆✲✬ ✲✬ ✱❆✪ ✐✫✬✲✬ ★❈ ✱❆✪ ✿❄❀✾❝✽

✿❉✼✿❊❅ ✬★✩✪✱✲✩✪✬ ✸✫✴✴✪✶ ❛✻✼✽✾✿ ✿❉✼✿❊❅ ✭✬✪✶ ✲✯

✱❆✪ ✯✫✱✲★✯✫✴ ✬✱✫✯✶✫✮✶✬✺ t✭✸❆ ✬✱✫✯✶✫✮✶✬ ✫✮✪

✫✳✫✲✴✫✐✴✪ ✲✯ ✩✫✯✰ ✴✫✐★✮✫✱★✮✲✪✬✺ ❋✯ ✱❆✪ ✸✪✬✲✭✩

✫✱★✩✲✸ ✸✴★✸✹❅ ✱❆✪ ✬✪✸★✯✶ ✲✬ ✱✫✹✪✯ ✫✬ ✱❆✪ ✱✲✩✪

✯✪✪✶✪✶ ❈★✮ ♥❅●♥❍❅■❏●❅❑❑▲ ✳✲✐✮✫✱✲★✯✬ ★❈ ✱❆✪

✮✫✶✲✫✱✲★✯ ✸★✮✮✪✬❇★✯✶✲✯r ✱★ ✱❆✪ ✱✮✫✯✬✲✱✲★✯

✐✪✱✵✪✪✯ ✱❆✪ ✱✵★ ❆✰❇✪✮❈✲✯✪ ✴✪✳✪✴✬ ★❈ ✱❆✪ r✮★✭✯✶

✬✱✫✱✪ ★❈ ✸✪✬✲✭✩s●❏❏ ✫✱★✩✺ ✧❆✪ ✳✲✐✮✫✱✲★✯✬ ★❈ ✱❆✪

✸✪✬✲✭✩ ✫✱★✩ ✮✪r✭✴✫✱✪ ✱❆✪ ✮✫✱✪ ★❈ ✱❆✲✬ ✸✪✬✲✭✩

✫✱★✩✲✸ ✸✴★✸✹ ▼✭✬✱ ✫✬ ✱❆✪ ✳✲✐✮✫✱✲★✯✬ ★❈ ✫ ✐✫✴✫✯✸✪

✵❆✪✪✴ ✮✪r✭✴✫✱✪ ✫✯ ★✮✶✲✯✫✮✰ ✵✮✲✬✱✵✫✱✸❆ ★✮ ✱❆✪

✳✲✐✮✫✱✲★✯✬ ★❈ ✫ ✬✩✫✴✴ ✈✭✫✮✱◆ ✸✮✰✬✱✫✴ ✮✪r✭✴✫✱✪ ✫

✈✭✫✮✱◆ ✵✮✲✬✱✵✫✱✸❆✺

✧❆✪ ✸✪✬✲✭✩ ✫✱★✩✲✸ ✸✴★✸✹✬ ✫✮✪ ✳✪✮✰ ✫✸✸✭✮✫✱✪✺

❋✯ ❇✮✲✯✸✲❇✴✪ ✱❆✪✰ ❇✮★✳✲✶✪ ❇★✮✱✫✐✴✪ ✬✱✫✯✶✫✮✶✺ ✧❆✪

✯✫✱✲★✯✫✴ ✬✱✫✯✶✫✮✶ ★❈ ✱✲✩✪ ✲✯✱✪✮✳✫✴ ❖✬✪✸★✯✶◗ ✫✬

✵✪✴✴ ✫✬ ✱❆✪ ❈✮✪✈✭✪✯✸✰ ✲✬✩✫✲✯✱✫✲✯✪✶ ✱❆✮★✭r❆ ❈★✭✮

✸✪✬✲✭✩ ✫✱★✩✲✸ ✸✴★✸✹✬✺ ❙ ✸✪✬✲✭✩ ✫✱★✩✲✸ ✸✴★✸✹ ✲✬

✭✬✪✶ ✫✱ ✱❆✪ ✉✫✱✲★✯✫✴ ❯❆✰✬✲✸✫✴ ❱✫✐★✮✫✱★✮✰ ❳✉❯❱❨❅

✉✪✵ ❩✪✴❆✲ ✱★ ✩✫✲✯✱✫✲✯ ✱❆✪ ❋✯✶✲✫✯ ✬✱✫✯✶✫✮✶ ★❈

✱✲✩✪✺

❋✯ ★✭✮ ✸★✭✯✱✮✰❅ ✱❆✪ ✉❯❱ ❆✫✬ ✱❆✪ ✮✪✬❇★✯✬✲✐✲✴✲✱✰

★❈ ✩✫✲✯✱✪✯✫✯✸✪ ✫✯✶ ✲✩❇✮★✳✪✩✪✯✱ ★❈ ❇❆✰✬✲✸✫✴

✬✱✫✯✶✫✮✶✬❅ ✲✯✸✴✭✶✲✯r ✱❆✫✱ ★❈ ✱✲✩✪❅ ❈✮✪✈✭✪✯✸✰❅ ✪✱✸✺

✉★✱✪ ✱❆✫✱ ✱❆✪ ❋✯✶✲✫✯ t✱✫✯✶✫✮✶ ✧✲✩✪ ❳❋t✧❨ ✲✬

✴✲✯✹✪✶ ✱★ ✱❆✲✬ ✬✪✱ ★❈ ✫✱★✩✲✸ ✸✴★✸✹✬✺ ✧❆✪ ✪❈❈✲✸✲✪✯✱

✸✪✬✲✭✩ ✫✱★✩✲✸ ✸✴★✸✹✬ ✫✮✪ ✬★ ✫✸✸✭✮✫✱✪ ✱❆✫✱ ✱❆✪✰

✲✩❇✫✮✱ ✱❆✪ ✭✯✸✪✮✱✫✲✯✱✰ ✲✯ ✱✲✩✪ ✮✪✫✴✲✬✫✱✲★✯ ✫✬

➧ ● × ●▲➊❬❭❅ ✲✺✪✺ ● ❇✫✮✱ ✲✯ ●▲❬❭✺ ✧❆✲✬ ✲✩❇✴✲✪✬ ✱❆✫✱

✱❆✪ ✭✯✸✪✮✱✫✲✯✱✰ r✫✲✯✪✶ ★✳✪✮ ✱✲✩✪ ✐✰ ✬✭✸❆ ✫

✶✪✳✲✸✪ ✲✬ ✴✪✬✬ ✱❆✫✯ ● ❇✫✮✱ ✲✯ ●▲❬❭❪ ✱❆✪✰ ✴★✬✪ ★✮

r✫✲✯ ✯★ ✩★✮✪ ✱❆✫✯ ❏ ❡✬ ✲✯ ★✯✪ ✰✪✫✮✺ ❋✯ ✳✲✪✵ ★❈

✱❆✪ ✱✮✪✩✪✯✶★✭✬ ✫✸✸✭✮✫✸✰ ✲✯ ✱✲✩✪✩✪✫✬✭✮✪✩✪✯✱❅

✱❆✪ t❋ ✭✯✲✱ ★❈ ✴✪✯r✱❆ ❆✫✬ ✐✪✪✯ ✪❫❇✮✪✬✬✪✶ ✲✯ ✱✪✮✩✬

✱❆✪ ❇✫✱❆ ✴✪✯r✱❆ ✴✲r❆✱ ✱✮✫✳✪✴✬ ✲✯ ✸✪✮✱✫✲✯ ✲✯✱✪✮✳✫✴

★❈ ✱✲✩✪ ❳●♦❍♥♥❅ ❑♥❍❅ ❴❵❜ ★❈ ✫ ✬✪✸★✯✶❨ ❳✧✫✐✴✪ ❍✺●❨✺

✧❆✪ ✱✲✩✪ ✲✯✱✪✮✳✫✴ ★❈ ✪✳✪✯✱✬ ✱❆✫✱ ✵✪ ✸★✩✪

✫✸✮★✬✬ ✲✯ ✱❆✪ ✭✯✲✳✪✮✬✪ ✳✫✮✰ ★✳✪✮ ✫ ✳✪✮✰ ✵✲✶✪

✮✫✯r✪✺ ✧✫✐✴✪ ❍✺❵ r✲✳✪✬ ✱❆✪ ✮✫✯r✪ ✫✯✶ ★✮✶✪✮ ★❈

✬★✩✪ ✱✰❇✲✸✫✴ ✱✲✩✪ ✲✯✱✪✮✳✫✴✬✺

❢★✭ ✩✫✰ ✯★✱✲✸✪ ✱❆✫✱ ✱❆✪✮✪ ✲✬ ✫✯ ✲✯✱✪✮✪✬✱✲✯r

✸★✲✯✸✲✶✪✯✸✪ ✐✪✱✵✪✪✯ ✱❆✪ ✯✭✩✐✪✮✬ ✫❇❇✪✫✮✲✯r

✲✯ ✧✫✐✴✪✬ ❍✺❏ ✫✯✶ ❍✺❵✺ ✉★✱✪ ✱❆✫✱ ✱❆✪ ✮✫✱✲★ ★❈ ✱❆✪

✴★✯r✪✬✱ ✫✯✶ ✬❆★✮✱✪✬✱ ✴✪✯r✱❆✬ ★❈ ★✐▼✪✸✱✬ ✲✯ ★✭✮

✭✯✲✳✪✮✬✪ ✲✬ ✫✐★✭✱ ●▲❣❬✺ ❋✯✱✪✮✪✬✱✲✯r✴✰ ✪✯★✭r❆❅

✱❆✪ ✮✫✱✲★ ★❈ ✱❆✪ ✴★✯r✪✬✱ ✫✯✶ ✬❆★✮✱✪✬✱ ✱✲✩✪

✲✯✱✪✮✳✫✴✬ ✫✬✬★✸✲✫✱✪✶✵✲✱❆ ✱❆✪ ✪✳✪✯✱✬ ✫✯✶ ★✐▼✪✸✱✬

✲✯ ★✭✮ ✭✯✲✳✪✮✬✪ ✲✬ ✫✴✬★ ✫✐★✭✱ ●▲❣❬✺ ✧❆✲✬ ✯✭✩✐✪✮❅

●▲❣❬ ✸★✩✪✬ ✭❇ ✫r✫✲✯ ✲✯ ✧✫✐✴✪ ❍✺❴❅ ✵❆✲✸❆ ✴✲✬✱✬

✱✰❇✲✸✫✴ ✩✫✬✬✪✬ ★❈ ★✐▼✪✸✱✬✺ ✧❆✪ ✮✫✱✲★ ★❈ ✱❆✪

✴✫✮r✪✬✱ ✫✯✶ ✬✩✫✴✴✪✬✱ ✩✫✬✬✪✬ ★❈ ✱❆✪ ★✐▼✪✸✱✬ ✲✯

★✭✮ ✭✯✲✳✪✮✬✪ ✲✬ ✫✐★✭✱ ❳●▲❣❬❨❤✺ ❋✬ ✱❆✲✬ ✫ ✸✭✮✲★✭✬

✸★✲✯✸✲✶✪✯✸✪ ✐✪✱✵✪✪✯ ✱❆✪✬✪ ✴✫✮r✪ ✯✭✩✐✪✮✬

❇✭✮✪✴✰ ✫✸✸✲✶✪✯✱✫✴ ❥

✔✕❦ ✘❧❧✚✛✘❧♠♣q✛✗❧✦✙✦✣✜✣✤✦✜✙✢✛✚✥✗✜✢✙

✘✜✇✗✛✛✣✛✙ ✦✜✥✗✘✙✚✛✗✥✗✜✢

①✪✫✬✭✮✪✩✪✯✱ ✲✬ ✱❆✪ ❈★✭✯✶✫✱✲★✯ ★❈ ✫✴✴

✪❫❇✪✮✲✩✪✯✱✫✴ ✬✸✲✪✯✸✪ ✫✯✶ ✱✪✸❆✯★✴★r✰✺ ✧❆✪ ✮✪✬✭✴✱

★❈ ✪✳✪✮✰ ✩✪✫✬✭✮✪✩✪✯✱ ✐✰ ✫✯✰ ✩✪✫✬✭✮✲✯r

✲✯✬✱✮✭✩✪✯✱ ✸★✯✱✫✲✯✬ ✬★✩✪ ✭✯✸✪✮✱✫✲✯✱✰✺ ✧❆✲✬

✭✯✸✪✮✱✫✲✯✱✰ ✲✬ ✸✫✴✴✪✶ ❄❃❃✼❃✺ ②✳✪✮✰ ✸✫✴✸✭✴✫✱✪✶

✈✭✫✯✱✲✱✰ ✵❆✲✸❆ ✲✬ ✐✫✬✪✶ ★✯ ✩✪✫✬✭✮✪✶ ✳✫✴✭✪✬❅

✫✴✬★ ❆✫✬ ✫✯ ✪✮✮★✮✺ ❲✪ ✬❆✫✴✴ ✶✲✬✱✲✯r✭✲✬❆ ✐✪✱✵✪✪✯

✱✵★ ✱✪✮✩✬③ ❛✿✿❝❃❛✿④ ✫✯✶ ⑤❃❄✿✾❀✾✼❁✺ ✧❆✪

✫✸✸✭✮✫✸✰ ★❈ ✫✩✪✫✬✭✮✪✩✪✯✱ ✲✬ ✫✩✪✫✬✭✮✪ ★❈ ❆★✵

✸✴★✬✪ ✱❆✪ ✩✪✫✬✭✮✪✶ ✳✫✴✭✪ ✲✬ ✱★ ✱❆✪ ✱✮✭✪ ✳✫✴✭✪ ★❈

✱❆✪ ✈✭✫✯✱✲✱✰✺ ❯✮✪✸✲✬✲★✯ ✱✪✴✴✬ ✭✬ ✱★✵❆✫✱ ✮✪✬★✴✭✱✲★✯

★✮ ✴✲✩✲✱ ✱❆✪ ✈✭✫✯✱✲✱✰ ✲✬ ✩✪✫✬✭✮✪✶✺

✧❆✪ ✫✸✸✭✮✫✸✰ ✲✯ ✩✪✫✬✭✮✪✩✪✯✱ ✩✫✰ ✶✪❇✪✯✶ ★✯

✬✪✳✪✮✫✴ ❈✫✸✱★✮✬❅ ✲✯✸✴✭✶✲✯r ✱❆✪ ✴✲✩✲✱ ★✮ ✱❆✪ ✮✪✬★✴✭✱✲★✯

★❈ ✱❆✪✩✪✫✬✭✮✲✯r ✲✯✬✱✮✭✩✪✯✱✺⑥★✮✪❫✫✩❇✴✪❅ ✬✭❇❇★✬✪

✱❆✪ ✱✮✭✪ ✳✫✴✭✪ ★❈ ✫ ✸✪✮✱✫✲✯ ✴✪✯r✱❆ ✲✬✯✪✫✮ ❏✺■❑❜ ✸✩✺

❋✯ ★✯✪ ✪❫❇✪✮✲✩✪✯✱❅ ✭✬✲✯r ✫✩✪✫✬✭✮✲✯r ✲✯✬✱✮✭✩✪✯✱

★❈ ✮✪✬★✴✭✱✲★✯▲✺●✸✩❅ ✱❆✪✩✪✫✬✭✮✪✶✳✫✴✭✪ ✲✬ ❈★✭✯✶✱★

✐✪ ❏✺❵ ✸✩❅ ✵❆✲✴✪ ✲✯ ✫✯★✱❆✪✮ ✪❫❇✪✮✲✩✪✯✱ ✭✬✲✯r ✫

✩✪✫✬✭✮✲✯r✶✪✳✲✸✪ ★❈r✮✪✫✱✪✮ ✮✪✬★✴✭✱✲★✯❅ ✬✫✰▲✺▲●✸✩❅

✱❆✪ ✴✪✯r✱❆ ✲✬ ✶✪✱✪✮✩✲✯✪✶ ✱★ ✐✪ ❏✺❏❜ ✸✩✺ ✧❆✪ ❈✲✮✬✱

✩✪✫✬✭✮✪✩✪✯✱ ❆✫✬ ✩★✮✪ ✫✸✸✭✮✫✸✰ ❳✐✪✸✫✭✬✪ ✲✱ ✲✬

Page 27: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❯�✁✂✄ ☎�✆ ✝✞☎✄❯✟✞✝✞�✂ ✷✠

❝✡☛☞✌✍ ✎☛ ✎✏✌ ✎✍✑✌ ✒✓✡✑✌✔ ✕✑✎ ✡✌☞☞ ✖✍✌❝✗☞✗☛✘ ✙✗✎☞

✍✌☞☛✡✑✎✗☛✘ ✗☞ ☛✘✡r ✚✛✜ ❝✢✔✣ ✤✏✗✡✌ ✎✏✌

☞✌❝☛✘s ✢✌✓☞✑✍✌✢✌✘✎ ✗☞ ✡✌☞☞ ✓❝❝✑✍✓✎✌ ✕✑✎

✢☛✍✌ ✖✍✌❝✗☞✌✛ ♠✏✑☞ ✌✒✌✍r ✢✌✓☞✑✍✌✢✌✘✎ ✗☞

✓✖✖✍☛❛✗✢✓✎✌ s✑✌ ✎☛ ✌✍✍☛✍☞ ✗✘ ✢✌✓☞✑✍✌✢✌✘✎✛ ✥✘

❣✌✘✌✍✓✡✣ ✎✏✌ ✌✍✍☛✍☞ ✗✘ ✢✌✓☞✑✍✌✢✌✘✎ ❝✓✘ ✕✌

✕✍☛✓s✡r ❝✡✓☞☞✗❜✗✌s ✓☞ ✙✓✔ ☞r☞✎✌✢✓✎✗❝ ✌✍✍☛✍☞ ✓✘s

✙✕✔ ✍✓✘s☛✢ ✌✍✍☛✍☞✛

❙✦✧★✩✪✫★✬✭ ✩✮✮✯✮✧

♠✏✌ ✰✱✰✲✳✴✵✲✶✸ ✳✹✹✺✹✰ ✓✍✌ ✎✏☛☞✌ ✌✍✍☛✍☞ ✎✏✓✎

✎✌✘s ✎☛ ✕✌ ✗✘ ☛✘✌ s✗✍✌❝✎✗☛✘✣ ✌✗✎✏✌✍ ✖☛☞✗✎✗✒✌ ☛✍

✘✌❣✓✎✗✒✌✛ ♥☛✢✌ ☛❜ ✎✏✌ ☞☛✑✍❝✌☞ ☛❜ ☞r☞✎✌✢✓✎✗❝

✌✍✍☛✍☞ ✓✍✌ ❡

✙✓✔ ■✻✰✲✹✼✴✳✻✲✵✽ ✳✹✹✺✹✰ ✎✏✓✎ ✓✍✗☞✌ ❜✍☛✢ ✎✏✌

✌✍✍☛✍☞ s✑✌ ✎☛ ✗✢✖✌✍❜✌❝✎ s✌☞✗❣✘ ☛✍ ❝✓✡✗✕✍✓✎✗☛✘

☛❜ ✎✏✌ ✢✌✓☞✑✍✗✘❣ ✗✘☞✎✍✑✢✌✘✎✣ ♦✌✍☛ ✌✍✍☛✍ ✗✘

✎✏✌ ✗✘☞✎✍✑✢✌✘✎✣ ✌✎❝✛ t☛✍ ✌❛✓✢✖✡✌✣ ✎✏✌

✎✌✢✖✌✍✓✎✑✍✌ ❣✍✓s✑✓✎✗☛✘☞ ☛❜ ✓ ✎✏✌✍✢☛✢✌✎✌✍

✢✓r ✕✌ ✗✘✓s✌✾✑✓✎✌✡r ❝✓✡✗✕✍✓✎✌s ✙✗✎ ✢✓r ✍✌✓s

✜✚✿ ❀❁ ✓✎ ✎✏✌ ✕☛✗✡✗✘❣ ✖☛✗✘✎ ☛❜ ✤✓✎✌✍ ✓✎ ♥♠❂

✤✏✌✍✌✓☞ ✗✎ ☞✏☛✑✡s ✍✌✓s ✜✚✚ ❀❁✔✇ ✗✘ ✓ ✒✌✍✘✗✌✍

❝✓✡✡✗✖✌✍☞ ✎✏✌ ♦✌✍☛ ✢✓✍❃ ☛❜ ✒✌✍✘✗✌✍ ☞❝✓✡✌ ✢✓r

✘☛✎ ❝☛✗✘❝✗s✌ ✤✗✎✏ ✎✏✌ ♦✌✍☛ ✢✓✍❃ ☛❜ ✎✏✌ ✢✓✗✘

☞❝✓✡✌✣ ☛✍ ☞✗✢✖✡r ✓✘ ☛✍s✗✘✓✍r ✢✌✎✍✌ ☞❝✓✡✌ ✢✓r

✕✌ ✤☛✍✘ ☛❜❜ ✓✎ ☛✘✌ ✌✘s✛

✙✕✔ ■✴❄✳✹❅✳✸✲✶✺✻ ✶✻ ✳❆❄✳✹✶✴✳✻✲✵✽ ✲✳✸❇✻✶❈✼✳

✺✹ ❄✹✺✸✳♣✼✹✳ ♠☛ s✌✎✌✍✢✗✘✌ ✎✏✌ ✎✌✢✖✌✍✓✎✑✍✌

☛❜ ✓ ✏✑✢✓✘ ✕☛sr✣ ✓ ✎✏✌✍✢☛✢✌✎✌✍ ✖✡✓❝✌s

✑✘s✌✍ ✎✏✌ ✓✍✢✖✗✎ ✤✗✡✡ ✓✡✤✓r☞ ❣✗✒✌ ✓

✎✌✢✖✌✍✓✎✑✍✌ ✡☛✤✌✍ ✎✏✓✘ ✎✏✌ ✓❝✎✑✓✡ ✒✓✡✑✌ ☛❜

✎✏✌ ✕☛sr ✎✌✢✖✌✍✓✎✑✍✌✛ ❉✎✏✌✍ ✌❛✎✌✍✘✓✡

❝☛✘s✗✎✗☛✘☞ ✙☞✑❝✏ ✓☞ ❝✏✓✘❣✌☞ ✗✘ ✎✌✢✖✌✍✓✎✑✍✌✣

✏✑✢✗s✗✎r✣ ✤✗✘s ✒✌✡☛❝✗✎r✣ ✌✎❝✛✔ s✑✍✗✘❣ ✎✏✌

✌❛✖✌✍✗✢✌✘✎ ✢✓r ☞r☞✎✌✢✓✎✗❝✓✡✡r ✓❜❜✌❝✎ ✎✏✌

✢✌✓☞✑✍✌✢✌✘✎✛

✙❝✔ P✳✹✰✺✻✵✽ ✳✹✹✺✹✰ ✎✏✓✎ ✓✍✗☞✌ s✑✌ ✎☛ ✓✘

✗✘s✗✒✗s✑✓✡✐☞ ✕✗✓☞✣ ✡✓❝❃ ☛❜ ✖✍☛✖✌✍ ☞✌✎✎✗✘❣ ☛❜

✎✏✌ ✓✖✖✓✍✓✎✑☞ ☛✍ ✗✘s✗✒✗s✑✓✡✐☞ ❝✓✍✌✡✌☞☞✘✌☞☞

✗✘ ✎✓❃✗✘❣ ☛✕☞✌✍✒✓✎✗☛✘☞ ✤✗✎✏☛✑✎ ☛✕☞✌✍✒✗✘❣

✖✍☛✖✌✍ ✖✍✌❝✓✑✎✗☛✘☞✣ ✌✎❝✛ t☛✍ ✌❛✓✢✖✡✌✣ ✗❜ r☛✑✣

✕r ✏✓✕✗✎✣ ✓✡✤✓r☞ ✏☛✡s r☛✑✍ ✏✌✓s ✓ ✕✗✎ ✎☛☛ ❜✓✍

✎☛ ✎✏✌ ✍✗❣✏✎ ✤✏✗✡✌ ✍✌✓s✗✘❣ ✎✏✌ ✖☛☞✗✎✗☛✘ ☛❜ ✓

✘✌✌s✡✌ ☛✘ ✎✏✌ ☞❝✓✡✌✣ r☛✑ ✤✗✡✡ ✗✘✎✍☛s✑❝✌ ✓✘

✌✍✍☛✍ s✑✌ ✎☛ ❄✵✹✵✽✽✵❆✛

♥r☞✎✌✢✓✎✗❝ ✌✍✍☛✍☞ ❝✓✘ ✕✌ ✢✗✘✗✢✗☞✌s ✕r

✗✢✖✍☛✒✗✘❣ ✌❛✖✌✍✗✢✌✘✎✓✡ ✎✌❝✏✘✗✾✑✌☞✣ ☞✌✡✌❝✎✗✘❣

✕✌✎✎✌✍ ✗✘☞✎✍✑✢✌✘✎☞ ✓✘s ✍✌✢☛✒✗✘❣ ✖✌✍☞☛✘✓✡ ✕✗✓☞

✓☞ ❜✓✍ ✓☞ ✖☛☞☞✗✕✡✌✛ t☛✍ ✓ ❣✗✒✌✘ ☞✌✎❊✑✖✣ ✎✏✌☞✌

✌✍✍☛✍☞ ✢✓r ✕✌ ✌☞✎✗✢✓✎✌s ✎☛ ✓ ❝✌✍✎✓✗✘ ✌❛✎✌✘✎ ✓✘s

✎✏✌ ✘✌❝✌☞☞✓✍r ❝☛✍✍✌❝✎✗☛✘☞ ✢✓r ✕✌ ✓✖✖✡✗✌s ✎☛ ✎✏✌

✍✌✓s✗✘❣☞✛

❘✫❋●✯✪ ✩✮✮✯✮✧

♠✏✌ ✹✵✻♣✺✴ ✳✹✹✺✹✰ ✓✍✌ ✎✏☛☞✌ ✌✍✍☛✍☞✣ ✤✏✗❝✏ ☛❝❝✑✍

✗✍✍✌❣✑✡✓✍✡r ✓✘s ✏✌✘❝✌ ✓✍✌ ✍✓✘s☛✢ ✤✗✎✏ ✍✌☞✖✌❝✎

❚❍❏❑▲ ▼◆❖ ◗❍❱❲▲ ❍❱❳ ❨❩❳▲❩ ❨❬ ❭❪❫▲ ❪❱❭▲❩❴❍❑❵

Page 28: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✷✆

t✝ ✞✟✠✡ ☛✡☞ ✞✟✌✍✎ ✏✑✍✞✍ ✒☛✡ ☛✓✟✞✍ ☞✔✍ t✝ ✓☛✡☞✝✕☛✡☞ ✔✡❛✓✍☞✟✒t☛✖✗✍ ✘✗✔✒t✔☛t✟✝✡✞ ✟✡ ✍✙❛✍✓✟✕✍✡t☛✗✒✝✡☞✟t✟✝✡✞ ❝✍✎✠✎ ✔✡❛✓✍☞✟✒t☛✖✗✍ ✘✗✔✒t✔☛t✟✝✡✞ ✟✡t✍✕❛✍✓☛t✔✓✍✚ ✛✝✗t☛✠✍ ✞✔❛❛✗✜✚ ✕✍✒✑☛✡✟✒☛✗✛✟✖✓☛t✟✝✡✞ ✝✘ ✍✙❛✍✓✟✕✍✡t☛✗ ✞✍t✈✔❛✞✚ ✍t✒✢✚ ❛✍✓✞✝✡☛✗❝✔✡✖✟☛✞✍☞✢ ✍✓✓✝✓✞ ✖✜ t✑✍ ✝✖✞✍✓✛✍✓ t☛✭✟✡✠✓✍☛☞✟✡✠✞✚ ✍t✒✎ r✝✓ ✍✙☛✕❛✗✍✚ ✣✑✍✡ t✑✍ ✞☛✕✍❛✍✓✞✝✡ ✓✍❛✍☛t✞ t✑✍ ✞☛✕✍ ✝✖✞✍✓✛☛t✟✝✡✚ ✟t ✟✞ ✛✍✓✜✗✟✭✍✗✜ t✑☛t ✑✍ ✕☛✜ ✠✍t ☞✟✘✘✍✓✍✡t ✓✍☛☞✟✡✠✞✍✛✍✓✜t✟✕✍✎

▲✤✥✦✧ ★✩✪✫✧ ✤✬✬✩✬✏✑✍ ✞✕☛✗✗✍✞t ✛☛✗✔✍ t✑☛t ✒☛✡ ✖✍ ✕✍☛✞✔✓✍☞ ✖✜ t✑✍✕✍☛✞✔✓✟✡✠ ✟✡✞t✓✔✕✍✡t ✟✞ ✒☛✗✗✍☞ ✟t✞ ❧✮✯✰✱ ✲✳✴✵✱✎❆✗✗ t✑✍ ✓✍☛☞✟✡✠✞ ✝✓✕✍☛✞✔✓✍☞ ✛☛✗✔✍✞ ☛✓✍ ✠✝✝☞ ✝✡✗✜✔❛ t✝ t✑✟✞ ✛☛✗✔✍✎✏✑✍ ❧✮✯✰✱ ✲✳✴✵✱ ✮✶✶✳✶ ✟✞ t✑✍ ✍✓✓✝✓

☛✞✞✝✒✟☛t✍☞✣✟t✑ t✑✍ ✓✍✞✝✗✔t✟✝✡ ✝✘ t✑✍ ✟✡✞t✓✔✕✍✡t✎r✝✓ ✍✙☛✕❛✗✍✚ ☛ ✛✍✓✡✟✍✓ ✒☛✗✗✟❛✍✓✞ ✑☛✞ t✑✍ ✗✍☛✞t✒✝✔✡t ☛✞ ✸✎✸✹✒✕✺ ☛ ✞❛✑✍✓✝✕✍t✍✓ ✕☛✜ ✑☛✛✍ ☛✗✍☛✞t ✒✝✔✡t ✝✘ ✸✎✸✸✹ ✒✕✎ ✻✍☛✞t ✒✝✔✡t ✍✓✓✝✓✖✍✗✝✡✠✞ t✝ t✑✍ ✒☛t✍✠✝✓✜ ✝✘ ✓☛✡☞✝✕ ✍✓✓✝✓✞ ✖✔t✣✟t✑✟✡ ☛ ✗✟✕✟t✍☞ ✞✟✌✍✺ ✟t ✝✒✒✔✓✞ ✣✟t✑ ✖✝t✑✞✜✞t✍✕☛t✟✒ ☛✡☞ ✓☛✡☞✝✕ ✍✓✓✝✓✞✎ s✘ ✣✍ ✔✞✍ ☛✕✍t✓✍✞✒☛✗✍ ✘✝✓ ✕✍☛✞✔✓✍✕✍✡t ✝✘ ✗✍✡✠t✑✚ ✟t ✕☛✜ ✑☛✛✍✠✓☛☞✔☛t✟✝✡✞ ☛t ✹ ✕✕ ☞✟✛✟✞✟✝✡ ✞✒☛✗✍ ✞❛☛✒✟✡✠ ✝✓✟✡t✍✓✛☛✗✎❯✞✟✡✠ ✟✡✞t✓✔✕✍✡t✞ ✝✘ ✑✟✠✑✍✓ ❛✓✍✒✟✞✟✝✡✚

✟✕❛✓✝✛✟✡✠ ✍✙❛✍✓✟✕✍✡t☛✗ t✍✒✑✡✟✐✔✍✞✚ ✍t✒✎✚ ✣✍ ✒☛✡✓✍☞✔✒✍ t✑✍ ✗✍☛✞t ✒✝✔✡t ✍✓✓✝✓✎ ✼✍❛✍☛t✟✡✠ t✑✍✝✖✞✍✓✛☛t✟✝✡✞ ✞✍✛✍✓☛✗ t✟✕✍✞ ☛✡☞ t☛✭✟✡✠ t✑✍☛✓✟t✑✕✍t✟✒ ✕✍☛✡ ✝✘ ☛✗✗ t✑✍ ✝✖✞✍✓✛☛t✟✝✡✞✚ t✑✍✕✍☛✡ ✛☛✗✔✍✣✝✔✗☞ ✖✍ ✛✍✓✜ ✒✗✝✞✍ t✝ t✑✍ t✓✔✍ ✛☛✗✔✍✝✘ t✑✍ ✕✍☛✞✔✓✍☞ ✐✔☛✡t✟t✜✎

✽✾✿✾❀ ❁❂✰✳❧✴✱✮ ❃✶✶✳✶❄ ❅✮❧✯✱❇❈✮ ❃✶✶✳✶ ✯✵♦❉✮✶✲✮✵✱✯❊✮ ❃✶✶✳✶

❝☛✢ ❋✔❛❛✝✞✍ t✑✍ ✛☛✗✔✍✞ ✝✖t☛✟✡✍☞ ✟✡ ✞✍✛✍✓☛✗✕✍☛✞✔✓✍✕✍✡t✞ ☛✓✍ ●❍■ ●❏■ ●❑▼▼▼▼■ ●♥✎ ✏✑✍☛✓✟t✑✕✍t✟✒ ✕✍☛✡ ✝✘ t✑✍✞✍ ✛☛✗✔✍✞ ✟✞ t☛✭✍✡ ☛✞t✑✍ ✖✍✞t ❛✝✞✞✟✖✗✍ ✛☛✗✔✍ ✝✘ t✑✍ ✐✔☛✡t✟t✜ ✔✡☞✍✓t✑✍ ✠✟✛✍✡ ✒✝✡☞✟t✟✝✡✞ ✝✘ ✕✍☛✞✔✓✍✕✍✡t ☛✞ ◆

●♠❖◗♥ ❘ ❙●❍❚●❏❚●❑❚▼▼▼❚●♥ ❱ ❲ ❳ ❝❨✎❩✢

✝✓✚

❬ ❬ ❭❪❫❴❵❜ ❞❞ ❡

❜❢❣❤ ❝❨✎❥✢

✏✑✟✞ ✟✞ ✖✍✒☛✔✞✍✚ ☛✞ ✍✙❛✗☛✟✡✍☞ ✍☛✓✗✟✍✓✚ ✟t ✟✞✓✍☛✞✝✡☛✖✗✍ t✝ ✞✔❛❛✝✞✍ t✑☛t ✟✡☞✟✛✟☞✔☛✗✕✍☛✞✔✓✍✕✍✡t✞ ☛✓✍ ☛✞ ✗✟✭✍✗✜ t✝ ✝✛✍✓✍✞t✟✕☛t✍

☛✞ t✝ ✔✡☞✍✓✍✞t✟✕☛t✍ t✑✍ t✓✔✍ ✛☛✗✔✍ ✝✘ t✑✍✐✔☛✡t✟t✜✎❦♣✮ q✯❊✵❇✱✴♦✮ ✳✉ ✱♣✮ ♦❇✉✉✮✶✮✵✲✮

❂✮✱✇✮✮✵ ✱♣✮ ✱✶✴✮ ❈✯❧✴✮ ✳✉ ✱♣✮ ①✴✯✵✱❇✱②✯✵♦ ✱♣✮ ❇✵♦❇❈❇♦✴✯❧ q✮✯✰✴✶✮q✮✵✱ ❈✯❧✴✮ ❇✰✲✯❧❧✮♦ ✱♣✮ ✯❂✰✳❧✴✱✮ ✮✶✶✳✶ ✳✉ ✱♣✮q✮✯✰✴✶✮q✮✵✱✎ ✏✑✟✞ ✟✞ ☞✍✡✝t✍☞ ✖✜ ⑤ ③● ⑤ ④ s✡☛✖✞✍✡✒✍ ✝✘ ☛✡✜ ✝t✑✍✓ ✕✍t✑✝☞ ✝✘ ✭✡✝✣✟✡✠ t✓✔✍✛☛✗✔✍✚ ✣✍ ✒✝✡✞✟☞✍✓✍☞ ☛✓✟t✑✕☛t✟✒ ✕✍☛✡ ☛✞ t✑✍t✓✔✍ ✛☛✗✔✍✎ ✏✑✍✡ t✑✍ ✍✓✓✝✓✞ ✟✡ t✑✍ ✟✡☞✟✛✟☞✔☛✗✕✍☛✞✔✓✍✕✍✡t ✛☛✗✔✍✞ ☛✓✍③⑥❍ ⑦ ⑥♠❖◗♥ ⑧ ⑥⑨■③⑥❏ ⑦ ⑥♠❖◗♥ ⑧ ⑥❏✚✎✎✎✎ ✎✎✎✎ ✎✎✎✎✎✎✎✎ ✎✎✎✎ ✎✎✎✎③⑥ ♥ ⑦ ⑥♠❖◗♥ ⑧ ⑥♥✏✑✍ ③⑥ ✒☛✗✒✔✗☛t✍☞ ☛✖✝✛✍ ✕☛✜ ✖✍ ❛✝✞✟t✟✛✍ ✟✡✒✍✓t☛✟✡ ✒☛✞✍✞ ☛✡☞ ✡✍✠☛t✟✛✍ ✟✡ ✞✝✕✍ ✝t✑✍✓✒☛✞✍✞✎ ⑩✔t ☛✖✞✝✗✔t✍ ✍✓✓✝✓ ❶③●❶ ✣✟✗✗ ☛✗✣☛✜✞✖✍ ❛✝✞✟t✟✛✍✎

❝✖✢ ✏✑✍ ☛✓✟t✑✕✍t✟✒ ✕✍☛✡ ✝✘ ☛✗✗ t✑✍●❷❸❹❺❻❼❽ ❽❾❾❹❾❸✟✞ t☛✭✍✡ ☛✞ t✑✍ ❿➀❳●❺ ✝✓ ➁❽●❳ ●❷❸❹❺❻❼❽ ❽❾❾❹❾✝✘ t✑✍ ✛☛✗✔✍ ✝✘ t✑✍ ❛✑✜✞✟✒☛✗ ✐✔☛✡t✟t✜ ●✎ st ✟✞✓✍❛✓✍✞✍✡t✍☞ ✖✜ ③⑥♠❖◗♥✎

✏✑✔✞✚

③⑥♠❖◗♥ ⑦ ❝❶③●❍❶➂❶③●❏ ❶➂❶③●❑❶➂✎✎✎➂ ❶③●♥❶✢➃❳❝❨✎➄✢

➅➆➇➈ ➉

➊❶③●➋❶➃❳ ❝❨✎➌✢

s✘ ✣✍ ☞✝ ☛ ✞✟✡✠✗✍ ✕✍☛✞✔✓✍✕✍✡t✚ t✑✍ ✛☛✗✔✍✣✍✠✍t ✕☛✜ ✖✍ ✟✡ t✑✍ ✓☛✡✠✍ ⑥♠❖◗♥ ➍ ③⑥♠❖◗♥

i.e. ⑥ = ⑥♠❖◗♥ ➍ ③⑥♠❖◗♥✝✓✚

⑥♠❖◗♥ ➎ ③⑥♠❖◗♥ ➏⑥ ➏⑥♠❖◗♥ ➂ ③⑥♠❖◗♥❝❨✎➐✢

✏✑✟✞ ✟✕❛✗✟✍✞ t✑☛t ☛✡✜ ✕✍☛✞✔✓✍✕✍✡t ✝✘ t✑✍❛✑✜✞✟✒☛✗ ✐✔☛✡t✟t✜ ⑥ ✟✞ ✗✟✭✍✗✜ t✝ ✗✟✍ ✖✍t✣✍✍✡

➑⑥♠❖◗♥➂ ③⑥♠❖◗♥✢ ☛✡☞ ➑⑥♠❖◗♥➒③⑥♠❖◗♥✢✎❝✒✢ s✡✞t✍☛☞ ✝✘ t✑✍ ☛✖✞✝✗✔t✍ ✍✓✓✝✓✚ ✣✍ ✝✘t✍✡ ✔✞✍

t✑✍ ✶✮❧✯✱❇❈✮ ✮✶✶✳✶ ✝✓ t✑✍ ➓✮✶✲✮✵✱✯❊✮ ✮✶✶✳✶❝➔⑥✢✎ →♣✮ ✶✮❧✯✱❇❈✮ ✮✶✶✳✶ ❇✰ ✱♣✮ ✶✯✱❇✳ ✳✉ ✱♣✮q✮✯✵ ✯❂✰✳❧✴✱✮ ✮✶✶✳✶ ➣↔↕➙➛➜ ✱✳ ✱♣✮ q✮✯✵❈✯❧✴✮ ↔↕➙➛➜ ✳✉ ✱♣✮ ①✴✯✵✱❇✱② q✮✯✰✴✶✮♦➝

Page 29: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❯�✁✂✄ ☎�✆ ✝✞☎✄❯✟✞✝✞�✂ ✷✠

❘☛☞✌✍✎✏☛ ☛✑✑✒✑ ✓ ✔❛♠✕✖♥✴❛♠✕✖♥ ✭✗✘✙✚

❲✛☛✜ ✍✛☛ ✑☛☞✌✍✎✏☛ ☛✑✑✒✑ ✎✢ ☛✣✤✑☛✢✢☛✥ ✎✜ ✤☛✑

❝☛✜✍✦ ✎✍ ✎✢ ❝✌☞☞☛✥ ✍✛☛ ♣✧★✩✧✪✫✬✮✧ ✧★★✯★ ✭✰❛✚✘

❚✛✱✢✦ ✲☛✑❝☛✜✍✌✳☛ ☛✑✑✒✑

✰❛ ✓ ✭✔❛♠✕✖♥✴❛♠✕✖♥✚ ✵ ✶✸✸✹ ✭✗✘✶✸✚

▲☛✍ ✱✢ ✜✒✺ ❝✒✜✢✎✥☛✑ ✌✜ ☛✣✌✻✤☞☛✘

❊✼✽✾✿❀❁ ❂❃❄ ❚✺✒ ❝☞✒❝❅✢ ✌✑☛ ❆☛✎✜✳ ✍☛✢✍☛✥

✌✳✌✎✜✢✍ ✌ ✢✍✌✜✥✌✑✥ ❝☞✒❝❅ ☞✒❝✌✍☛✥ ✎✜ ✌

✜✌✍✎✒✜✌☞ ☞✌❆✒✑✌✍✒✑❇✘ ❈✍ ✶✗❉✸✸❉✸✸ ✜✒✒✜ ❆❇

✍✛☛ ✢✍✌✜✥✌✑✥ ❝☞✒❝❅✦ ✍✛☛ ✑☛✌✥✎✜✳✢ ✒t ✍✛☛ ✍✺✒

❝☞✒❝❅✢ ✌✑☛ ❉

❋●❍■❏ ❑ ❋●❍■❏ ▼

◆❖P◗❙❱ ❳❨❩❬❬❩❬❭ ❳❬❩❳❭❩❬❪

❫❴❵❜◗❙❱ ❳❨❩❬❳❩❳❭ ❳❬❩❳❞❩❭❡

❢❵◗P❵❜◗❙❱ ❳❳❩❭❡❩❬❣ ❳❬❩❳❭❩❳❣

❫❤❴✐❜◗❙❱ ❳❨❩❬❳❩❭❬ ❳❬❩❳❭❩❬❥

❦✐❧◗❙❱ ❳❳❩❭❡❩❳❭ ❳❬❩❳❞❩❭♦

q❙r❴✐◗❙❱ ❳❨❩❬❳❩♦❬ ❳❬❩❳❭❩❨❞

q❴P◗❙❱ ❳❨❩❬❳❩❳❡ ❳❬❩❳❭❩❳❳

st ❇✒✱ ✌✑☛ ✥✒✎✜✳ ✌✜ ☛✣✤☛✑✎✻☛✜✍ ✍✛✌✍ ✑☛✉✱✎✑☛✢

✤✑☛❝✎✢✎✒✜ ✍✎✻☛ ✎✜✍☛✑✏✌☞ ✻☛✌✢✱✑☛✻☛✜✍✢✦ ✺✛✎❝✛

✒t ✍✛☛ ✍✺✒ ❝☞✒❝❅✢ ✺✎☞☞ ❇✒✱ ✤✑☛t☛✑ ✈

✇①②③❁④ ❚✛☛ ✑✌✜✳☛ ✒t ✏✌✑✎✌✍✎✒✜ ✒✏☛✑ ✍✛☛ ✢☛✏☛✜

✥✌❇✢ ✒t ✒❆✢☛✑✏✌✍✎✒✜✢ ✎✢ ✶⑤✗ ✢ t✒✑ ❝☞✒❝❅ ✶✦ ✌✜✥

⑥✶ ✢ t✒✑ ❝☞✒❝❅ ✗✘ ❚✛☛ ✌✏☛✑✌✳☛ ✑☛✌✥✎✜✳ ✒t ❝☞✒❝❅ ✶

✎✢ ✻✱❝✛ ❝☞✒✢☛✑ ✍✒ ✍✛☛ ✢✍✌✜✥✌✑✥ ✍✎✻☛ ✍✛✌✜ ✍✛☛

✌✏☛✑✌✳☛ ✑☛✌✥✎✜✳ ✒t ❝☞✒❝❅ ✗✘ ❚✛☛ ✎✻✤✒✑✍✌✜✍ ✤✒✎✜✍

✎✢ ✍✛✌✍ ✌ ❝☞✒❝❅⑦✢ ⑧☛✑✒ ☛✑✑✒✑ ✎✢ ✜✒✍ ✌✢ ✢✎✳✜✎t✎❝✌✜✍

t✒✑ ✤✑☛❝✎✢✎✒✜ ✺✒✑❅ ✌✢ ✎✍✢ ✏✌✑✎✌✍✎✒✜✦ ❆☛❝✌✱✢☛ ✌

➅⑧☛✑✒⑨☛✑✑✒✑⑦ ❝✌✜ ✌☞✺✌❇✢ ❆☛ ☛✌✢✎☞❇ ❝✒✑✑☛❝✍☛✥✘

⑩☛✜❝☛ ❝☞✒❝❅ ✗ ✎✢ ✍✒ ❆☛ ✤✑☛t☛✑✑☛✥ ✍✒ ❝☞✒❝❅ ✶✘ ❶

❊✼✽✾✿❀❁ ❂❃❷ ❲☛ ✻☛✌✢✱✑☛ ✍✛☛ ✤☛✑✎✒✥ ✒t

✒✢❝✎☞☞✌✍✎✒✜ ✒t ✌ ✢✎✻✤☞☛ ✤☛✜✥✱☞✱✻✘ s✜

✢✱❝❝☛✢✢✎✏☛ ✻☛✌✢✱✑☛✻☛✜✍✢✦ ✍✛☛ ✑☛✌✥✎✜✳✢

✍✱✑✜ ✒✱✍ ✍✒ ❆☛ ✗✘⑤⑥ ✢✦ ✗✘❸⑤ ✢✦ ✗✘❹✗ ✢✦ ✗✘❺✶✢

✌✜✥ ✗✘❻✸ ✢✘ ❼✌☞❝✱☞✌✍☛ ✍✛☛ ✌❆✢✒☞✱✍☛ ☛✑✑✒✑✢✦

✑☛☞✌✍✎✏☛ ☛✑✑✒✑ ✒✑ ✤☛✑❝☛✜✍✌✳☛ ☛✑✑✒✑✘

✇①②③❁④ ❚✛☛ ✻☛✌✜ ✤☛✑✎✒✥ ✒t ✒✢❝✎☞☞✌✍✎✒✜ ✒t ✍✛☛

✤☛✜✥✱☞✱✻❽ ❾

❿ ➀➁ ➁ ➁ ➁➂➃➄➆ ➂➃➇➄ ➂➃➈➂ ➂➃➉➊ ➂➃➋➌ ➍

➎➏➐➎➑

➒➓

✓ ✗✘⑤✗❹ ✢

✓ ✗✘⑤✗ ✢

❈✢ ✍✛☛ ✤☛✑✎✒✥✢ ✌✑☛ ✻☛✌✢✱✑☛✥ ✍✒ ✌ ✑☛✢✒☞✱✍✎✒✜

✒t ✸✘✸✶ ✢✦ ✌☞☞ ✍✎✻☛✢ ✌✑☛ ✍✒ ✍✛☛ ✢☛❝✒✜✥ ✥☛❝✎✻✌☞➔ ✎✍

✎✢ ✤✑✒✤☛✑ ✍✒ ✤✱✍ ✍✛✎✢ ✻☛✌✜ ✤☛✑✎✒✥ ✌☞✢✒ ✍✒ ✍✛☛

✢☛❝✒✜✥ ✥☛❝✎✻✌☞✘

❚✛☛ ☛✑✑✒✑✢ ✎✜ ✍✛☛ ✻☛✌✢✱✑☛✻☛✜✍✢ ✌✑☛

✗✘⑤⑥ ✢ → ✗✘⑤✗ ✢ ✓ ✸✘✸✶ ✢

✗✘❸⑤ ✢ → ✗✘⑤✗ ✢ ✓ → ✸✘✸⑤ ✢

✗✘❹✗ ✢ → ✗✘⑤✗ ✢ ✓ → ✸✘✗✸ ✢

✗✘❺✶ ✢ → ✗✘⑤✗ ✢ ✓ ✸✘✸✙ ✢

✗✘❻✸ ✢ → ✗✘⑤✗ ✢ ✓ ✸✘✶❻ ✢

➣✒✍☛ ✍✛✌✍ ✍✛☛ ☛✑✑✒✑✢ ✛✌✏☛ ✍✛☛ ✢✌✻☛ ✱✜✎✍✢ ✌✢ ✍✛☛

✉✱✌✜✍✎✍❇ ✍✒ ❆☛ ✻☛✌✢✱✑☛✥✘

❚✛☛ ✌✑✎✍✛✻☛✍✎❝✻☛✌✜ ✒t ✌☞☞ ✍✛☛ ✌❆✢✒☞✱✍☛ ☛✑✑✒✑✢

✭t✒✑ ✌✑✎✍✛✻☛✍✎❝ ✻☛✌✜✦ ✺☛ ✍✌❅☛ ✒✜☞❇ ✍✛☛

✻✌✳✜✎✍✱✥☛✢✚ ✎✢

✔↔♠✕✖♥ ✓ ↕✭✸✘✸✶➙ ✸✘✸⑤➙✸✘✗✸➙✸✘✸✙➙✸✘✶❻✚✢➛✴❸

✓ ✸✘❸❹ ✢✴❸

✓ ✸✘✶✶ ✢

❚✛✌✍ ✻☛✌✜✢✦ ✍✛☛ ✤☛✑✎✒✥ ✒t ✒✢❝✎☞☞✌✍✎✒✜ ✒t ✍✛☛

✢✎✻✤☞☛ ✤☛✜✥✱☞✱✻ ✎✢ ✭✗✘⑤✗ ➜ ✸✘✶✶✚ ✢ ✎✘☛✘ ✎✍ ☞✎☛✢

❆☛✍✺☛☛✜ ✭✗✘⑤✗ ➙ ✸✘✶✶✚ ✢ ✌✜✥ ✭✗✘⑤✗ → ✸✘✶✶✚ ✢ ✒✑

❆☛✍✺☛☛✜ ✗✘❺⑥ ✢ ✌✜✥ ✗✘❸✶ ✢✘ ❈✢ ✍✛☛ ✌✑✎✍✛✻☛✍✎❝

✻☛✌✜ ✒t ✌☞☞ ✍✛☛ ✌❆✢✒☞✱✍☛ ☛✑✑✒✑✢ ✎✢ ✸✘✶✶ ✢✦ ✍✛☛✑☛

✎✢ ✌☞✑☛✌✥❇ ✌✜ ☛✑✑✒✑ ✎✜ ✍✛☛ ✍☛✜✍✛ ✒t ✌ ✢☛❝✒✜✥✘

⑩☛✜❝☛ ✍✛☛✑☛ ✎✢ ✜✒ ✤✒✎✜✍ ✎✜ ✳✎✏✎✜✳ ✍✛☛ ✤☛✑✎✒✥ ✍✒ ✌

✛✱✜✥✑☛✥✍✛✘ ❈ ✻✒✑☛ ❝✒✑✑☛❝✍ ✺✌❇ ✺✎☞☞ ❆☛ ✍✒ ✺✑✎✍☛

➝ ✓ ✗✘⑤ ➜ ✸✘✶ ✢

➣✒✍☛ ✍✛✌✍ ✍✛☛ ☞✌✢✍ ✜✱✻☛✑✌☞ ⑤ ✎✢ ✱✜✑☛☞✎✌❆☞☛✦ ✢✎✜❝☛

✎✍✻✌❇ ❆☛ ✌✜❇✍✛✎✜✳ ❆☛✍✺☛☛✜ ❸ ✌✜✥ ❺✘ ❲☛ ✎✜✥✎❝✌✍☛

✍✛✎✢ ❆❇ ✢✌❇✎✜✳ ✍✛✌✍ ✍✛☛ ✻☛✌✢✱✑☛✻☛✜✍ ✛✌✢ ✍✺✒

✢✎✳✜✎t✎❝✌✜✍ t✎✳✱✑☛✢✘ s✜ ✍✛✎✢ ❝✌✢☛✦ ✍✛☛ ✍✺✒

✢✎✳✜✎t✎❝✌✜✍ t✎✳✱✑☛✢ ✌✑☛ ✗✦ ✺✛✎❝✛ ✎✢ ✑☛☞✎✌❆☞☛ ✌✜✥

⑤✦ ✺✛✎❝✛ ✛✌✢ ✌✜ ☛✑✑✒✑ ✌✢✢✒❝✎✌✍☛✥ ✺✎✍✛ ✎✍✘ ➞✒✱

✺✎☞☞ ☞☛✌✑✜ ✻✒✑☛ ✌❆✒✱✍ ✍✛☛ ✢✎✳✜✎t✎❝✌✜✍ t✎✳✱✑☛✢ ✎✜

✢☛❝✍✎✒✜ ✗✘❺✘

➟✒✑ ✍✛✎✢ ☛✣✌✻✤☞☛✦ ✍✛☛ ✑☛☞✌✍✎✏☛ ☛✑✑✒✑ ✒✑ ✍✛☛

✤☛✑❝☛✜✍✌✳☛ ☛✑✑✒✑ ✎✢

➠➡ ➢ ➤ ➢❬❳

❳❬❬ ❞➥

❨➥❪✹ ❶

➦➧➨➧➦ ➩✯➫➭➯✪✬✫➯✯✪ ✯➲ ➳★★✯★➵

st ✺☛ ✥✒ ✌✜ ☛✣✤☛✑✎✻☛✜✍ ✎✜✏✒☞✏✎✜✳ ✢☛✏☛✑✌☞

✻☛✌✢✱✑☛✻☛✜✍✢✦ ✺☛ ✻✱✢✍ ❅✜✒✺ ✛✒✺ ✍✛☛ ☛✑✑✒✑✢

✎✜ ✌☞☞ ✍✛☛ ✻☛✌✢✱✑☛✻☛✜✍✢ ❝✒✻❆✎✜☛✘ ➟✒✑ ☛✣✌✻✤☞☛✦

Page 30: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✷✆

❞✞✟✠✡☛☞ ✡✠ ☛✌✞ ✍✎☛✡✏ ✏✑ ☛✌✞ ✒✎✠✠ ☛✏ ☛✌✞ ✓✏✔✕✒✞ ✏✑

☛✌✞ ✠✕t✠☛✎✟✖✞✗ ✘✑ ✙✞ ✌✎✓✞ ✞✍✍✏✍✠ ✡✟ ☛✌✞

✒✞✎✠✕✍✞✒✞✟☛ ✏✑ ✒✎✠✠ ✎✟❞ ✏✑ ☛✌✞ ✠✡♠✞✠ ✏✍

❞✡✒✞✟✠✡✏✟✠✚ ✙✞ ✒✕✠☛ ✛✟✏✙ ✙✌✎☛ ☛✌✞ ✞✍✍✏✍ ✙✡✔✔

t✞ ✡✟ ☛✌✞❞✞✟✠✡☛☞ ✏✑ ☛✌✞ ✠✕t✠☛✎✟✖✞✗ ❜✏✒✎✛✞ ✠✕✖✌

✞✠☛✡✒✎☛✞✠✚ ✙✞ ✠✌✏✕✔❞ ✔✞✎✍✟ ✌✏✙ ✞✍✍✏✍✠ ✖✏✒t✡✟✞

✡✟ ✓✎✍✡✏✕✠ ✒✎☛✌✞✒✎☛✡✖✎✔ ✏✐✞✍✎☛✡✏✟✠✗ ✜✏✍ ☛✌✡✠✚

✙✞ ✕✠✞ ☛✌✞ ✑✏✔✔✏✙✡✟✇ ✐✍✏✖✞❞✕✍✞✗

✭✢✣ ❊✤✤✥✤ ✥✦ ✢ ✧★✩ ✥✤ ✢ ✪✫✦✦✬✤✬✮✯✬

❙✕✐✐✏✠✞ ☛✙✏ ✐✌☞✠✡✖✎✔ ✰✕✎✟☛✡☛✡✞✠ ❆ ✎✟❞ ❇ ✌✎✓✞

✒✞✎✠✕✍✞❞ ✓✎✔✕✞✠ ❆ ✱ ✲❆✚ ❇ ✱ ✲❇ ✍✞✠✐✞✖☛✡✓✞✔☞

✙✌✞✍✞ ✲❆ ✎✟❞ ✲❇ ✎✍✞ ☛✌✞✡✍ ✎t✠✏✔✕☛✞ ✞✍✍✏✍✠✗ ♦✞

✙✡✠✌ ☛✏ ✑✡✟❞ ☛✌✞ ✞✍✍✏✍ ✲❩ ✡✟ ☛✌✞ ✠✕✒

❩ ❂ ❆ ✳ ❇✗

♦✞ ✌✎✓✞ t☞ ✎❞❞✡☛✡✏✟✚ ❩ ➧ ✲❩

❂ ✴❆ ✵ ✲❆✶ ✳ ✴❇ ✱ ✲❇✶✗

❜✌✞ ✒✎❚✡✒✕✒ ✐✏✠✠✡t✔✞ ✞✍✍✏✍ ✡✟ ❩

✲❩ ✸ ✲❆ ✳ ✲❇

✜✏✍ ☛✌✞ ❞✡✑✑✞✍✞✟✖✞ ❩ ❂ ❆ ➊ ❇✚ ✙✞ ✌✎✓✞

❩ ✱ ✲ ❩ ✹ ✺❆ ✱ ✲❆✶ – ✴❇ ✱ ✲❇✶

= (❆ ➊ ❇) ± ✲❆ ✱ ✲❇

or, ✱ ✲❩ ✹ ✱ ✲❆ ✱ ✲❇

❜✌✞ ✒✎❚✡✒✕✒ ✓✎✔✕✞ ✏✑ ☛✌✞ ✞✍✍✏✍ ✲❩ ✡✠ ✎✇✎✡✟

✲❆ ✳ ✲❇✗

❍✻✼✽✻ ✾✿✻ ❀❁❃✻ ❄ ❲✿✻✼ ✾❅❈ ❉❁❋✼✾●✾●✻■ ❋❀✻

❋❛❛✻❛ ❈❀ ■❁❏✾❀❋✽✾✻❛❑ ✾✿✻ ❋❏■❈❃❁✾✻ ✻❀❀❈❀ ●✼ ✾✿✻

❢●✼❋❃ ❀✻■❁❃✾ ●■ ✾✿✻ ■❁▲ ❈❢ ✾✿✻ ❋❏■❈❃❁✾✻ ✻❀❀❈❀■

●✼ ✾✿✻ ●✼❛●▼●❛❁❋❃ ❉❁❋✼✾●✾●✻■◆

❊❖✢✩◗❘✬ ❯❱❳ ❜✌✞ ☛✞✒✐✞✍✎☛✕✍✞✠ ✏✑ ☛✙✏

t✏❞✡✞✠ ✒✞✎✠✕✍✞❞ t☞ ✎ ☛✌✞✍✒✏✒✞☛✞✍ ✎✍✞

❨❬ ❂ ❭❪❫❴ ✱ ❪✗❵ ❫❴ ✎✟❞ ❨❝ ❂ ❵❪

❫❴ ✱ ❪✗❵ ❫❴✗

❴✎✔✖✕✔✎☛✞ ☛✌✞ ☛✞✒✐✞✍✎☛✕✍✞ ❞✡✑✑✞✍✞✟✖✞ ✎✟❞

☛✌✞ ✞✍✍✏✍ ☛✌✞✡✍✡✟✗

❡✮✧❣✬✤ ❨❤ ❂ ❨❝➊❨❬ ❂ ✴❵❪❫❴✱❪✗❵ ❫❴✶➊ ✴❭❪❫❴✱❪✗❵ ❫❴✶

❨❤ ❂ ❥❪ ❫❴ ✱ ❦ ❫❴ ❧

♥❏♣ q❀❀❈❀ ❈❢ ❋ r❀❈❛❁✽✾ ❈❀ ❋ ❉❁❈✾●✻✼✾

❙✕✐✐✏✠✞ ❩ ❂ ❆❇ ✎✟❞ ☛✌✞ ✒✞✎✠✕✍✞❞ ✓✎✔✕✞✠ ✏✑ ❆

✎✟❞ ❇ ✎✍✞ ❆ ✱ ✲❆ ✎✟❞ ❇ ✱ ✲❇✗ ❜✌✞✟

❩ ✱ ✲❩ ❂ ✴❆ ✱ ✲❆✶ ✴❇ ✱ ✲❇✶

❂ ❆❇ ✱ ❇ ✲❆ ✱ ❆ ✲❇ ✱ ✲❆ ✲❇✗

s✡✓✡❞✡✟✇ ✉✈❙ t☞ ❩ ✎✟❞ ①✈❙ t☞ ❆❇ ✙✞ ✌✎✓✞✚

❦✱✴✲❩②❩✶ ❂ ❦ ✱ ✴✲❆③❆✶ ✱ ✴✲❇③❇✶ ✱ ✴✲❆③❆✶✴✲❇③❇✶✗

❙✡✟✖✞ ✲❆ ✎✟❞ ✲❇ ✎✍✞ ✠✒✎✔✔✚ ✙✞ ✠✌✎✔✔ ✡✇✟✏✍✞ ☛✌✞✡✍

✐✍✏❞✕✖☛✗

✈✞✟✖✞ ☛✌✞ ✒✎❚✡✒✕✒ ✍✞✔✎☛✡✓✞ ✞✍✍✏✍

✲❩③ ❩ ❂ ✴✲④③④✶ ✳ ✴✲⑤③⑤✶✗

⑥✏✕ ✖✎✟ ✞✎✠✡✔☞ ✓✞✍✡✑☞ ☛✌✎☛ ☛✌✡✠ ✡✠ ☛✍✕✞ ✑✏✍ ❞✡✓✡✠✡✏✟

✎✔✠✏✗

❍✻✼✽✻ ✾✿✻ ❀❁❃✻ ❄ ❲✿✻✼ ✾❅❈ ❉❁❋✼✾●✾●✻■ ❋❀✻

▲❁❃✾●r❃●✻❛ ❈❀ ❛●▼●❛✻❛❑ ✾✿✻ ❀✻❃❋✾●▼✻ ✻❀❀❈❀ ●✼ ✾✿✻

❀✻■❁❃✾ ●■ ✾✿✻ ■❁▲ ❈❢ ✾✿✻ ❀✻❃❋✾●▼✻ ✻❀❀❈❀■ ●✼ ✾✿✻

▲❁❃✾●r❃●✻❀■◆

⑦⑧⑨ ⑨⑩❶❶ ❷⑧❸ ❹❺❻❼❸❽❺ ❾❿❺ ❶❺➀➁❾❿ ⑧➂ ❻ ❶⑩➀❺➃

➄➅➆➇ ➆ ➈➆➉➋➌ ➍➎➌➏➇➐➑➈➒ ➆➇ ➇➅➐➏ ➏➇➆➓➌➒ ➔➑➎→➐➓➅➇

➏➆➔➣ ↔➎➇ ↕➅➆➇ ➐➙ ➐➇ ➐➏ ➈➑➇ ➆ ➏➇➛➆➐➓➅➇ ➜➐➈➌➝ ➞➛➆↕

➆ ➟➐➓➟➆➓ ➜➐➈➌ ➐➈ ➔➑➎➛ ➠➑➡➔➒ ➑➛ ➑➈ ➇➅➌ ➢➜➆➠➤➢➑➆➛➥➦

➄➌➜➜➒ ➈➑➇ ➇➑➑ ➥➐➙➙➐➠➎➜➇ ➆➓➆➐➈➦ ➨➑➎ →➐➓➅➇ ➇➆➤➌ ➆

➇➅➛➌➆➥➒ ➡➜➆➠➌ ➐➇ ➆➜➑➈➓ ➇➅➌ ➜➐➈➌➒ ➑➡➌➈ ➎➡ ➇➅➌

➇➅➛➌➆➥➒ ➆➈➥ →➌➆➏➎➛➌ ➐➇➏ ➜➌➈➓➇➅➦

➩➑↕ ➐→➆➓➐➈➌ ➇➅➆➇ ➔➑➎ ↕➆➈➇ ➇➑ →➌➆➏➎➛➌ ➇➅➌

➜➌➈➓➇➅ ➑➙ ➆ ➈➆➇➐➑➈➆➜ ➅➐➓➅↕➆➔➒ ➆ ➛➐➋➌➛➒ ➇➅➌ ➛➆➐➜↕➆➔

➇➛➆➠➤ ➢➌➇↕➌➌➈ ➇↕➑ ➏➇➆➇➐➑➈➏➒ ➑➛ ➇➅➌ ➢➑➎➈➥➆➛➔

➢➌➇↕➌➌➈ ➇↕➑ ➏➇➆➇➌➏ ➑➛ ➇↕➑ ➈➆➇➐➑➈➏➦ ➫➙ ➔➑➎ ➇➆➤➌

➆ ➏➇➛➐➈➓ ➑➙ ➜➌➈➓➇➅ ➭ →➌➇➛➌ ➑➛ ➭➯➯ →➌➇➛➌➒ ➤➌➌➡ ➐➇

➆➜➑➈➓ ➇➅➌ ➜➐➈➌➒ ➏➅➐➙➇ ➐➇➏ ➡➑➏➐➇➐➑➈ ➌➋➌➛➔ ➇➐→➌➒ ➇➅➌

➆➛➐➇➅→➌➇➐➠ ➑➙ →➆➈➲➅➑➎➛➏ ➑➙ ➜➆➢➑➎➛ ➆➈➥ ➌➳➡➌➈➏➌➏

➑➈ ➇➅➌ ➡➛➑➵➌➠➇ ➐➏ ➈➑➇ ➠➑→→➌➈➏➎➛➆➇➌ ↕➐➇➅ ➇➅➌

➑➎➇➠➑→➌➦ ➸➑➛➌➑➋➌➛➒ ➌➛➛➑➛➏ ➆➛➌ ➢➑➎➈➥ ➇➑ ➑➠➠➎➛

➐➈ ➇➅➐➏ ➌➈➑➛→➑➎➏ ➇➆➏➤➦ ➺➅➌➛➌ ➐➏ ➆➈ ➐➈➇➌➛➌➏➇➐➈➓

➙➆➠➇ ➆➢➑➎➇ ➇➅➐➏➦ ➻➛➆➈➠➌ ➆➈➥ ↔➌➜➓➐➎→ ➏➅➆➛➌ ➆

➠➑→→➑➈ ➐➈➇➌➛➈➆➇➐➑➈➆➜ ➢➑➎➈➥➆➛➔➒ ↕➅➑➏➌ ➜➌➈➓➇➅

→➌➈➇➐➑➈➌➥ ➐➈ ➇➅➌ ➑➙➙➐➠➐➆➜ ➥➑➠➎→➌➈➇➏ ➑➙ ➇➅➌ ➇↕➑

➠➑➎➈➇➛➐➌➏ ➥➐➙➙➌➛➏ ➏➎➢➏➇➆➈➇➐➆➜➜➔➣

➼➑ ➑➈➌ ➏➇➌➡ ➢➌➔➑➈➥ ➆➈➥ ➐→➆➓➐➈➌ ➇➅➌

➠➑➆➏➇➜➐➈➌ ↕➅➌➛➌ ➜➆➈➥→➌➌➇➏ ➏➌➆➦ ➽➑➆➥➏ ➆➈➥ ➛➐➋➌➛➏

➅➆➋➌ ➙➆➐➛➜➔ →➐➜➥ ➢➌➈➥➏ ➆➏ ➠➑→➡➆➛➌➥ ➇➑ ➆

➠➑➆➏➇➜➐➈➌➦ ➾➋➌➈ ➏➑➒ ➆➜➜ ➥➑➠➎→➌➈➇➏➒ ➐➈➠➜➎➥➐➈➓ ➑➎➛

➏➠➅➑➑➜ ➢➑➑➤➏➒ ➠➑➈➇➆➐➈ ➐➈➙➑➛→➆➇➐➑➈ ➑➈ ➇➅➌ ➜➌➈➓➇➅

➑➙ ➇➅➌ ➠➑➆➏➇➜➐➈➌ ➑➙ ➼➎➵➆➛➆➇ ➑➛ ➚➈➥➅➛➆ ➪➛➆➥➌➏➅➒

➑➛ ➇➅➌ ➠➑→→➑➈ ➢➑➎➈➥➆➛➔ ➢➌➇↕➌➌➈ ➇↕➑ ➏➇➆➇➌➏➒

➌➇➠➦ ➽➆➐➜↕➆➔ ➇➐➠➤➌➇➏ ➠➑→➌ ↕➐➇➅ ➇➅➌ ➥➐➏➇➆➈➠➌

➢➌➇↕➌➌➈ ➏➇➆➇➐➑➈➏ ➡➛➐➈➇➌➥ ➑➈ ➇➅➌→➦ ➄➌ ➅➆➋➌

➶→➐➜➌➏➇➑➈➌➏➹ ➆➜➜ ➆➜➑➈➓ ➇➅➌ ➛➑➆➥➏ ➐➈➥➐➠➆➇➐➈➓ ➇➅➌

➥➐➏➇➆➈➠➌➏ ➇➑ ➋➆➛➐➑➎➏ ➇➑↕➈➏➦ ➘➑➒ ➅➑↕ ➐➏ ➐➇ ➥➑➈➌➝

➴➈➌ ➅➆➏ ➇➑ ➥➌➠➐➥➌ ➅➑↕→➎➠➅ ➌➛➛➑➛ ➑➈➌ ➠➆➈

➇➑➜➌➛➆➇➌ ➆➈➥ ➑➡➇➐→➐➏➌ ➠➑➏➇➲➌➙➙➌➠➇➐➋➌➈➌➏➏➦ ➫➙ ➔➑➎

↕➆➈➇ ➏→➆➜➜➌➛ ➌➛➛➑➛➏➒ ➐➇ ↕➐➜➜ ➐➈➋➑➜➋➌ ➅➐➓➅

➇➌➠➅➈➑➜➑➓➔ ➆➈➥ ➅➐➓➅ ➠➑➏➇➏➦ ➘➎➙➙➐➠➌ ➐➇ ➇➑ ➏➆➔ ➇➅➆➇

➐➇ ➛➌➍➎➐➛➌➏ ➙➆➐➛➜➔ ➆➥➋➆➈➠➌➥ ➜➌➋➌➜ ➑➙ ➡➅➔➏➐➠➏➒

→➆➇➅➌→➆➇➐➠➏➒ ➌➈➓➐➈➌➌➛➐➈➓ ➆➈➥ ➇➌➠➅➈➑➜➑➓➔➦ ➫➇

➢➌➜➑➈➓➏ ➇➑ ➇➅➌ ➆➛➌➆➏ ➑➙ ➙➛➆➠➇➆➜➏➒ ↕➅➐➠➅ ➅➆➏ ➜➆➇➌➜➔

➢➌➠➑→➌ ➡➑➡➎➜➆➛ ➐➈ ➇➅➌➑➛➌➇➐➠➆➜ ➡➅➔➏➐➠➏➦ ➾➋➌➈

➇➅➌➈ ➑➈➌ ➥➑➌➏➈➹➇ ➤➈➑↕ ➅➑↕ →➎➠➅ ➇➑ ➛➌➜➔ ➑➈

➇➅➌ ➙➐➓➎➛➌ ➇➅➆➇ ➡➛➑➡➏ ➎➡➒ ➆➏ ➐➏ ➠➜➌➆➛ ➙➛➑→ ➇➅➌

➏➇➑➛➔ ➑➙ ➻➛➆➈➠➌ ➆➈➥ ↔➌➜➓➐➎→➦ ➫➈➠➐➥➌➈➇➆➜➜➔➒ ➇➅➐➏

➏➇➑➛➔ ➑➙ ➇➅➌ ➻➛➆➈➠➌➲↔➌➜➓➐➎→ ➥➐➏➠➛➌➡➆➈➠➔

➆➡➡➌➆➛➏ ➑➈ ➇➅➌ ➙➐➛➏➇ ➡➆➓➌ ➑➙ ➆➈ ➆➥➋➆➈➠➌➥ ➪➅➔➏➐➠➏

➢➑➑➤ ➑➈ ➇➅➌ ➏➎➢➵➌➠➇ ➑➙ ➙➛➆➠➇➆➜➏ ➆➈➥ ➠➅➆➑➏➣

Page 31: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❯�✁✂✄ ☎�✆ ✝✞☎✄❯✟✞✝✞�✂ ✷✠

❊☛☞✌✍✎✏ ✑✒✓ ✥✔✕ ✖✕✗✘✗✙✚✛✜✕ ❘ ✢ ❱✣✤ ✇✔✕✖✕❱ ✢ ✦✧★★ ✩ ✪✫✬ ✚✛✭ ✤ ✢ ✦✧★ ✩ ★❂✮✫✯❂ ✰✘✛✭ ✙✔✕♣✕✖✜✕✛✙✚✱✕ ✕✖✖✲✖ ✘✛ ❘❂

❆✳✴✵✏✶ ✥✔✕ ♣✕✖✜✕✛✙✚✱✕ ✕✖✖✲✖ ✘✛ ❱ ✘✗ ✪✐ ✚✛✭ ✘✛✤ ✘✙ ✘✗ ✮✐❂ ✥✔✕ ✙✲✙✚✸ ✕✖✖✲✖ ✘✛ ❘ ✇✲✹✸✭ ✙✔✕✖✕✺✲✖✕❜✕ ✪✐ ✻ ✮✐ ✢ ✼✐❂ ✽

❊☛☞✌✍✎✏ ✑✒✾✿ ✥✇✲ ✖✕✗✘✗✙✲✖✗ ✲✺ ✖✕✗✘✗✙✚✛✜✕✗❘❀ ✢ ✧★★✩❁ ✲✔❃ ✚✛✭ ❘❄ ✢ ✮★★ ✩ ❅ ✲✔❃ ✚✖✕✜✲✛✛✕✜✙✕✭ ✦✚✫ ✘✛ ✗✕✖✘✕✗❝ ✦❜✫ ✘✛ ♣✚✖✚✸✸✕✸❂ ✰✘✛✭✙✔✕ ✕t✹✘❇✚✸✕✛✙ ✖✕✗✘✗✙✚✛✜✕ ✲✺ ✙✔✕ ✦✚✫ ✗✕✖✘✕✗✜✲❃❜✘✛✚✙✘✲✛❝ ✦❜✫ ♣✚✖✚✸✸✕✸ ✜✲❃❜✘✛✚✙✘✲✛❂ ❈✗✕✺✲✖ ✦✚✫ ✙✔✕ ✖✕✸✚✙✘✲✛ ❘ ❉❘❀ ❋ ❘❄● ✚✛✭ ✺✲✖ ✦❜✫

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❍ ■❏❑ ▲

❘ ❘ ❘ ✚✛✭▼ ◆

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P PP ◗❙ ❚

◗ ❂

❆✳✴✵✏✶ ✦✚✫ ✥✔✕ ✕t✹✘❇✚✸✕✛✙ ✖✕✗✘✗✙✚✛✜✕ ✲✺ ✗✕✖✘✕✗✜✲❃❜✘✛✚✙✘✲✛

❘ ❉❘❀ ❋ ❘❄✢ ✦✧★★ ✩ ❁✫ ✲✔❃ ✻ ✦✮★★ ✩ ❅✫ ✲✔❃

✢ ❁★★ ✩ ✼ ✲✔❃❂

✦❜✫ ✥✔✕ ✕t✹✘❇✚✸✕✛✙ ✖✕✗✘✗✙✚✛✜✕ ✲✺ ♣✚✖✚✸✸✕✸✜✲❃❜✘✛✚✙✘✲✛

❲ ❳

❲ ❳

❨❩❩

❭ ❭❭

❭ ❭❪ ❫ ❫

❴ ✢ ❵❵❂✼ ✲✔❃

✥✔✕✛❝ ✺✖✲❃❛ ❞

❡ ❡ ❡

❢ ❢ ❢❣ ❤❥

✇✕ ✱✕✙❝

❛ ❞❞ ❞ ❞

❛ ❞

❢ ❢❢

❢ ❢ ❢

❥ ❦ ❦❦❣ ❤

❧ ♠ ❧ ♠❳ ❳❲ ❳

❳ ❳❲ ❳

❭ ❭❭ ❭ ❭

❭ ❭

♥ ♥❪ ❪ ❪♥ ❫ ❴

♦ ♦qqrs qqrs

✉ ✈①②② ③②②

④ ⑤ ④ ⑤⑥ ⑦⑧ ⑨ ⑧ ⑨⑩ ❶ ⑩ ❶

✢ ✧❂❷

✥✔✕✛❝ ❸❸❹❺ ❻❹❼ ❽❾❿➀➁ ➂ ➃

✦➄✕✖✕❝ ➅➆ ✘✗ ✕➇♣✖✕✗✕✭ ✚✗ ✧❂❷ ✘✛✗✙✕✚✭ ✲✺ ✮ ✙✲➈✕✕♣ ✘✛ ✜✲✛✺✘✖❃✘✙➉ ✇✘✙✔ ✙✔✕ ✖✹✸✕✗ ✲✺ ✗✘✱✛✘✺✘✜✚✛✙✺✘✱✹✖✕✗❂✫ ✽

➊➋➌ ➍➎➎➏➎ ➐➑ ➋➒➓➔ ➏→ ➒ ➣➔➒➓↔➎➔↕ ➙↔➒➑➛➐➛➜➎➒➐➓➔↕ ➛➏ ➒ ➝➏➞➔➎

➟✹♣♣✲✗✕ ➠ ✢ ➡➢❝

✥✔✕✛❝➅➠➤➠ ✢ ✦➅➡➤➡✫ ✻ ✦➅➡➤➡✫ ✢ ✮ ✦➅➡➤➡✫❂

➄✕✛✜✕❝ ✙✔✕ ✖✕✸✚✙✘❇✕ ✕✖✖✲✖ ✘✛ ➡➢ ✘✗ ✙✇✲ ✙✘❃✕✗ ✙✔✕✕✖✖✲✖ ✘✛ ➡❂

➥✛ ✱✕✛✕✖✚✸❝ ✘✺ ➠ ✢ ➡➦ ➧➨✣➩➫

✥✔✕✛❝➅➠➤➠ ✢ ➭ ✦➅➡➤➡✫ ✻ ➯ ✦➅➧✣➧✫ ✻ ➲ ✦➅➩➤➩✫❂

➳➔➑➋➔ ➛➵➔ ➎↔➸➔ ➺ ➻➵➔ ➎➔➸➒➛➐➼➔ ➔➎➎➏➎ ➐➑ ➒➝➵➜➓➐➋➒➸ ➙↔➒➑➛➐➛➜ ➎➒➐➓➔↕ ➛➏ ➛➵➔ ➝➏➞➔➎ ➽ ➐➓ ➛➵➔➽ ➛➐➣➔➓ ➛➵➔ ➎➔➸➒➛➐➼➔ ➔➎➎➏➎ ➐➑ ➛➵➔ ➐➑↕➐➼➐↕↔➒➸➙↔➒➑➛➐➛➜➾

❊☛☞✌✍✎✏ ✑✒✾✾ ✰✘✛✭ ✙✔✕ ✖✕✸✚✙✘❇✕ ✕✖✖✲✖ ✘✛➠❝ ✘✺ ➠ ✢ ➡➚➧➪➶➹✣➩➘➹➶➢❂

❆✳✴✵✏✶ ✥✔✕ ✖✕✸✚✙✘❇✕ ✕✖✖✲✖ ✘✛ ➠ ✘✗ ➅➠➤➠ ✢❅✦➅➡➤➡✫ ✻✦✧➤❁✫ ✦➅➧✣➧✫ ✻ ✦➅➩➤➩✫ ✻ ✦❁➤✮✫ ✦➅➴➤➘✫❂

❊☛☞✌✍✎✏ ✑✒✾✑ ✥✔✕ ♣✕✖✘✲✭ ✲✺ ✲✗✜✘✸✸✚✙✘✲✛ ✲✺

✚ ✗✘❃♣✸✕ ♣✕✛✭✹✸✹❃ ✘✗ ➷ ➬➮➱✃❐ ❒❮

❰✕✚✗✹✖✕✭ ❇✚✸✹✕ ✲✺ Ï ✘✗ ✮★❂★ ✜❃ ➈✛✲✇✛ ✙✲ ✧❃❃ ✚✜✜✹✖✚✜➉ ✚✛✭ ✙✘❃✕ ✺✲✖ ✧★★ ✲✗✜✘✸✸✚✙✘✲✛✗✲✺ ✙✔✕ ♣✕✛✭✹✸✹❃ ✘✗ ✺✲✹✛✭ ✙✲ ❜✕ Ð★ ✗ ✹✗✘✛✱✚ ✇✖✘✗✙ ✇✚✙✜✔ ✲✺ ✧ ✗ ✖✕✗✲✸✹✙✘✲✛❂ Ñ✔✚✙ ✘✗ ✙✔✕✚✜✜✹✖✚✜➉ ✘✛ ✙✔✕ ✭✕✙✕✖❃✘✛✚✙✘✲✛ ✲✺ Ò Ó

❆✳✴✵✏✶ Ò ✢ ❅Ô❄Ï➤Õ❄

➄✕✖✕❝ Õ ✢Ö

×✚✛✭

ÖØ

×

ÙÙ ➂ ❂ ✥✔✕✖✕✺✲✖✕❝

Ø Ö

Ø Ö

Ù Ù➂ ❂

✥✔✕ ✕✖✖✲✖✗ ✘✛ ❜✲✙✔ Ï ✚✛✭ Ú ✚✖✕ ✙✔✕ ✸✕✚✗✙ ✜✲✹✛✙✕✖✖✲✖✗❂ ✥✔✕✖✕✺✲✖✕❝✦➅Ò✣Ò✫ ✢ ✦➅Ï✣Ï✫ ✻ ✮✦➅Õ✣Õ ✫

✢❩ÛÜ Ü

❨ ❩Û❩❬❨❨❩Û❩ Ý❩

Þ ß❴ ❫à áâ ã

✥✔✹✗❝ ✙✔✕ ♣✕✖✜✕✛✙✚✱✕ ✕✖✖✲✖ ✘✛ Ò ✘✗✧★★ ✦➅Ò✣Ò✫ ✢ ✧★★✦➅Ï✣Ï✫ ✻ ✮ ä ✧★★ ✦➅Õ✣Õ ✫

✢ ❁✐ ✽

å➾æ çèéêèëèìíê➻ ëèéîï➍ç

✯✗ ✭✘✗✜✹✗✗✕✭ ✚❜✲❇✕❝ ✕❇✕✖➉ ❃✕✚✗✹✖✕❃✕✛✙✘✛❇✲✸❇✕✗ ✕✖✖✲✖✗❂ ✥✔✹✗❝ ✙✔✕ ✖✕✗✹✸✙ ✲✺❃✕✚✗✹✖✕❃✕✛✙ ✗✔✲✹✸✭ ❜✕ ✖✕♣✲✖✙✕✭ ✘✛ ✚ ✇✚➉ ✙✔✚✙✘✛✭✘✜✚✙✕✗ ✙✔✕ ♣✖✕✜✘✗✘✲✛ ✲✺ ❃✕✚✗✹✖✕❃✕✛✙❂ð✲✖❃✚✸✸➉❝ ✙✔✕ ✖✕♣✲✖✙✕✭ ✖✕✗✹✸✙ ✲✺ ❃✕✚✗✹✖✕❃✕✛✙✘✗ ✚ ✛✹❃❜✕✖ ✙✔✚✙ ✘✛✜✸✹✭✕✗ ✚✸✸ ✭✘✱✘✙✗ ✘✛ ✙✔✕✛✹❃❜✕✖ ✙✔✚✙ ✚✖✕ ➈✛✲✇✛ ✖✕✸✘✚❜✸➉ ♣✸✹✗ ✙✔✕ ✺✘✖✗✙✭✘✱✘✙ ✙✔✚✙ ✘✗ ✹✛✜✕✖✙✚✘✛❂ ✥✔✕ ✖✕✸✘✚❜✸✕ ✭✘✱✘✙✗ ♣✸✹✗

Page 32: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✷✆

t✝✞ ✟✠✡☛t ☞✌✍✞✡t✎✠✌ ✏✠✑✠t ✎✡✞ ✒✌✓✔✌ ✎☛

s✕✖✗✕✘✕✙✚✗✛ ❞✕✖✕✛s ✓✡ s✕✖✗✕✘✕✙✚✗✛ ✘✕✖✜✢✣s✳ ✤✟ ✔✞

☛✎✥ t✝✞ ✦✞✡✠✓✏ ✓✟ ✓☛✍✠✧✧✎t✠✓✌ ✓✟ ✎ ☛✠★✦✧✞

✦✞✌✏☞✧☞★ ✠☛ ♣✳✩✪ ☛✫ t✝✞ ✏✠✑✠t☛ ♣ ✎✌✏ ✩ ✎✡✞

✡✞✧✠✎r✧✞ ✎✌✏ ✍✞✡t✎✠✌✫ ✔✝✠✧✞ t✝✞ ✏✠✑✠t ✪ ✠☛

☞✌✍✞✡t✎✠✌✳ ✉✝☞☛✫ t✝✞★✞✎☛☞✡✞✏ ✬✎✧☞✞ ✝✎☛ t✝✡✞✞

☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛✳ ✉✝✞ ✧✞✌✑t✝ ✓✟ ✎✌ ✓r✭✞✍t

✡✞✦✓✡t✞✏ ✎✟t✞✡ ★✞✎☛☞✡✞★✞✌t t✓ r✞ ✪✮✯✳✰ ✍★ ✝✎☛

✟✓☞✡ ☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛✫ t✝✞ ✏✠✑✠t☛ ✪✫ ✮✫ ✯ ✎✡✞

✍✞✡t✎✠✌ ✔✝✠✧✞ t✝✞ ✏✠✑✠t ✰ ✠☛ ☞✌✍✞✡t✎✠✌✳ ❝✧✞✎✡✧✥✫

✡✞✦✓✡t✠✌✑ t✝✞ ✡✞☛☞✧t ✓✟ ★✞✎☛☞✡✞★✞✌t t✝✎t

✠✌✍✧☞✏✞☛ ★✓✡✞ ✏✠✑✠t☛ t✝✎✌ t✝✞ ☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✏✠✑✠t☛

✠☛ ☛☞✦✞✡✟✧☞✓☞☛ ✎✌✏ ✎✧☛✓★✠☛✧✞✎✏✠✌✑ ☛✠✌✍✞ ✠t ✔✓☞✧✏

✑✠✬✞ ✎ ✔✡✓✌✑ ✠✏✞✎ ✎r✓☞t t✝✞ ✦✡✞✍✠☛✠✓✌ ✓✟

★✞✎☛☞✡✞★✞✌t✳

✉✝✞ ✡☞✧✞☛ ✟✓✡ ✏✞t✞✡★✠✌✠✌✑ t✝✞ ✌☞★r✞✡ ✓✟

☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛ ✍✎✌ r✞ ☞✌✏✞✡☛t✓✓✏ ✟✡✓★ t✝✞

✟✓✧✧✓✔✠✌✑ ✞❢✎★✦✧✞☛✳ ✱✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛ ✠✌✏✠✍✎t✞✫

✎☛ ✎✧✡✞✎✏✥ ★✞✌t✠✓✌✞✏✫ t✝✞ ✦✡✞✍✠☛✠✓✌ ✓✟

★✞✎☛☞✡✞★✞✌t ✔✝✠✍✝ ✏✞✦✞✌✏☛ ✓✌ t✝✞ ✧✞✎☛t ✍✓☞✌t

✓✟ t✝✞ ★✞✎☛☞✡✠✌✑ ✠✌☛t✡☞★✞✌t✳ ❆ ✙✲✴✕✙✣ ✴✘

✙✲✚✗✖✣ ✴✘ ❞✕✘✘✣✢✣✗✛ ✜✗✕✛s ❞✴✣s ✗✴✛ ✙✲✚✗✖✣ ✛✲✣

✗✜♥✵✣✢ ✴✘ s✕✖✗✕✘✕✙✚✗✛ ❞✕✖✕✛s ✴✢ ✘✕✖✜✢✣s ✕✗ ✚

♥✣✚s✜✢✣♥✣✗✛♠ ✉✝✠☛ ✠★✦✓✡t✎✌t ✡✞★✎✡✒ ★✎✒✞☛

★✓☛t ✓✟ t✝✞ ✟✓✧✧✓✔✠✌✑ ✓r☛✞✡✬✎t✠✓✌☛ ✍✧✞✎✡✶

✸♣✹ ✺✓✡ ✞❢✎★✦✧✞✫ t✝✞ ✧✞✌✑t✝ ✪✳✻✼✮ ✍★ ✝✎☛ ✟✓☞✡

☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛✳ ✽☞t ✠✌ ✏✠✟✟✞✡✞✌t ☞✌✠t☛✫ t✝✞

☛✎★✞ ✬✎✧☞✞ ✍✎✌ r✞ ✔✡✠tt✞✌ ✎☛ ✼✳✼✪✻✼✮★ ✓✡ ✪✻✳✼✮

★★ ✓✡ ✪✻✼✮✼ ➭★✳

✾✧✧ t✝✞☛✞ ✌☞★r✞✡☛ ✝✎✬✞ t✝✞ ☛✎★✞ ✌☞★r✞✡ ✓✟

☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛ ✸✏✠✑✠t☛ ✪✫ ✻✫ ✼✫ ✮✹✫ ✌✎★✞✧✥ ✟✓☞✡✳

✉✝✠☛ ☛✝✓✔☛ t✝✎t t✝✞ ✧✓✍✎t✠✓✌ ✓✟ ✏✞✍✠★✎✧ ✦✓✠✌t ✠☛

✓✟ ✌✓ ✍✓✌☛✞♦☞✞✌✍✞ ✠✌ ✏✞t✞✡★✠✌✠✌✑ t✝✞ ✌☞★r✞✡

✓✟ ☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛✳

✉✝✞ ✞❢✎★✦✧✞ ✑✠✬✞☛ t✝✞ ✟✓✧✧✓✔✠✌✑ ✡☞✧✞☛ ✶

• ❆✿✿ ✛✲✣ ✗✴✗❀❁✣✢✴ ❞✕✖✕✛s ✚✢✣ s✕✖✗✕✘✕✙✚✗✛♠

• ❆✿✿ ✛✲✣ ❁✣✢✴s ✵✣✛❂✣✣✗ ✛❂✴ ✗✴✗❀❁✣✢✴ ❞✕✖✕✛s

✚✢✣ s✕✖✗✕✘✕✙✚✗✛❛ ✗✴ ♥✚✛✛✣✢ ❂✲✣✢✣ ✛✲✣

❞✣✙✕♥✚✿ ❃✴✕✗✛ ✕s❛ ✕✘ ✚✛ ✚✿✿♠

• ■✘ ✛✲✣ ✗✜♥✵✣✢ ✕s ✿✣ss ✛✲✚✗ ❄❛ ✛✲✣ ❁✣✢✴❅s❇

✴✗ ✛✲✣ ✢✕✖✲✛ ✴✘ ❞✣✙✕♥✚✿ ❃✴✕✗✛ ✵✜✛ ✛✴ ✛✲✣

✿✣✘✛ ✴✘ ✛✲✣ ✘✕✢s✛ ✗✴✗❀❁✣✢✴ ❞✕✖✕✛ ✚✢✣ ✗✴✛

s✕✖✗✕✘✕✙✚✗✛♠ ❈✤✌ ✼✳✼✼ ✪✻✼✮✫ t✝✞ ☞✌✏✞✡✧✠✌✞✏

③✞✡✓✞☛ ✎✡✞ ✌✓t ☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t❉✳

• ❚✲✣ ✛✣✢♥✕✗✚✿ ✴✢ ✛✢✚✕✿✕✗✖ ❁✣✢✴❅s❇ ✕✗ ✚

✗✜♥✵✣✢ ❂✕✛✲✴✜✛ ✚ ❞✣✙✕♥✚✿ ❃✴✕✗✛ ✚✢✣ ✗✴✛

s✕✖✗✕✘✕✙✚✗✛♠

❈✉✝☞☛ ♣✪✻ ★ ❬ ♣✪✻✼✼ ✍★ ❬ ♣✪✻✼✼✼★★ ✝✎☛

❊❋●❍❍ ☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛✫ t✝✞ t✡✎✠✧✠✌✑ ③✞✡✓✸☛✹

r✞✠✌✑ ✌✓t ☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t✳❉ ❜✓✔✞✬✞✡✫ ✥✓☞ ✍✎✌ ✎✧☛✓

☛✞✞ t✝✞ ✌✞❢t ✓r☛✞✡✬✎t✠✓✌✳

• ❚✲✣ ✛✢✚✕✿✕✗✖ ❁✣✢✴❅s❇ ✕✗ ✚ ✗✜♥✵✣✢ ❂✕✛✲ ✚

❞✣✙✕♥✚✿ ❃✴✕✗✛ ✚✢✣ s✕✖✗✕✘✕✙✚✗✛♠

❈✉✝✞ ✌☞★r✞✡☛ ✻✳✰✼✼ ✓✡ ✼✳✼✩❏✼✼ ✝✎✬✞ ✟✓☞✡

☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛ ✞✎✍✝✳❉

✸✪✹ ✉✝✞✡✞ ✍✎✌ r✞ ☛✓★✞ ✍✓✌✟☞☛✠✓✌ ✡✞✑✎✡✏✠✌✑ t✝✞

t✡✎✠✧✠✌✑ ③✞✡✓✸☛✹✳ ✱☞✦✦✓☛✞ ✎ ✧✞✌✑t✝ ✠☛ ✡✞✦✓✡t✞✏ t✓

r✞ ❑✳✯✼✼ ★✳ ✤t ✠☛ ✞✬✠✏✞✌t t✝✎t t✝✞ ③✞✡✓✞☛ ✝✞✡✞

✎✡✞ ★✞✎✌t t✓ ✍✓✌✬✞✥ t✝✞ ✦✡✞✍✠☛✠✓✌ ✓✟

★✞✎☛☞✡✞★✞✌t ✎✌✏ ✎✡✞✫ t✝✞✡✞✟✓✡✞✫ ☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t✳ ❈✤✟

t✝✞☛✞ ✔✞✡✞ ✌✓t✫ ✠t ✔✓☞✧✏ r✞ ☛☞✦✞✡✟✧☞✓☞☛ t✓ ✔✡✠t✞

t✝✞★ ✞❢✦✧✠✍✠t✧✥✫ t✝✞ ✡✞✦✓✡t✞✏ ★✞✎☛☞✡✞★✞✌t

✔✓☞✧✏ ✝✎✬✞ r✞✞✌ ☛✠★✦✧✥ ❑✳✯ ★❉✳ ✇✓✔ ☛☞✦✦✓☛✞

✔✞ ✍✝✎✌✑✞ ☞✌✠t☛✫ t✝✞✌

❑✳✯✼✼★ ❬❑✯✼✳✼ ✍★ ❬❑✯✼✼★★ ❬✼✳✼✼❑✯✼✼ ✒★

✱✠✌✍✞ t✝✞ ✧✎☛t ✌☞★r✞✡ ✝✎☛ t✡✎✠✧✠✌✑ ③✞✡✓✸☛✹ ✠✌ ✎

✌☞★r✞✡ ✔✠t✝ ✌✓ ✏✞✍✠★✎✧✫ ✔✞ ✔✓☞✧✏ ✍✓✌✍✧☞✏✞

✞✡✡✓✌✞✓☞☛✧✥ ✟✡✓★ ✓r☛✞✡✬✎t✠✓✌ ✸♣✹ ✎r✓✬✞ t✝✎t t✝✞

✌☞★r✞✡ ✝✎☛ ❊▲▼ ☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛✫ ✔✝✠✧✞ ✠✌

✟✎✍t✫ ✠t ✝✎☛ ✟✓☞✡ ☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛ ✎✌✏ ✎ ★✞✡✞

✍✝✎✌✑✞ ✓✟ ☞✌✠t☛ ✍✎✌✌✓t ✍✝✎✌✑✞ t✝✞ ✌☞★r✞✡ ✓✟

☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛✳

✸✻ ✹ ❚✴ ✢✣♥✴◆✣ s✜✙✲ ✚♥✵✕✖✜✕✛✕✣s ✕✗

❞✣✛✣✢♥✕✗✕✗✖ ✛✲✣ ✗✜♥✵✣✢ ✴✘ s✕✖✗✕✘✕✙✚✗✛

✘✕✖✜✢✣s❛ ✛✲✣ ✵✣s✛ ❂✚❖ ✕s ✛✴ ✢✣❃✴✢✛ ✣◆✣✢❖

♥✣✚s✜✢✣♥✣✗✛ ✕✗ s✙✕✣✗✛✕✘✕✙ ✗✴✛✚✛✕✴✗ ❅✕✗ ✛✲✣

❃✴❂✣✢ ✴✘ ❄◗❇♠ ✤✌ t✝✠☛ ✌✓t✎t✠✓✌✫ ✞✬✞✡✥ ✌☞★r✞✡ ✠☛

✞❢✦✡✞☛☛✞✏ ✎☛ ❘ ❙ ♣✼❯✫ ✔✝✞✡✞ ❘ ✠☛ ✎ ✌☞★r✞✡

r✞t✔✞✞✌ ♣ ✎✌✏ ♣✼✫ ✎✌✏ ❱ ✠☛ ✎✌✥ ✦✓☛✠t✠✬✞ ✓✡

✌✞✑✎t✠✬✞ ✞❢✦✓✌✞✌t ✸✓✡ ✦✓✔✞✡✹ ✓✟ ♣✼✳ ✤✌ ✓✡✏✞✡ t✓

✑✞t ✎✌ ✎✦✦✡✓❢✠★✎t✞ ✠✏✞✎ ✓✟ t✝✞ ✌☞★r✞✡✫ ✔✞★✎✥

✡✓☞✌✏ ✓✟✟ t✝✞ ✌☞★r✞✡ ❘ t✓ ♣ ✸✟✓✡ ❘ ❲ ✰✹ ✎✌✏ t✓ ♣✼

✸✟✓✡ ✰❳❘ ❨ ♣✼✹✳ ✉✝✞✌ t✝✞ ✌☞★r✞✡ ✍✎✌ r✞

✞❢✦✡✞☛☛✞✏ ✎✦✦✡✓❢✠★✎t✞✧✥ ✎☛ ♣✼❩ ✠✌ ✔✝✠✍✝ t✝✞

✞❢✦✓✌✞✌t ✸✓✡ ✦✓✔✞✡✹ r ✓✟ ♣✼ ✠☛ ✍✎✧✧✞✏ ✴✢❞✣✢ ✴✘

♥✚✖✗✕✛✜❞✣ ✓✟ t✝✞ ✦✝✥☛✠✍✎✧ ♦☞✎✌t✠t✥✳ ❭✝✞✌ ✓✌✧✥

✎✌ ✞☛t✠★✎t✞ ✠☛ ✡✞♦☞✠✡✞✏✫ t✝✞ ♦☞✎✌t✠t✥ ✠☛ ✓✟ t✝✞

✓✡✏✞✡ ✓✟ ♣✼❩✳ ✺✓✡ ✞❢✎★✦✧✞✫ t✝✞ ✏✠✎★✞t✞✡ ✓✟ t✝✞

✞✎✡t✝ ✸♣✳✪✮❙♣✼❪★✹ ✠☛ ✓✟ t✝✞ ✓✡✏✞✡ ✓✟ ♣✼❪★ ✔✠t✝

t✝✞ ✓✡✏✞✡ ✓✟ ★✎✑✌✠t☞✏✞ ✯✳ ✉✝✞ ✏✠✎★✞t✞✡ ✓✟

✝✥✏✡✓✑✞✌ ✎t✓★ ✸♣✳✼✩ ❙♣✼➊❫❴★✹ ✠☛ ✓✟ t✝✞ ✓✡✏✞✡ ✓✟

♣✼➊❫❴★✫ ✔✠t✝ t✝✞ ✓✡✏✞✡ ✓✟ ★✎✑✌✠t☞✏✞

❵♣✼✳ ✉✝☞☛✫ t✝✞ ✏✠✎★✞t✞✡ ✓✟ t✝✞ ✞✎✡t✝ ✠☛ ♣✯ ✓✡✏✞✡☛

✓✟ ★✎✑✌✠t☞✏✞ ✧✎✡✑✞✡ t✝✎✌ t✝✞ ✝✥✏✡✓✑✞✌ ✎t✓★✳

✤t ✠☛ ✓✟t✞✌ ✍☞☛t✓★✎✡✥ t✓ ✔✡✠t✞ t✝✞ ✏✞✍✠★✎✧ ✎✟t✞✡

t✝✞ ✟✠✡☛t ✏✠✑✠t✳ ✇✓✔ t✝✞ ✍✓✌✟☞☛✠✓✌ ★✞✌t✠✓✌✞✏ ✠✌

✸✎✹ ✎r✓✬✞ ✏✠☛✎✦✦✞✎✡☛ ✶

❑✳✯✼✼ ★ ❬ ❑✳✯✼✼ ❙ ♣✼❡ ✍★

❬ ❑✳✯✼✼ ❙ ♣✼❣ ★★ ❬ ❑✳✯✼✼ ❙ ♣✼➊❣ ✒★

✉✝✞ ✦✓✔✞✡ ✓✟ ♣✼ ✠☛ ✠✡✡✞✧✞✬✎✌t t✓ t✝✞

✏✞t✞✡★✠✌✎t✠✓✌ ✓✟ ☛✠✑✌✠✟✠✍✎✌t ✟✠✑☞✡✞☛✳ ❜✓✔✞✬✞✡✫ ✎✧✧

Page 33: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❯�✁✂✄ ☎�✆ ✝✞☎✄❯✟✞✝✞�✂ ✷✠

③✡☛☞✡✌ ✍✎✎✡✍☛✏✑✒ ✏✑ ✓✔✡ ✕✍✌✡ ✑✖✗✕✡☛ ✏✑ ✓✔✡

✌s✏✡✑✓✏✘✏s ✑☞✓✍✓✏☞✑ ✍☛✡ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓✙ ✚✍s✔ ✑✖✗✕✡☛

✏✑ ✓✔✏✌ s✍✌✡ ✔✍✌ ❢✛✜✢ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✘✏✒✖☛✡✌✙

❚✔✖✌✣ ✏✑ ✓✔✡ ✌s✏✡✑✓✏✘✏s ✑☞✓✍✓✏☞✑✣ ✑☞ s☞✑✘✖✌✏☞✑

✍☛✏✌✡✌ ✍✕☞✖✓ ✓✔✡ ✓☛✍✏❛✏✑✒ ③✡☛☞✤✌✥ ✏✑ ✓✔✡ ✕✍✌✡

✑✖✗✕✡☛ ✦✙ ❚✔✡✳ ✍☛✡ ✍❛✧✍✳✌ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓✙

✤✭✥ ❚✔✡ ✌s✏✡✑✓✏✘✏s ✑☞✓✍✓✏☞✑ ✏✌ ✏★✡✍❛ ✘☞☛ ☛✡✎☞☛✓✏✑✒

✗✡✍✌✖☛✡✗✡✑✓✙ ♠✖✓ ✏✘ ✓✔✏✌ ✏✌ ✑☞✓ ✍★☞✎✓✡★✣ ✧✡ ✖✌✡

✓✔✡ ☛✖❛✡✌ ✍★☞✎✓✡★ ✏✑ ✓✔✡ ✎☛✡s✡★✏✑✒ ✡t✍✗✎❛✡ ✩

•• ❋✪✫ ✬ ✮✯✰✱✲✫ ✴✫✲✬✵✲✫ ✵✶✬✮ ✸✹ ✺✻✵✶✪✯✵ ✬✮✼

❞✲✽✻✰✬✾✹ ✵✶✲ ✵✫✬✻✾✻✮✴ ✿✲✫✪❀❁❂ ✬✫✲ ✮✪✵

❁✻✴✮✻❃✻✽✬✮✵❄

•• ❋✪✫ ✬ ✮✯✰✱✲✫ ✺✻✵✶ ✬ ❞✲✽✻✰✬✾✹ ✵✶✲ ✵✫✬✻✾✻✮✴

✿✲✫✪❀❁❂ ✬✫✲ ❁✻✴✮✻❃✻✽✬✮✵❄

✤❅✥ ❚✔✡ ★✏✒✏✓ ❆ s☞✑❇✡✑✓✏☞✑✍❛❛✳ ✎✖✓ ☞✑ ✓✔✡ ❛✡✘✓ ☞✘ ✍

★✡s✏✗✍❛ ✘☞☛ ✍ ✑✖✗✕✡☛ ❛✡✌✌ ✓✔✍✑ ❈ ✤❛✏❉✡ ❆✙❈❊❅❆✥

✏✌ ✑✡❇✡☛ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓✙ ✐☞✧✡❇✡☛✣ ✓✔✡ ③✡☛☞✡✌ ✍✓ ✓✔✡

✡✑★ ☞✘ ✌✖s✔ ✑✖✗✕✡☛ ✍☛✡ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✏✑ ✍

✗✡✍✌✖☛✡✗✡✑✓✙

✤●✥ ❚✔✡ ✗✖❛✓✏✎❛✳✏✑✒ ☞☛ ★✏❇✏★✏✑✒ ✘✍s✓☞☛✌ ✧✔✏s✔ ✍☛✡

✑✡✏✓✔✡☛ ☛☞✖✑★✡★ ✑✖✗✕✡☛✌ ✑☞☛ ✑✖✗✕✡☛✌

☛✡✎☛✡✌✡✑✓✏✑✒ ✗✡✍✌✖☛✡★ ❇✍❛✖✡✌ ✍☛✡ ✡t✍s✓ ✍✑★

✔✍❇✡ ✏✑✘✏✑✏✓✡ ✑✖✗✕✡☛ ☞✘ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ★✏✒✏✓✌✙ ❤☞☛

✡t✍✗✎❛✡ ✏✑❍

■r ❏ ☞☛ ✌ ❑ ❊▲✢✣ ✓✔✡ ✘✍s✓☞☛ ❊ ✏✌ ✍✑

✡t✍s✓ ✑✖✗✕✡☛ ✍✑★ ✏✓ s✍✑ ✕✡ ✧☛✏✓✓✡✑ ✍✌ ❊✙❆✣ ❊✙❆❆

☞☛ ❊✙❆❆❆❆ ✍✌ ☛✡♦✖✏☛✡★✙ ▼✏✗✏❛✍☛❛✳✣ ✏✑◆

❖♥

P ✣ ◗ ✏✌

✍✑ ✡t✍s✓ ✑✖✗✕✡☛✙

❘❄❙❄✸ ❱✯✾✲❁ ❃✪✫ ❲✫✻✵✶✰✲✵✻✽ ❳❨✲✫✬✵✻✪✮❁ ✺✻✵✶

❩✻✴✮✻❃✻✽✬✮✵ ❋✻✴✯✫✲❁

❚✔✡ ☛✡✌✖❛✓ ☞✘ ✍ s✍❛s✖❛✍✓✏☞✑ ✏✑❇☞❛❇✏✑✒ ✍✎✎☛☞t✏✗✍✓✡

✗✡✍✌✖☛✡★ ❇✍❛✖✡✌ ☞✘ ♦✖✍✑✓✏✓✏✡✌ ✤✏✙✡✙ ❇✍❛✖✡✌ ✧✏✓✔

❛✏✗✏✓✡★ ✑✖✗✕✡☛ ☞✘ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✘✏✒✖☛✡✌✥ ✗✖✌✓ ☛✡✘❛✡s✓

✓✔✡ ✖✑s✡☛✓✍✏✑✓✏✡✌ ✏✑ ✓✔✡ ☞☛✏✒✏✑✍❛ ✗✡✍✌✖☛✡★ ❇✍❛✖✡✌✙

❬✓ s✍✑✑☞✓ ✕✡ ✗☞☛✡ ✍ss✖☛✍✓✡ ✓✔✍✑ ✓✔✡ ☞☛✏✒✏✑✍❛

✗✡✍✌✖☛✡★ ❇✍❛✖✡✌ ✓✔✡✗✌✡❛❇✡✌ ☞✑ ✧✔✏s✔ ✓✔✡ ☛✡✌✖❛✓

✏✌ ✕✍✌✡★✙ ❬✑ ✒✡✑✡☛✍❛✣ ✓✔✡ ✘✏✑✍❛ ☛✡✌✖❛✓ ✌✔☞✖❛★ ✑☞✓

✔✍❇✡ ✗☞☛✡ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✘✏✒✖☛✡✌ ✓✔✍✑ ✓✔✡ ☞☛✏✒✏✑✍❛

★✍✓✍ ✘☛☞✗ ✧✔✏s✔ ✏✓ ✧✍✌ ☞✕✓✍✏✑✡★✙ ❚✔✖✌✣ ✏✘ ✗✍✌✌ ☞✘

✍✑ ☞✕❭✡s✓ ✏✌ ✗✡✍✌✖☛✡★ ✓☞ ✕✡✣ ✌✍✳✣ ✭✙❊❪❫ ✒ ✤✘☞✖☛

✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✘✏✒✖☛✡✌✥ ✍✑★ ✏✓✌ ❇☞❛✖✗✡ ✏✌ ✗✡✍✌✖☛✡★ ✓☞

✕✡ ❊✙❅❈ s✗❴✣ ✓✔✡✑ ✏✓✌ ★✡✑✌✏✓✳✣ ✕✳ ✗✡☛✡ ✍☛✏✓✔✗✡✓✏s

★✏❇✏✌✏☞✑✣ ✏✌ ❈✙●❵❵❆✭❫❵❆❵❫●✒❜s✗❴ ✖✎✓☞ ❈❈ ★✡s✏✗✍❛

✎❛✍s✡✌✙ ❬✓ ✧☞✖❛★ ✕✡ s❛✡✍☛❛✳ ✍✕✌✖☛★ ✍✑★ ✏☛☛✡❛✡❇✍✑✓

✓☞ ☛✡s☞☛★ ✓✔✡ s✍❛s✖❛✍✓✡★ ❇✍❛✖✡ ☞✘ ★✡✑✌✏✓✳ ✓☞ ✌✖s✔ ✍

✎☛✡s✏✌✏☞✑ ✧✔✡✑ ✓✔✡ ✗✡✍✌✖☛✡✗✡✑✓✌ ☞✑ ✧✔✏s✔ ✓✔✡

❇✍❛✖✡ ✏✌ ✕✍✌✡★✣ ✔✍❇✡ ✗✖s✔ ❛✡✌✌ ✎☛✡s✏✌✏☞✑✙ ❚✔✡

✘☞❛❛☞✧✏✑✒ ☛✖❛✡✌ ✘☞☛ ✍☛✏✓✔✗✡✓✏s ☞✎✡☛✍✓✏☞✑✌ ✧✏✓✔

✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✘✏✒✖☛✡✌ ✡✑✌✖☛✡ ✓✔✍✓ ✓✔✡ ✘✏✑✍❛ ☛✡✌✖❛✓ ☞✘

✍ s✍❛s✖❛✍✓✏☞✑ ✏✌ ✌✔☞✧✑ ✧✏✓✔ ✓✔✡ ✎☛✡s✏✌✏☞✑ ✓✔✍✓ ✏✌

s☞✑✌✏✌✓✡✑✓ ✧✏✓✔ ✓✔✡ ✎☛✡s✏✌✏☞✑ ☞✘ ✓✔✡ ✏✑✎✖✓

✗✡✍✌✖☛✡★ ❇✍❛✖✡✌ ✩

✤❈✥ ❝✮ ✰✯✾✵✻❨✾✻✽✬✵✻✪✮ ✪✫ ❞✻❡✻❁✻✪✮✹ ✵✶✲ ❃✻✮✬✾

✫✲❁✯✾✵ ❁✶✪✯✾❞ ✫✲✵✬✻✮ ✬❁ ✰✬✮✼ ❁✻✴✮✻❃✻✽✬✮✵

❃✻✴✯✫✲❁ ✬❁ ✬✫✲ ✵✶✲✫✲ ✻✮ ✵✶✲ ✪✫✻✴✻✮✬✾ ✮✯✰✱✲✫

✺✻✵✶ ✵✶✲ ✾✲✬❁✵ ❁✻✴✮✻❃✻✽✬✮✵ ❃✻✴✯✫✲❁❄

❚✔✖✌✣ ✏✑ ✓✔✡ ✡t✍✗✎❛✡ ✍✕☞❇✡✣ ★✡✑✌✏✓✳ ✌✔☞✖❛★

✕✡ ☛✡✎☞☛✓✡★ ✓☞ ❣❥✢❦❦ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✘✏✒✖☛✡✌✙

❧♣q✉✈✇②①④⑤⑥⑦⑧

⑤④⑨⑩ ❶❷⑩④❸❹ ⑧ ❶❷

❺❻❺

❼ ❼

▼✏✗✏❛✍☛❛✳✣ ✏✘ ✓✔✡ ✌✎✡✡★ ☞✘ ❛✏✒✔✓ ✏✌ ✒✏❇✡✑ ✍✌

❪✙❆❆ ❽ ❈❆❾ ✗ ✌❿➀ ✤❣❥✢❦❦ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✘✏✒✖☛✡✌✥ ✍✑★

☞✑✡ ✳✡✍☛ ✤❈✳ ❑ ❪●❅✙❊❅ ★✥ ✔✍✌ ❪✙❈❅❅❫ ❽ ❈❆➁ ✌ ✤❢➂➃❦

✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✘✏✒✖☛✡✌✥✣ ✓✔✡ ❛✏✒✔✓ ✳✡✍☛ ✏✌ ➄✙✭❫ ❽ ❈❆➀➅

✗ ✤❣❥✢❦❦ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✘✏✒✖☛✡✌✥✙

✤❊✥ ❝✮ ✬❞❞✻✵✻✪✮ ✪✫ ❁✯✱✵✫✬✽✵✻✪✮✹ ✵✶✲ ❃✻✮✬✾ ✫✲❁✯✾✵

❁✶✪✯✾❞ ✫✲✵✬✻✮ ✬❁ ✰✬✮✼ ❞✲✽✻✰✬✾ ❨✾✬✽✲❁ ✬❁ ✬✫✲

✵✶✲✫✲ ✻✮ ✵✶✲ ✮✯✰✱✲✫ ✺✻✵✶ ✵✶✲ ✾✲✬❁✵ ❞✲✽✻✰✬✾

❨✾✬✽✲❁❄

❤☞☛ ✡t✍✗✎❛✡✣ ✓✔✡ ✌✖✗ ☞✘ ✓✔✡ ✑✖✗✕✡☛✌

✭❪●✙❪❊✒✣ ❊❊❫✙❊ ✒ ✍✑★ ❆✙❪❆❈ ✒ ✕✳ ✗✡☛✡ ✍☛✏✓✔✗✡✓✏s

✍★★✏✓✏☞✑✣ ✏✌ ●●❪✙❵❊❈ ✒✙ ♠✖✓ ✓✔✡ ❛✡✍✌✓ ✎☛✡s✏✌✡

✗✡✍✌✖☛✡✗✡✑✓ ✤❊❊❫✙❊ ✒✥ ✏✌ s☞☛☛✡s✓ ✓☞ ☞✑❛✳ ☞✑✡

★✡s✏✗✍❛ ✎❛✍s✡✙ ❚✔✡ ✘✏✑✍❛ ☛✡✌✖❛✓ ✌✔☞✖❛★✣ ✓✔✡☛✡✘☞☛✡✣

✕✡ ☛☞✖✑★✡★ ☞✘✘ ✓☞ ●●❪✙❵ ✒✙

▼✏✗✏❛✍☛❛✳✣ ✓✔✡ ★✏✘✘✡☛✡✑s✡ ✏✑ ❛✡✑✒✓✔ s✍✑ ✕✡

✡t✎☛✡✌✌✡★ ✍✌ ✩

❆✙❪❆❫ ✗ ➆ ❆✙❪❆✭ ✗ ❑ ❆✙❆❆❪ ✗ ❑ ❪ ❽ ❈❆➊❴ ✗✙

➇☞✓✡ ✓✔✍✓ ✧✡ ✌✔☞✖❛★ ✑☞✓ ✖✌✡ ✓✔✡ ✢✜➈❦ ✤❈✥

✍✎✎❛✏s✍✕❛✡ ✘☞☛ ✗✖❛✓✏✎❛✏s✍✓✏☞✑ ✍✑★ ★✏❇✏✌✏☞✑ ✍✑★

✧☛✏✓✡ ●●✭ ✒ ✍✌ ✓✔✡ ☛✡✌✖❛✓ ✏✑ ✓✔✡ ✡t✍✗✎❛✡ ☞✘

✬❞❞✻✵✻✪✮ ✍✑★ ❪✙❆❆ ❽ ❈❆➊❴ ✗ ✏✑ ✓✔✡ ✡t✍✗✎❛✡ ☞✘

❁✯✱✵✫✬✽✵✻✪✮✙ ❚✔✡✳ ★☞ ✑☞✓ s☞✑❇✡✳ ✓✔✡ ✎☛✡s✏✌✏☞✑

☞✘ ✗✡✍✌✖☛✡✗✡✑✓ ✎☛☞✎✡☛❛✳✙ ❤☞☛ ✍★★✏✓✏☞✑ ✍✑★

✌✖✕✓☛✍s✓✏☞✑✣ ✓✔✡ ☛✖❛✡ ✏✌ ✏✑ ✓✡☛✗✌ ☞✘ ★✡s✏✗✍❛

✎❛✍s✡✌✙

❘❄❙❄❘ ❱✪✯✮❞✻✮✴ ✪❃❃ ✵✶✲ ➉✮✽✲✫✵✬✻✮ ➋✻✴✻✵❁

❚✔✡ ☛✡✌✖❛✓ ☞✘ s☞✗✎✖✓✍✓✏☞✑ ✧✏✓✔ ✍✎✎☛☞t✏✗✍✓✡

✑✖✗✕✡☛✌✣ ✧✔✏s✔ s☞✑✓✍✏✑ ✗☞☛✡ ✓✔✍✑ ☞✑✡

✖✑s✡☛✓✍✏✑ ★✏✒✏✓✣ ✌✔☞✖❛★ ✕✡ ☛☞✖✑★✡★ ☞✘✘✙ ❚✔✡ ☛✖❛✡✌

✘☞☛ ☛☞✖✑★✏✑✒ ☞✘✘ ✑✖✗✕✡☛✌ ✓☞ ✓✔✡ ✍✎✎☛☞✎☛✏✍✓✡

✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓ ✘✏✒✖☛✡✌ ✍☛✡ ☞✕❇✏☞✖✌ ✏✑ ✗☞✌✓ s✍✌✡✌✙ ➌

✑✖✗✕✡☛ ❊✙❫✭● ☛☞✖✑★✡★ ☞✘✘ ✓☞ ✓✔☛✡✡ ✌✏✒✑✏✘✏s✍✑✓

✘✏✒✖☛✡✌ ✏✌ ❊✙❫❅✣ ✧✔✏❛✡ ✓✔✡ ✑✖✗✕✡☛ ❊✙❫✭❪ ✧☞✖❛★

✕✡ ❊✙❫✭✙ ❚✔✡ ✢✜➈❦ ✕✳ s☞✑❇✡✑✓✏☞✑ ✏✌ ✓✔✍✓ ✓✔✡

❨✫✲✽✲❞✻✮✴ ❞✻✴✻✵ ✻❁ ✫✬✻❁✲❞ ✱✼ ✸ ✻❃ ✵✶✲

Page 34: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✸✆

✐✞✟✐✠✞✐✡✐☛☞✞✌ ✍✐✠✐✌ ✌✎ ✏✑ ✍✒✎✓✓✑✍ ✔✌✕✑

✉✞✍✑✒✖✐✞✑✍ ✍✐✠✐✌ ✐✞ ✌✕✐✟ ☛☞✟✑✗ ✐✟ ✘✎✒✑ ✌✕☞✞

✺✙ ☞✞✍ ✐✟ ✖✑✡✌ ✉✞☛✕☞✞✠✑✍ ✐✡ ✌✕✑ ✖☞✌✌✑✒ ✐✟ ✖✑✟✟

✌✕☞✞ ✺✳ ✥✚✛ ✜✢✣✛ ✤✦ ✛✢✧ ★✚✩✪✧✫ ✤✬ ✭✳✮✯✰ ✤★

✜✢✤✇✢ ✛✢✧ ✤★✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✲✤✱✤✛ ✤✬ ✰✳ ✴✧✫✧✵ ✛✢✧

✇❝★✶✧★✛✤❝★ ✤✬ ✛✢✣✛ ✐✡ ✌✕✑ ✓✒✑☛✑✍✐✞✠ ✍✐✠✐✌ ✐✟

✑❡✑✞✙ ✌✕✑ ✐✞✟✐✠✞✐✡✐☛☞✞✌ ✍✐✠✐✌ ✐✟ ✟✐✘✓✖✷

✍✒✎✓✓✑✍ ☞✞✍✙ ✐✡ ✐✌ ✐✟ ✎✍✍✙ ✌✕✑ ✓✒✑☛✑✍✐✞✠ ✍✐✠✐✌

✐✟ ✒☞✐✟✑✍ ✏✷ ✹✳ ✻✢✧★✵ ✛✢✧ ★✚✩✪✧✫ ✭✳✮✯✰ ✫❝✚★✲✧✲

❝✦✦ ✛❝ ✛✢✫✧✧ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬ ✪✧✇❝✩✧✬ ✭✳✮✯✳ ♦★

✛✢✧ ❝✛✢✧✫ ✢✣★✲✵ ✛✢✧ ★✚✩✪✧✫ ✭✳✮t✰ ✫❝✚★✲✧✲ ❝✦✦

✛❝ ✛✢✫✧✧ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬ ✪✧✇❝✩✧✬ ✭✳✮✯ ✬✤★✇✧

✛✢✧ ✼✫✧✇✧✲✤★✱ ✲✤✱✤✛ ✤✬ ❝✲✲✳

■★ ✣★✽ ✤★✶❝✾✶✧✲ ❝✫ ✇❝✩✼✾✧✿ ✩✚✾✛✤❀✬✛✧✼

✇✣✾✇✚✾✣✛✤❝★✵ ✽❝✚ ✬✢❝✚✾✲ ✫✧✛✣✤★✵ ✤★ ✤★✛✧✫✩✧✲✤✣✛✧

✬✛✧✼✬✵ ❝★✧ ✲✤✱✤✛ ✩❝✫✧ ✛✢✣★ ✛✢✧ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✲✤✱✤✛✬

✣★✲ ✫❝✚★✲ ❝✦✦ ✛❝ ✼✫❝✼✧✫ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬ ✣✛ ✛✢✧

✧★✲ ❝✦ ✛✢✧ ✇✣✾✇✚✾✣✛✤❝★✳ ❁✤✩✤✾✣✫✾✽✵ ✣ ★✚✩✪✧✫

❦★❝✜★ ✛❝ ✪✧ ✜✤✛✢✤★ ✩✣★✽ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬✵

✬✚✇✢ ✣✬ ✤★ ✭✳ss✮s✭✯✰❂ × ✹❃❄ ✩❅✬ ✦❝✫ ✛✢✧ ✬✼✧✧✲

❝✦ ✾✤✱✢✛ ✤★ ✶✣✇✚✚✩✵ ✤✬ ✫❝✚★✲✧✲ ❝✦✦ ✛❝ ✣★

✣✼✼✫❝✿✤✩✣✛✧ ✶✣✾✚✧ t × ✹❃❄ ✩❅✬ ✵ ✜✢✤✇✢ ✤✬ ❝✦✛✧★

✧✩✼✾❝✽✧✲ ✤★ ✇❝✩✼✚✛✣✛✤❝★✬✳ ❆✤★✣✾✾✽✵ ✫✧✩✧✩✪✧✫

✛✢✣✛ ✧✿✣✇✛ ★✚✩✪✧✫✬ ✛✢✣✛ ✣✼✼✧✣✫ ✤★ ✦❝✫✩✚✾✣✧ ✾✤❦✧

✭ ❇ ✤★ ❚▲

❣❈ ❉❊ ❋ ✢✣✶✧ ✣ ✾✣✫✱✧ ●✤★✦✤★✤✛✧❍ ★✚✩✪✧✫

❝✦ ✬✤✱★✤✦ ✤✇✣★✛ ✦ ✤✱✚✫✧✬✳ ✻✢✧ ✶✣✾✚✧ ❝✦ ❇ ❏

t✳✹✯✹✰s✭❑✳✳✳✳ ✤✬ ❦★❝✜★ ✛❝ ✣ ✾✣✫✱✧ ★✚✩✪✧✫ ❝✦

✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬✳ ▼❝✚ ✩✣✽ ✛✣❦✧ ✛✢✧ ✶✣✾✚✧ ✣✬

t✳✹✯✭ ❝✫ t✳✹✯ ✦❝✫ ❇✵ ✜✤✛✢ ✾✤✩✤✛✧✲ ★✚✩✪✧✫ ❝✦

✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬ ✣✬ ✫✧◆✚✤✫✧✲ ✤★ ✬✼✧✇✤✦✤✇

✇✣✬✧✬✳

❖◗❘❙❯❱❲ ❳❨❩❬ ❭✣✇✢ ✬✤✲✧ ❝✦ ✣ ✇✚✪✧ ✤✬

✩✧✣✬✚✫✧✲ ✛❝ ✪✧ ✮✳✭❃t ✩✳ ♠✢✣✛ ✣✫✧ ✛✢✧

✛❝✛✣✾ ✬✚✫✦✣✇✧ ✣✫✧✣ ✣★✲ ✛✢✧ ✶❝✾✚✩✧ ❝✦ ✛✢✧

✇✚✪✧ ✛❝ ✣✼✼✫❝✼✫✤✣✛✧ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬❪

❫❴❵❛❲❜ ✻✢✧ ★✚✩✪✧✫ ❝✦ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬ ✤★

✛✢✧ ✩✧✣✬✚✫✧✲ ✾✧★✱✛✢ ✤✬ ✯✳ ✻✢✧ ✇✣✾✇✚✾✣✛✧✲ ✣✫✧✣

✣★✲ ✛✢✧ ✶❝✾✚✩✧ ✬✢❝✚✾✲ ✛✢✧✫✧✦❝✫✧ ✪✧ ✫❝✚★✲✧✲ ❝✦✦

✛❝ ✯ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬✳

❁✚✫✦✣✇✧ ✣✫✧✣ ❝✦ ✛✢✧ ✇✚✪✧ ❏ ❑●✮✳✭❃t❍❞ ✩❞

❏ t✹✹✳✭ss✭✰✯✩❞

❏ t✹✹✳t✩❞

❢❝✾✚✩✧ ❝✦ ✛✢✧ ✇✚✪✧ ❏ ●✮✳✭❃t❍❤ ✩❤

❏ t✮t✳✮✹✯✮✰✯✩❤

❏ t✮t✳✮✩❤ ❥

❖◗❘❙❯❱❲ ❳❨❩❧ ✰✳✮✯ ✱ ❝✦ ✣ ✬✚✪✬✛✣★✇✧

❝✇✇✚✼✤✧✬ ✹✳✭ ✇✩❤✳ ❭✿✼✫✧✬✬ ✤✛✬ ✲✧★✬✤✛✽ ✪✽

❦✧✧✼✤★✱ ✛✢✧ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬ ✤★ ✶✤✧✜✳

❫❴❵❛❲❜ ✻✢✧✫✧ ✣✫✧ t ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬ ✤★ ✛✢✧

✩✧✣✬✚✫✧✲ ✩✣✬✬ ✜✢✧✫✧✣✬ ✛✢✧✫✧ ✣✫✧ ❝★✾✽ ✭

✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬ ✤★ ✛✢✧ ✩✧✣✬✚✫✧✲ ✶❝✾✚✩✧✳

✴✧★✇✧ ✛✢✧ ✲✧★✬✤✛✽ ✬✢❝✚✾✲ ✪✧ ✧✿✼✫✧✬✬✧✲ ✛❝ ❝★✾✽

✭ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬✳

♥♣qr✈①② ③❾④⑤⑥⑦

⑧⑤⑨⑩ ❶❷

❏ ✯✳❂ ✱ ✇✩❹❹❺✳ ❥

❻❼❽❼❿ ➀✉✖✑✟ ✡✎✒ ➁✑✌✑✒✘✐✞✐✞✠ ✌✕✑ ➂✞☛✑✒✌☞✐✞✌✷

✐✞ ✌✕✑ ➀✑✟✉✖✌✟ ✎✡ ➃✒✐✌✕✘☞✌✐☛

➄☞✖☛✉✖☞✌✐✎✞✟

✻✢✧ ✫✚✾✧✬ ✦❝✫ ✲✧✛✧✫✩✤★✤★✱ ✛✢✧ ✚★✇✧✫✛✣✤★✛✽ ❝✫

✧✫✫❝✫ ✤★ ✛✢✧ ★✚✩✪✧✫❅✩✧✣✬✚✫✧✲ ◆✚✣★✛✤✛✽ ✤★

✣✫✤✛✢✩✧✛✤✇ ❝✼✧✫✣✛✤❝★✬ ✇✣★ ✪✧ ✚★✲✧✫✬✛❝❝✲ ✦✫❝✩

✛✢✧ ✦❝✾✾❝✜✤★✱ ✧✿✣✩✼✾✧✬✳

●✹❍ ■✦ ✛✢✧ ✾✧★✱✛✢ ✣★✲ ✪✫✧✣✲✛✢ ❝✦ ✣ ✛✢✤★

✫✧✇✛✣★✱✚✾✣✫ ✬✢✧✧✛ ✣✫✧ ✩✧✣✬✚✫✧✲✵ ✚✬✤★✱ ✣ ✩✧✛✫✧

✬✇✣✾✧ ✣✬ ✹❑✳✭ ✇✩ ✣★✲✵ ✹❃✳✹ ✇✩ ✫✧✬✼✧✇✛✤✶✧✾✽✵ ✛✢✧✫✧

✣✫✧ ✛✢✫✧✧ ✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦ ✤✱✚✫✧✬ ✤★ ✧✣✇✢

✩✧✣✬✚✫✧✩✧★✛✳ ■✛ ✩✧✣★✬ ✛✢✣✛ ✛✢✧ ✾✧★✱✛✢ ➅ ✩✣✽

✪✧ ✜✫✤✛✛✧★ ✣✬

➅ ❏ ✹❑✳✭ ➆ ❃✳✹ ✇✩

❏ ✹❑✳✭ ✇✩ ➆ ❃✳❑ ➇✳

❁✤✩✤✾✣✫✾✽✵ ✛✢✧ ✪✫✧✣✲✛✢ ➈ ✩✣✽ ✪✧ ✜✫✤✛✛✧★ ✣✬

➈ ❏ ✹❃✳✹ ➆ ❃✳✹ ✇✩

❏ ✹❃✳✹ ✇✩ ➆ ✹ ➇

✻✢✧★✵ ✛✢✧ ✧✫✫❝✫ ❝✦ ✛✢✧ ✼✫❝✲✚✇✛ ❝✦ ✛✜❝ ●❝✫ ✩❝✫✧❍

✧✿✼✧✫✤✩✧★✛✣✾ ✶✣✾✚✧✬✵ ✚✬✤★✱ ✛✢✧ ✇❝✩✪✤★✣✛✤❝★ ❝✦

✧✫✫❝✫✬ ✫✚✾✧✵ ✜✤✾✾ ✪✧

➅ ➈ ❏ ✹❑t✳❑✭ ✇✩❞ ➉ ✹✳❑➇

❏ ✹❑t✳❑✭ ➉ ✭✳❑ ✇✩❞

✻✢✤✬ ✾✧✣✲✬ ✚✬ ✛❝ ◆✚❝✛✧ ✛✢✧ ✦✤★✣✾ ✫✧✬✚✾✛ ✣✬

➅ ➈ ❏ ✹❑✯ ➉ t ✇✩❞

✴✧✫✧ t ✇✩❞ ✤✬ ✛✢✧ ✚★✇✧✫✛✣✤★✛✽ ❝✫ ✧✫✫❝✫ ✤★ ✛✢✧

✧✬✛✤✩✣✛✤❝★ ❝✦ ✣✫✧✣ ❝✦ ✫✧✇✛✣★✱✚✾✣✫ ✬✢✧✧✛✳

●✭❍ ➊✡ ☞ ✟✑✌ ✎✡ ✑➋✓✑✒✐✘✑✞✌☞✖ ✍☞✌☞ ✐✟ ✟✓✑☛✐✡✐✑✍

✌✎ ✞ ✟✐✠✞✐✡✐☛☞✞✌ ✡✐✠✉✒✑✟✙ ☞ ✒✑✟✉✖✌ ✎✏✌☞✐✞✑✍ ✏✷

☛✎✘✏✐✞✐✞✠ ✌✕✑ ✍☞✌☞ ➌✐✖✖ ☞✖✟✎ ✏✑ ❡☞✖✐✍ ✌✎ ✞

✟✐✠✞✐✡✐☛☞✞✌ ✡✐✠✉✒✑✟❼

✴❝✜✧✶✧✫✵ ✤✦ ✲✣✛✣ ✣✫✧ ✬✚✪✛✫✣✇✛✧✲✵ ✛✢✧ ★✚✩✪✧✫ ❝✦

✬✤✱★✤✦✤✇✣★✛ ✦✤✱✚✫✧✬ ✇✣★ ✪✧ ✫✧✲✚✇✧✲✳

Page 35: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❯�✁✂✄ ☎�✆ ✝✞☎✄❯✟✞✝✞�✂ ✸✠

❋✡☛ ☞✌✍✎✏✑☞✱ ✥✒✓✔✕ ✖✗✓✘✙ ✕✱ ✚✡✛✜✢✏☞✣✤✦✤☞✧ ✛✡ ✛✜☛☞☞

✢✤✕s✤✦✤✣✍s✛ ✦✤✕★☛☞✢✱ ✣✍ss✡✛ ✏☛✡✏☞☛✑✩ ✚☞ ☞✪✍✑★✍✛☞✧

✍✢ ❛✓✫✬ ✕ ✚★✛ ✡s✑✩ ✍✢ ❛✓✫ ✕✱ ✍✢ ★s✣☞☛✛✍✤s✛✤☞✢ ✤s

✢★✚✛☛✍✣✛✤✡s ✡☛ ✍✧✧✤✛✤✡s ✣✡✎✚✤s☞ ✤s ✍ ✧✤✦✦☞☛☞s✛

✦✍✢✜✤✡s ❢✢✎✍✑✑☞✢✛ s★✎✚☞☛ ✡✦ ✧☞✣✤✎✍✑ ✏✑✍✣☞✢ ☛✍✛✜☞☛

✛✜✍s ✛✜☞ s★✎✚☞☛ ✡✦ ✢✤✕s✤✦✤✣✍s✛ ✦✤✕★☛☞✢ ✤s ✍s✩ ✡✦

✛✜☞ s★✎✚☞☛ ✍✧✧☞✧ ✡☛ ✢★✚✛☛✍✣✛☞✧t✓

❢✭t ❚✮✯ ✰✯✲✳✴✵✶✯ ✯✰✰✷✰ ✷✹ ✳ ✶✳✲✺✯ ✷✹ ✻✺✼✽✯✰

✾✿✯❀✵✹✵✯❁ ✴✷ ✾✵❂✻✵✹✵❀✳✻✴ ✹✵❂✺✰✯✾ ❁✯✿✯✻❁✾ ✻✷✴

✷✻✲♦ ✷✻ ✻ ✽✺✴ ✳✲✾✷ ✷✻ ✴✮✯ ✻✺✼✽✯✰ ✵✴✾✯✲✹❃

❋✡☛ ☞✌✍✎✏✑☞✱ ✛✜☞ ✍✣✣★☛✍✣✩ ✤s ✎☞✍✢★☛☞✎☞s✛ ✡✦

✎✍✢✢ ✥✓✘✒ ✕ ✤✢ ♠ ✘✓✘✥ ✕ ❄✜☞☛☞✍✢ ✍s✡✛✜☞☛

✎☞✍✢★☛☞✎☞s✛ ✔✓✫✔ ✕ ✤✢ ✍✑✢✡ ✍✣✣★☛✍✛☞ ✛✡ ♠ ✘✓✘✥ ✕✓

❅✜☞ ☛☞✑✍✛✤✪☞ ☞☛☛✡☛ ✤s ✥✓✘✒ ✕ ✤✢

❆ ❢♠ ✘✓✘✥❇✥✓✘✒t × ✥✘✘ ❈

❆ ♠ ✥❈

❙✤✎✤✑✍☛✑✩✱ ✛✜☞ ☛☞✑✍✛✤✪☞ ☞☛☛✡☛ ✤s ✔✓✫✔ ✕ ✤✢

❆ ❢♠ ✘✓✘✥❇✔✓✫✔t × ✥✘✘ ❈

❆ ♠ ✘✓✥ ❈

❋✤s✍✑✑✩✱ ☛☞✎☞✎✚☞☛ ✛✜✍✛ ✵✻✴✯✰✼✯❁✵✳✴✯ ✰✯✾✺✲✴✾ ✵✻

✳ ✼✺✲✴✵ ❉✾✴✯✿ ❀✷✼✿✺✴✳✴✵✷✻ ✾✮✷✺✲❁ ✽✯

❀✳✲❀✺✲✳✴✯❁ ✴✷ ✷✻✯ ✼✷✰✯ ✾✵❂✻✵✹✵❀✳✻✴ ✹✵❂✺✰✯ ✵✻

✯✶✯✰♦ ✼✯✳✾✺✰✯✼✯✻✴ ✴✮✳✻ ✴✮✯ ✻✺✼✽✯✰ ✷✹

❁✵❂✵✴✾ ✵✻ ✴✮✯ ✲✯✳✾✴ ✿✰✯❀✵✾✯ ✼✯✳✾✺✰✯✼✯✻✴❃

❅✜☞✢☞ ✢✜✡★✑✧ ✚☞ ❊★✢✛✤✦✤☞✧ ✚✩ ✛✜☞ ✧✍✛✍ ✍s✧ ✛✜☞s

✛✜☞ ✍☛✤✛✜✎☞✛✤✣ ✡✏☞☛✍✛✤✡s✢ ✎✍✩ ✚☞ ✣✍☛☛✤☞✧ ✡★✛●

✡✛✜☞☛❄✤✢☞ ☛✡★s✧✤s✕ ☞☛☛✡☛✢ ✣✍s ✚★✤✑✧ ★✏✓ ❋✡☛

☞✌✍✎✏✑☞✱ ✛✜☞ ☛☞✣✤✏☛✡✣✍✑ ✡✦ ✔✓❛✫✱ ✣✍✑✣★✑✍✛☞✧ ❢✍✦✛☞☛

☛✡★s✧✤s✕ ✡✦✦t ✛✡ ✛✜☞ ✢✍✎☞ s★✎✚☞☛ ✡✦ ✢✤✕s✤✦✤✣✍s✛

✦✤✕★☛☞✢ ❢✛✜☛☞☞t ✤✢ ✘✓✥✘✬✱ ✚★✛ ✛✜☞ ☛☞✣✤✏☛✡✣✍✑ ✡✦

✘✓✥✘✬ ✣✍✑✣★✑✍✛☞✧ ✛✡ ✛✜☛☞☞ ✢✤✕s✤✦✤✣✍s✛ ✦✤✕★☛☞✢ ✤✢

✔✓✙✒✓ ❍✡❄☞✪☞☛✱ ✤✦ ❄☞ ✜✍✧ ❄☛✤✛✛☞s ✥❇✔✓❛✫ ❆ ✘✓✥✘✬✬

✍s✧ ✛✜☞s ✛✍■☞s ✛✜☞ ☛☞✣✤✏☛✡✣✍✑ ✛✡ ✛✜☛☞☞ ✢✤✕s✤✦✤✣✍s✛

✦✤✕★☛☞✢✱ ❄☞ ❄✡★✑✧ ✜✍✪☞ ☛☞✛☛✤☞✪☞✧ ✛✜☞ ✡☛✤✕✤s✍✑

✪✍✑★☞ ✡✦ ✔✓❛✫✓

❅✜✤✢ ☞✌✍✎✏✑☞ ❊★✢✛✤✦✤☞✢ ✛✜☞ ✤✧☞✍ ✛✡ ☛☞✛✍✤s ✡s☞

✎✡☛☞ ☞✌✛☛✍ ✧✤✕✤✛ ❢✛✜✍s ✛✜☞ s★✎✚☞☛ ✡✦ ✧✤✕✤✛✢ ✤s

✛✜☞ ✑☞✍✢✛ ✏☛☞✣✤✢☞ ✎☞✍✢★☛☞✎☞s✛t ✤s ✤s✛☞☛✎☞✧✤✍✛☞

✢✛☞✏✢ ✡✦ ✛✜☞ ✣✡✎✏✑☞✌ ✎★✑✛✤❏✢✛☞✏ ✣✍✑✣★✑✍✛✤✡s✢ ✤s

✡☛✧☞☛ ✛✡ ✍✪✡✤✧ ✍✧✧✤✛✤✡s✍✑ ☞☛☛✡☛✢ ✤s ✛✜☞ ✏☛✡✣☞✢✢

✡✦ ☛✡★s✧✤s✕ ✡✦✦ ✛✜☞ s★✎✚☞☛✢✓

❑❃▲ ▼◆❖P◗❘◆❱◗❘❱❲ ❳❨❩❘◆❬❭❪Q❫❭◗❚◆❚◆P❘

❅✜☞ s✍✛★☛☞ ✡✦ ✍ ✏✜✩✢✤✣✍✑ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✩ ✤✢ ✧☞✢✣☛✤✚☞✧

✚✩ ✤✛✢ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✢✓ ❜✑✑ ✛✜☞ ✏✜✩✢✤✣✍✑ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✤☞✢

☛☞✏☛☞✢☞s✛☞✧ ✚✩ ✧☞☛✤✪☞✧ ★s✤✛✢ ✣✍s ✚☞ ☞✌✏☛☞✢✢☞✧

✤s ✛☞☛✎✢ ✡✦ ✢✡✎☞ ✣✡✎✚✤s✍✛✤✡s ✡✦ ✢☞✪☞s

✦★s✧✍✎☞s✛✍✑ ✡☛ ✚✍✢☞ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✤☞✢✓ ❵☞ ✢✜✍✑✑ ✣✍✑✑

✛✜☞✢☞ ✚✍✢☞ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✤☞✢ ✍✢ ✛✜☞ ✢☞✪☞s ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✢

✡✦ ✛✜☞ ✏✜✩✢✤✣✍✑ ❄✡☛✑✧✱ ❄✜✤✣✜ ✍☛☞ ✧☞s✡✛☞✧ ❄✤✛✜

✢❴★✍☛☞ ✚☛✍✣■☞✛✢ ❝ ❞✓ ❅✜★✢✱ ✑☞s✕✛✜ ✜✍✢ ✛✜☞

✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s ❝❡❞✱ ✎✍✢✢ ❝❣❞✱ ✛✤✎☞ ❝❅❞✱ ☞✑☞✣✛☛✤✣ ✣★☛☛☞s✛

❝❜❞✱ ✛✜☞☛✎✡✧✩s✍✎✤✣ ✛☞✎✏☞☛✍✛★☛☞ ❝❤❞✱ ✑★✎✤s✡★✢

✤s✛☞s✢✤✛✩ ❝✣✧❞✱ ✍s✧ ✍✎✡★s✛ ✡✦ ✢★✚✢✛✍s✣☞ ❝✎✡✑❞✓

❚✮✯ ❁✵✼✯✻✾✵✷✻✾ ✷✹ ✳ ✿✮♦✾✵❀✳✲ ✐✺✳✻✴✵✴♦ ✳✰✯ ✴✮✯

✿✷♣✯✰✾ ❥✷✰ ✯❦✿✷✻✯✻✴✾❧ ✴✷ ♣✮✵❀✮ ✴✮✯ ✽✳✾✯

✐✺✳✻✴✵✴✵✯✾ ✳✰✯ ✰✳✵✾✯❁ ✴✷ ✰✯✿✰✯✾✯✻✴ ✴✮✳✴

✐✺✳✻✴✵✴♦✓ ♥✡✛☞ ✛✜✍✛ ★✢✤s✕ ✛✜☞ ✢❴★✍☛☞ ✚☛✍✣■☞✛✢

❝ ❞ ☛✡★s✧ ✍ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✩ ✎☞✍s✢ ✛✜✍✛ ❄☞ ✍☛☞ ✧☞✍✑✤s✕

❄✤✛✜ ✇✴✮✯ ❁✵✼✯✻✾✵✷✻✾ ✷✹➆ ✛✜☞ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✩✓

qs ✎☞✣✜✍s✤✣✢✱ ✍✑✑ ✛✜☞ ✏✜✩✢✤✣✍✑ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✤☞✢ ✣✍s

✚☞ ❄☛✤✛✛☞s ✤s ✛☞☛✎✢ ✡✦ ✛✜☞ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✢ ❝❡❞✱ ❝❣❞

✍s✧ ❝❅❞✓ ❋✡☛ ☞✌✍✎✏✑☞✱ ✛✜☞ ✪✡✑★✎☞ ✡✣✣★✏✤☞✧ ✚✩

✍s ✡✚❊☞✣✛ ✤✢ ☞✌✏☛☞✢✢☞✧ ✍✢ ✛✜☞ ✏☛✡✧★✣✛ ✡✦ ✑☞s✕✛✜✱

✚☛☞✍✧✛✜ ✍s✧ ✜☞✤✕✜✛✱ ✡☛ ✛✜☛☞☞ ✑☞s✕✛✜✢✓ ❍☞s✣☞ ✛✜☞

✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✢ ✡✦ ✪✡✑★✎☞ ✍☛☞ ❝❡❞ r ❝❡❞ r ❝❡❞ ❆ ❝❡❞✉ ❆ ❝❡✉❞✓

❜✢ ✛✜☞ ✪✡✑★✎☞ ✤✢ ✤s✧☞✏☞s✧☞s✛ ✡✦ ✎✍✢✢ ✍s✧ ✛✤✎☞✱

✤✛ ✤✢ ✢✍✤✧ ✛✡ ✏✡✢✢☞✢✢ ✈☞☛✡ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s ✤s✎✍✢✢ ❝❣①❞✱

✈☞☛✡ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s ✤s ✛✤✎☞ ❝❅①❞ ✍s✧ ✛✜☛☞☞

✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✢ ✤s ✑☞s✕✛✜✓

❙✤✎✤✑✍☛✑✩✱ ✦✡☛✣☞✱ ✍✢ ✛✜☞ ✏☛✡✧★✣✛ ✡✦ ✎✍✢✢ ✍s✧

✍✣✣☞✑☞☛✍✛✤✡s✱ ✣✍s ✚☞ ☞✌✏☛☞✢✢☞✧ ✍✢

❋✡☛✣☞ ❆ ✎✍✢✢ r ✍✣✣☞✑☞☛✍✛✤✡s

❆ ✎✍✢✢ r ❢✑☞s✕✛✜t❇❢✛✤✎☞t②

❅✜☞ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✢ ✡✦ ✦✡☛✣☞ ✍☛☞ ❝❣❞ ❝❡❞❇❝❅❞② ❆

❝❣ ❡ ❅➊③❞✓ ❅✜★✢✱ ✛✜☞ ✦✡☛✣☞ ✜✍✢ ✡s☞ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s ✤s

✎✍✢✢✱ ✡s☞ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s ✤s ✑☞s✕✛✜✱ ✍s✧ ✖✒

✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✢ ✤s ✛✤✎☞✓ ❅✜☞ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✢ ✤s ✍✑✑ ✡✛✜☞☛

✚✍✢☞ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✤☞✢ ✍☛☞ ✈☞☛✡✓

♥✡✛☞ ✛✜✍✛ ✤s ✛✜✤✢ ✛✩✏☞ ✡✦ ☛☞✏☛☞✢☞s✛✍✛✤✡s✱ ✛✜☞

✎✍✕s✤✛★✧☞✢ ✍☛☞ s✡✛ ✣✡s✢✤✧☞☛☞✧✓ q✛ ✤✢ ✛✜☞ ❴★✍✑✤✛✩

✡✦ ✛✜☞ ✛✩✏☞ ✡✦ ✛✜☞ ✏✜✩✢✤✣✍✑ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✩ ✛✜✍✛ ☞s✛☞☛✢✓

❅✜★✢✱ ✍ ✣✜✍s✕☞ ✤s ✪☞✑✡✣✤✛✩✱ ✤s✤✛✤✍✑ ✪☞✑✡✣✤✛✩✱

✍✪☞☛✍✕☞ ✪☞✑✡✣✤✛✩✱ ✦✤s✍✑ ✪☞✑✡✣✤✛✩✱ ✍s✧ ✢✏☞☞✧ ✍☛☞

✍✑✑ ☞❴★✤✪✍✑☞s✛ ✤s ✛✜✤✢ ✣✡s✛☞✌✛✓ ❙✤s✣☞ ✍✑✑ ✛✜☞✢☞

❴★✍s✛✤✛✤☞✢ ✣✍s ✚☞ ☞✌✏☛☞✢✢☞✧ ✍✢ ✑☞s✕✛✜❇✛✤✎☞✱

✛✜☞✤☛ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✢ ✍☛☞ ❝❡❞❇❝❅❞ ✡☛ ❝❡ ❅④⑤❞✓

❑❃⑥ ▼◆❖P◗❘◆❱◗❭❪ ❲❱⑦❖❫❪❭P ❭◗▼

▼◆❖P◗❘◆❱◗❭❪ PQ❫❭❚◆❱◗❘

❅✜☞ ☞✌✏☛☞✢✢✤✡s ❄✜✤✣✜ ✢✜✡❄✢ ✜✡❄ ✍s✧ ❄✜✤✣✜ ✡✦

✛✜☞ ✚✍✢☞ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✤☞✢ ☛☞✏☛☞✢☞s✛ ✛✜☞ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✢

✡✦ ✍ ✏✜✩✢✤✣✍✑ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✩ ✤✢ ✣✍✑✑☞✧ ✛✜☞ ⑧⑨⑩❶❷❸⑨❹❷❺❻

❼❹❽⑩❾❻❺ ✡✦ ✛✜☞ ✕✤✪☞s ✏✜✩✢✤✣✍✑ ❴★✍s✛✤✛✩✓ ❋✡☛

☞✌✍✎✏✑☞✱ ✛✜☞ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✍✑ ✦✡☛✎★✑✍ ✡✦ ✛✜☞ ✪✡✑★✎☞

✤✢ ❝❣① ❡✉ ❅①❞✱ ✍s✧ ✛✜✍✛ ✡✦ ✢✏☞☞✧ ✡☛ ✪☞✑✡✣✤✛✩ ✤✢

❝❣① ❡ ❅❿⑤❞✓ ❙✤✎✤✑✍☛✑✩✱ ❝❣① ❡ ❅④②❞ ✤✢ ✛✜☞ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✍✑

✦✡☛✎★✑✍ ✡✦ ✍✣✣☞✑☞☛✍✛✤✡s ✍s✧ ❝❣ ❡④✉ ❅①❞ ✛✜✍✛ ✡✦

✎✍✢✢ ✧☞s✢✤✛✩✓

❜s ☞❴★✍✛✤✡s ✡✚✛✍✤s☞✧ ✚✩ ☞❴★✍✛✤s✕ ✍ ✏✜✩✢✤✣✍✑

❴★✍s✛✤✛✩ ❄✤✛✜ ✤✛✢ ✧✤✎☞s✢✤✡s✍✑ ✦✡☛✎★✑✍ ✤✢ ✣✍✑✑☞✧

✛✜☞ ❁✵✼✯✻✾✵✷✻✳✲ ✯✐✺✳✴✵✷✻ ✡✦ ✛✜☞ ✏✜✩✢✤✣✍✑

Page 36: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✸✆

q✝✞✟✠✡✠☛☞ ✌✍✝✎✏ ✠✍✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✞✕ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟✎ ✞✖✑✠✍✑ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟✎✏ t✍✡✗✍ ✖✑✘✖✑✎✑✟✠ ✠✍✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎✔♦ ✞ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕ q✝✞✟✠✡✠☛ ✡✟ ✠✑✖✓✎ ✔♦ ✠✍✑ ✙✞✎✑q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎☞ ✚✔✖ ✑✛✞✓✘✕✑✏ ✠✍✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✞✕✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟✎ ✔♦ ❡✔✕✝✓✑ ✜❱❪✏ ✎✘✑✑✒ ✜✈❪✏ ♦✔✖✗✑ ✜❋ ❪ ✞✟✒

✓✞✎✎ ✒✑✟✎✡✠☛ ✜✢❪ ✓✞☛ ✙✑ ✑✛✘✖✑✎✎✑✒ ✞✎

✜❱❪ ✣ ✜✤✵ ✥✦ ✌✵❪✜✈❪ ✣ ✜✤✵ ✥ ✌➊✧❪✜❋❪ ✣ ✜✤ ✥ ✌➊★❪

✜✢❪ ✣ ✜✤ ✥➊✦ ✌✵❪

✌✍✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✞✕ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟ ✗✞✟ ✙✑ ✔✙✠✞✡✟✑✒

♦✖✔✓ ✠✍✑ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟ ✖✑✘✖✑✎✑✟✠✡✟❢ ✠✍✑ ✖✑✕✞✠✡✔✟✎

✙✑✠t✑✑✟ ✠✍✑ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕ q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎☞ ✌✍✑✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✞✕ ♦✔✖✓✝✕✞✑ ✔♦ ✞ ✕✞✖❢✑ ✟✝✓✙✑✖ ✞✟✒

t✡✒✑ ❡✞✖✡✑✠☛ ✔♦ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕ q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎✏ ✒✑✖✡❡✑✒ ♦✖✔✓✠✍✑ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟✎ ✖✑✘✖✑✎✑✟✠✡✟❢ ✠✍✑ ✖✑✕✞✠✡✔✟✎✍✡✘✎✞✓✔✟❢ ✔✠✍✑✖ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕ q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎ ✞✟✒ ✑✛✘✖✑✎✎✑✒

✡✟ ✠✑✖✓✎ ✔♦ ✙✞✎✑ q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎ ✞✖✑ ❢✡❡✑✟ ✡✟❆✘✘✑✟✒✡✛ ✩ ♦✔✖ ☛✔✝✖ ❢✝✡✒✞✟✗✑ ✞✟✒ ✖✑✞✒☛✖✑♦✑✖✑✟✗✑☞

✷✪✫✬ ❉✭✮✯✰✱✭✲✰✳✴ ✳✰✳✴✶✱✭✱ ✳✰❉ ✭✹✱✳✺✺✴✭✻✳✹✭✲✰✱

✌✍✑ ✖✑✗✔❢✟✡✠✡✔✟ ✔♦ ✗✔✟✗✑✘✠✎ ✔♦ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎✏t✍✡✗✍❢✝✡✒✑ ✠✍✑ ✒✑✎✗✖✡✘✠✡✔✟ ✔♦ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕ ✙✑✍✞❡✡✔✝✖ ✡✎

✔♦ ✙✞✎✡✗ ✡✓✘✔✖✠✞✟✗✑ ✞✎ ✔✟✕☛ ✠✍✔✎✑ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎ ✗✞✟ ✙✑ ✞✒✒✑✒ ✔✖ ✎✝✙✠✖✞✗✠✑✒ t✍✡✗✍✍✞❡✑ ✠✍✑ ✎✞✓✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎☞ ❆ ✠✍✔✖✔✝❢✍✝✟✒✑✖✎✠✞✟✒✡✟❢ ✔♦ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✞✕ ✞✟✞✕☛✎✡✎ ✍✑✕✘✎ ✝✎

✡✟ ✒✑✒✝✗✡✟❢ ✗✑✖✠✞✡✟ ✖✑✕✞✠✡✔✟✎ ✞✓✔✟❢ ✒✡♦♦✑✖✑✟✠✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕ q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎ ✞✟✒ ✗✍✑✗♣✡✟❢ ✠✍✑ ✒✑✖✡❡✞✠✡✔✟✏✞✗✗✝✖✞✗☛ ✞✟✒ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✞✕ ✗✔✟✎✡✎✠✑✟✗☛ ✔✖✍✔✓✔❢✑✟✑✡✠☛ ✔♦ ❡✞✖✡✔✝✎ ✓✞✠✍✑✓✞✠✡✗✞✕✑✛✘✖✑✎✎✡✔✟✎☞ ✼✍✑✟ ✓✞❢✟✡✠✝✒✑✎ ✔♦ ✠t✔ ✔✖ ✓✔✖✑

✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕ q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎ ✞✖✑ ✓✝✕✠✡✘✕✡✑✒✏ ✠✍✑✡✖ ✝✟✡✠✎✎✍✔✝✕✒ ✙✑ ✠✖✑✞✠✑✒ ✡✟ ✠✍✑ ✎✞✓✑ ✓✞✟✟✑✖ ✞✎✔✖✒✡✟✞✖☛ ✞✕❢✑✙✖✞✡✗ ✎☛✓✙✔✕✎☞ ✼✑ ✗✞✟ ✗✞✟✗✑✕

✡✒✑✟✠✡✗✞✕ ✝✟✡✠✎ ✡✟ ✠✍✑ ✟✝✓✑✖✞✠✔✖ ✞✟✒✒✑✟✔✓✡✟✞✠✔✖☞ ✌✍✑ ✎✞✓✑ ✡✎ ✠✖✝✑ ♦✔✖ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎✔♦ ✞ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕ q✝✞✟✠✡✠☛☞ ✽✡✓✡✕✞✖✕☛✏ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎ ✖✑✘✖✑✎✑✟✠✑✒ ✙☛ ✎☛✓✙✔✕✎ ✔✟ ✙✔✠✍ ✎✡✒✑✎✔♦ ✞ ✓✞✠✍✑✓✞✠✡✗✞✕ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟ ✓✝✎✠ ✍✞❡✑ ✠✍✑ ✎✞✓✑✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎☞

✷✪✫✬✪✫ ✻❈✾✿❀❁❂❃ ❄❈✾ ❉❁❅✾❂❇❁❊❂●❍

✻❊❂❇❁❇❄✾❂✿■ ❊❏ ✯❑▲●❄❁❊❂❇

✌✍✑ ✓✞❢✟✡✠✝✒✑✎ ✔♦ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕ q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎ ✓✞☛ ✙✑

✞✒✒✑✒ ✠✔❢✑✠✍✑✖ ✔✖ ✎✝✙✠✖✞✗✠✑✒ ♦✖✔✓ ✔✟✑ ✞✟✔✠✍✑✖

✔✟✕☛ ✡♦ ✠✍✑☛ ✍✞❡✑ ✠✍✑ ✎✞✓✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎☞ ▼✟ ✔✠✍✑✖

t✔✖✒✎✏ t✑ ✗✞✟ ✞✒✒ ✔✖ ✎✝✙✠✖✞✗✠ ✎✡✓✡✕✞✖ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕

q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎☞ ✌✍✝✎✏ ❡✑✕✔✗✡✠☛ ✗✞✟✟✔✠ ✙✑ ✞✒✒✑✒ ✠✔

♦✔✖✗✑✏ ✔✖ ✞✟ ✑✕✑✗✠✖✡✗ ✗✝✖✖✑✟✠ ✗✞✟✟✔✠ ✙✑ ✎✝✙✠✖✞✗✠✑✒

♦✖✔✓ ✠✍✑ ✠✍✑✖✓✔✒☛✟✞✓✡✗ ✠✑✓✘✑✖✞✠✝✖✑☞ ✌✍✡✎

✎✡✓✘✕✑ ✘✖✡✟✗✡✘✕✑ ✗✞✕✕✑✒ ❄❈✾ ◆❖❁❂✿❁◆❍✾ ❊❏

❈❊❅❊❃✾❂✾❁❄■ ❊❏ ❤❁❅✾❂❇❁❊❂❇ ✡✟ ✞✟ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟ ✡✎

✑✛✠✖✑✓✑✕☛ ✝✎✑♦✝✕ ✡✟ ✗✍✑✗♣✡✟❢ ✠✍✑ ✗✔✖✖✑✗✠✟✑✎✎ ✔♦

✞✟ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟☞ ▼♦ ✠✍✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎ ✔♦ ✞✕✕ ✠✍✑ ✠✑✖✓✎

✞✖✑ ✟✔✠ ✎✞✓✑✏ ✠✍✑ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟ ✡✎ t✖✔✟❢☞ ❛✑✟✗✑✏ ✡♦

t✑ ✒✑✖✡❡✑ ✞✟ ✑✛✘✖✑✎✎✡✔✟ ♦✔✖ ✠✍✑ ✕✑✟❢✠✍ ✇✔✖

✒✡✎✠✞✟✗✑❞ ✔♦ ✞✟ ✔✙◗✑✗✠✏ ✖✑❢✞✖✒✕✑✎✎ ✔♦ ✠✍✑ ✎☛✓✙✔✕✎

✞✘✘✑✞✖✡✟❢ ✡✟ ✠✍✑ ✔✖✡❢✡✟✞✕ ✓✞✠✍✑✓✞✠✡✗✞✕ ✖✑✕✞✠✡✔✟✏

t✍✑✟ ✞✕✕ ✠✍✑ ✡✟✒✡❡✡✒✝✞✕ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎ ✞✖✑

✎✡✓✘✕✡♦✡✑✒✏ ✠✍✑ ✖✑✓✞✡✟✡✟❢ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟ ✓✝✎✠ ✙✑

✠✍✞✠ ✔♦ ✕✑✟❢✠✍☞ ✽✡✓✡✕✞✖✕☛✏ ✡♦ t✑ ✒✑✖✡❡✑ ✞✟ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟

✔♦ ✎✘✑✑✒✏ ✠✍✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎ ✔✟ ✙✔✠✍ ✠✍✑ ✎✡✒✑✎ ✔♦

✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟✏ t✍✑✟ ✎✡✓✘✕✡♦✡✑✒✏ ✓✝✎✠ ✙✑ ✔♦ ✕✑✟❢✠✍❘

✠✡✓✑✏ ✔✖ ✜✥ ✌➊✧❪☞

❙✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎ ✞✖✑ ✗✝✎✠✔✓✞✖✡✕☛ ✝✎✑✒ ✞✎ ✞

✘✖✑✕✡✓✡✟✞✖☛ ✠✑✎✠ ✔♦ ✠✍✑ ✗✔✟✎✡✎✠✑✟✗☛ ✔♦ ✞✟

✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟✏ t✍✑✟ ✠✍✑✖✑ ✡✎ ✎✔✓✑ ✒✔✝✙✠ ✞✙✔✝✠ ✠✍✑

✗✔✖✖✑✗✠✟✑✎✎ ✔♦ ✠✍✑ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟☞ ❛✔t✑❡✑✖✏ ✠✍✑

✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✞✕ ✗✔✟✎✡✎✠✑✟✗☛ ✒✔✑✎ ✟✔✠ ❢✝✞✖✞✟✠✑✑

✗✔✖✖✑✗✠ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟✎☞ ▼✠ ✡✎ ✝✟✗✑✖✠✞✡✟ ✠✔ ✠✍✑ ✑✛✠✑✟✠

✔♦ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✕✑✎✎ q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎ ✔✖ ♦✝✟✗✠✡✔✟✎☞ ✌✍✑

✞✖❢✝✓✑✟✠✎ ✔♦ ✎✘✑✗✡✞✕ ♦✝✟✗✠✡✔✟✎✏ ✎✝✗✍ ✞✎ ✠✍✑

✠✖✡❢✔✟✔✓✑✠✖✡✗✏ ✕✔❢✞✖✡✠✍✓✡✗ ✞✟✒ ✑✛✘✔✟✑✟✠✡✞✕

♦✝✟✗✠✡✔✟✎ ✓✝✎✠ ✙✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✕✑✎✎☞ ❆ ✘✝✖✑

✟✝✓✙✑✖✏ ✖✞✠✡✔ ✔♦ ✎✡✓✡✕✞✖ ✘✍☛✎✡✗✞✕ q✝✞✟✠✡✠✡✑✎✏

✎✝✗✍ ✞✎ ✞✟❢✕✑ ✞✎ ✠✍✑ ✖✞✠✡✔ ✇✕✑✟❢✠✍❘✕✑✟❢✠✍❞✏

✖✑♦✖✞✗✠✡❡✑ ✡✟✒✑✛ ✞✎ ✠✍✑ ✖✞✠✡✔ ✇✎✘✑✑✒ ✔♦ ✕✡❢✍✠ ✡✟

❡✞✗✝✝✓❘✎✘✑✑✒ ✔♦ ✕✡❢✍✠ ✡✟ ✓✑✒✡✝✓❞ ✑✠✗☞✏ ✍✞✎ ✟✔

✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎☞

❚✔t t✑ ✗✞✟ ✠✑✎✠ ✠✍✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✞✕ ✗✔✟✎✡✎✠✑✟✗☛

✔✖ ✍✔✓✔❢✑✟✑✡✠☛ ✔♦ ✠✍✑ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟

❯ ❲❳

❨❩❬❭ ❭① ① ❫ ❴ ❵ ❴❜ ❝ ❝

♦✔✖ ✠✍✑ ✒✡✎✠✞✟✗✑ ❣ ✠✖✞❡✑✕✕✑✒ ✙☛ ✞ ✘✞✖✠✡✗✕✑ ✔✖ ✙✔✒☛

✡✟ ✠✡✓✑ ✐ t✍✡✗✍ ✎✠✞✖✠✎ ♦✖✔✓ ✠✍✑ ✘✔✎✡✠✡✔✟ ❣❥ t✡✠✍

✞✟ ✡✟✡✠✡✞✕ ❡✑✕✔✗✡✠☛ ✈❥ ✞✠ ✠✡✓✑ ✐ ✣ ❦ ✞✟✒ ✍✞✎ ✝✟✡♦✔✖✓

✞✗✗✑✕✑✖✞✠✡✔✟ ❧ ✞✕✔✟❢ ✠✍✑ ✒✡✖✑✗✠✡✔✟ ✔♦ ✓✔✠✡✔✟☞

✌✍✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎ ✔♦ ✑✞✗✍ ✠✑✖✓✓✞☛ ✙✑ t✖✡✠✠✑✟ ✞✎

✜❣❪ ✣ ✜✥❪

✜❣❥ ❪ ✣ ✜✥❪

✜✈❥ ✐❪ ✣ ✜✥ ✌➊✧❪ ✜✌❪

✣ ✜✥❪

✜✇♠❘♥❞ ❧ ✐★❪ ✣ ✜✥ ✌➊★❪ ✜✌★❪

✣ ✜✥❪

❆✎ ✑✞✗✍ ✠✑✖✓ ✔✟ ✠✍✑ ✖✡❢✍✠ ✍✞✟✒ ✎✡✒✑ ✔♦ ✠✍✡✎

✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟ ✍✞✎ ✠✍✑ ✎✞✓✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✏ ✟✞✓✑✕☛ ✠✍✞✠

✔♦ ✕✑✟❢✠✍✏ t✍✡✗✍ ✡✎ ✎✞✓✑ ✞✎ ✠✍✑ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟ ✔♦

✕✑♦✠ ✍✞✟✒ ✎✡✒✑ ✔♦ ✠✍✑ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟✏ ✍✑✟✗✑ ✠✍✡✎

✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟ ✡✎ ✞ ✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✞✕✕☛ ✗✔✖✖✑✗✠ ✑q✝✞✠✡✔✟☞

▼✠ ✓✞☛ ✙✑ ✟✔✠✑✒ ✠✍✞✠ ✞ ✠✑✎✠ ✔♦ ✗✔✟✎✡✎✠✑✟✗☛ ✔♦

✒✡✓✑✟✎✡✔✟✎ ✠✑✕✕✎ ✝✎ ✟✔ ✓✔✖✑ ✞✟✒ ✟✔ ✕✑✎✎ ✠✍✞✟ ✞

Page 37: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❯�✁✂✄ ☎�✆ ✝✞☎✄❯✟✞✝✞�✂ ✸✸

t✡☛t ☞✌ ✍☞✎☛✏☛t✡✎✍✑ ☞✌ ✒✎✏t☛✓ ✔✒t ✕✖☛ t✕✡

✖❛✗✖✎t✖✘✡ t✕✖t ✙✡ ✎✡✡❛ ✎☞t ✍☞✚✚✏t ☞✒✛☛✡✜✗✡☛

t☞ ✖ ✢✖✛t✏✍✒✜✖✛ ✍✕☞✏✍✡ ☞✌ ✒✎✏t☛✓ ✖✎❛ ✙✡ ✎✡✡❛ ✎☞t

✙☞✛✛✑ ✖✔☞✒t ✍☞✎✗✡✛☛✏☞✎☛ ✖✚☞✎✘ ✚✒✜t✏✢✜✡☛ ✖✎❛

☛✒✔s✚✒✜t✏✢✜✡☛ ☞✌ t✕✡ ✒✎✏t☛✣ ✤t ✚✖✑ ✔✡ ✔☞✛✎✡ ✏✎

✚✏✎❛ t✕✖t ✐✥ ✦✧ ★✩✪✦✫✐✬✧ ✥✦✐✭✮ ✫✯✐✮ ✰✬✧✮✐✮✫★✧✰✱

✫★✮✫✲ ✐✫ ✐✮ ✳✴✬✵★✶ ✷✴✬✧✹✲ ✺✪✫ ✐✥ ✐✫ ✳✦✮✮★✮✲ ✐✫ ✐✮

✧✬✫ ✳✴✬✵★✶ ✴✐✹✯✫♥ ✻✯✪✮✲✦ ✶✐✼★✧✮✐✬✧✦✭✭✱ ✰✬✴✴★✰✫

★✩✪✦✫✐✬✧ ✧★★✶ ✧✬✫ ✺★ ✦✰✫✪✦✭✭✱ ✦✧ ★❡✦✰✫

✽✰✬✴✴★✰✫❝ ★✩✪✦✫✐✬✧✲ ✺✪✫ ✦ ✶✐✼★✧✮✐✬✧✦✭✭✱ ✷✴✬✧✹

✽✐✧✰✬✴✴★✰✫❝ ✬✴ ✐✧✰✬✧✮✐✮✫★✧✫ ★✩✪✦✫✐✬✧ ✼✪✮✫ ✺★

✷✴✬✧✹✣

❊✾✿❀❁❂❃ ❄❅❆❇ ▲✡t ✒☛ ✍☞✎☛✏❛✡✛ ✖✎ ✡❈✒✖t✏☞✎

❋♠ ● ♠ ❣ ❤

❍■

✙✕✡✛✡ ❏ ✏☛ t✕✡ ✚✖☛☛ ☞✌ t✕✡ ✔☞❛✑✓ ✈ ✏t☛

✗✡✜☞✍✏t✑✓ ❑ ✏☛ t✕✡ ✖✍✍✡✜✡✛✖t✏☞✎ ❛✒✡ t☞

✘✛✖✗✏t✑ ✖✎❛ ▼ ✏☛ t✕✡ ✕✡✏✘✕t✣ ◆✕✡✍❖

✙✕✡t✕✡✛ t✕✏☛ ✡❈✒✖t✏☞✎ ✏☛ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎✖✜✜✑

✍☞✛✛✡✍t✣

P◗❘❙❃❚ ❱✕✡ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ☞✌ ▲❲❳ ✖✛✡

❨❩❬ ❨▲ ❱➊❭ ❬❪ ❫ ❨❩❬ ❨ ▲❪❱➊❪❬

❫ ❨❩ ▲❪ ❱➊❪❬

❱✕✡ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ☞✌ ❴❲❳ ✖✛✡

❨❩❬❨▲ ❱➊❪❬ ❨▲❬ ❫ ❨❩❬❨▲❪ ❱➊❪❬

❫ ❨❩ ▲❪ ❱➊❪❬

❱✕✡ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ☞✌ ▲❲❳✖✎❛ ❴❲❳✖✛✡ t✕✡ ☛✖✚✡✖✎❛

✕✡✎✍✡ t✕✡ ✡❈✒✖t✏☞✎ ✏☛ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎✖✜✜✑ ✍☞✛✛✡✍t✣ ❵

❊✾✿❀❁❂❃ ❄❅❆❜ ❱✕✡ ❳✤ ✒✎✏t ☞✌ ✡✎✡✛✘✑ ✏☛

❞ ❫ ❖✘ ✚❪☛➊❪❢ t✕✖t ☞✌ ☛✢✡✡❛ ✈ ✏☛ ✚ ☛➊❭ ✖✎❛

☞✌ ✖✍✍✡✜✡✛✖t✏☞✎ ❥ ✏☛ ✚ ☛➊❪✣ ❦✕✏✍✕ ☞✌ t✕✡

✌☞✛✚✒✜✖✡ ✌☞✛ ❖✏✎✡t✏✍ ✡✎✡✛✘✑ ❧♦♣ ✘✏✗✡✎ ✔✡✜☞✙

✍✖✎ ✑☞✒ ✛✒✜✡ ☞✒t ☞✎ t✕✡ ✔✖☛✏☛ ☞✌

❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎✖✜ ✖✛✘✒✚✡✎t☛ ❧❏ ☛t✖✎❛☛ ✌☞✛ t✕✡

✚✖☛☛ ☞✌ t✕✡ ✔☞❛✑♣ q

❧✖♣ ♦ r ❏✉ ✈✇

❧✔♣ ♦ r ①②③④⑤❏✈✉

❧✍♣ ♦ r ❏❥

❧❛♣ ♦ r ①⑥③②⑦⑤❏✈✉

❧✡♣ ♦ r ①②③④⑤❏✈✉⑧ ❏❥

P◗❘❙❃❚ ⑨✗✡✛✑ ✍☞✛✛✡✍t ✌☞✛✚✒✜✖ ☞✛ ✡❈✒✖t✏☞✎ ✚✒☛t

✕✖✗✡ t✕✡ ☛✖✚✡ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ☞✎ ✔☞t✕ ☛✏❛✡☛ ☞✌ t✕✡

✡❈✒✖t✏☞✎✣ ⑩✜☛☞✓ ☞✎✜✑ ❈✒✖✎t✏t✏✡☛ ✙✏t✕ t✕✡ ☛✖✚✡

✢✕✑☛✏✍✖✜ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ✍✖✎ ✔✡ ✖❛❛✡❛ ☞✛

☛✒✔t✛✖✍t✡❛✣ ❱✕✡ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ☞✌ t✕✡ ❈✒✖✎t✏t✑ ☞✎

t✕✡ ✛✏✘✕t ☛✏❛✡ ✖✛✡ ❨❩❪ ▲❶ ❱➊❶❬ ✌☞✛ ❧✖♣❢ ❨❩ ▲❪ ❱➊❪❬ ✌☞✛

❧✔♣ ✖✎❛ ❧❛♣❢ ❨❩ ▲ ❱➊❪❬ ✌☞✛ ❧✍♣✣ ❱✕✡ ❈✒✖✎t✏t✑ ☞✎ t✕✡

✛✏✘✕t ☛✏❛✡ ☞✌ ❧✡♣ ✕✖☛ ✎☞ ✢✛☞✢✡✛ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ☛✏✎✍✡

t✙☞ ❈✒✖✎t✏t✏✡☛ ☞✌ ❛✏✌✌✡✛✡✎t ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ✕✖✗✡ ✔✡✡✎

✖❛❛✡❛✣ ❳✏✎✍✡ t✕✡ ❖✏✎✡t✏✍ ✡✎✡✛✘✑ ♦ ✕✖☛ t✕✡

❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ☞✌ ❨❩ ▲❪ ❱➊❪❬✓ ✌☞✛✚✒✜✖☛ ❧✖♣✓ ❧✍♣ ✖✎❛ ❧✡♣

✖✛✡ ✛✒✜✡❛ ☞✒t✣ ❷☞t✡ t✕✖t ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎✖✜ ✖✛✘✒✚✡✎t☛

✍✖✎✎☞t t✡✜✜ ✙✕✏✍✕ ☞✌ t✕✡ t✙☞✓ ❧✔♣ ☞✛ ❧❛♣✓ ✏☛ t✕✡

✍☞✛✛✡✍t ✌☞✛✚✒✜✖✣ ❸☞✛ t✕✏☛✓ ☞✎✡ ✚✒☛t t✒✛✎ t☞ t✕✡

✖✍t✒✖✜ ❛✡✌✏✎✏t✏☞✎ ☞✌ ❖✏✎✡t✏✍ ✡✎✡✛✘✑ ❧☛✡✡ ◆✕✖✢t✡✛

❹♣✣ ❱✕✡ ✍☞✛✛✡✍t ✌☞✛✚✒✜✖ ✌☞✛ ❖✏✎✡t✏✍ ✡✎✡✛✘✑ ✏☛ ✘✏✗✡✎

✔✑ ❧✔♣✣ ❵

❺♥❻❼♥❺ ❽★✶✪✰✐✧✹ ❾★✭✦✫✐✬✧ ✦✼✬✧✹ ✫✯★

❿✯✱✮✐✰✦✭ Q✪✦✧✫✐✫✐★✮

❱✕✡ ✚✡t✕☞❛ ☞✌ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ✍✖✎ ☛☞✚✡t✏✚✡☛ ✔✡

✒☛✡❛ t☞ ❛✡❛✒✍✡ ✛✡✜✖t✏☞✎ ✖✚☞✎✘ t✕✡ ✢✕✑☛✏✍✖✜

❈✒✖✎t✏t✏✡☛✣ ❸☞✛ t✕✏☛ ✙✡ ☛✕☞✒✜❛ ❖✎☞✙ t✕✡

❛✡✢✡✎❛✡✎✍✡ ☞✌ t✕✡ ✢✕✑☛✏✍✖✜ ❈✒✖✎t✏t✑ ☞✎ ☞t✕✡✛

❈✒✖✎t✏t✏✡☛ ❧✒✢t☞ t✕✛✡✡ ✢✕✑☛✏✍✖✜ ❈✒✖✎t✏t✏✡☛ ☞✛

✜✏✎✡✖✛✜✑ ✏✎❛✡✢✡✎❛✡✎t ✗✖✛✏✖✔✜✡☛♣ ✖✎❛ ✍☞✎☛✏❛✡✛ ✏t

✖☛ ✖ ✢✛☞❛✒✍t t✑✢✡ ☞✌ t✕✡ ❛✡✢✡✎❛✡✎✍✡✣ ▲✡t ✒☛ t✖❖✡

✖✎ ✡➀✖✚✢✜✡✣

❊✾✿❀❁❂❃ ❄❅❆➁ ◆☞✎☛✏❛✡✛ ✖ ☛✏✚✢✜✡

✢✡✎❛✒✜✒✚✓ ✕✖✗✏✎✘ ✖ ✔☞✔ ✖tt✖✍✕✡❛ t☞ ✖

☛t✛✏✎✘✓ t✕✖t ☞☛✍✏✜✜✖t✡☛ ✒✎❛✡✛ t✕✡ ✖✍t✏☞✎ ☞✌

t✕✡ ✌☞✛✍✡ ☞✌ ✘✛✖✗✏t✑✣ ❳✒✢✢☞☛✡ t✕✖t t✕✡ ✢✡✛✏☞❛

☞✌ ☞☛✍✏✜✜✖t✏☞✎ ☞✌ t✕✡ ☛✏✚✢✜✡ ✢✡✎❛✒✜✒✚

❛✡✢✡✎❛☛ ☞✎ ✏t☛ ✜✡✎✘t✕ ❧➂♣✓ ✚✖☛☛ ☞✌ t✕✡ ✔☞✔

❧❏♣ ✖✎❛ ✖✍✍✡✜✡✛✖t✏☞✎ ❛✒✡ t☞ ✘✛✖✗✏t✑ ❧❑♣✣

➃✡✛✏✗✡ t✕✡ ✡➀✢✛✡☛☛✏☞✎ ✌☞✛ ✏t☛ t✏✚✡ ✢✡✛✏☞❛

✒☛✏✎✘ ✚✡t✕☞❛ ☞✌ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛✣

P◗❘❙❃❚ ❱✕✡ ❛✡✢✡✎❛✡✎✍✡ ☞✌ t✏✚✡ ✢✡✛✏☞❛ ➄ ☞✎

t✕✡ ❈✒✖✎t✏t✏✡☛ ➂➅ ❑ ✖✎❛ ❏ ✖☛ ✖ ✢✛☞❛✒✍t ✚✖✑ ✔✡

✙✛✏tt✡✎ ✖☛ q

➄ r ➆ ➂➇ ❑➈ ❏➉

✙✕✡✛✡ ❖ ✏☛ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎✜✡☛☛ ✍☞✎☛t✖✎t ✖✎❛ ➋➅ ➌

✖✎❛ ➍ ✖✛✡ t✕✡ ✡➀✢☞✎✡✎t☛✣

➎✑ ✍☞✎☛✏❛✡✛✏✎✘ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ☞✎ ✔☞t✕ ☛✏❛✡☛✓ ✙✡

✕✖✗✡

➏ ➏ ➐ ➐ ➐ ➑➒ ➐➓➔ → ➣ ↔↕➓➔ ↔➓➔ ➣ ↔ ➓→ ↔

➙ ➛

❫ ▲➇➜➈ ❱➊❪➈ ❩➉

➝✎ ✡❈✒✖t✏✎✘ t✕✡ ❛✏✚✡✎☛✏☞✎☛ ☞✎ ✔☞t✕ ☛✏❛✡☛✓

✙✡ ✕✖✗✡

➋ ⑧ ➌ ❫ ➞❢ ➟➠➌ ❫ ➡❢ ✖✎❛ ➍ ❫ ➞

❳☞ t✕✖t➢ ➢

➤ ➥ ➤ ➦➧ ➧

➨ ➩ ➫➭ ➭ ➭

❱✕✡✎✓ ❱ ❫ ❖ ✜➼ ✘➊➼

Page 38: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✸✆

❙✝✞✞✟✠✡

✶✳ ☛☞✌✍✎✏✍ ✎✍ ✑ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✑✕✎✖✗ ✍✏✎✗✔✏✗✘ ✙✑✍✗✚ ✛✔ ✜✗✑✍✓✢✗✜✗✔✕ ✛✣ ✤☞✌✍✎✏✑✥ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍✳ ✦✗✢✕✑✎✔

✤☞✌✍✎✏✑✥ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ☞✑✖✗ ✙✗✗✔ ✏☞✛✍✗✔ ✑✍ ✣✓✔✚✑✜✗✔✕✑✥ ✛✢ ✙✑✍✗ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ♣✍✓✏☞ ✑✍ ✥✗✔✧✕☞✘

✜✑✍✍✘ ✕✎✜✗✘ ✗✥✗✏✕✢✎✏ ✏✓✢✢✗✔✕✘ ✕☞✗✢✜✛✚✌✔✑✜✎✏ ✕✗✜✤✗✢✑✕✓✢✗✘ ✑✜✛✓✔✕ ✛✣ ✍✓✙✍✕✑✔✏✗✘ ✑✔✚

✥✓✜✎✔✛✓✍ ✎✔✕✗✔✍✎✕✌❧✳

✷✳ ❊✑✏☞ ✙✑✍✗ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✌ ✎✍ ✚✗✣✎✔✗✚ ✎✔ ✕✗✢✜✍ ✛✣ ✑ ✏✗✢✕✑✎✔ ✙✑✍✎✏✘ ✑✢✙✎✕✢✑✢✎✥✌ ✏☞✛✍✗✔ ✙✓✕ ✤✢✛✤✗✢✥✌

✍✕✑✔✚✑✢✚✎✍✗✚ ✢✗✣✗✢✗✔✏✗ ✍✕✑✔✚✑✢✚ ✏✑✥✥✗✚ ✓✔✎✕ ♣✍✓✏☞ ✑✍ ✜✗✕✢✗✘ s✎✥✛✧✢✑✜✘ ✍✗✏✛✔✚✘ ✑✜✤✗✢✗✘

s✗✥✖✎✔✘ ✜✛✥✗ ✑✔✚ ✏✑✔✚✗✥✑❧✳ ❦☞✗ ✓✔✎✕✍ ✣✛✢ ✕☞✗ ✣✓✔✚✑✜✗✔✕✑✥ ✛✢ ✙✑✍✗ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ✑✢✗ ✏✑✥✥✗✚

✣✓✔✚✑✜✗✔✕✑✥ ✛✢ ✙✑✍✗ ✓✔✎✕✍✳

★✳ ❖✕☞✗✢ ✤☞✌✍✎✏✑✥ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍✘ ✚✗✢✎✖✗✚ ✣✢✛✜ ✕☞✗ ✙✑✍✗ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍✘ ✏✑✔ ✙✗ ✗✩✤✢✗✍✍✗✚ ✑✍ ✑

✏✛✜✙✎✔✑✕✎✛✔ ✛✣ ✕☞✗ ✙✑✍✗ ✓✔✎✕✍ ✑✔✚ ✑✢✗ ✏✑✥✥✗✚ ✚✗✢✎✖✗✚ ✓✔✎✕✍✳ ❝ ✏✛✜✤✥✗✕✗ ✍✗✕ ✛✣ ✓✔✎✕✍✘

✙✛✕☞ ✣✓✔✚✑✜✗✔✕✑✥ ✑✔✚ ✚✗✢✎✖✗✚✘ ✎✍ ✏✑✥✥✗✚ ✑ ✍✌✍✕✗✜ ✛✣ ✓✔✎✕✍✳

✹✳ ❦☞✗ ❚✔✕✗✢✔✑✕✎✛✔✑✥ ✪✌✍✕✗✜ ✛✣ ✫✔✎✕✍ ♣✪❚❧ ✙✑✍✗✚ ✛✔ ✍✗✖✗✔ ✙✑✍✗ ✓✔✎✕✍ ✎✍ ✑✕ ✤✢✗✍✗✔✕

✎✔✕✗✢✔✑✕✎✛✔✑✥✥✌ ✑✏✏✗✤✕✗✚ ✓✔✎✕ ✍✌✍✕✗✜ ✑✔✚ ✎✍ ✐✎✚✗✥✌ ✓✍✗✚ ✕☞✢✛✓✧☞✛✓✕ ✕☞✗ ✐✛✢✥✚✳

✺✳ ❦☞✗ ✪❚ ✓✔✎✕✍ ✑✢✗ ✓✍✗✚ ✎✔ ✑✥✥ ✤☞✌✍✎✏✑✥ ✜✗✑✍✓✢✗✜✗✔✕✍✘ ✣✛✢ ✙✛✕☞ ✕☞✗ ✙✑✍✗ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ✑✔✚

✕☞✗ ✚✗✢✎✖✗✚ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ✛✙✕✑✎✔✗✚ ✣✢✛✜ ✕☞✗✜✳ ✦✗✢✕✑✎✔ ✚✗✢✎✖✗✚ ✓✔✎✕✍ ✑✢✗ ✗✩✤✢✗✍✍✗✚ ✙✌

✜✗✑✔✍ ✛✣ ✪❚ ✓✔✎✕✍ ✐✎✕☞ ✍✤✗✏✎✑✥ ✔✑✜✗✍ ♣✍✓✏☞ ✑✍ ♠✛✓✥✗✘ ✔✗✐✕✛✔✘ ✐✑✕✕✘ ✗✕✏❧✳

✻✳ ❦☞✗ ✪❚ ✓✔✎✕✍ ☞✑✖✗ ✐✗✥✥ ✚✗✣✎✔✗✚ ✑✔✚ ✎✔✕✗✢✔✑✕✎✛✔✑✥✥✌ ✑✏✏✗✤✕✗✚ ✓✔✎✕ ✍✌✜✙✛✥✍ ♣✍✓✏☞ ✑✍ ✜ ✣✛✢

✜✗✕✢✗✘ s✧ ✣✛✢ s✎✥✛✧✢✑✜✘ ✍ ✣✛✢ ✍✗✏✛✔✚✘ ❝ ✣✛✢ ✑✜✤✗✢✗✘ ✬ ✣✛✢ ✔✗✐✕✛✔ ✗✕✏✳❧✳

✼✳ ☛☞✌✍✎✏✑✥ ✜✗✑✍✓✢✗✜✗✔✕✍ ✑✢✗ ✓✍✓✑✥✥✌ ✗✩✤✢✗✍✍✗✚ ✣✛✢ ✍✜✑✥✥ ✑✔✚ ✥✑✢✧✗ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ✎✔ ✍✏✎✗✔✕✎✣✎✏

✔✛✕✑✕✎✛✔✘ ✐✎✕☞ ✤✛✐✗✢✍ ✛✣ ✶♥✳ ✪✏✎✗✔✕✎✣✎✏ ✔✛✕✑✕✎✛✔ ✑✔✚ ✕☞✗ ✤✢✗✣✎✩✗✍ ✑✢✗ ✓✍✗✚ ✕✛ ✍✎✜✤✥✎✣✌

✜✗✑✍✓✢✗✜✗✔✕ ✔✛✕✑✕✎✛✔ ✑✔✚ ✔✓✜✗✢✎✏✑✥ ✏✛✜✤✓✕✑✕✎✛✔✘ ✧✎✖✎✔✧ ✎✔✚✎✏✑✕✎✛✔ ✕✛ ✕☞✗ ✤✢✗✏✎✍✎✛✔

✛✣ ✕☞✗ ✔✓✜✙✗✢✍✳

✽✳ ✦✗✢✕✑✎✔ ✧✗✔✗✢✑✥ ✢✓✥✗✍ ✑✔✚ ✧✓✎✚✗✥✎✔✗✍ ✜✓✍✕ ✙✗ ✣✛✥✥✛✐✗✚ ✣✛✢ ✓✍✎✔✧ ✔✛✕✑✕✎✛✔✍ ✣✛✢ ✤☞✌✍✎✏✑✥

✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ✑✔✚ ✍✕✑✔✚✑✢✚ ✍✌✜✙✛✥✍ ✣✛✢ ✪❚ ✓✔✎✕✍✘ ✍✛✜✗ ✛✕☞✗✢ ✓✔✎✕✍ ✑✔✚ ✪❚ ✤✢✗✣✎✩✗✍ ✣✛✢

✗✩✤✢✗✍✍✎✔✧ ✤✢✛✤✗✢✥✌ ✕☞✗ ✤☞✌✍✎✏✑✥ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ✑✔✚ ✜✗✑✍✓✢✗✜✗✔✕✍✳

✾✳ ❚✔ ✏✛✜✤✓✕✎✔✧ ✑✔✌ ✤☞✌✍✎✏✑✥ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✌✘ ✕☞✗ ✓✔✎✕✍ ✣✛✢ ✚✗✢✎✖✗✚ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ✎✔✖✛✥✖✗✚ ✎✔ ✕☞✗

✢✗✥✑✕✎✛✔✍☞✎✤♣✍❧ ✑✢✗ ✕✢✗✑✕✗✚ ✑✍ ✕☞✛✓✧☞ ✕☞✗✌ ✐✗✢✗ ✑✥✧✗✙✢✑✎✏ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ✕✎✥✥ ✕☞✗ ✚✗✍✎✢✗✚

✓✔✎✕✍ ✑✢✗ ✛✙✕✑✎✔✗✚✳

✶♥✳ ❉✎✢✗✏✕ ✑✔✚ ✎✔✚✎✢✗✏✕ ✜✗✕☞✛✚✍ ✏✑✔ ✙✗ ✓✍✗✚ ✣✛✢ ✕☞✗ ✜✗✑✍✓✢✗✜✗✔✕ ✛✣ ✤☞✌✍✎✏✑✥ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍✳

❚✔ ✜✗✑✍✓✢✗✚ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍✘ ✐☞✎✥✗ ✗✩✤✢✗✍✍✎✔✧ ✕☞✗ ✢✗✍✓✥✕✘ ✕☞✗ ✑✏✏✓✢✑✏✌ ✑✔✚ ✤✢✗✏✎✍✎✛✔ ✛✣

✜✗✑✍✓✢✎✔✧ ✎✔✍✕✢✓✜✗✔✕✍ ✑✥✛✔✧ ✐✎✕☞ ✗✢✢✛✢✍ ✎✔ ✜✗✑✍✓✢✗✜✗✔✕✍ ✍☞✛✓✥✚ ✙✗ ✕✑s✗✔ ✎✔✕✛ ✑✏✏✛✓✔✕✳

✶✶✳ ❚✔ ✜✗✑✍✓✢✗✚ ✑✔✚ ✏✛✜✤✓✕✗✚ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ✤✢✛✤✗✢ ✍✎✧✔✎✣✎✏✑✔✕ ✣✎✧✓✢✗✍ ✛✔✥✌ ✍☞✛✓✥✚ ✙✗ ✢✗✕✑✎✔✗✚✳

❘✓✥✗✍ ✣✛✢ ✚✗✕✗✢✜✎✔✎✔✧ ✕☞✗ ✔✓✜✙✗✢ ✛✣ ✍✎✧✔✎✣✎✏✑✔✕ ✣✎✧✓✢✗✍✘ ✏✑✢✢✌✎✔✧ ✛✓✕ ✑✢✎✕☞✜✗✕✎✏

✛✤✗✢✑✕✎✛✔✍ ✐✎✕☞ ✕☞✗✜✘ ✑✔✚ ♦✢✛✓✔✚✎✔✧ ✛✣✣ ♦ ✕☞✗ ✓✔✏✗✢✕✑✎✔ ✚✎✧✎✕✍ ✜✓✍✕ ✙✗ ✣✛✥✥✛✐✗✚✳

✶✷✳ ❦☞✗ ✚✎✜✗✔✍✎✛✔✍ ✛✣ ✙✑✍✗ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍ ✑✔✚ ✏✛✜✙✎✔✑✕✎✛✔ ✛✣ ✕☞✗✍✗ ✚✎✜✗✔✍✎✛✔✍ ✚✗✍✏✢✎✙✗ ✕☞✗

✔✑✕✓✢✗ ✛✣ ✤☞✌✍✎✏✑✥ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍✳ ❉✎✜✗✔✍✎✛✔✑✥ ✑✔✑✥✌✍✎✍ ✏✑✔ ✙✗ ✓✍✗✚ ✕✛ ✏☞✗✏s ✕☞✗ ✚✎✜✗✔✍✎✛✔✑✥

✏✛✔✍✎✍✕✗✔✏✌ ✛✣ ✗✒✓✑✕✎✛✔✍✘ ✚✗✚✓✏✎✔✧ ✢✗✥✑✕✎✛✔✍ ✑✜✛✔✧ ✕☞✗ ✤☞✌✍✎✏✑✥ ✒✓✑✔✕✎✕✎✗✍✘ ✗✕✏✳ ❝

✚✎✜✗✔✍✎✛✔✑✥✥✌ ✏✛✔✍✎✍✕✗✔✕ ✗✒✓✑✕✎✛✔ ✔✗✗✚ ✔✛✕ ✙✗ ✑✏✕✓✑✥✥✌ ✑✔ ✗✩✑✏✕ ♣✏✛✢✢✗✏✕❧ ✗✒✓✑✕✎✛✔✘

✙✓✕ ✑ ✚✎✜✗✔✍✎✛✔✑✥✥✌ ✐✢✛✔✧ ✛✢ ✎✔✏✛✔✍✎✍✕✗✔✕ ✗✒✓✑✕✎✛✔ ✜✓✍✕ ✙✗ ✐✢✛✔✧✳

✭✮✱ ✯ ✰✲

✴❣

◆✭✵✿ ✵❀❁✵ ❂❁❃❄✿ ✭❅ ❆✭❇❈✵❁❇✵ ❋ ❆❁❇ ❇✭✵ ●✿ ✭●✵❁❍❇✿■

●❜ ✵❀✿ ❏✿✵❀✭■ ✭❅ ■❍❏✿❇❈❍✭❇❈❑ ▲✿✮✿ ❍✵ ■✭✿❈ ❇✭✵

❏❁✵✵✿✮ ❍❅ ❈✭❏✿ ❇❄❏●✿✮ ❏❄❃✵❍▼❃❍✿❈ ✵❀✿ ✮❍◗❀✵ ❈❍■✿

✭❅ ✵❀❍❈ ❅✭✮❏❄❃❁✱ ●✿❆❁❄❈✿ ✵❀❁✵ ■✭✿❈ ❇✭✵ ❁❅❅✿❆✵ ❍✵❈

■❍❏✿❇❈❍✭❇❈❑

❯❆✵❄❁❃❃❜✱ ❱ ✰ ❲❳ ❈✭ ✵❀❁✵ ✯ ✰ ❨❩

❬❭ ❪

❫❍❏✿❇❈❍✭❇❁❃ ❁❇❁❃❜❈❍❈ ❍❈ ❂✿✮❜ ❄❈✿❅❄❃ ❍❇ ■✿■❄❆❍❇◗

✮✿❃❁✵❍✭❇❈ ❁❏✭❇◗ ✵❀✿ ❍❇✵✿✮■✿▼✿❇■✿❇✵ ▼❀❜❈❍❆❁❃

q❄❁❇✵❍✵❍✿❈❑ ▲✭❴✿❂✿✮✱ ■❍❏✿❇❈❍✭❇❃✿❈❈ ❆✭❇❈✵❁❇✵❈

❆❁❇❇✭✵ ●✿ ✭●✵❁❍❇✿■ ●❜ ✵❀❍❈ ❏✿✵❀✭■❑ ❵❀✿ ❏✿✵❀✭■

✭❅ ■❍❏✿❇❈❍✭❇❈ ❆❁❇ ✭❇❃❜ ✵✿❈✵ ✵❀✿ ■❍❏✿❇❈❍✭❇❁❃

❂❁❃❍■❍✵❜✱ ●❄✵ ❇✭✵ ✵❀✿ ✿✈❁❆✵ ✮✿❃❁✵❍✭❇❈❀❍▼ ●✿✵❴✿✿❇

▼❀❜❈❍❆❁❃ q❄❁❇✵❍✵❍✿❈ ❍❇ ❁❇❜ ✿q❄❁✵❍✭❇❑ ❛✵ ■✭✿❈ ❇✭✵

■❍❈✵❍❇◗❄❍❈❀ ●✿✵❴✿✿❇ ✵❀✿ ▼❀❜❈❍❆❁❃ q❄❁❇✵❍✵❍✿❈

❀❁❂❍❇◗ ❈❁❏✿ ■❍❏✿❇❈❍✭❇❈❑

❯ ❇❄❏●✿✮ ✭❅ ✿✈✿✮❆❍❈✿❈ ❁✵ ✵❀✿ ✿❇■ ✭❅ ✵❀❍❈

❆❀❁▼✵✿✮ ❴❍❃ ❃ ❀✿❃▼ ❜✭❄ ■✿❂✿❃✭▼ ❈❋❍❃ ❃ ❍❇

■❍❏✿❇❈❍✭❇❁❃ ❁❇❁❃❜❈❍❈❑

Page 39: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❯�✁✂✄ ☎�✆ ✝✞☎✄❯✟✞✝✞�✂ ✸✠

❊✡❊☛☞✌✍❊✍

◆✎✏✑ ✒ ✌✓ ✔✏✕✏✖✓✗ ✓✘✙✑✚✖✛✕✜ ✕✓✔✢✑✚✔✣ ✏✕✤✑ ✛✕✚✑ ✎✥ ✔✖✗✓✖✥✖✛✕✓✏ ✥✖✗✘✚✑✔✦

✷✦✧ ❋★✩✩ ★✪ ✫✬✭ ✮✩✯✪✰✱

✲✯✳ ✴✬✭ ✵✶✩✹✺✭ ✶✻ ✯ ✼✹✮✭ ✶✻ ✱★✽✭ ✾ ✼✺ ★✱ ✭✿✹✯✩ ✫✶ ❀❀❀❀❀✺❁

✲✮✳ ✴✬✭ ✱✹❂✻✯✼✭ ✯❂✭✯ ✶✻ ✯ ✱✶✩★✽ ✼❃✩★✪✽✭❂ ✶✻ ❂✯✽★✹✱ ❄❀❅ ✼✺ ✯✪✽ ✬✭★❆✬✫ ✾❅❀❅ ✼✺ ★✱ ✭✿✹✯✩ ✫✶

❀❀❀✲✺✺✳❇

✲✼✳ ❈ ✵✭✬★✼✩✭ ✺✶✵★✪❆ ❉★✫✬ ✯ ✱●✭✭✽ ✶✻ ✾❍ ✰✺ ✬➊■ ✼✶✵✭❂✱❀❀❀❀✺ ★✪ ✾ ✱

✲✽✳ ✴✬✭ ❂✭✩✯✫★✵✭ ✽✭✪✱★✫❃ ✶✻ ✩✭✯✽ ★✱ ✾✾❀❏❀ ❑✫✱ ✽✭✪✱★✫❃ ★✱ ❀❀❀❀❆ ✼✺➊❁ ✶❂ ❀❀❀❀✰❆ ✺➊❁❀

✷✦✷ ❋★✩✩ ★✪ ✫✬✭ ✮✩✯✪✰✱ ✮❃ ✱✹★✫✯✮✩✭ ✼✶✪✵✭❂✱★✶✪ ✶✻ ✹✪★✫✱

✲✯✳ ✾ ✰❆ ✺❇ ✱➊❇ ▲ ❀❀❀❀❆ ✼✺❇ ✱➊❇

✲✮✳ ✾ ✺ ▲ ❀❀❀❀❀ ✩❃

✲✼✳ ❏❀❅ ✺ ✱➊❇ ▲ ❀❀❀❀ ✰✺ ✬➊❇

✲✽✳ ▼ ▲ ❖❀❖P × ✾❅➊■■ ◗ ✺❇ ✲✰❆✳➊❇ ▲ ❀❀❀❀ ✲✼✺✳❁ ✱➊❇ ❆➊■❀

✷✦❘ ❈ ✼✯✩✶❂★✭ ★✱ ✯ ✹✪★✫ ✶✻ ✬✭✯✫ ✶❂ ✭✪✭❂❆❃ ✯✪✽ ★✫ ✭✿✹✯✩✱ ✯✮✶✹✫ ❙❀❄ ❚ ❉✬✭❂✭ ✾❚ ▲ ✾ ✰❆ ✺❇ ✱➊❇❀

❱✹●●✶✱✭ ❉✭ ✭✺●✩✶❃ ✯ ✱❃✱✫✭✺ ✶✻ ✹✪★✫✱ ★✪ ❉✬★✼✬ ✫✬✭ ✹✪★✫ ✶✻ ✺✯✱✱ ✭✿✹✯✩✱ ❲ ✰❆❦ ✫✬✭ ✹✪★✫

✶✻ ✩✭✪❆✫✬ ✭✿✹✯✩✱ ❳ ✺❦ ✫✬✭ ✹✪★✫ ✶✻ ✫★✺✭ ★✱ ❨ ✱❀ ❱✬✶❉ ✫✬✯✫ ✯ ✼✯✩✶❂★✭ ✬✯✱ ✯ ✺✯❆✪★✫✹✽✭ ❙❀❄

❲➊■ ❳ ➊❇ ❨ ❇ ★✪ ✫✭❂✺✱ ✶✻ ✫✬✭ ✪✭❉ ✹✪★✫✱❀

✷✦❩ ❬❭●✩✯★✪ ✫✬★✱ ✱✫✯✫✭✺✭✪✫ ✼✩✭✯❂✩❃ ❪

➇✴✶ ✼✯✩✩ ✯ ✽★✺✭✪✱★✶✪✯✩ ✿✹✯✪✫★✫❃ ❫✩✯❂❆✭❴ ✶❂ ❫✱✺✯✩✩❴ ★✱ ✺✭✯✪★✪❆✩✭✱✱ ❉★✫✬✶✹✫ ✱●✭✼★✻❃★✪❆ ✯

✱✫✯✪✽✯❂✽ ✻✶❂ ✼✶✺●✯❂★✱✶✪s❀ ❑✪ ✵★✭❉ ✶✻ ✫✬★✱❦ ❂✭✻❂✯✺✭ ✫✬✭ ✻✶✩✩✶❉★✪❆ ✱✫✯✫✭✺✭✪✫✱ ❉✬✭❂✭✵✭❂

✪✭✼✭✱✱✯❂❃ ❪

✲✯✳ ✯✫✶✺✱ ✯❂✭ ✵✭❂❃ ✱✺✯✩✩ ✶✮❵✭✼✫✱

✲✮✳ ✯ ❵✭✫ ●✩✯✪✭ ✺✶✵✭✱ ❉★✫✬ ❆❂✭✯✫ ✱●✭✭✽

✲✼✳ ✫✬✭ ✺✯✱✱ ✶✻ ❚✹●★✫✭❂ ★✱ ✵✭❂❃ ✩✯❂❆✭

✲✽✳ ✫✬✭ ✯★❂ ★✪✱★✽✭ ✫✬★✱ ❂✶✶✺ ✼✶✪✫✯★✪✱ ✯ ✩✯❂❆✭ ✪✹✺✮✭❂ ✶✻ ✺✶✩✭✼✹✩✭✱

✲✭✳ ✯ ●❂✶✫✶✪ ★✱ ✺✹✼✬ ✺✶❂✭ ✺✯✱✱★✵✭ ✫✬✯✪ ✯✪ ✭✩✭✼✫❂✶✪

✲✻✳ ✫✬✭ ✱●✭✭✽ ✶✻ ✱✶✹✪✽ ★✱ ✺✹✼✬ ✱✺✯✩✩✭❂ ✫✬✯✪ ✫✬✭ ✱●✭✭✽ ✶✻ ✩★❆✬✫❀

✷✦❛ ❈ ✪✭❉ ✹✪★✫ ✶✻ ✩✭✪❆✫✬ ★✱ ✼✬✶✱✭✪ ✱✹✼✬ ✫✬✯✫ ✫✬✭ ✱●✭✭✽ ✶✻ ✩★❆✬✫ ★✪ ✵✯✼✹✹✺ ★✱ ✹✪★✫❃❀ ❜✬✯✫

★✱ ✫✬✭ ✽★✱✫✯✪✼✭ ✮✭✫❉✭✭✪ ✫✬✭ ❱✹✪ ✯✪✽ ✫✬✭ ❬✯❂✫✬ ★✪ ✫✭❂✺✱ ✶✻ ✫✬✭ ✪✭❉ ✹✪★✫ ★✻ ✩★❆✬✫ ✫✯✰✭✱

❍ ✺★✪ ✯✪✽ ❄❅ ✱ ✫✶ ✼✶✵✭❂ ✫✬★✱ ✽★✱✫✯✪✼✭ ❝

✷✦❞ ❜✬★✼✬ ✶✻ ✫✬✭ ✻✶✩✩✶❉★✪❆ ★✱ ✫✬✭ ✺✶✱✫ ●❂✭✼★✱✭ ✽✭✵★✼✭ ✻✶❂ ✺✭✯✱✹❂★✪❆ ✩✭✪❆✫✬ ❪

✲✯✳ ✯ ✵✭❂✪★✭❂ ✼✯✩✩★●✭❂✱ ❉★✫✬ ❄❅ ✽★✵★✱★✶✪✱ ✶✪ ✫✬✭ ✱✩★✽★✪❆ ✱✼✯✩✭

✲✮✳ ✯ ✱✼❂✭❉ ❆✯✹❆✭ ✶✻ ●★✫✼✬ ✾ ✺✺ ✯✪✽ ✾❅❅ ✽★✵★✱★✶✪✱ ✶✪ ✫✬✭ ✼★❂✼✹✩✯❂ ✱✼✯✩✭

✲✼✳ ✯✪ ✶●✫★✼✯✩ ★✪✱✫❂✹✺✭✪✫ ✫✬✯✫ ✼✯✪ ✺✭✯✱✹❂✭ ✩✭✪❆✫✬ ✫✶ ❉★✫✬★✪ ✯ ❉✯✵✭✩✭✪❆✫✬ ✶✻ ✩★❆✬✫ ❝

✷✦❡ ❈ ✱✫✹✽✭✪✫ ✺✭✯✱✹❂✭✱ ✫✬✭ ✫✬★✼✰✪✭✱✱ ✶✻ ✯ ✬✹✺✯✪ ✬✯★❂ ✮❃ ✩✶✶✰★✪❆ ✯✫ ★✫ ✫✬❂✶✹❆✬ ✯

✺★✼❂✶✱✼✶●✭ ✶✻ ✺✯❆✪★✻★✼✯✫★✶✪ ✾❅❅❀ ♠✭ ✺✯✰✭✱ ❄❅ ✶✮✱✭❂✵✯✫★✶✪✱ ✯✪✽ ✻★✪✽✱ ✫✬✯✫ ✫✬✭ ✯✵✭❂✯❆✭

❉★✽✫✬ ✶✻ ✫✬✭ ✬✯★❂ ★✪ ✫✬✭ ✻★✭✩✽ ✶✻ ✵★✭❉ ✶✻ ✫✬✭ ✺★✼❂✶✱✼✶●✭ ★✱ ❏❀✇ ✺✺❀ ❜✬✯✫ ★✱ ✫✬✭

✭✱✫★✺✯✫✭ ✶✪ ✫✬✭ ✫✬★✼✰✪✭✱✱ ✶✻ ✬✯★❂ ❝

✷✦❢ ❈✪✱❉✭❂ ✫✬✭ ✻✶✩✩✶❉★✪❆ ❪

✲✯✳❣✶✹ ✯❂✭ ❆★✵✭✪ ✯ ✫✬❂✭✯✽ ✯✪✽ ✯ ✺✭✫❂✭ ✱✼✯✩✭❀ ♠✶❉ ❉★✩✩ ❃✶✹ ✭✱✫★✺✯✫✭ ✫✬✭ ✽★✯✺✭✫✭❂ ✶✻

✫✬✭ ✫✬❂✭✯✽ ❝

✲✮✳❈ ✱✼❂✭❉ ❆✯✹❆✭ ✬✯✱ ✯ ●★✫✼✬ ✶✻ ✾❀❅ ✺✺ ✯✪✽ ❄❅❅ ✽★✵★✱★✶✪✱ ✶✪ ✫✬✭ ✼★❂✼✹✩✯❂ ✱✼✯✩✭❀ ❤✶

❃✶✹ ✫✬★✪✰ ★✫ ★✱ ●✶✱✱★✮✩✭ ✫✶ ★✪✼❂✭✯✱✭ ✫✬✭ ✯✼✼✹❂✯✼❃ ✶✻ ✫✬✭ ✱✼❂✭❉ ❆✯✹❆✭ ✯❂✮★✫❂✯❂★✩❃ ✮❃

★✪✼❂✭✯✱★✪❆ ✫✬✭ ✪✹✺✮✭❂ ✶✻ ✽★✵★✱★✶✪✱ ✶✪ ✫✬✭ ✼★❂✼✹✩✯❂ ✱✼✯✩✭ ❝

✲✼✳ ✴✬✭ ✺✭✯✪ ✽★✯✺✭✫✭❂ ✶✻ ✯ ✫✬★✪ ✮❂✯✱✱ ❂✶✽ ★✱ ✫✶ ✮✭ ✺✭✯✱✹❂✭✽ ✮❃ ✵✭❂✪★✭❂ ✼✯✩✩★●✭❂✱❀ ❜✬❃

★✱ ✯ ✱✭✫ ✶✻ ✾❅❅ ✺✭✯✱✹❂✭✺✭✪✫✱ ✶✻ ✫✬✭ ✽★✯✺✭✫✭❂ ✭❭●✭✼✫✭✽ ✫✶ ❃★✭✩✽ ✯ ✺✶❂✭ ❂✭✩★✯✮✩✭

✭✱✫★✺✯✫✭ ✫✬✯✪ ✯ ✱✭✫ ✶✻ ✇ ✺✭✯✱✹❂✭✺✭✪✫✱ ✶✪✩❃ ❝

✷✦✐ ✴✬✭ ●✬✶✫✶❆❂✯●✬ ✶✻ ✯ ✬✶✹✱✭ ✶✼✼✹●★✭✱ ✯✪ ✯❂✭✯ ✶✻ ✾❀P✇ ✼✺❇ ✶✪ ✯ ❏✇ ✺✺ ✱✩★✽✭❀ ✴✬✭ ✱✩★✽✭

★✱ ●❂✶❵✭✼✫✭✽ ✶✪ ✫✶ ✯ ✱✼❂✭✭✪❦ ✯✪✽ ✫✬✭ ✯❂✭✯ ✶✻ ✫✬✭ ✬✶✹✱✭ ✶✪ ✫✬✭ ✱✼❂✭✭✪ ★✱ ✾❀✇✇ ✺❇❀ ❜✬✯✫

★✱ ✫✬✭ ✩★✪✭✯❂ ✺✯❆✪★✻★✼✯✫★✶✪ ✶✻ ✫✬✭ ●❂✶❵✭✼✫✶❂❥✱✼❂✭✭✪ ✯❂❂✯✪❆✭✺✭✪✫❀

✷✦✧❧ ❱✫✯✫✭ ✫✬✭ ✪✹✺✮✭❂ ✶✻ ✱★❆✪★✻★✼✯✪✫ ✻★❆✹❂✭✱ ★✪ ✫✬✭ ✻✶✩✩✶❉★✪❆ ❪

✲✯✳ ❅❀❅❅P ✺❇

✲✮✳ ❄❀❖❙ ♥ ✾❅❇♦ ✰❆

✲✼✳ ❅❀❄❏P❅ ❆ ✼✺➊❁

Page 40: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✸✆

✭✝✞ ✟✠✡☛☞ ✌✭✍✞ ✟✠☞✡☛ ✎ ✏➊✑✭✒✞ ☞✠☞☞☞✟☞✡☛ ✏✑

✷✓✔✔ ❚✕✍ ✖✍✗✘✙✕✚ ✛✜✍✢✝✙✕ ✢✗✝ ✙✕✣✤✥✗✍✦✦ ✧✒ ✢ ✜✍✤✙✢✗✘★✖✢✜ ✦✕✍✍✙ ✧✒ ✏✍✙✢✖ ✢✜✍ ✩✠☛✡✩✏✚ ✪✠☞☞✫✏✚✢✗✝ ☛✠☞✪ ✤✏ ✜✍✦❛✍✤✙✣✬✍✖✮✠ ✯✣✬✍ ✙✕✍ ✢✜✍✢ ✢✗✝ ✬✧✖★✏✍ ✧✒ ✙✕✍ ✦✕✍✍✙ ✙✧ ✤✧✜✜✍✤✙ ✦✣✘✗✣✒✣✤✢✗✙✒✣✘★✜✍✦✠

✷✓✔✷ ❚✕✍ ✏✢✦✦ ✧✒ ✢ ✛✧✰ ✏✍✢✦★✜✍✝ ✛✮ ✢ ✘✜✧✤✍✜✱✦ ✛✢✖✢✗✤✍ ✣✦ ☛✠✡☞☞ ✥✘✠ ❚✲✧ ✘✧✖✝ ❛✣✍✤✍✦ ✧✒✏✢✦✦✍✦ ☛☞✠✪✫ ✘ ✢✗✝ ☛☞✠✪♠ ✘ ✢✜✍ ✢✝✝✍✝ ✙✧ ✙✕✍ ✛✧✰✠ ✳✕✢✙ ✣✦ ✭✢✞ ✙✕✍ ✙✧✙✢✖ ✏✢✦✦ ✧✒ ✙✕✍✛✧✰✚ ✭✛✞ ✙✕✍ ✝✣✒✒✍✜✍✗✤✍ ✣✗ ✙✕✍ ✏✢✦✦✍✦ ✧✒ ✙✕✍ ❛✣✍✤✍✦ ✙✧ ✤✧✜✜✍✤✙ ✦✣✘✗✣✒✣✤✢✗✙ ✒✣✘★✜✍✦ ❜

✷✓✔✴ ❆ ❛✕✮✦✣✤✢✖ ✵★✢✗✙✣✙✮ ✶ ✣✦ ✜✍✖✢✙✍✝ ✙✧ ✒✧★✜ ✧✛✦✍✜✬✢✛✖✍✦ ✹✺ ✻✺ ✼ ✢✗✝ ❞ ✢✦ ✒✧✖✖✧✲✦ ✽

✾ ✿❂ ❀ ❁✶ ✹ ✻ ❃ ✼ d

❚✕✍ ❛✍✜✤✍✗✙✢✘✍ ✍✜✜✧✜✦ ✧✒ ✏✍✢✦★✜✍✏✍✗✙ ✣✗ ✹✚ ✻✚ ✼ ✢✗✝ ✝ ✢✜✍ ✪❄✚ ✡❄✚ ✩❄ ✢✗✝ ☛❄✚✜✍✦❛✍✤✙✣✬✍✖✮✠ ✳✕✢✙ ✣✦ ✙✕✍ ❛✍✜✤✍✗✙✢✘✍ ✍✜✜✧✜ ✣✗ ✙✕✍ ✵★✢✗✙✣✙✮ ✶ ❜ ❅✒ ✙✕✍ ✬✢✖★✍ ✧✒ ✶ ✤✢✖✤★✖✢✙✍✝★✦✣✗✘ ✙✕✍ ✢✛✧✬✍ ✜✍✖✢✙✣✧✗ ✙★✜✗✦ ✧★✙ ✙✧ ✛✍ ✡✠♠✟✡✚ ✙✧ ✲✕✢✙ ✬✢✖★✍ ✦✕✧★✖✝ ✮✧★ ✜✧★✗✝ ✧✒✒✙✕✍ ✜✍✦★✖✙ ❜

✷✓✔❇ ❆ ✛✧✧✥ ✲✣✙✕✏✢✗✮ ❛✜✣✗✙✣✗✘ ✍✜✜✧✜✦ ✤✧✗✙✢✣✗✦ ✒✧★✜ ✝✣✒✒✍✜✍✗✙ ✒✧✜✏★✖✢✦ ✒✧✜ ✙✕✍ ✝✣✦❛✖✢✤✍✏✍✗✙② ✧✒ ✢ ❛✢✜✙✣✤✖✍ ★✗✝✍✜✘✧✣✗✘ ✢ ✤✍✜✙✢✣✗ ❛✍✜✣✧✝✣✤ ✏✧✙✣✧✗ ✽✭✢✞ ② ❈ ✹ ✦✣✗ ☛❉ t❃❊✭✛✞ ② ❈ ✹ ✦✣✗ ✈t✭✤✞ ② ❈ ✭✹❃❊✞ ✦✣✗ t❃✹✭✝✞ ❋ ● ❍ ■ ❍ ■❏ ❑ ▲▼ ◆❖✐◗ ❘ ❙ ❯ ❱❲❖ ❘ ❙ ❳❨ ❨✭✹ ❈ ✏✢✰✣✏★✏ ✝✣✦❛✖✢✤✍✏✍✗✙ ✧✒ ✙✕✍ ❛✢✜✙✣✤✖✍✚ ✈ ❈ ✦❛✍✍✝ ✧✒ ✙✕✍ ❛✢✜✙✣✤✖✍✠ ❊ ❈ ✙✣✏✍❩❛✍✜✣✧✝✧✒ ✏✧✙✣✧✗✞✠ ♦★✖✍ ✧★✙ ✙✕✍ ✲✜✧✗✘ ✒✧✜✏★✖✢✦ ✧✗ ✝✣✏✍✗✦✣✧✗✢✖ ✘✜✧★✗✝✦✠

✷✓✔❬ ❆ ✒✢✏✧★✦ ✜✍✖✢✙✣✧✗ ✣✗ ❛✕✮✦✣✤✦ ✜✍✖✢✙✍✦ ❭✏✧✬✣✗✘ ✏✢✦✦✱ ❪ ✙✧ ✙✕✍ ❭✜✍✦✙ ✏✢✦✦✱ ❪❫ ✧✒ ✢❛✢✜✙✣✤✖✍ ✣✗ ✙✍✜✏✦ ✧✒ ✣✙✦ ✦❛✍✍✝ ✈ ✢✗✝ ✙✕✍ ✦❛✍✍✝ ✧✒ ✖✣✘✕✙✚ ✼✠ ✭❚✕✣✦ ✜✍✖✢✙✣✧✗ ✒✣✜✦✙ ✢✜✧✦✍ ✢✦✢ ✤✧✗✦✍✵★✍✗✤✍ ✧✒ ✦❛✍✤✣✢✖ ✜✍✖✢✙✣✬✣✙✮ ✝★✍ ✙✧ ❆✖✛✍✜✙ ❴✣✗✦✙✍✣✗✞✠ ❆ ✛✧✮ ✜✍✤✢✖✖✦ ✙✕✍ ✜✍✖✢✙✣✧✗✢✖✏✧✦✙ ✤✧✜✜✍✤✙✖✮ ✛★✙ ✒✧✜✘✍✙✦ ✲✕✍✜✍ ✙✧ ❛★✙ ✙✕✍ ✤✧✗✦✙✢✗✙ ✤✠ ❵✍ ✲✜✣✙✍✦ ✽

❝ ❡❢

❣ ❤

❥❦❾ ❧ ♥♣❧ ✠

✯★✍✦✦ ✲✕✍✜✍ ✙✧ ❛★✙ ✙✕✍ ✏✣✦✦✣✗✘ ✼q✷✓✔r ❚✕✍ ★✗✣✙ ✧✒ ✖✍✗✘✙✕ ✤✧✗✬✍✗✣✍✗✙ ✧✗ ✙✕✍ ✢✙✧✏✣✤ ✦✤✢✖✍ ✣✦ ✥✗✧✲✗ ✢✦ ✢✗ ✢✗✘✦✙✜✧✏ ✢✗✝ ✣✦

✝✍✗✧✙✍✝ ✛✮ Å✽ ✪ Å ❈ ✪☞➊s✉ ✏✠ ❚✕✍ ✦✣✇✍ ✧✒ ✢ ✕✮✝✜✧✘✍✗ ✢✙✧✏ ✣✦ ✢✛✧★✙ ☞✠✫ Å✠ ✳✕✢✙ ✣✦ ✙✕✍✙✧✙✢✖ ✢✙✧✏✣✤ ✬✧✖★✏✍ ✣✗ ✏① ✧✒ ✢ ✏✧✖✍ ✧✒ ✕✮✝✜✧✘✍✗ ✢✙✧✏✦ ❜

✷✓✔③ ④✗✍ ✏✧✖✍ ✧✒ ✢✗ ✣✝✍✢✖ ✘✢✦ ✢✙ ✦✙✢✗✝✢✜✝ ✙✍✏❛✍✜✢✙★✜✍ ✢✗✝ ❛✜✍✦✦★✜✍ ✧✤✤★❛✣✍✦ ☛☛✠✩ ⑤✭✏✧✖✢✜ ✬✧✖★✏✍✞✠ ✳✕✢✙ ✣✦ ✙✕✍ ✜✢✙✣✧ ✧✒ ✏✧✖✢✜ ✬✧✖★✏✍ ✙✧ ✙✕✍ ✢✙✧✏✣✤ ✬✧✖★✏✍ ✧✒ ✢ ✏✧✖✍ ✧✒✕✮✝✜✧✘✍✗ ❜ ✭❚✢✥✍ ✙✕✍ ✦✣✇✍ ✧✒ ✕✮✝✜✧✘✍✗ ✏✧✖✍✤★✖✍ ✙✧ ✛✍ ✢✛✧★✙ ✪ Å✞✠ ✳✕✮ ✣✦ ✙✕✣✦ ✜✢✙✣✧✦✧ ✖✢✜✘✍ ❜

✷✓✔⑥ ❴✰❛✖✢✣✗ ✙✕✣✦ ✤✧✏✏✧✗ ✧✛✦✍✜✬✢✙✣✧✗ ✤✖✍✢✜✖✮ ✽ ❅✒ ✮✧★ ✖✧✧✥ ✧★✙ ✧✒ ✙✕✍ ✲✣✗✝✧✲ ✧✒ ✢ ✒✢✦✙✏✧✬✣✗✘ ✙✜✢✣✗✚ ✙✕✍ ✗✍✢✜✛✮ ✙✜✍✍✦✚ ✕✧★✦✍✦ ✍✙✤✠ ✦✍✍✏ ✙✧ ✏✧✬✍ ✜✢❛✣✝✖✮ ✣✗ ✢ ✝✣✜✍✤✙✣✧✗ ✧❛❛✧✦✣✙✍✙✧ ✙✕✍ ✙✜✢✣✗✱✦ ✏✧✙✣✧✗✚ ✛★✙ ✙✕✍ ✝✣✦✙✢✗✙ ✧✛⑦✍✤✙✦ ✭✕✣✖✖ ✙✧❛✦✚ ✙✕✍ ⑧✧✧✗✚ ✙✕✍ ✦✙✢✜✦ ✍✙✤✠✞✦✍✍✏ ✙✧ ✛✍ ✦✙✢✙✣✧✗✢✜✮✠ ✭❅✗ ✒✢✤✙✚ ✦✣✗✤✍ ✮✧★ ✢✜✍ ✢✲✢✜✍ ✙✕✢✙ ✮✧★ ✢✜✍ ✏✧✬✣✗✘✚ ✙✕✍✦✍✝✣✦✙✢✗✙ ✧✛⑦✍✤✙✦ ✦✍✍✏ ✙✧ ✏✧✬✍ ✲✣✙✕ ✮✧★✞✠

✷✓✔⑨ ❚✕✍ ❛✜✣✗✤✣❛✖✍ ✧✒ ❭❛✢✜✢✖✖✢✰✱ ✣✗ ✦✍✤✙✣✧✗ ☛✠✡✠✪ ✣✦ ★✦✍✝ ✣✗ ✙✕✍ ✝✍✙✍✜✏✣✗✢✙✣✧✗ ✧✒ ✝✣✦✙✢✗✤✍✦✧✒ ✬✍✜✮ ✝✣✦✙✢✗✙ ✦✙✢✜✦✠ ❚✕✍ ✛✢✦✍✖✣✗✍ ⑩❶ ✣✦ ✙✕✍ ✖✣✗✍ ⑦✧✣✗✣✗✘ ✙✕✍ ❴✢✜✙✕✱✦ ✙✲✧ ✖✧✤✢✙✣✧✗✦ ✦✣✰✏✧✗✙✕✦ ✢❛✢✜✙ ✣✗ ✣✙✦ ✧✜✛✣✙ ✢✜✧★✗✝ ✙✕✍ ❷★✗✠ ❚✕✢✙ ✣✦✚ ✙✕✍ ✛✢✦✍✖✣✗✍ ✣✦ ✢✛✧★✙ ✙✕✍ ✝✣✢✏✍✙✍✜✧✒ ✙✕✍ ❴✢✜✙✕✱✦ ✧✜✛✣✙ ❸ ✡ × ✪☞ss✏✠ ❵✧✲✍✬✍✜✚ ✍✬✍✗ ✙✕✍ ✗✍✢✜✍✦✙ ✦✙✢✜✦ ✢✜✍ ✦✧ ✝✣✦✙✢✗✙ ✙✕✢✙✲✣✙✕ ✦★✤✕ ✢ ✖✧✗✘ ✛✢✦✍✖✣✗✍✚ ✙✕✍✮ ✦✕✧✲ ❛✢✜✢✖✖✢✰ ✧✗✖✮ ✧✒ ✙✕✍ ✧✜✝✍✜ ✧✒ ✪❹ ✭✦✍✤✧✗✝✞ ✧✒ ✢✜✤✧✜ ✦✧✠ ❆ ❺✹❻❼❽✼ ✣✦ ✢ ✤✧✗✬✍✗✣✍✗✙ ★✗✣✙ ✧✒ ✖✍✗✘✙✕ ✧✗ ✙✕✍ ✢✦✙✜✧✗✧✏✣✤✢✖ ✦✤✢✖✍✠ ❅✙ ✣✦ ✙✕✍✝✣✦✙✢✗✤✍ ✧✒ ✢✗ ✧✛⑦✍✤✙ ✙✕✢✙ ✲✣✖✖ ✦✕✧✲ ✢ ❛✢✜✢✖✖✢✰ ✧✒ ✪❹ ✭✦✍✤✧✗✝✞ ✧✒ ✢✜✤ ✒✜✧✏ ✧❛❛✧✦✣✙✍✍✗✝✦ ✧✒ ✢ ✛✢✦✍✖✣✗✍ ✍✵★✢✖ ✙✧ ✙✕✍ ✝✣✦✙✢✗✤✍ ✒✜✧✏ ✙✕✍ ❴✢✜✙✕ ✙✧ ✙✕✍ ❷★✗✠ ❵✧✲ ✏★✤✕ ✣✦ ✢❛✢✜✦✍✤ ✣✗ ✙✍✜✏✦ ✧✒ ✏✍✙✜✍✦ ❜

Page 41: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❯�✁✂✄ ☎�✆ ✝✞☎✄❯✟✞✝✞�✂ ✸✠

✷✡✷☛ ❚☞✌ ✍✌✎✏✌✑✒ ✑✒✎✏ ✒✓ ✓✔✏ ✑✓✕✎✏ ✑✖✑✒✌✗ ✘✑ ✙✚✛✜ ✕✘✢☞✒ ✖✌✎✏✑ ✎✣✎✖✚ ✤✓✣ ✗✔✥☞ ✘✑ ✒☞✘✑

❞✘✑✒✎✍✥✌ ✘✍ ✒✌✏✗✑ ✓✦ ✧✎✏✑✌✥✑★ ✤✓✣ ✗✔✥☞ ✧✎✏✎✕✕✎✩ ✣✓✔✕❞ ✒☞✘✑ ✑✒✎✏ ✪✍✎✗✌❞ ✫✕✧☞✎

❈✌✍✒✎✔✏✘✬ ✑☞✓✣ ✣☞✌✍ ✭✘✌✣✌❞ ✦✏✓✗ ✒✣✓ ✕✓✥✎✒✘✓✍✑ ✓✦ ✒☞✌ ✮✎✏✒☞ ✑✘✩ ✗✓✍✒☞✑ ✎✧✎✏✒ ✘✍ ✘✒✑

✓✏♦✘✒ ✎✏✓✔✍❞ ✒☞✌ ✯✔✍ ★

✷✡✷✰ P✏✌✥✘✑✌ ✗✌✎✑✔✏✌✗✌✍✒✑ ✓✦ ✧☞✖✑✘✥✎✕ ✱✔✎✍✒✘✒✘✌✑ ✎✏✌ ✎ ♥✲✲✳ ✓✦ ✑✥✘✌✍✥✌✚ ✴✓✏ ✌✩✎✗✧✕✌✵ ✒✓

✎✑✥✌✏✒✎✘✍ ✒☞✌ ✑✧✌✌❞ ✓✦ ✎✍ ✎✘✏✥✏✎✦✒✵ ✓✍✌ ✗✔✑✒ ☞✎✭✌ ✎✍ ✎✥✥✔✏✎✒✌ ✗✌✒☞✓❞ ✒✓ ✦✘✍❞ ✘✒✑

✧✓✑✘✒✘✓✍✑ ✎✒ ✥✕✓✑✌✕✖ ✑✌✧✎✏✎✒✌❞ ✘✍✑✒✎✍✒✑ ✓✦ ✒✘✗✌✚ ❚☞✘✑ ✣✎✑ ✒☞✌ ✎✥✒✔✎✕ ✗✓✒✘✭✎✒✘✓✍ ♦✌☞✘✍❞

✒☞✌ ❞✘✑✥✓✭✌✏✖ ✓✦ ✏✎❞✎✏ ✘✍ t✓✏✕❞ t✎✏ ❛❛✚ ❚☞✘✍✶ ✓✦ ❞✘✦✦✌✏✌✍✒ ✌✩✎✗✧✕✌✑ ✘✍ ✗✓❞✌✏✍ ✑✥✘✌✍✥✌

✣☞✌✏✌ ✧✏✌✥✘✑✌ ✗✌✎✑✔✏✌✗✌✍✒✑ ✓✦ ✕✌✍✢✒☞✵ ✒✘✗✌✵ ✗✎✑✑ ✌✒✥✚ ✎✏✌ ✍✌✌❞✌❞✚ ✫✕✑✓✵ ✣☞✌✏✌✭✌✏

✖✓✔ ✥✎✍✵ ✢✘✭✌ ✎ ✱✔✎✍✒✘✒✎✒✘✭✌ ✘❞✌✎ ✓✦ ✒☞✌ ✧✏✌✥✘✑✘✓✍ ✍✌✌❞✌❞✚

✷✡✷✷ ❏✔✑✒ ✎✑ ✧✏✌✥✘✑✌ ✗✌✎✑✔✏✌✗✌✍✒✑ ✎✏✌ ✍✌✥✌✑✑✎✏✖ ✘✍ ✑✥✘✌✍✥✌✵ ✘✒ ✘✑ ✌✱✔✎✕✕✖ ✘✗✧✓✏✒✎✍✒ ✒✓ ♦✌

✎♦✕✌ ✒✓ ✗✎✶✌ ✏✓✔✢☞ ✌✑✒✘✗✎✒✌✑ ✓✦ ✱✔✎✍✒✘✒✘✌✑ ✔✑✘✍✢ ✏✔❞✘✗✌✍✒✎✏✖ ✘❞✌✎✑ ✎✍❞ ✥✓✗✗✓✍

✓♦✑✌✏✭✎✒✘✓✍✑✚ ❚☞✘✍✶ ✓✦ ✣✎✖✑ ♦✖ ✣☞✘✥☞ ✖✓✔ ✥✎✍ ✌✑✒✘✗✎✒✌ ✒☞✌ ✦✓✕✕✓✣✘✍✢ ✪✣☞✌✏✌ ✎✍

✌✑✒✘✗✎✒✌ ✘✑ ❞✘✦✦✘✥✔✕✒ ✒✓ ✓♦✒✎✘✍✵ ✒✏✖ ✒✓ ✢✌✒ ✎✍ ✔✧✧✌✏ ♦✓✔✍❞ ✓✍ ✒☞✌ ✱✔✎✍✒✘✒✖✬ ❡

✪✎✬ ✒☞✌ ✒✓✒✎✕ ✗✎✑✑ ✓✦ ✏✎✘✍✹♦✌✎✏✘✍✢ ✥✕✓✔❞✑ ✓✭✌✏ ❛✍❞✘✎ ❞✔✏✘✍✢ ✒☞✌ ✺✓✍✑✓✓✍

✪♦✬ ✒☞✌ ✗✎✑✑ ✓✦ ✎✍ ✌✕✌✧☞✎✍✒

✪✥✬ ✒☞✌ ✣✘✍❞ ✑✧✌✌❞ ❞✔✏✘✍✢ ✎ ✑✒✓✏✗

✪❞✬ ✒☞✌ ✍✔✗♦✌✏ ✓✦ ✑✒✏✎✍❞✑ ✓✦ ☞✎✘✏ ✓✍ ✖✓✔✏ ☞✌✎❞

✪✌✬ ✒☞✌ ✍✔✗♦✌✏ ✓✦ ✎✘✏ ✗✓✕✌✥✔✕✌✑ ✘✍ ✖✓✔✏ ✥✕✎✑✑✏✓✓✗✚

✷✡✷✻ ❚☞✌ ✯✔✍ ✘✑ ✎ ☞✓✒ ✧✕✎✑✗✎ ✪✘✓✍✘✼✌❞ ✗✎✒✒✌✏✬ ✣✘✒☞ ✘✒✑ ✘✍✍✌✏ ✥✓✏✌ ✎✒ ✎ ✒✌✗✧✌✏✎✒✔✏✌ ✌✩✥✌✌❞✘✍✢

✽✾✿ ❑✵ ✎✍❞ ✘✒✑ ✓✔✒✌✏ ✑✔✏✦✎✥✌ ✎✒ ✎ ✒✌✗✧✌✏✎✒✔✏✌ ✓✦ ✎♦✓✔✒ ❀✾✾✾ ❑✚ ✫✒ ✒☞✌✑✌ ☞✘✢☞

✒✌✗✧✌✏✎✒✔✏✌✑✵ ✍✓ ✑✔♦✑✒✎✍✥✌ ✏✌✗✎✘✍✑ ✘✍ ✎ ✑✓✕✘❞ ✓✏ ✕✘✱✔✘❞ ✧☞✎✑✌✚ ❛✍ ✣☞✎✒ ✏✎✍✢✌ ❞✓ ✖✓✔

✌✩✧✌✥✒ ✒☞✌ ✗✎✑✑ ❞✌✍✑✘✒✖ ✓✦ ✒☞✌ ✯✔✍ ✒✓ ♦✌✵ ✘✍ ✒☞✌ ✏✎✍✢✌ ✓✦ ❞✌✍✑✘✒✘✌✑ ✓✦ ✑✓✕✘❞✑ ✎✍❞

✕✘✱✔✘❞✑ ✓✏ ✢✎✑✌✑ ★ ❈☞✌✥✶ ✘✦ ✖✓✔✏ ✢✔✌✑✑ ✘✑ ✥✓✏✏✌✥✒ ✦✏✓✗ ✒☞✌ ✦✓✕✕✓✣✘✍✢ ❞✎✒✎ ❡ ✗✎✑✑ ✓✦ ✒☞✌

✯✔✍ ❙ ✛✚✾ ×✽✾❁❂ ✶✢✵ ✏✎❞✘✔✑ ✓✦ ✒☞✌ ✯✔✍ ❙ ❃✚✾ × ✽✾❄ ✗✚

✷✡✷❅ t☞✌✍ ✒☞✌ ✧✕✎✍✌✒ ❏✔✧✘✒✌✏ ✘✑ ✎✒ ✎ ❞✘✑✒✎✍✥✌ ✓✦ ❲✛✙✚❃ ✗✘✕✕✘✓✍ ✶✘✕✓✗✌✒✌✏✑ ✦✏✓✗ ✒☞✌ ✮✎✏✒☞✵

✘✒✑ ✎✍✢✔✕✎✏ ❞✘✎✗✌✒✌✏ ✘✑ ✗✌✎✑✔✏✌❞ ✒✓ ♦✌ ✐❆✚❃✛❇ ✓✦ ✎✏✥✚ ❈✎✕✥✔✕✎✒✌ ✒☞✌ ❞✘✎✗✌✒✌✏ ✓✦

❏✔✧✘✒✌✏✚

❉❊❊❋●❋❍■▲▼ ◆❖◗❘❱❋❳◗❳

✷✡✷❨ ✫ ✗✎✍ ✣✎✕✶✘✍✢ ♦✏✘✑✶✕✖ ✘✍ ✏✎✘✍ ✣✘✒☞ ✑✧✌✌❞ ✈ ✗✔✑✒ ✑✕✎✍✒ ☞✘✑ ✔✗♦✏✌✕✕✎ ✦✓✏✣✎✏❞ ✗✎✶✘✍✢

✎✍ ✎✍✢✕✌ ❩ ✣✘✒☞ ✒☞✌ ✭✌✏✒✘✥✎✕✚ ✫ ✑✒✔❞✌✍✒ ❞✌✏✘✭✌✑ ✒☞✌ ✦✓✕✕✓✣✘✍✢ ✏✌✕✎✒✘✓✍ ♦✌✒✣✌✌✍ ❬ ✎✍❞

✈ ❡ ✒✎✍ ❬ ❙ ✈ ✎✍❞ ✥☞✌✥✶✑ ✒☞✎✒ ✒☞✌ ✏✌✕✎✒✘✓✍ ☞✎✑ ✎ ✥✓✏✏✌✥✒ ✕✘✗✘✒❡ ✎✑ ✈ ❭❪✵ ❬ ❭✾✵ ✎✑

✌✩✧✌✥✒✌❞✚ ✪t✌ ✎✏✌ ✎✑✑✔✗✘✍✢ ✒☞✌✏✌ ✘✑ ✍✓ ✑✒✏✓✍✢ ✣✘✍❞ ✎✍❞ ✒☞✎✒ ✒☞✌ ✏✎✘✍ ✦✎✕✕✑ ✭✌✏✒✘✥✎✕✕✖

✦✓✏ ✎ ✑✒✎✒✘✓✍✎✏✖ ✗✎✍✬✚ ❢✓ ✖✓✔ ✒☞✘✍✶ ✒☞✘✑ ✏✌✕✎✒✘✓✍ ✥✎✍ ♦✌ ✥✓✏✏✌✥✒ ★ ❛✦ ✍✓✒✵ ✢✔✌✑✑ ✒☞✌

✥✓✏✏✌✥✒ ✏✌✕✎✒✘✓✍✚

✷✡✷❫ ❛✒ ✘✑ ✥✕✎✘✗✌❞ ✒☞✎✒ ✒✣✓ ✥✌✑✘✔✗ ✥✕✓✥✶✑✵ ✘✦ ✎✕✕✓✣✌❞ ✒✓ ✏✔✍ ✦✓✏ ✽✾✾ ✖✌✎✏✑✵ ✦✏✌✌ ✦✏✓✗ ✎✍✖

❞✘✑✒✔✏♦✎✍✥✌✵ ✗✎✖ ❞✘✦✦✌✏ ♦✖ ✓✍✕✖ ✎♦✓✔✒ ✾✚✾✛ ✑✚ t☞✎✒ ❞✓✌✑ ✒☞✘✑ ✘✗✧✕✖ ✦✓✏ ✒☞✌ ✎✥✥✔✏✎✥✖

✓✦ ✒☞✌ ✑✒✎✍❞✎✏❞ ✥✌✑✘✔✗ ✥✕✓✥✶ ✘✍ ✗✌✎✑✔✏✘✍✢ ✎ ✒✘✗✌✹✘✍✒✌✏✭✎✕ ✓✦ ✽ ✑ ★

✷✡✷❴ ✮✑✒✘✗✎✒✌ ✒☞✌ ✎✭✌✏✎✢✌ ✗✎✑✑ ❞✌✍✑✘✒✖ ✓✦ ✎ ✑✓❞✘✔✗ ✎✒✓✗ ✎✑✑✔✗✘✍✢ ✘✒✑ ✑✘✼✌ ✒✓ ♦✌ ✎♦✓✔✒

✛✚❆ Å✚ ✪❵✑✌ ✒☞✌ ✶✍✓✣✍ ✭✎✕✔✌✑ ✓✦ ✫✭✓✢✎❞✏✓❜✑ ✍✔✗♦✌✏ ✎✍❞ ✒☞✌ ✎✒✓✗✘✥ ✗✎✑✑ ✓✦ ✑✓❞✘✔✗✬✚

❈✓✗✧✎✏✌ ✘✒ ✣✘✒☞ ✒☞✌ ❞✌✍✑✘✒✖ ✓✦ ✑✓❞✘✔✗ ✘✍ ✘✒✑ ✥✏✖✑✒✎✕✕✘✍✌ ✧☞✎✑✌ ❡ ✜❃✾ ✶✢ ✗➊❁✚ ✫✏✌ ✒☞✌

✒✣✓ ❞✌✍✑✘✒✘✌✑ ✓✦ ✒☞✌ ✑✎✗✌ ✓✏❞✌✏ ✓✦ ✗✎✢✍✘✒✔❞✌ ★ ❛✦ ✑✓✵ ✣☞✖ ★

✷✡✷❝ ❚☞✌ ✔✍✘✒ ✓✦ ✕✌✍✢✒☞ ✥✓✍✭✌✍✘✌✍✒ ✓✍ ✒☞✌ ✍✔✥✕✌✎✏ ✑✥✎✕✌ ✘✑ ✎ ✦✌✏✗✘ ❡ ✽ ✦ ❙ ✽✾➊❣❤ ✗✚ ♠✔✥✕✌✎✏

✑✘✼✌✑ ✓♦✌✖ ✏✓✔✢☞✕✖ ✒☞✌ ✦✓✕✕✓✣✘✍✢ ✌✗✧✘✏✘✥✎✕ ✏✌✕✎✒✘✓✍ ❡

r ❥ r❦ ❧❣♣❁

✣☞✌✏✌ r ✘✑ ✒☞✌ ✏✎❞✘✔✑ ✓✦ ✒☞✌ ✍✔✥✕✌✔✑✵ ❧ ✘✒✑ ✗✎✑✑ ✍✔✗♦✌✏✵ ✎✍❞ rq ✘✑ ✎ ✥✓✍✑✒✎✍✒ ✌✱✔✎✕ ✒✓

✎♦✓✔✒✵ ✽✚✛ ✦✚ ✯☞✓✣ ✒☞✎✒ ✒☞✌ ✏✔✕✌ ✘✗✧✕✘✌✑ ✒☞✎✒ ✍✔✥✕✌✎✏ ✗✎✑✑ ❞✌✍✑✘✒✖ ✘✑ ✍✌✎✏✕✖ ✥✓✍✑✒✎✍✒

✦✓✏ ❞✘✦✦✌✏✌✍✒ ✍✔✥✕✌✘✚ ✮✑✒✘✗✎✒✌ ✒☞✌ ✗✎✑✑ ❞✌✍✑✘✒✖ ✓✦ ✑✓❞✘✔✗ ✍✔✥✕✌✔✑✚ ❈✓✗✧✎✏✌ ✘✒ ✣✘✒☞

✒☞✌ ✎✭✌✏✎✢✌ ✗✎✑✑ ❞✌✍✑✘✒✖ ✓✦ ✎ ✑✓❞✘✔✗ ✎✒✓✗ ✓♦✒✎✘✍✌❞ ✘✍ ✮✩✌✏✥✘✑✌✚ ✛✚✛❃✚

✷✡✷s ✫ ✉✫✯✮✇ ✘✑ ✎ ✑✓✔✏✥✌ ✓✦ ✭✌✏✖ ✘✍✒✌✍✑✌✵ ✗✓✍✓✥☞✏✓✗✎✒✘✥✵ ✎✍❞ ✔✍✘❞✘✏✌✥✒✘✓✍✎✕ ♦✌✎✗ ✓✦

✕✘✢☞✒✚ ❚☞✌✑✌ ✧✏✓✧✌✏✒✘✌✑ ✓✦ ✎ ✕✎✑✌✏ ✕✘✢☞✒ ✥✎✍ ♦✌ ✌✩✧✕✓✘✒✌❞ ✒✓ ✗✌✎✑✔✏✌ ✕✓✍✢ ❞✘✑✒✎✍✥✌✑✚

❚☞✌ ❞✘✑✒✎✍✥✌ ✓✦ ✒☞✌ ✺✓✓✍ ✦✏✓✗ ✒☞✌ ✮✎✏✒☞ ☞✎✑ ♦✌✌✍ ✎✕✏✌✎❞✖ ❞✌✒✌✏✗✘✍✌❞ ✭✌✏✖ ✧✏✌✥✘✑✌✕✖

✔✑✘✍✢ ✎ ✕✎✑✌✏ ✎✑ ✎ ✑✓✔✏✥✌ ✓✦ ✕✘✢☞✒✚ ✫ ✕✎✑✌✏ ✕✘✢☞✒ ♦✌✎✗✌❞ ✎✒ ✒☞✌ ✺✓✓✍ ✒✎✶✌✑ ✛✚❆❀ ✑ ✒✓

Page 42: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✸✆

r✝✞✟r✠ ✡☛✞✝r r✝☛☞✝✌✞✍✎✠ ✡✞ ✞✏✝ ✑✎✎✠✒✓ ✓✟r☛✡✌✝✔ ✕✎✖ ✗✟✌✏ ✍✓ ✞✏✝ r✡✘✍✟✓ ✎☛ ✞✏✝ ☞✟✠✡r

✎r♦✍✞ ✡r✎✟✠✘ ✞✏✝ ✙✡r✞✏ ✚

✷✛✜✢ ❆ ✣✤✥❆✦ ✧✓✎✟✠✘ ✠✡★✍✩✡✞✍✎✠ ✡✠✘ r✡✠✩✍✠✩✪ ✟✓✝✓ ✟☞✞r✡✓✎✠✍✌ ✖✡★✝✓ ✞✎ ✘✝✞✝✌✞ ✡✠✘ ☞✎✌✡✞✝

✎♦✫✝✌✞✓ ✟✠✘✝r ✖✡✞✝r✔ ✳✠ ✡ ✓✟♦✗✡r✍✠✝ ✝✬✟✍✭✭✝✘ ✖✍✞✏ ✡ ✣✤✥❆✦ ✞✏✝ ✞✍✗✝ ✘✝☞✡✮ ♦✝✞✖✝✝✠

✩✝✠✝r✡✞✍✎✠ ✎☛ ✡ ✭r✎♦✝ ✖✡★✝ ✡✠✘ ✞✏✝ r✝✌✝✭✞✍✎✠ ✎☛ ✍✞✓ ✝✌✏✎ ✡☛✞✝r r✝☛☞✝✌✞✍✎✠ ☛r✎✗ ✡✠

✝✠✝✗✮ ✓✟♦✗✡r✍✠✝ ✍✓ ☛✎✟✠✘ ✞✎ ♦✝ ❡❡✔✯ ✓✔ ✰✏✡✞ ✍✓ ✞✏✝ ✘✍✓✞✡✠✌✝ ✎☛ ✞✏✝ ✝✠✝✗✮ ✓✟♦✗✡r✍✠✝✚

✧✣✭✝✝✘ ✎☛ ✓✎✟✠✘ ✍✠ ✖✡✞✝r ✱ ✲✴✵✯ ✗ ✓➊✶✪✔

✷✛✜✹ ❚✏✝ ☛✡r✞✏✝✓✞ ✎♦✫✝✌✞✓ ✍✠ ✎✟r ✺✠✍★✝r✓✝ ✘✍✓✌✎★✝r✝✘ ♦✮ ✗✎✘✝r✠ ✡✓✞r✎✠✎✗✝r✓ ✡r✝ ✓✎ ✘✍✓✞✡✠✞

✞✏✡✞ ☞✍✩✏✞ ✝✗✍✞✞✝✘ ♦✮ ✞✏✝✗ ✞✡t✝✓ ♦✍☞☞✍✎✠✓ ✎☛ ✮✝✡r✓ ✞✎ r✝✡✌✏ ✞✏✝ ✙✡r✞✏✔ ❚✏✝✓✝ ✎♦✫✝✌✞✓

✧t✠✎✖✠ ✡✓ ✬✟✡✓✡r✓✪ ✏✡★✝ ✗✡✠✮ ✭✟✻✻☞✍✠✩ ☛✝✡✞✟r✝✓✼ ✖✏✍✌✏ ✏✡★✝ ✠✎✞ ✮✝✞ ♦✝✝✠ ✓✡✞✍✓☛✡✌✞✎r✍☞✮

✝✽✭☞✡✍✠✝✘✔ ✰✏✡✞ ✍✓ ✞✏✝ ✘✍✓✞✡✠✌✝ ✍✠ t✗ ✎☛ ✡ ✬✟✡✓✡r ☛r✎✗ ✖✏✍✌✏ ☞✍✩✏✞ ✞✡t✝✓ ✾✔✯ ♦✍☞☞✍✎✠

✮✝✡r✓ ✞✎ r✝✡✌✏ ✟✓✚

✷✛✜✷ ✳✞ ✍✓ ✡ ✖✝☞☞ t✠✎✖✠ ☛✡✌✞ ✞✏✡✞ ✘✟r✍✠✩ ✡ ✞✎✞✡☞ ✓✎☞✡r ✝✌☞✍✭✓✝ ✞✏✝ ✘✍✓t ✎☛ ✞✏✝ ✗✎✎✠ ✡☞✗✎✓✞

✌✎✗✭☞✝✞✝☞✮ ✌✎★✝r✓ ✞✏✝ ✘✍✓t ✎☛ ✞✏✝ ✣✟✠✔ ❝r✎✗ ✞✏✍✓ ☛✡✌✞ ✡✠✘ ☛r✎✗ ✞✏✝ ✍✠☛✎r✗✡✞✍✎✠ ✮✎✟

✌✡✠ ✩✡✞✏✝r ☛r✎✗ ✝✽✡✗✭☞✝✓ ✿✔✾ ✡✠✘ ✿✔✴✼ ✘✝✞✝r✗✍✠✝ ✞✏✝ ✡✭✭r✎✽✍✗✡✞✝ ✘✍✡✗✝✞✝r ✎☛ ✞✏✝

✗✎✎✠✔

✷✛✜✜ ❆ ✩r✝✡✞ ✭✏✮✓✍✌✍✓✞ ✎☛ ✞✏✍✓ ✌✝✠✞✟r✮ ✧❀✔❆✔✑✔ ❁✍r✡✌✪ ☞✎★✝✘ ✭☞✡✮✍✠✩ ✖✍✞✏ ✠✟✗✝r✍✌✡☞ ★✡☞✟✝✓ ✎☛

❝✟✠✘✡✗✝✠✞✡☞ ✌✎✠✓✞✡✠✞✓ ✎☛ ✠✡✞✟r✝✔ ❚✏✍✓ ☞✝✘ ✏✍✗ ✞✎ ✡✠ ✍✠✞✝r✝✓✞✍✠✩ ✎♦✓✝r★✡✞✍✎✠✔ ❁✍r✡✌

☛✎✟✠✘ ✞✏✡✞ ☛r✎✗ ✞✏✝ ♦✡✓✍✌ ✌✎✠✓✞✡✠✞✓ ✎☛ ✡✞✎✗✍✌ ✭✏✮✓✍✌✓ ✧❂✼ ❃✼ ✗✡✓✓ ✎☛ ✝☞✝✌✞r✎✠✼ ✗✡✓✓ ✎☛

✭r✎✞✎✠✪ ✡✠✘ ✞✏✝ ✩r✡★✍✞✡✞✍✎✠✡☞ ✌✎✠✓✞✡✠✞ ●✼ ✏✝ ✌✎✟☞✘ ✡rr✍★✝ ✡✞ ✡ ✠✟✗♦✝r ✖✍✞✏ ✞✏✝

✘✍✗✝✠✓✍✎✠ ✎☛ ✞✍✗✝✔ ❝✟r✞✏✝r✼ ✍✞ ✖✡✓ ✡ ★✝r✮ ☞✡r✩✝ ✠✟✗♦✝r✼ ✍✞✓ ✗✡✩✠✍✞✟✘✝ ♦✝✍✠✩ ✌☞✎✓✝ ✞✎

✞✏✝ ✭r✝✓✝✠✞ ✝✓✞✍✗✡✞✝ ✎✠ ✞✏✝ ✡✩✝ ✎☛ ✞✏✝ ✟✠✍★✝r✓✝ ✧❄✲✵ ♦✍☞☞✍✎✠ ✮✝✡r✓✪✔ ❝r✎✗ ✞✏✝ ✞✡♦☞✝ ✎☛

☛✟✠✘✡✗✝✠✞✡☞ ✌✎✠✓✞✡✠✞✓ ✍✠ ✞✏✍✓ ♦✎✎t✼ ✞r✮ ✞✎ ✓✝✝ ✍☛ ✮✎✟ ✞✎✎ ✌✡✠ ✌✎✠✓✞r✟✌✞ ✞✏✍✓ ✠✟✗♦✝r

✧✎r ✡✠✮ ✎✞✏✝r ✍✠✞✝r✝✓✞✍✠✩ ✠✟✗♦✝r ✮✎✟ ✌✡✠ ✞✏✍✠t ✎☛ ✪✔ ✳☛ ✍✞✓ ✌✎✍✠✌✍✘✝✠✌✝ ✖✍✞✏ ✞✏✝ ✡✩✝ ✎☛

✞✏✝ ✟✠✍★✝r✓✝ ✖✝r✝ ✓✍✩✠✍☛✍✌✡✠✞✼ ✖✏✡✞ ✖✎✟☞✘ ✞✏✍✓ ✍✗✭☞✮ ☛✎r ✞✏✝ ✌✎✠✓✞✡✠✌✮ ✎☛ ☛✟✠✘✡✗✝✠✞✡☞

✌✎✠✓✞✡✠✞✓ ✚

Page 43: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❈❍�✁✂✄☎ ✥❍☎✄✄

▼❖✆✝❖✞ ✝✞ ❆ ✟✆❚❆✝✠✡✆ ☛✝✞■

✸☞✌ ✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✕✏✖✒✎✸☞✗ P✒✘✖✏✖✒✎✙ ✚✛✏✜ ✢✣✎✤✏✜ ✛✎✓

✓✖✘✚✢✛✕✣❞✣✎✏✸☞✸ ✦✧✣✑✛✤✣ ✧✣✢✒✕✖✏★ ✛✎✓ ✛✧✣✑✛✤✣

✘✚✣✣✓✸☞✩ ✍✎✘✏✛✎✏✛✎✣✒✔✘ ✧✣✢✒✕✖✏★ ✛✎✓

✘✚✣✣✓✸☞✪ ✦✕✕✣✢✣✑✛✏✖✒✎✸☞✫ ❑✖✎✣❞✛✏✖✕ ✣✬✔✛✏✖✒✎✘ ✭✒✑

✔✎✖✭✒✑❞✢★ ✛✕✕✣✢✣✑✛✏✣✓ ❞✒✏✖✒✎✸☞✮ ❘✣✢✛✏✖✧✣ ✧✣✢✒✕✖✏★

❙✔❞❞✛✑★P✒✖✎✏✘ ✏✒ ✚✒✎✓✣✑❊✯✣✑✕✖✘✣✘✦✓✓✖✏✖✒✎✛✢ ✣✯✣✑✕✖✘✣✘✦✚✚✣✎✓✖✯ ✰✱✲

✸☞✌ ✳✴✵✶✷✹✺✻✵✳✷✴✼✽✾✿✽❀ ✿❁ ❂✽❃❃✽❀ ✾✽ ❄❅❄❇❉✾❋✿❀● ✿❀ ✾❋❄ ❏❀✿❅❄❇❁❄▲ ◆❄ ❡◗❯❱❲❇❏❀ ◗❀r ❇✿r❄ ◗ ❳✿❂❉❂❯❄▲ ❨❅❄❀ ❡❋❄❀❡❄ ◗❇❄ ❁❯❄❄❩✿❀●❲ ◗✿❇ ❃✽❅❄❁✿❀✾✽ ◗❀r ✽❏✾ ✽✐ ✽❏❇ ❯❏❀●❁ ◗❀r ❳❯✽✽r ✐❯✽❡❁ ✿❀ ◗❇✾❄❇✿❄❁ ◗❀r❅❄✿❀❁▲ ◆❄ ❁❄❄ ❯❄◗❅❄❁ ✐◗❯❯✿❀● ✐❇✽❃ ✾❇❄❄❁ ◗❀r ❡◗✾❄❇ ✐❯✽❡✿❀●r✽❡❀ ◗ r◗❃▲ ❬❏✾✽❃✽❳✿❯❄❁ ◗❀r ❩❯◗❀❄❁ ❂◗❇❇❉ ❩❄✽❩❯❄ ✐❇✽❃ ✽❀❄❩❯◗❂❄ ✾✽ ✾❋❄ ✽✾❋❄❇▲ ❭❋❄ ❄◗❇✾❋ ❇✽✾◗✾❄❁ ✽❀❂❄ ❄❅❄❇❉ ✾❡❄❀✾❉♦✐✽❏❇❋✽❏❇❁ ◗❀r ❇❄❅✽❯❅❄❁ ❇✽❏❀r ✾❋❄ ❁❏❀ ✽❀❂❄ ✿❀ ◗ ❉❄◗❇▲ ❭❋❄ ❁❏❀✿✾❁❄❯✐ ✿❁ ✿❀ ❃✽✾✿✽❀ ✿❀ ✾❋❄ ✼✿❯❱❉ ◆◗❉❲ ❡❋✿❂❋ ✿❁ ◗●◗✿❀ ❃✽❅✿❀●❡✿✾❋✿❀ ✿✾❁ ❯✽❂◗❯ ●❇✽❏❩ ✽✐ ●◗❯◗✇✿❄❁▲✼✽✾✿✽❀ ✿❁ ❂❋◗❀●❄ ✿❀ ❩✽❁✿✾✿✽❀ ✽✐ ◗❀ ✽❳❪❄❂✾ ❡✿✾❋ ✾✿❃❄▲ ❫✽❡

r✽❄❁ ✾❋❄ ❩✽❁✿✾✿✽❀ ❂❋◗❀●❄ ❡✿✾❋ ✾✿❃❄ ❴ ❵❀ ✾❋✿❁ ❂❋◗❩✾❄❇❲ ❡❄ ❁❋◗❯❯❯❄◗❇❀ ❋✽❡ ✾✽ r❄❁❂❇✿❳❄ ❃✽✾✿✽❀▲ ❧✽❇ ✾❋✿❁❲ ❡❄ r❄❅❄❯✽❩ ✾❋❄❂✽❀❂❄❩✾❁ ✽✐ ❅❄❯✽❂✿✾❉ ◗❀r ◗❂❂❄❯❄❇◗✾✿✽❀▲ ◆❄ ❁❋◗❯❯ ❂✽❀✐✿❀❄✽❏❇❁❄❯❅❄❁ ✾✽ ✾❋❄ ❁✾❏r❉ ✽✐ ❃✽✾✿✽❀ ✽✐ ✽❳❪❄❂✾❁ ◗❯✽❀● ◗ ❁✾❇◗✿●❋✾❯✿❀❄❲ ◗❯❁✽ ❱❀✽❡❀ ◗❁ ❛❜❝❢❣❤❣❥❜❦❛ ♠♥❢❣♥❥▲ ❧✽❇ ✾❋❄ ❂◗❁❄ ✽✐❇❄❂✾✿❯✿❀❄◗❇ ❃✽✾✿✽❀ ❡✿✾❋ ❏❀✿✐✽❇❃ ◗❂❂❄❯❄❇◗✾✿✽❀❲ ◗ ❁❄✾ ✽✐ ❁✿❃❩❯❄❄♣❏◗✾✿✽❀❁ ❂◗❀ ❳❄ ✽❳✾◗✿❀❄r▲ ❧✿❀◗❯❯❉❲ ✾✽ ❏❀r❄❇❁✾◗❀r ✾❋❄ ❇❄❯◗✾✿❅❄❀◗✾❏❇❄ ✽✐ ❃✽✾✿✽❀❲ ❡❄ ✿❀✾❇✽r❏❂❄ ✾❋❄ ❂✽❀❂❄❩✾ ✽✐ ❇❄❯◗✾✿❅❄ ❅❄❯✽❂✿✾❉▲❵❀ ✽❏❇ r✿❁❂❏❁❁✿✽❀❁❲ ❡❄ ❁❋◗❯❯ ✾❇❄◗✾ ✾❋❄ ✽❳❪❄❂✾❁ ✿❀ ❃✽✾✿✽❀ ◗❁

❩✽✿❀✾ ✽❳❪❄❂✾❁▲ ❭❋✿❁ ◗❩❩❇✽✇✿❃◗✾✿✽❀ ✿❁ ❅◗❯✿r ❁✽ ✐◗❇ ◗❁ ✾❋❄ ❁✿q❄✽✐ ✾❋❄ ✽❳❪❄❂✾ ✿❁ ❃❏❂❋ ❁❃◗❯❯❄❇ ✾❋◗❀ ✾❋❄ r✿❁✾◗❀❂❄ ✿✾ ❃✽❅❄❁ ✿❀ ◗❇❄◗❁✽❀◗❳❯❄ r❏❇◗✾✿✽❀ ✽✐ ✾✿❃❄▲ ❵❀ ◗ ●✽✽r ❀❏❃❳❄❇ ✽✐ ❁✿✾❏◗✾✿✽❀❁✿❀ ❇❄◗❯♦❯✿✐❄❲ ✾❋❄ ❁✿q❄ ✽✐ ✽❳❪❄❂✾❁ ❂◗❀ ❳❄ ❀❄●❯❄❂✾❄r ◗❀r ✾❋❄❉ ❂◗❀❳❄ ❂✽❀❁✿r❄❇❄r ◗❁ ❩✽✿❀✾♦❯✿❱❄ ✽❳❪❄❂✾❁ ❡✿✾❋✽❏✾ ❃❏❂❋ ❄❇❇✽❇▲❵❀ s❣❥❜♠❦❢❣❝t❲ ❡❄ ❁✾❏r❉ ❡◗❉❁ ✾✽ r❄❁❂❇✿❳❄ ❃✽✾✿✽❀ ❡✿✾❋✽❏✾

●✽✿❀● ✿❀✾✽ ✾❋❄ ❂◗❏❁❄❁ ✽✐ ❃✽✾✿✽❀▲ ◆❋◗✾ ❂◗❏❁❄❁ ❃✽✾✿✽❀r❄❁❂❇✿❳❄r ✿❀ ✾❋✿❁ ❂❋◗❩✾❄❇ ◗❀r ✾❋❄ ❀❄✇✾ ❂❋◗❩✾❄❇ ✐✽❇❃❁ ✾❋❄❁❏❳❪❄❂✾ ❃◗✾✾❄❇ ✽✐ ✉❋◗❩✾❄❇ ✈▲

✸☞✗ ①✷②✳✵✳✷✴③ ①④✵⑤ ⑥⑦✴⑧✵⑤ ④✴✹ ✹✳②①⑥④✻⑦⑨⑦✴✵❨◗❇❯✿❄❇ ❉✽❏ ❯❄◗❇❀✾ ✾❋◗✾ ❃✽✾✿✽❀ ✿❁ ❂❋◗❀●❄ ✿❀ ❩✽❁✿✾✿✽❀ ✽✐ ◗❀✽❳❪❄❂✾ ❡✿✾❋ ✾✿❃❄▲ ❵❀ ✽❇r❄❇ ✾✽ ❁❩❄❂✿✐❉ ❩✽❁✿✾✿✽❀❲ ❡❄ ❀❄❄r ✾✽ ❏❁❄◗ ❇❄✐❄❇❄❀❂❄ ❩✽✿❀✾ ◗❀r ◗ ❁❄✾ ✽✐ ◗✇❄❁▲ ❵✾ ✿❁ ❂✽❀❅❄❀✿❄❀✾ ✾✽ ❂❋✽✽❁❄

Page 44: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✹✆

✇✝✞✟ ✞✟✠ ✡☛✞✟ ☞✌ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎✏✑ ✒☞✞✝☞✓ ☛✓✔ ☞✎✝✕✝✓ ☞✌

✞✟✠ ☛t✝✑ ☛✑ ✞✟✠ ✡☞✝✓✞ ✌✎☞✒ ✇✟✠✎✠ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎ ✑✞☛✎✞✠✔

✒☞♠✝✓✕✖ ✝✗✠✗ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎ ✇☛✑ ☛✞ ① ✥ ✘ ☛✞ ✙ ✥ ✘ ✚✛✝✕✗ ✸✗✜✢✗

▲✠✞ ✣✖ Q ☛✓✔ ✤ ✎✠✡✎✠✑✠✓✞ ✞✟✠ ✡☞✑✝✞✝☞✓✑ ☞✌ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎

☛✞ ✔✝✌✌✠✎✠✓✞ ✝✓✑✞☛✓✞✑ ☞✌ ✞✝✒✠✗ ❛☞✓✑✝✔✠✎ ✞✇☞ ✍☛✑✠✑

☞✌ ✒☞✞✝☞✓✗ ♦✓ ✞✟✠ ✌✝✎✑✞ ✍☛✑✠✖ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎ ✒☞♠✠✑ ✌✎☞✒

❖ ✞☞ ✣✗ ✳✟✠✓ ✞✟✠ ✔✝✑✞☛✓✍✠ ✒☞♠✠✔ ✦✧ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎ ✝✑

❖✣ ✥ ★✸✩✘ ✒✗ ❚✪✫✬ ✭✫✬✮✯✰✱✲ ✫✬ ✱✯✴✴✲✭ ✮✪✲ ✵✯✮✪

✴✲✰❧✮✪ ✞✎☛♠✠✎✑✠✔ ✦✧ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎✶ ♦✓ ✞✟✠ ✑✠✍☞✓✔

✍☛✑✠✖ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎ ✒☞♠✠✑ ✌✎☞✒ ❖ ✞☞ ✣ ☛✓✔ ✞✟✠✓ ✒☞♠✠✑

✦☛✍❜ ✌✎☞✒ ✣ ✞☞Q✗ ✷✺✎✝✓✕ ✞✟✝✑ ✍☞✺✎✑✠ ☞✌✒☞✞✝☞✓✖

✞✟✠ ✡☛✞✟ ✻✠✓✕✞✟ ✞✎☛♠✠✎✑✠✔ ✝✑ ❖✣ ★ ✣✼ ✥ ★ ✸✩✘ ✒

★ ✚★✜✽✘ ✒✢ ✥ ★ ✾✿✘ ✒✗ ✣☛✞✟ ✻✠✓✕✞✟ ✝✑ ☛ ✑✍☛✻☛✎

q✺☛✓✞✝✞✧ ❀ ☛ q✺☛✓✞✝✞✧ ✞✟☛✞ ✟☛✑ ☛ ✒☛✕✓✝✞✺✔✠

☞✓✻✧ ☛✓✔ ✓☞ ✔✝✎✠✍✞✝☞✓ ✚✑✠✠ ❛✟☛✡✞✠✎ ✾✢✗

❉❁❂❃❄❅❆❇❈❇❊❋

♦✞ ✝✑ ✺✑✠✌✺✻ ✞☞ ✔✠✌✝✓✠ ☛✓☞✞✟✠✎ q✺☛✓✞✝✞✧

✔✝✑✡✻☛✍✠✒✠✓✞ ☛✑ ✞✟✠ ✍✟☛✓✕✠ ✝✓ ✡☞✑✝✞✝☞✓✗ ▲✠✞

①● ☛✓✔ ①❍ ✦✠ ✞✟✠ ✡☞✑✝✞✝☞✓✑ ☞✌ ☛✓ ☞✦■✠✍✞ ☛✞ ✞✝✒✠ ✙●

☛✓✔ ✙❍✗ ✳✟✠✓ ✝✞✑ ✔✝✑✡✻☛✍✠✒✠✓✞✖ ✔✠✓☞✞✠✔ ✦✧ ❏①✖ ✝✓

✞✝✒✠ ❏✙ ✥ ✚✙❍❑ ✙

●✢✖ ✝✑ ✕✝♠✠✓ ✦✧ ✞✟✠ ✔✝✌✌✠✎✠✓✍✠

✦✠✞✇✠✠✓ ✞✟✠ ✌✝✓☛✻ ☛✓✔ ✝✓✝✞✝☛✻ ✡☞✑✝✞✝☞✓✑ ▼

❏① ✥ ①❍➊ ①

●✚◆✠ ✺✑✠ ✞✟✠ ❡✎✠✠❜ ✻✠✞✞✠✎ ✔✠✻✞☛ ✚❏✢ ✞☞ ✔✠✓☞✞✠ ☛

✍✟☛✓✕✠ ✝✓ ☛ q✺☛✓✞✝✞✧✗✢

♦✌ ①❍◗ ①

●✖ ❏① ✝✑ ✡☞✑✝✞✝♠✠✐ ☛✓✔ ✝✌ ①

❍❘ ①

●✖ ❏① ✝✑

✓✠✕☛✞✝♠✠✗

✷✝✑✡✻☛✍✠✒✠✓✞ ✟☛✑ ✦☞✞✟ ✒☛✕✓✝✞✺✔✠ ☛✓✔

✔✝✎✠✍✞✝☞✓✗ ❞✺✍✟ q✺☛✓✞✝✞✝✠✑ ☛✎✠ ✎✠✡✎✠✑✠✓✞✠✔ ✦✧

♠✠✍✞☞✎✑✗ ✈☞✺ ✇✝✻✻ ✎✠☛✔ ☛✦☞✺✞ ♠✠✍✞☞✎✑ ✝✓ ✞✟✠ ✓✠t✞

✍✟☛✡✞✠✎✗ ✣✎✠✑✠✓✞✻✧✖ ✇✠ ☛✎✠ ✔✠☛✻✝✓✕ ✇✝✞✟ ✒☞✞✝☞✓

☛✻☞✓✕ ☛ ✑✞✎☛✝✕✟✞ ✻✝✓✠ ✚☛✻✑☞ ✍☛✻✻✠✔ r✲✱✮✫✴✫✰✲✯r

❙❯✮✫❯✰✢ ☞✓✻✧✗ ♦✓ ☞✓✠❑✔✝✒✠✓✑✝☞✓☛✻ ✒☞✞✝☞✓✖ ✞✟✠✎✠

☛✎✠ ❱❲❳❨ ✙❩❱ ✔✝✎✠✍✞✝☞✓✑ ✚✦☛✍❜✇☛✎✔ ☛✓✔ ✌☞✎✇☛✎✔✖

✺✡✇☛✎✔ ☛✓✔ ✔☞✇✓✇☛✎✔✢ ✝✓ ✇✟✝✍✟ ☛✓ ☞✦■✠✍✞ ✍☛✓

✒☞♠✠✖ ☛✓✔ ✞✟✠✑✠ ✞✇☞ ✔✝✎✠✍✞✝☞✓✑ ✍☛✓ ✠☛✑✝✻✧ ✦✠

✑✡✠✍✝✌✝✠✔ ✦✧ ★ ☛✓✔ ➊ ✑✝✕✓✑✗ ✛☞✎ ✠t☛✒✡✻✠✖

✔✝✑✡✻☛✍✠✒✠✓✞ ☞✌ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎ ✝✓✒☞♠✝✓✕ ✌✎☞✒ ❖ ✞☞ ✣ ✝✑ ▼

❏① ✥ ①❍➊ ①

●✥ ✚★✸✩✘ ✒✢ ➊ ✘ ✒ ✥ ★✸✩✘ ✒

✳✟✠ ✔✝✑✡✻☛✍✠✒✠✓✞ ✟☛✑ ☛✒☛✕✓✝✞✺✔✠ ☞✌ ✸✩✘✒ ☛✓✔

✝✑ ✔✝✎✠✍✞✠✔ ✝✓ ✞✟✠ ✡☞✑✝✞✝♠✠ ① ✔✝✎✠✍✞✝☞✓ ☛✑ ✝✓✔✝✍☛✞✠✔

✦✧ ✞✟✠ ★ ✑✝✕✓✗ ❞✝✒✝✻☛✎✻✧✖ ✞✟✠ ✔✝✑✡✻☛✍✠✒✠✓✞ ☞✌ ✞✟✠

✍☛✎ ✌✎☞✒ ✣ ✞☞ ✼ ✝✑ ✽✾✘ ✒ ➊ ✸✩✘✒ ✥ ➊ ✜✽✘ ✒✗ ✳✟✠

❬❭❪❫ ❴❫❵ ❝❢❣❝❤❥❦ ♥♣❤s❤✉ ❣✉② ③♥❥❤④❤♥✉❥ ♥⑤ ❣ ⑥❣♣ ❣④ ②❤⑤⑤⑦♣⑦✉④ ④❤⑧⑦❥⑨

☛ ✎✠✍✞☛✓✕✺✻☛✎ ✍☞☞✎✔✝✓☛✞✠ ✑✧✑✞✠✒ ✍☞✓✑✝✑✞✝✓✕ ☞✌

✞✟✎✠✠ ✒✺✞✺☛✻✻✧ ✡✠✎✡✠✓✔✺✍✺✻☛✎ ☛t✠✑✖ ✻☛✦✠✻✻✠✔ ⑩❑✖

✈❑✖ ☛✓✔ ❶❑ ☛t✠✑✗ ✳✟✠ ✡☞✝✓✞ ☞✌ ✝✓✞✠✎✑✠✍✞✝☞✓ ☞✌ ✞✟✠✑✠

✞✟✎✠✠ ☛t✠✑ ✝✑ ✍☛✻✻✠✔ ☞✎✝✕✝✓ ✚❖✢ ☛✓✔ ✑✠✎♠✠✑ ☛✑ ✞✟✠

r✲❷✲r✲✰✱✲ ✵❯✫✰✮✗ ✳✟✠ ✍☞☞✎✔✝✓☛✞✠✑ ✚①❸ ❨❹ ❺✢ ☞✌ ☛✓

☞✦■✠✍✞ ✔✠✑✍✎✝✦✠ ✞✟✠ ✡☞✑✝✞✝☞✓ ☞✌ ✞✟✠ ☞✦■✠✍✞ ✇✝✞✟

✎✠✑✡✠✍✞ ✞☞ ✞✟✝✑ ✍☞☞✎✔✝✓☛✞✠ ✑✧✑✞✠✒✗ ✳☞ ✒✠☛✑✺✎✠

✞✝✒✠✖ ✇✠ ✡☞✑✝✞✝☞✓ ☛ ✍✻☞✍❜ ✝✓ ✞✟✝✑ ✑✧✑✞✠✒✗ ✳✟✝✑

✍☞☞✎✔✝✓☛✞✠ ✑✧✑✞✠✒ ☛✻☞✓✕ ✇✝✞✟ ☛ ✍✻☞✍❜ ✍☞✓✑✞✝✞✺✞✠✑

☛ ❷r✯❙✲ ❯❷ r✲❷✲r✲✰✱✲✗

♦✌ ☞✓✠ ☞✎✒☞✎✠ ✍☞☞✎✔✝✓☛✞✠✑ ☞✌ ☛✓ ☞✦■✠✍✞ ✍✟☛✓✕✠

✇✝✞✟ ✞✝✒✠✖ ✇✠ ✑☛✧ ✞✟☛✞ ✞✟✠ ☞✦■✠✍✞ ✝✑ ✝✓ ✒☞✞✝☞✓✗

❖✞✟✠✎✇✝✑✠✖ ✞✟✠ ☞✦■✠✍✞ ✝✑ ✑☛✝✔ ✞☞ ✦✠ ☛✞ ✎✠✑✞ ✇✝✞✟

✎✠✑✡✠✍✞ ✞☞ ✞✟✝✑ ✌✎☛✒✠ ☞✌ ✎✠✌✠✎✠✓✍✠✗

✳✟✠ ✍✟☞✝✍✠ ☞✌ ☛ ✑✠✞ ☞✌ ☛t✠✑ ✝✓ ☛ ✌✎☛✒✠ ☞✌

✎✠✌✠✎✠✓✍✠ ✔✠✡✠✓✔✑ ✺✡☞✓ ✞✟✠ ✑✝✞✺☛✞✝☞✓✗ ✛☞✎

✠t☛✒✡✻✠✖ ✌☞✎ ✔✠✑✍✎✝✦✝✓✕✒☞✞✝☞✓ ✝✓ ☞✓✠ ✔✝✒✠✓✑✝☞✓✖

✇✠ ✓✠✠✔ ☞✓✻✧ ☞✓✠ ☛t✝✑✗ ✳☞ ✔✠✑✍✎✝✦✠ ✒☞✞✝☞✓ ✝✓

✞✇☞❻✞✟✎✠✠ ✔✝✒✠✓✑✝☞✓✑✖ ✇✠ ✓✠✠✔ ☛ ✑✠✞ ☞✌ ✞✇☞❻

✞✟✎✠✠ ☛t✠✑✗

✷✠✑✍✎✝✡✞✝☞✓ ☞✌ ☛✓ ✠♠✠✓✞ ✔✠✡✠✓✔✑ ☞✓ ✞✟✠ ✌✎☛✒✠

☞✌ ✎✠✌✠✎✠✓✍✠ ✍✟☞✑✠✓ ✌☞✎ ✞✟✠ ✔✠✑✍✎✝✡✞✝☞✓✗ ✛☞✎

✠t☛✒✡✻✠✖ ✇✟✠✓ ✧☞✺ ✑☛✧ ✞✟☛✞ ☛ ✍☛✎ ✝✑ ✒☞♠✝✓✕ ☞✓

☛ ✎☞☛✔✖ ✧☞✺ ☛✎✠ ✔✠✑✍✎✝✦✝✓✕ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎ ✇✝✞✟ ✎✠✑✡✠✍✞

✞☞ ☛ ✌✎☛✒✠ ☞✌ ✎✠✌✠✎✠✓✍✠ ☛✞✞☛✍✟✠✔ ✞☞ ✧☞✺ ☞✎ ✞☞ ✞✟✠

✕✎☞✺✓✔✗ ❼✺✞ ✇✝✞✟ ✎✠✑✡✠✍✞ ✞☞ ☛ ✌✎☛✒✠ ☞✌ ✎✠✌✠✎✠✓✍✠

☛✞✞☛✍✟✠✔ ✇✝✞✟ ☛ ✡✠✎✑☞✓ ✑✝✞✞✝✓✕ ✝✓ ✞✟✠ ✍☛✎✖ ✞✟✠

✍☛✎ ✝✑ ☛✞ ✎✠✑✞✗

✳☞ ✔✠✑✍✎✝✦✠ ✒☞✞✝☞✓ ☛✻☞✓✕ ☛ ✑✞✎☛✝✕✟✞ ✻✝✓✠✖ ✇✠

✍☛✓ ✍✟☞☞✑✠ ☛✓ ☛t✝✑✖ ✑☛✧ ❽❑☛t✝✑✖ ✑☞ ✞✟☛✞ ✝✞

✍☞✝✓✍✝✔✠✑ ✇✝✞✟ ✞✟✠ ✡☛✞✟ ☞✌ ✞✟✠ ☞✦■✠✍✞✗ ◆✠ ✞✟✠✓

✒✠☛✑✺✎✠ ✞✟✠ ✡☞✑✝✞✝☞✓ ☞✌ ✞✟✠ ☞✦■✠✍✞ ✇✝✞✟ ✎✠✌✠✎✠✓✍✠

✞☞ ☛ ✍☞✓♠✠✓✝✠✓✞✻✧ ✍✟☞✑✠✓ ☞✎✝✕✝✓✖ ✑☛✧ ❖✖ ☛✑ ✑✟☞✇✓

✝✓ ✛✝✕✗ ✸✗✜✗ ✣☞✑✝✞✝☞✓✑ ✞☞ ✞✟✠ ✎✝✕✟✞ ☞✌ ❖ ☛✎✠ ✞☛❜✠✓

☛✑ ✡☞✑✝✞✝♠✠ ☛✓✔ ✞☞ ✞✟✠ ✻✠✌✞ ☞✌ ❖✖ ☛✑ ✓✠✕☛✞✝♠✠✗

✛☞✻✻☞✇✝✓✕ ✞✟✝✑ ✍☞✓♠✠✓✞✝☞✓✖ ✞✟✠ ✡☞✑✝✞✝☞✓

✍☞☞✎✔✝✓☛✞✠✑ ☞✌ ✡☞✝✓✞ ✣ ☛✓✔ ✼ ✝✓✛✝✕✗ ✸✗✜ ☛✎✠ ★✸✩✘

✒ ☛✓✔ ★✽✾✘✒✗ ❞✝✒✝✻☛✎✻✧✖ ✞✟✠✡☞✑✝✞✝☞✓ ✍☞☞✎✔✝✓☛✞✠

☞✌ ✡☞✝✓✞ ✤ ✝✑ ➊✜✽✘ ✒✗

❾❅❋❿ ❄❇❊➀❋❿

❛☞✓✑✝✔✠✎ ✞✟✠ ✒☞✞✝☞✓ ☞✌ ☛ ✍☛✎ ☛✻☞✓✕ ☛ ✑✞✎☛✝✕✟✞

✻✝✓✠✗ ◆✠ ✍✟☞☞✑✠ ✞✟✠ ①❑☛t✝✑ ✑✺✍✟ ✞✟☛✞ ✝✞ ✍☞✝✓✍✝✔✠✑

Page 45: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✹☛

♥☞✌✍✎✏✑☞ ✒✏✌♥ ✏♥✓✏✔✍✎☞✒ ✎✕☞ ✓✏✖☞✔✎✏✗♥ ✗✘

✓✏✒❞✙✍✔☞✚☞♥✎✛ ✜✕✢✒✣ ✏✎ ✏✒ ♥✗✎ ♥☞✔☞✒✒✍✖✤ ✎✗ ✢✒☞

✑☞✔✎✗✖ ♥✗✎✍✎✏✗♥ ✘✗✖ ✓✏✒✔✢✒✒✏♥✌ ✚✗✎✏✗♥ ✗✘ ✗✈✥☞✔✎✒

✏♥ ✗♥☞✐✓✏✚☞♥✒✏✗♥✛

❚✦✧ ★✩✪✫✬✭✮✯✧ ✰✱ ✯✬✲✳✴✩✵✧★✧✫✭ ★✩✶ ✰✷ ★✩✶

✫✰✭ ✸✧ ✧✺✮✩✴ ✭✰ ✭✦✧ ✳✩✭✦ ✴✧✫✪✭✦ ✭✷✩✻✧✷✲✧✯ ✸✶

✩✫ ✰✸❛✧✵✭✼ ❋✗✖ ☞✽✍✚❞✙☞✣ ✘✗✖ ✚✗✎✏✗♥ ✗✘ ✎✕☞ ✔✍✖

✘✖✗✚ ♦ ✎✗ ✾✣ ✎✕☞ ❞✍✎✕ ✙☞♥✌✎✕ ✏✒ ✿❀❁❂ ✚ ✍♥✓ ✎✕☞

✓✏✒❞✙✍✔☞✚☞♥✎ ✏✒ ✿❀❁❂ ✚✛ ❃♥ ✎✕✏✒ ✔✍✒☞✣ ✎✕☞

✚✍✌♥✏✎✢✓☞ ✗✘ ✓✏✒❞✙✍✔☞✚☞♥✎ ♠❀❁❂ ✚❄ ✏✒ ☞❅✢✍✙ ✎✗

✎✕☞ ❞✍✎✕ ✙☞♥✌✎✕ ♠❀❁❂ ✚❄✛ t✢✎ ✔✗♥✒✏✓☞✖ ✎✕☞ ✚✗✎✏✗♥

✗✘ ✎✕☞ ✔✍✖ ✘✖✗✚ ♦ ✎✗ ✾ ✍♥✓ ✈✍✔❆ ✎✗ Q✛ ❃♥ ✎✕✏✒

✔✍✒☞✣ ✎✕☞ ❞✍✎✕ ✙☞♥✌✎✕ ❝ ♠✿❀❁❂ ✚❄ ✿ ♠✿❇❈❂ ✚❄ ❝ ✿

❉❊❂ ✚✛ ●✗❍☞✑☞✖✣ ✎✕☞ ✓✏✒❞✙✍✔☞✚☞♥✎ ❝ ♠✿❈❉❂ ✚❄ ■

♠❂ ✚❄ ❝ ✿ ❈❉❂ ✚✛ ✜✕✢✒✣ ✎✕☞ ✚✍✌♥✏✎✢✓☞ ✗✘

✓✏✒❞✙✍✔☞✚☞♥✎ ♠❈❉❂ ✚❄ ✏✒ ♥✗✎ ☞❅✢✍✙ ✎✗ ✎✕☞ ❞✍✎✕

✙☞♥✌✎✕ ♠❉❊❂ ✚❄✛

✜✕☞ ✚✍✌♥✏✎✢✓☞ ✗✘ ✎✕☞ ✓✏✒❞✙✍✔☞✚☞♥✎ ✘✗✖ ✍

✔✗✢✖✒☞ ✗✘ ✚✗✎✏✗♥ ✚✍✤ ✈☞ ❏☞✖✗ ✈✢✎ ✎✕☞

✔✗✖✖☞✒❞✗♥✓✏♥✌ ❞✍✎✕ ✙☞♥✌✎✕ ✏✒ ✫✰✭ ❑✧✷✰▲ ❋✗✖

☞✽✍✚❞✙☞✣ ✏✘ ✎✕☞ ✔✍✖ ✒✎✍✖✎✒ ✘✖✗✚ ♦✣ ✌✗☞✒ ✎✗ ✾ ✍♥✓

✎✕☞♥ ✖☞✎✢✖♥✒ ✎✗ ♦✣ ✎✕☞ ✘✏♥✍✙ ❞✗✒✏✎✏✗♥ ✔✗✏♥✔✏✓☞✒

❍✏✎✕ ✎✕☞ ✏♥✏✎✏✍✙ ❞✗✒✏✎✏✗♥ ✍♥✓ ✎✕☞ ✓✏✒❞✙✍✔☞✚☞♥✎

✏✒ ❏☞✖✗✛ ●✗❍☞✑☞✖✣ ✎✕☞ ❞✍✎✕ ✙☞♥✌✎✕ ✗✘ ✎✕✏✒ ✥✗✢✖♥☞✤

✏✒ ♦✾ ✿ ✾♦ ❝ ❀❁❂ ✚ ✿ ❀❁❂ ✚ ❝ ◆❈❂ ✚✛

❖✗✎✏✗♥ ✗✘ ✍♥ ✗✈✥☞✔✎ ✔✍♥ ✈☞ ✖☞❞✖☞✒☞♥✎☞✓ ✈✤ ✍

❞✗✒✏✎✏✗♥✐✎✏✚☞ ✌✖✍❞✕ ✍✒ ✤✗✢ ✕✍✑☞ ✍✙✖☞✍✓✤ ✙☞✍✖♥✎

✍✈✗✢✎ ✏✎✛ P✢✔✕ ✍ ✌✖✍❞✕ ✏✒ ✍ ❞✗❍☞✖✘✢✙ ✎✗✗✙ ✎✗

✖☞❞✖☞✒☞♥✎ ✍♥✓ ✍♥✍✙✤✒☞ ✓✏✘✘☞✖☞♥✎ ✍✒❞☞✔✎✒ ✗✘

✚✗✎✏✗♥ ✗✘ ✍♥ ✗✈✥☞✔✎✛ ❋✗✖ ✚✗✎✏✗♥ ✍✙✗♥✌ ✍ ✒✎✖✍✏✌✕✎

✙✏♥☞✣ ✒✍✤ ❳✐✍✽✏✒✣ ✗♥✙✤ ①✐✔✗✗✖✓✏♥✍✎☞ ✑✍✖✏☞✒ ❍✏✎✕

✎✏✚☞ ✍♥✓ ❍☞ ✕✍✑☞ ✍♥ ①✐◗ ✌✖✍❞✕✛ ❘☞✎ ✢✒ ✘✏✖✒✎

✔✗♥✒✏✓☞✖ ✎✕☞ ✒✏✚❞✙☞ ✔✍✒☞ ✏♥ ❍✕✏✔✕ ✍♥ ✗✈✥☞✔✎ ✏✒

✒✎✍✎✏✗♥✍✖✤✣ ☞✛✌✛ ✍ ✔✍✖ ✒✎✍♥✓✏♥✌ ✒✎✏✙✙ ✍✎ ① ❝ ❉❂ ✚✛

✜✕☞ ❞✗✒✏✎✏✗♥✐✎✏✚☞ ✌✖✍❞✕ ✏✒ ✍ ✒✎✖✍✏✌✕✎ ✙✏♥☞ ❞✍✖✍✙✙☞✙

✎✗ ✎✕☞ ✎✏✚☞ ✍✽✏✒✣ ✍✒ ✒✕✗❍♥ ✏♥ ❋✏✌✛ ❀✛❈♠✍❄✛

❃✘ ✍♥ ✗✈✥☞✔✎ ✚✗✑✏♥✌ ✍✙✗♥✌ ✎✕☞ ✒✎✖✍✏✌✕✎ ✙✏♥☞

✔✗✑☞✖✒ ☞❅✢✍✙ ✓✏✒✎✍♥✔☞✒ ✏♥ ☞❅✢✍✙ ✏♥✎☞✖✑✍✙✒ ✗✘

✎✏✚☞✣ ✏✎ ✏✒ ✒✍✏✓ ✎✗ ✈☞ ✏♥ ✮✫✬✱✰✷★ ★✰✭✬✰✫ ✍✙✗♥✌ ✍

✒✎✖✍✏✌✕✎ ✙✏♥☞✛ ❋✏✌✛ ❀✛❈♠✈❄ ✒✕✗❍✒ ✎✕☞ ❞✗✒✏✎✏✗♥✐✎✏✚☞

✌✖✍❞✕ ✗✘ ✒✢✔✕ ✍ ✚✗✎✏✗♥✛

❙❯❱❲ ❨❲❩ ❬❭❪❫❴❫❭❵❜❴❫❡❢ ❣❤❥❦❧ ❭♣ q❥r ❪❴❥❴❫❭❵❥❤s ❭✉✇❢②❴③ ❥❵④ q✉r ❥❵ ❭✉✇❢②❴ ❫❵ ⑤❵❫♣❭❤❡ ❡❭❴❫❭❵⑥

❙❯❱❲ ❨❲❨ ❬❭❪❫❴❫❭❵❜❴❫❡❢ ❣❤❥❦❧ ❭♣ ❥ ②❥❤⑥❴ ⑦⑧⑨ ⑩

❷⑦❸⑨

Page 46: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✹✆

◆✝✞✟ ✠✡☛ ☞✌ ✍✝✎✌✏✑✡✒ ☛✓✡ ✔✝☛✏✝✎ ✝✕ ✖ ✍✖✒ ☛✓✖☛

✌☛✖✒☛✌ ✕✒✝✔ ✒✡✌☛ ✖☛ ☛✏✔✡ t ❂ ✗ ✌ ✕✒✝✔ ☛✓✡ ✝✒✏✘✏✎ ✙

✖✎✑ ❛✏✍✚✌ ☞❛ ✌❛✡✡✑ ☛✏✠✠ t ❂ ✛✗ ✌ ✖✎✑ ☛✓✡✒✡✖✕☛✡✒

✔✝♠✡✌ ✞✏☛✓ ☞✎✏✕✝✒✔ ✌❛✡✡✑ ☛✏✠✠ t ❂ ✛✜ ✌✢ ✣✓✡✎ ☛✓✡

❜✒✖✚✡✌ ✖✒✡ ✖❛❛✠✏✡✑ ✖✎✑ ☛✓✡ ✍✖✒ ✌☛✝❛✌ ✖☛

t ❂ ✥✗ ✌ ✖✎✑ ① ❂ ✥✤✦ ✔✢ ✣✓✡ ❛✝✌✏☛✏✝✎✧☛✏✔✡ ✘✒✖❛✓

✕✝✒ ☛✓✏✌ ✍✖✌✡ ✏✌ ✌✓✝✞✎ ✏✎ ❢✏✘✢ ★✢★✢ ✩✡ ✌✓✖✠✠ ✒✡✕✡✒

☛✝ ☛✓✏✌ ✘✒✖❛✓ ✏✎ ✝☞✒ ✑✏✌✍☞✌✌✏✝✎ ✏✎ ☛✓✡ ✕✝✠✠✝✞✏✎✘

✌✡✍☛✏✝✎✌✢

✸✪✸ ❆✫✬✭❆✮✬ ✫✬✯✰✱✲✳✴ ❆✵✶ ❆✫✬✭❆✮✬

❙✷✬✬✶

✩✓✡✎ ✖✎ ✝❜❲✡✍☛ ✏✌ ✏✎ ✔✝☛✏✝✎✟ ✏☛✌ ❛✝✌✏☛✏✝✎

✍✓✖✎✘✡✌ ✞✏☛✓ ☛✏✔✡✢ ❝☞☛ ✓✝✞ ✕✖✌☛ ✏✌ ☛✓✡ ❛✝✌✏☛✏✝✎

✍✓✖✎✘✏✎✘ ✞✏☛✓ ☛✏✔✡ ✖✎✑ ✏✎ ✞✓✖☛ ✑✏✒✡✍☛✏✝✎✺ ✣✝

✑✡✌✍✒✏❜✡ ☛✓✏✌✟ ✞✡ ✑✡✕✏✎✡ ☛✓✡ ❞☞✖✎☛✏☛✻ ✼✽✾✿✼❀✾

✽✾✈❁❃❄❅❇✢ ❈♠✡✒✖✘✡ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻ ✏✌ ✑✡✕✏✎✡✑ ✖✌ ☛✓✡

✍✓✖✎✘✡ ✏✎ ❛✝✌✏☛✏✝✎ ✝✒ ✑✏✌❛✠✖✍✡✔✡✎☛ ❉❊①❋ ✑✏♠✏✑✡✑

❜✻ ☛✓✡ ☛✏✔✡ ✏✎☛✡✒♠✖✠✌ ❉❊t❋✟ ✏✎ ✞✓✏✍✓ ☛✓✡

✑✏✌❛✠✖✍✡✔✡✎☛ ✝✍✍☞✒✌ ●

❍■ ■

❏ ❏

❑ ▲

❑ ▲

▼❾

❾▼❖

❉★✢✛❋

✞✓✡✒✡ ①◗ ✖✎✑ ①❘ ✖✒✡ ☛✓✡ ❛✝✌✏☛✏✝✎✌ ✝✕ ☛✓✡ ✝❜❲✡✍☛

✖☛ ☛✏✔✡ t◗✖✎✑ t❘✟ ✒✡✌❛✡✍☛✏♠✡✠✻✢ ❚✡✒✡ ☛✓✡ ❜✖✒ ✝♠✡✒

☛✓✡ ✌✻✔❜✝✠ ✕✝✒ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻ ✏✌ ✖ ✌☛✖✎✑✖✒✑ ✎✝☛✖☛✏✝✎

☞✌✡✑ ☛✝ ✏✎✑✏✍✖☛✡ ✖✎ ✖♠✡✒✖✘✡ ❞☞✖✎☛✏☛✻✢ ✣✓✡ ✉❯

☞✎✏☛ ✕✝✒ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻ ✏✌ ✔❱✌ ✝✒ ✔ ✌➊❘✟ ✖✠☛✓✝☞✘✓ ✚✔ ✓➊❘

✏✌ ☞✌✡✑ ✏✎ ✔✖✎✻ ✡♠✡✒✻✑✖✻ ✖❛❛✠✏✍✖☛✏✝✎✌✢

❳✏✚✡ ✑✏✌❛✠✖✍✡✔✡✎☛✟ ✖♠✡✒✖✘✡ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻ ✏✌ ✖✠✌✝ ✖

♠✡✍☛✝✒ ❞☞✖✎☛✏☛✻✢ ❝☞☛ ✖✌ ✡❨❛✠✖✏✎✡✑ ✡✖✒✠✏✡✒✟ ✕✝✒

✔✝☛✏✝✎ ✏✎ ✖ ✌☛✒✖✏✘✓☛ ✠✏✎✡✟ ☛✓✡ ✑✏✒✡✍☛✏✝✎✖✠ ✖✌❛✡✍☛

✝✕ ☛✓✡ ♠✡✍☛✝✒ ✍✖✎ ❜✡ ☛✖✚✡✎ ✍✖✒✡ ✝✕ ❜✻ ♦ ✖✎✑ ❩

✌✏✘✎✌ ✖✎✑ ✞✡ ✑✝ ✎✝☛ ✓✖♠✡ ☛✝ ☞✌✡ ☛✓✡ ♠✡✍☛✝✒

✎✝☛✖☛✏✝✎ ✕✝✒ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻ ✏✎ ☛✓✏✌ ✍✓✖❛☛✡✒✢

❬❭❪❫ ❴❫❵ ❡❣❤ ✐❍❤❥✐❦❤ ❍❤❧♥♣q❏r qs ❏❣❤ s❧♥✇❤ ♥② ❧q③❤ ④⑤④⑥⑦

⑧✝✎✌✏✑✡✒ ☛✓✡✔✝☛✏✝✎ ✝✕ ☛✓✡ ✍✖✒ ✏✎ ❢✏✘✢ ★✢★✢ ✣✓✡

❛✝✒☛✏✝✎ ✝✕ ☛✓✡ ①⑨t ✘✒✖❛✓ ❜✡☛✞✡✡✎ t ❂ ✗ ✌ ✖✎✑ t ❂ ✜

✌ ✏✌ ❜✠✝✞✎ ☞❛ ✖✎✑ ✌✓✝✞✎ ✏✎ ❢✏✘✢ ★✢⑩✢ ❈✌ ✌✡✡✎

✕✒✝✔ ☛✓✡ ❛✠✝☛✟ ☛✓✡ ✖♠✡✒✖✘✡ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻ ✝✕ ☛✓✡ ✍✖✒

❜✡☛✞✡✡✎ ☛✏✔✡ t ❂ ❶ ✌ ✖✎✑ t ❂ ❷ ✌ ✏✌ ●

❸❹

❸❺

❸❺❻❼❽❿➀

❻➁➀

❼➂➃➂➄➅➀ ➆➆

❏❏

■■❍

➇✡✝✔✡☛✒✏✍✖✠✠✻✟ ☛✓✏✌ ✏✌ ☛✓✡ ✌✠✝❛✡ ✝✕ ☛✓✡ ✌☛✒✖✏✘✓☛

✠✏✎✡ ➈❘➈◗ ✍✝✎✎✡✍☛✏✎✘ ☛✓✡ ✏✎✏☛✏✖✠ ❛✝✌✏☛✏✝✎ 1➉ ☛✝

☛✓✡ ✕✏✎✖✠ ❛✝✌✏☛✏✝✎ ➈◗ ✖✌ ✌✓✝✞✎ ✏✎ ❢✏✘✢ ★✢⑩✢

✣✓✡✖♠✡✒✖✘✡ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻ ✍✖✎❜✡ ❛✝✌✏☛✏♠✡ ✝✒ ✎✡✘✖☛✏♠✡

✑✡❛✡✎✑✏✎✘ ☞❛✝✎ ☛✓✡ ✌✏✘✎ ✝✕ ☛✓✡ ✑✏✌❛✠✖✍✡✔✡✎☛✢ ❯☛

✏✌ ➋✡✒✝ ✏✕ ☛✓✡ ✑✏✌❛✠✖✍✡✔✡✎☛ ✏✌ ➋✡✒✝✢ ❢✏✘✢ ★✢❶ ✌✓✝✞✌

☛✓✡ ①⑨t ✘✒✖❛✓✌ ✕✝✒ ✖✎ ✝❜❲✡✍☛✟ ✔✝♠✏✎✘ ✞✏☛✓ ❛✝✌✏☛✏♠✡

♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻ ❉❢✏✘✢ ★✢❶✖❋✟ ✔✝♠✏✎✘ ✞✏☛✓ ✎✡✘✖☛✏♠✡ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻

❉❢✏✘✢ ★✢❶❜❋ ✖✎✑ ✖☛ ✒✡✌☛ ❉❢✏✘✢ ★✢❶✍❋✢

❈♠✡✒✖✘✡ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻ ✖✌ ✑✡✕✏✎✡✑ ✖❜✝♠✡ ✏✎♠✝✠♠✡✌

✝✎✠✻ ☛✓✡ ✑✏✌❛✠✖✍✡✔✡✎☛ ✝✕ ☛✓✡ ✝❜❲✡✍☛✢✩✡ ✓✖♠✡ ✌✡✡✎

✡✖✒✠✏✡✒ ☛✓✖☛ ☛✓✡✔✖✘✎✏☛☞✑✡ ✝✕ ✑✏✌❛✠✖✍✡✔✡✎☛ ✔✖✻

❜✡ ✑✏✕✕✡✒✡✎☛ ✕✒✝✔ ☛✓✡ ✖✍☛☞✖✠ ❛✖☛✓ ✠✡✎✘☛✓✢ ✣✝

✑✡✌✍✒✏❜✡ ☛✓✡ ✒✖☛✡ ✝✕✔✝☛✏✝✎ ✝♠✡✒ ☛✓✡ ✖✍☛☞✖✠ ❛✖☛✓✟

✞✡ ✏✎☛✒✝✑☞✍✡ ✖✎✝☛✓✡✒ ❞☞✖✎☛✏☛✻ ✍✖✠✠✡✑ ✼✽✾✿✼❀✾

➌➍✾✾➎✢

❆✽✾✿✼❀✾ ➌➍✾✾➎ ✏✌ ✑✡✕✏✎✡✑ ✖✌ ☛✓✡ ☛✝☛✖✠ ❛✖☛✓

✠✡✎✘☛✓ ☛✒✖♠✡✠✠✡✑ ✑✏♠✏✑✡✑ ❜✻ ☛✓✡ ☛✝☛✖✠ ☛✏✔✡

✏✎☛✡✒♠✖✠ ✑☞✒✏✎✘ ✞✓✏✍✓ ☛✓✡ ✔✝☛✏✝✎ ✓✖✌ ☛✖✚✡✎

❛✠✖✍✡ ●

➏❍❤❥✐❦❤ s✇❤❤➐❡♥❏✐❧ ✇✐❏❣ ❧❤③❦❏❣

❡♥❏✐❧ ❏q➑❤ q③❏❤❥❍✐❧➒ ❉★✢✥❋

❈♠✡✒✖✘✡ ✌❛✡✡✑ ✓✖✌ ✝❜♠✏✝☞✌✠✻ ☛✓✡ ✌✖✔✡ ☞✎✏☛

❉✔ ✌➓⑤❋ ✖✌ ☛✓✖☛ ✝✕ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻✢ ❝☞☛ ✏☛ ✑✝✡✌ ✎✝☛ ☛✡✠✠ ☞✌

✏✎ ✞✓✖☛ ✑✏✒✡✍☛✏✝✎ ✖✎ ✝❜❲✡✍☛ ✏✌ ✔✝♠✏✎✘✢ ✣✓☞✌✟ ✏☛

✏✌ ✖✠✞✖✻✌ ❛✝✌✏☛✏♠✡ ❉✏✎ ✍✝✎☛✒✖✌☛ ☛✝ ☛✓✡ ✖♠✡✒✖✘✡

♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻ ✞✓✏✍✓ ✍✖✎ ❜✡ ❛✝✌✏☛✏♠✡ ✝✒ ✎✡✘✖☛✏♠✡❋✢ ❯✕ ☛✓✡

✔✝☛✏✝✎ ✝✕ ✖✎ ✝❜❲✡✍☛ ✏✌ ✖✠✝✎✘ ✖ ✌☛✒✖✏✘✓☛ ✠✏✎✡ ✖✎✑

✏✎ ☛✓✡ ➌✼➔✾ ➎❄✿✾❃❅❄❁→✟ ☛✓✡ ✔✖✘✎✏☛☞✑✡ ✝✕

✑✏✌❛✠✖✍✡✔✡✎☛ ✏✌ ✡❞☞✖✠ ☛✝ ☛✓✡ ☛✝☛✖✠ ❛✖☛✓ ✠✡✎✘☛✓✢

❯✎ ☛✓✖☛ ✍✖✌✡✟ ☛✓✡ ✔✖✘✎✏☛☞✑✡ ✝✕ ✖♠✡✒✖✘✡ ♠✡✠✝✍✏☛✻

❬❭❪❫ ❴❫➣ ↔♥sq❏q♥③↕❏q➑❤ ❦❥✐✇❣ ②♥❥ ✐③ ♥➙➛❤♣❏ ➜✐➝ ➑♥❍q③❦

➞q❏❣ ✇♥sq❏q❍❤ ❍❤❧♥♣q❏r➟ ➜➙➝ ➑♥❍q③❦ ➞q❏❣

③❤❦✐❏q❍❤ ❍❤❧♥♣q❏r➟ ✐③➐ ➜♣➝ ✐❏ ❥❤s❏❿

Page 47: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✹☛

✐✌ ✍✎✏✑✒ ✓✔ ✓✕✍ ✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✌✙✍✍✚✛ ✜✕✐✌ ✐✌ ✢✔✓ ✑✒✣✑✤✌

✓✕✍ t✑✌✍✥ ✑✌ ✤✔✏ ✣✐✒✒ ✌✍✍ ✐✢ ✓✕✍ ✦✔✒✒✔✣✐✢✘ ✍✧✑★✙✒✍✛

❊✩✪✫✬✭✮ ✯✰✱ ❆ t✑✗ ✐✌ ★✔✖✐✢✘ ✑✒✔✢✘ ✑

✌✓✗✑✐✘✕✓ ✒✐✢✍✥ ✌✑✤ s✲ ✐✢ ✳✐✘✛ ✴✛✵✛ ✶✓ ★✔✖✍✌

✦✗✔★ s ✓✔ ✲ ✐✢ ✵❢ ✌ ✑✢✚ ✗✍✓✏✗✢✌ ✦✗✔★ ✲ ✓✔ Q✐✢ ✷✛✸ ✌✛ ✺✕✑✓ ✑✗✍ ✓✕✍ ✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✖✍✒✔t✐✓✤

✑✢✚ ✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✌✙✍✍✚ ✔✦ ✓✕✍ t✑✗ ✐✢ ✘✔✐✢✘ ❛✑✻

✦✗✔★ s ✓✔ ✲ ✼ ✑✢✚ ❛✽✻ ✦✗✔★ s ✓✔ ✲ ✑✢✚ ✽✑t✾

✓✔ Q ✼

✿❀❁❂✮❃ ❛✑✻

❄❅❇❈❉❋❇ ❅❇❡●❝❍■②❏❍❑♣❡❉❝❇▲❇♥■

❚❍▲❇ ❍♥■❇❈❅❉❡◆

❖P ◗❘❙ ♠❯❙ ♠ ❱

❲❳ ❱✈ ❾❨ ❨ ❩

❄❅❇❈❉❋❇ ❑♣❇❇❞❬❉■❭ ❡❇♥❋■❭

❚❍▲❇ ❍♥■❇❈❅❉❡◆

❪❫❴❵ ❜❣ ❤❵ ❜ ❥

❦❧ ❥

♦q

✜✕✏✌✥ ✐✢ ✓✕✐✌ t✑✌✍ ✓✕✍ ✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✌✙✍✍✚ ✐✌ ✍✎✏✑✒ ✓✔

✓✕✍ ★✑✘✢✐✓✏✚✍ ✔✦ ✓✕✍ ✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✖✍✒✔t✐✓✤✛

❛✽✻ ✶✢ ✓✕✐✌ t✑✌✍✥

r ✉

✇①③ ④

⑤⑥ ⑦⑧③ ⑨

⑩❶❷❸❹❺❻❼❽❼❿➀➁➂❼➃❺➄❼ ➂❼❹➅❻❶➀➆ ➇

➈❶❽❼ ❶❿➀❼➃➂❺❹

➉➊

➋➌➍➎➏➐ ➑ ➒

➓➔ → ➔➣↔↕➙➛ ➜➝➞➟➙➛➠➡➝➢↕➟➝ ➤➥➝➝➦ ➧ ➧

➨➩➫➝ ➩➞➙➝➢➡↕➜ ➙➭

➯ ➲ ➳➵➸➺➻➼➽➾➻ ➚➪ ➪ ➾➻ ➚ ➶

➾➹ ➶

✜✕✏✌✥ ✐✢ ✓✕✐✌ t✑✌✍ ✓✕✍ ✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✌✙✍✍✚ ✐✌ ➘➴➷ ✍✎✏✑✒

✓✔ ✓✕✍ ★✑✘✢✐✓✏✚✍ ✔✦ ✓✕✍ ✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✖✍✒✔t✐✓✤✛ ✜✕✐✌

✕✑✙✙✍✢✌ ✽✍t✑✏✌✍ ✓✕✍ ★✔✓✐✔✢ ✕✍✗✍ ✐✢✖✔✒✖✍✌

t✕✑✢✘✍ ✐✢ ✚✐✗✍t✓✐✔✢ ✌✔ ✓✕✑✓ ✓✕✍ ✙✑✓✕ ✒✍✢✘✓✕ ✐✌

✘✗✍✑✓✍✗ ✓✕✑✢ ✓✕✍ ★✑✘✢✐✓✏✚✍ ✔✦ ✚✐✌✙✒✑t✍★✍✢✓✛

✜✕✐✌ ✌✕✔✣✌ ✓✕✑✓ ➬➮➱➱✃ ❐➬❒ ❐❮ ❰➱❮➱ÏÐÑ❒ ❰Ï➱ÐÒ➱Ï

ÒÓÐ❮ ÒÓ➱ ÔÐ❰❮❐ÒÕ✃➱ Ö× ÒÓ➱ Ø➱ÑÖÙ❐ÒÚÛ Ü

✶✦ ✓✕✍ t✑✗ ✐✢ Ý✧✑★✙✒✍ ✴✛✵ ★✔✖✍✌ ✦✗✔★ s ✓✔ ✲

✑✢✚ t✔★✍✌ ✽✑t✾ ✓✔ s ✐✢ ✓✕✍ ✌✑★✍ ✓✐★✍ ✐✢✓✍✗✖✑✒✥

✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✌✙✍✍✚ ✐✌ Þ✸ ★ß✌ ✽✏✓ ✓✕✍ ✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✖✍✒✔t✐✓✤

✐✌ à✍✗✔ á

âÛã äåæçèåçèåéêëæ ìéíêîäçï èåð æñééð

✜✕✍ ✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✖✍✒✔t✐✓✤ ✓✍✒✒✌ ✏✌ ✕✔✣ ✦✑✌✓ ✑✢ ✔✽ò✍t✓

✕✑✌ ✽✍✍✢ ★✔✖✐✢✘ ✔✖✍✗ ✑ ✘✐✖✍✢ ✓✐★✍ ✐✢✓✍✗✖✑✒ ✽✏✓

✚✔✍✌ ✢✔✓ ✓✍✒✒ ✏✌ ✕✔✣ ✦✑✌✓ ✐✓ ★✔✖✍✌ ✑✓ ✚✐✦✦✍✗✍✢✓

✐✢✌✓✑✢✓✌ ✔✦ ✓✐★✍ ✚✏✗✐✢✘ ✓✕✑✓ ✐✢✓✍✗✖✑✒✛ ✳✔✗ ✓✕✐✌✥

✣✍ ✚✍✦✐✢✍ ❐❮➬ÒÐ❮ÒÐ❮➱ÖÕ➬ Ø➱ÑÖÙ❐ÒÚ ✔✗ ✌✐★✙✒✤

✖✍✒✔t✐✓✤ ó ✑✓ ✑✢ ✐✢✌✓✑✢✓ ➷✛

✜✕✍ ✖✍✒✔t✐✓✤ ✑✓ ✑✢ ✐✢✌✓✑✢✓ ✐✌ ✚✍✦✐✢✍✚ ✑✌ ✓✕✍

✒✐★✐✓ ✔✦ ✓✕✍ ✑✖✍✗✑✘✍ ✖✍✒✔t✐✓✤ ✑✌ ✓✕✍ ✓✐★✍ ✐✢✓✍✗✖✑✒

ô➷ ✽✍t✔★✍✌ ✐✢✦✐✢✐✓✍✌✐★✑✒✒✤ ✌★✑✒✒✛ ✶✢ ✔✓✕✍✗ ✣✔✗✚✌✥

õ ö÷øù

úû

ü ýþ

ÿ

ÿ✄❛✴✛✴✑✻

◆❞

❛✴✛✴✽✻

✣✕✍✗✍ ✓✕✍ ✌✤★✽✔✒❧�✁

t ✵✂ ☎✌✓✑✢✚✌ ✦✔✗ ✓✕✍ ✔✙✍✗✑✓✐✔✢

✔✦ ✓✑✾✐✢✘ ✒✐★✐✓ ✑✌ ✆✝✞✟ ✔✦ ✓✕✍ ✎✏✑✢✓✐✓✤ ✔✢ ✐✓✌

✗✐✘✕✓✛ ✶✢ ✓✕✍ ✒✑✢✘✏✑✘✍ ✔✦ t✑✒t✏✒✏✌✥ ✓✕✍ ✎✏✑✢✓✐✓✤

✔✢ ✓✕✍ ✗✐✘✕✓ ✕✑✢✚ ✌✐✚✍ ✔✦ Ý✎✛ ❛✴✛✴✑✻ ✐✌ ✓✕✍

✚✐✦✦✍✗✍✢✓✐✑✒ t✔✍✦✦✐t✐✍✢✓ ✔✦ ✠ ✣✐✓✕ ✗✍✌✙✍t✓ ✓✔ ➷ ✑✢✚

✐✌ ✚✍✢✔✓✍✚ ✽✤✡

☞❛✌✍✍ ❆✙✙✍✢✚✐✧ ✴✛✵✻✛ ✶✓ ✐✌ ✓✕✍

✗✑✓✍ ✔✦ t✕✑✢✘✍ ✔✦ ✙✔✌✐✓✐✔✢ ✣✐✓✕ ✗✍✌✙✍t✓ ✓✔ ✓✐★✍✥

✑✓ ✓✕✑✓ ✐✢✌✓✑✢✓✛

✺✍ t✑✢ ✏✌✍ Ý✎✛ ❛✴✛✴✑✻ ✦✔✗ ✔✽✓✑✐✢✐✢✘ ✓✕✍ ✖✑✒✏✍

✔✦ ✖✍✒✔t✐✓✤ ✑✓ ✑✢ ✐✢✌✓✑✢✓ ✍✐✓✕✍✗ ❰ÏÐ➮Ó❐ÙÐÑÑÚ ✔✗

❮ÕÔ➱Ï❐ÙÐÑÑÚ✛ ❙✏✙✙✔✌✍ ✓✕✑✓ ✣✍ ✣✑✢✓ ✓✔ ✔✽✓✑✐✢

✘✗✑✙✕✐t✑✒✒✤ ✓✕✍ ✖✑✒✏✍ ✔✦ ✖✍✒✔t✐✓✤ ✑✓ ✓✐★✍ ➷ ✥ ✌ ✌

❛✙✔✐✢✓ ✲✻ ✦✔✗ ✓✕✍ ★✔✓✐✔✢ ✔✦ ✓✕✍ t✑✗ ✗✍✙✗✍✌✍✢✓✍✚

✐✢ ✳✐✘✛ ✴✛✴✛ ✜✕✍ ✦✐✘✏✗✍ ✕✑✌ ✽✍✍✢ ✗✍✚✗✑✣✢ ✐✢

✳✐✘✛ ✴✛✷ t✕✔✔✌✐✢✘ ✚✐✦✦✍✗✍✢✓ ✌t✑✒✍✌ ✓✔ ✦✑t✐✒✐✓✑✓✍ ✓✕✍

❋✍✎✏ ✑✏✒ ❏❇■❇❈▲❍♥❍♥❋ ❅❇❡●❝❍■② ❉❈●▲ ♣●❑❍■❍●♥✓■❍▲❇❋❈❉♣❭❣ ✔❇❡●❝❍■② ❉■ ■ ❡ ✹ ✕ ❍❑ ■❭❇ ❑❡●♣❇ ●❉ ■❭❇■❉♥❋❇♥■ ■● ■❭❇ ❋❈❉♣❭ ❉■ ■❭❉■ ❍♥❑■❉♥■✳

Page 48: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✹✹

❝✆✝❝✞✝✆✟✠✡☛☞ ✌✍✟ ✞✎ ✟✆✏✍ ✑t ✥ ✒ ✎ ❝✍☛✟✓✍✔ ✆✟

t ✥ ❂ ✎☞ ✕✖✍☛✗ ✘✙ ✟✖✍ ✔✍✚✠☛✠✟✠✡☛ ✡✚ ✟✖✍ ✆✛✍✓✆✜✍

✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙✗ ✟✖✍ ✎✝✡✈✍ ✡✚ ✝✠☛✍ ✢✶✢✷ ✣ ✤✠✜☞ ✦☞✧★ ✜✠✛✍✎

✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚ ✆✛✍✓✆✜✍ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ✡✛✍✓ ✟✖✍ ✠☛✟✍✓✛✆✝

✦ ✎ ✟✡ ✸ ✎☞ ✩✡✪✗ ✪✍ ✔✍❝✓✍✆✎✍ ✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚ ✑t ✚✓✡✫

✒ ✎ ✟✡ ✬ ✎☞ ✕✖✍☛ ✝✠☛✍ ✢✶✢✷ ✘✍❝✡✫✍✎ ✭✶✭✷ ✆☛✔ ✠✟✎

✎✝✡✈✍ ✜✠✛✍✎ ✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚ ✟✖✍ ✆✛✍✓✆✜✍ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ✡✛✍✓

✟✖✍ ✠☛✟✍✓✛✆✝ ✦☞✸ ✎ ✟✡ ❂☞✸ ✎☞ ✮☛ ✟✖✍ ✝✠✫✠✟ ✑t ✯✰✗

✟✖✍ ✝✠☛✍ ✢✶✢✷ ✘✍❝✡✫✍✎ ✟✆☛✜✍☛✟ ✟✡ ✟✖✍ ✈✡✎✠✟✠✡☛s

✟✠✫✍ ❝✞✓✛✍ ✆✟ ✟✖✍ ✈✡✠☛✟ ✢ ✆☛✔ ✟✖✍ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ✆✟ t ✥

❂ ✎ ✠✎ ✜✠✛✍☛ ✘✙ ✟✖✍ ✎✝✡✈✍ ✡✚ ✟✖✍ ✟✆☛✜✍☛✟ ✆✟ ✟✖✆✟

✈✡✠☛✟☞ ■✱ ✲✳ ✴✲✵✵✲✺✻✼✱ ✱✽ ✳✾✽✿ ✱✾✲✳ ❀❁✽✺❃✳✳

❣❁❄❀✾✲✺❄✼✼❅❆ ❇✻✱ ✲✵ ✿❃ ✻✳❃ ❈✻❉❃❁✲✺❄✼ ❉❃✱✾✽✴

✱✽ ✽❊✱❄✲❈ ✱✾❃ ❋❄✼✻❃ ✽✵ ✱✾❃ ❋❃✼✽✺✲✱❅● ✱✾❃

❉❃❄❈✲❈❣ ✽✵ ✱✾❃ ✼✲❉✲✱✲❈❣ ❀❁✽✺❃✳✳ ❊❃✺✽❉❃✳

✺✼❃❄❁☞ ✤✡✓ ✟✖✍ ✜✓✆✈✖ ✎✖✡✪☛ ✠☛

✤✠✜☞ ✦☞✧✗ ① ✥ ✰☞✰❍ t❏☞ ✕✆✘✝✍ ✦☞✬ ✜✠✛✍✎ ✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚

✑①❑✑t ❝✆✝❝✞✝✆✟✍✔ ✚✡✓ ✑t ✍▲✞✆✝ ✟✡ ✒☞✰ ✎✗ ✬☞✰ ✎✗ ✰☞✸

✎✗ ✰☞✬ ✎ ✆☛✔ ✰☞✰✬ ✎ ❝✍☛✟✓✍✔ ✆✟ t ✥ ❂☞✰ ✎☞ ✕✖✍

✎✍❝✡☛✔ ✆☛✔ ✟✖✠✓✔ ❝✡✝✞✫☛✎ ✜✠✛✍ ✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚ t✶✥

▼▼

◆❾

◗❘

❚❯

❱✆☛✔ ▼ ▼

◆❲ ❳ ❨

◗❘

❚❯

❱✆☛✔ ✟✖✍ ✚✡✞✓✟✖ ✆☛✔

✟✖✍ ✚✠✚✟✖ ❝✡✝✞✫☛✎ ✜✠✛✍ ✟✖✍ ❝✡✓✓✍✎✈✡☛✔✠☛✜ ✛✆✝✞✍✎

✡✚ ①✗ ✠☞✍☞ ① ✣t✶★ ✥ ✰☞✰❍ t13✆☛✔ ① ✣t✷★ ✥ ✰☞✰❍ t2

3☞ ✕✖✍

✎✠❩✟✖ ❝✡✝✞✫☛ ✝✠✎✟✎ ✟✖✍ ✔✠✚✚✍✓✍☛❝✍ ✑① ✥ ① ✣t✷★ ❬ ①

✣t✶★ ✆☛✔ ✟✖✍ ✝✆✎✟ ❝✡✝✞✫☛ ✜✠✛✍✎ ✟✖✍ ✓✆✟✠✡ ✡✚ ✑① ✆☛✔

✑t✗ ✠☞✍☞ ✟✖✍ ✆✛✍✓✆✜✍ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ❝✡✓✓✍✎✈✡☛✔✠☛✜ ✟✡ ✟✖✍

✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚ ✑t ✝✠✎✟✍✔ ✠☛ ✟✖✍ ✚✠✓✎✟ ❝✡✝✞✫☛☞

❭✍ ✎✍✍ ✚✓✡✫ ✕✆✘✝✍ ✦☞✬ ✟✖✆✟ ✆✎ ✪✍ ✔✍❝✓✍✆✎✍

✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚ ✑t ✚✓✡✫ ✒☞✰ ✎ ✟✡ ✰☞✰✬✰ ✎✗ ✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚

✟✖✍ ✆✛✍✓✆✜✍ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ✆✈✈✓✡✆❝✖✍✎ ✟✖✍ ✝✠✫✠✟✠☛✜

✛✆✝✞✍ ✦☞❍❂ ✫ ✎➊❪ ✪✖✠❝✖ ✠✎ ✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ✆✟

t ✥ ❂☞✰ ✎✗ ✠☞✍☞ ✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚❞

❴✆✟ t ✥ ❂☞✰ ✎☞ ✮☛ ✟✖✠✎

✫✆☛☛✍✓✗ ✪✍ ❝✆☛ ❝✆✝❝✞✝✆✟✍ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ✆✟ ✍✆❝✖

✠☛✎✟✆☛✟ ✚✡✓ ✫✡✟✠✡☛ ✡✚ ✟✖✍ ❝✆✓ ✎✖✡✪☛ ✠☛ ✤✠✜☞ ✦☞✦☞

✤✡✓ ✟✖✠✎ ❝✆✎✍✗ ✟✖✍ ✛✆✓✠✆✟✠✡☛ ✡✚ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ✪✠✟✖ ✟✠✫✍

✠✎ ✚✡✞☛✔ ✟✡ ✘✍ ✆✎ ✎✖✡✪☛ ✠☛ ✤✠✜☞ ✦☞✐☞

❵❛❜❡ ❢❡❤ ❥❦❧♠♥♦♣qr♣♦✉❦✇②③④⑤ ♥♠②②❦⑥④♠⑦⑧♦⑦✇ ♣♠ ✉♠♣♦♠⑦

⑥⑤♠⑨⑦ ♦⑦ ⑩♦✇❶ ❷❶❷❸

✕✖✍ ✜✓✆✈✖✠❝✆✝ ✫✍✟✖✡✔ ✚✡✓ ✟✖✍ ✔✍✟✍✓✫✠☛✆✟✠✡☛

✡✚ ✟✖✍ ✠☛✎✟✆☛✟✆☛✍✡✞✎ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ✠✎ ✆✝✪✆✙✎ ☛✡✟ ✆

❝✡☛✛✍☛✠✍☛✟ ✫✍✟✖✡✔☞ ✤✡✓ ✟✖✠✎✗ ✪✍ ✫✞✎✟ ❝✆✓✍✚✞✝✝✙

✈✝✡✟ ✟✖✍ ✈✡✎✠✟✠✡☛❬✟✠✫✍ ✜✓✆✈✖ ✆☛✔ ❝✆✝❝✞✝✆✟✍ ✟✖✍

✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚ ✆✛✍✓✆✜✍ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ✆✎ ✑t ✘✍❝✡✫✍✎ ✎✫✆✝✝✍✓

✆☛✔ ✎✫✆✝✝✍✓☞ ✮✟ ✠✎ ✍✆✎✠✍✓ ✟✡ ❝✆✝❝✞✝✆✟✍ ✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍

✡✚ ✛✍✝✡❝✠✟✙ ✆✟ ✔✠✚✚✍✓✍☛✟ ✠☛✎✟✆☛✟✎ ✠✚ ✪✍ ✖✆✛✍ ✔✆✟✆

✡✚ ✈✡✎✠✟✠✡☛✎ ✆✟ ✔✠✚✚✍✓✍☛✟ ✠☛✎✟✆☛✟✎ ✡✓ ✍❩✆❝✟

✍❩✈✓✍✎✎✠✡☛ ✚✡✓ ✟✖✍ ✈✡✎✠✟✠✡☛ ✆✎ ✆ ✚✞☛❝✟✠✡☛ ✡✚ ✟✠✫✍☞

✕✖✍☛✗ ✪✍ ❝✆✝❝✞✝✆✟✍ ✑①❑✑t ✚✓✡✫ ✟✖✍ ✔✆✟✆ ✚✡✓

✔✍❝✓✍✆✎✠☛✜ ✟✖✍ ✛✆✝✞✍ ✡✚ ✑t ✆☛✔ ✚✠☛✔ ✟✖✍ ✝✠✫✠✟✠☛✜

✛✆✝✞✍ ✆✎ ✪✍ ✖✆✛✍ ✔✡☛✍ ✠☛ ✕✆✘✝✍ ✦☞✬ ✡✓ ✞✎✍

✔✠✚✚✍✓✍☛✟✠✆✝ ❝✆✝❝✞✝✞✎ ✚✡✓ ✟✖✍ ✜✠✛✍☛ ✍❩✈✓✍✎✎✠✡☛ ✆☛✔

❝✆✝❝✞✝✆✟✍

♣✆✟ ✔✠✚✚✍✓✍☛✟ ✠☛✎✟✆☛✟✎ ✆✎ ✔✡☛✍ ✠☛

✟✖✍ ✚✡✝✝✡✪✠☛✜ ✍❩✆✫✈✝✍☞

❻❄❊✼❃ ❼❆❽ ❿✲❉✲✱✲❈❣ ❋❄✼✻❃ ✽✵✑

t❄✱ ➀ ➁ ➂ ✳

Page 49: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✹☛

☞❊✌✍✎✏✑✒ ✓✔✕ ❚✖✗ ✘✙✚✛✜✛✙✢ ✙✣ ✤✢ ✙✥✦✗✧✜♠✙★✛✢✩ ✤✪✙✢✩ ✫✬✤✫✛✚ ✛✚ ✩✛★✗✢ ✥✭ ✫ ✮ ✤ ✯ ✥✜✷

✇✖✗✰✗ ✤ ✮ ✽✱✲ ✳✴ ✥ ✮ ✵✱✲ ✳ ✶➊✷ ✤✢✸ ✜ ✛✚♠✗✤✚✺✰✗✸ ✛✢ ✚✗✧✙✢✸✚✻✼✖✤✜ ✛✚ ✛✜✚ ★✗✪✙✧✛✜✭ ✤✜✜ ✮ ✾ ✶ ✤✢✸ ✜ ✮ ✵✱✾ ✶✻ ✼✖✤✜ ✛✚ ✜✖✗ ✤★✗✰✤✩✗★✗✪✙✧✛✜✭ ✥✗✜✇✗✗✢ ✜ ✮ ✵✱✾ ✶ ✤✢✸ ✜ ✮ ✿✱✾ ✶ ❀

❆❁❂❃✒❄ ■❅ ❅❇❈❉❈❋❇❅ ❇● ❍❋●●❏❑❏❅❈❋❉▲ ◆❉▲◆❖▲❖✶P ❈◗❏✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ❋✶

❙ ❯❱①

t t❛ ❜t ❲❜ t ❳❨❩ ❩ ❬ ❩

❞❭❪❫ ❴ ❵ ❝❡❢

❣❈ ✜ ❤ ✾ ✶P ★ ❤ ✾ ✳ ✶➊✐ ❉❅❍ ❉❈ ✜ ❤ ✵✱✾ ✶P★ ❤ ❥✾ ✳ ✶❦✐ ✱

❧ ♥ ❧ ♥♦♣q r♣q

♦♣q r♣q

s s✉②③④⑤⑥③ ②③⑦⑧⑨⑩❶❷

❾❸

❾❹❺ ❻ ❻ ❼

❺❽❿➀❽❿

➁ ➂ ➁ ➂➂

➃➄ ➄ ×

➅➆➇➈➉ ➋➈➌ ➍➎➌ ➏ ➐➑ ➒ ➓➔❑❇✳ ➔❋→✱ ➣✱↔P ↕❏ ❅❇❈❏ ❈◗❉❈ ❍❖❑❋❅→ ❈◗❏ ➙❏❑❋❇❍

✜ ❤❥✾ ✶ ❈❇ ❥✽ ✶ ❈◗❏ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ❋✶ ◆❇❅✶❈❉❅❈✱ ➛❏❈↕❏❏❅➙❏❑❋❇❍ ✜ ❤❥✽ ✶ ❈❇ ✜ ❤ ✵✾ ✶P ❋❈ ❋✶ ❖❅❋●❇❑✳▲❘❍❏◆❑❏❉✶❋❅→ ❉❅❍ ❍❖❑❋❅→ ❈◗❏ ➙❏❑❋❇❍ ✜ ❤ ✾ ✶ ❈❇ ✜❤ ❥✾ ✶P ❋❈ ❋✶ ❋❅◆❑❏❉✶❋❅→✱ ➜➝➞➟ ➞➠➡➞ ➢➝➤ ➥➦➧➢➝➤➨➨➝➞➧➝➦➩ ➫➟➭➝➯➧➞➲ ➧➳ ➞➠➟ ➳➡➨➟ ➡➳ ➞➠➟ ➡➫➟➤➡➵➟➫➟➭➝➯➧➞➲ ➡➞ ➡➭➭ ➧➦➳➞➡➦➞➳✱➸➦➳➞➡➦➞➡➦➟➝➥➳ ➳➺➟➟➻ ❇❑ ✶❋✳➙▲❘ ✶➙❏❏❍ ❋✶ ❈◗❏

✳❉→❅❋❈❖❍❏ ❇● ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘✱ ➔❇❑ ❏➼❉✳➙▲❏P ❉ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ❇●➽ ✵✿✱✾ ✳ ✶➊✐ ❉❅❍ ❉ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ❇● ➾ ✵✿✱✾ ✳ ✶➊✐ ➚ ➪❇❈◗◗❉✈❏ ❉❅ ❉✶✶❇◆❋❉❈❏❍ ✶➙❏❏❍ ❇● ✵✿✱✾ ✳ ✶❦✐✱ ■❈ ✶◗❇❖▲❍➪❏ ❅❇❈❏❍ ❈◗❉❈ ❈◗❇❖→◗ ❉✈❏❑❉→❏ ✶➙❏❏❍ ❇✈❏❑ ❉ ●❋❅❋❈❏❋❅❈❏❑✈❉▲ ❇● ❈❋✳❏ ❋✶ →❑❏❉❈❏❑ ❇❑ ❏➶❖❉▲ ❈❇ ❈◗❏✳❉→❅❋❈❖❍❏ ❇● ❈◗❏ ❉✈❏❑❉→❏ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘P❋❅✶❈❉❅❈❉❅❏❇❖✶ ✶➙❏❏❍ ❉❈ ❉❅ ❋❅✶❈❉❅❈ ❋✶ ❏➶❖❉▲ ❈❇❈◗❏ ✳❉→❅❋❈❖❍❏ ❇● ❈◗❏ ❋❅✶❈❉❅❈❉❅❏❇❖✶ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ❉❈❈◗❉❈ ❋❅✶❈❉❅❈✱ ➹◗❘ ✶❇ ❀

➘➴➷ ➬➮➮➱✃➱❐➬❒➸❮➜

❰◗❏ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ❇● ❉❅ ❇➪Ï❏◆❈P ❋❅ →❏❅❏❑❉▲P ◆◗❉❅→❏✶❍❖❑❋❅→ ❋❈✶ ◆❇❖❑✶❏ ❇●✳❇❈❋❇❅✱ Ð❇↕ ❈❇ ❍❏✶◆❑❋➪❏ ❈◗❋✶◆◗❉❅→❏❀ Ñ◗❇❖▲❍ ❋❈ ➪❏ ❍❏✶◆❑❋➪❏❍ ❉✶ ❈◗❏ ❑❉❈❏ ❇●◆◗❉❅→❏ ❋❅ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ Ò➧➞➠ ➻➧➳➞➡➦➯➟ ❇❑ Ò➧➞➠ ➞➧➨➟ ❀❰◗❋✶ ↕❉✶ ❉ ➙❑❇➪▲❏✳ ❏✈❏❅ ❋❅ Ó❉▲❋▲❏❇Ô✶ ❈❋✳❏✱ ■❈ ↕❉✶●❋❑✶❈ ❈◗❇❖→◗❈ ❈◗❉❈ ❈◗❋✶ ◆◗❉❅→❏ ◆❇❖▲❍ ➪❏ ❍❏✶◆❑❋➪❏❍➪❘ ❈◗❏ ❑❉❈❏ ❇● ◆◗❉❅→❏ ❇● ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ↕❋❈◗ ❍❋✶❈❉❅◆❏✱➛❖❈P ❈◗❑❇❖→◗ ◗❋✶ ✶❈❖❍❋❏✶ ❇●✳❇❈❋❇❅ ❇● ●❑❏❏▲❘ ●❉▲▲❋❅→❇➪Ï❏◆❈✶ ❉❅❍ ✳❇❈❋❇❅ ❇● ❇➪Ï❏◆❈✶ ❇❅ ❉❅ ❋❅◆▲❋❅❏❍➙▲❉❅❏P Ó❉▲❋▲❏❇ ◆❇❅◆▲❖❍❏❍ ❈◗❉❈ ❈◗❏ ❑❉❈❏ ❇● ◆◗❉❅→❏❇● ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ↕❋❈◗ ❈❋✳❏ ❋✶ ❉ ◆❇❅✶❈❉❅❈ ❇● ✳❇❈❋❇❅ ●❇❑❉▲▲ ❇➪Ï❏◆❈✶ ❋❅ ●❑❏❏ ●❉▲▲✱ Õ❅ ❈◗❏ ❇❈◗❏❑ ◗❉❅❍P ❈◗❏◆◗❉❅→❏ ❋❅ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ↕❋❈◗ ❍❋✶❈❉❅◆❏ ❋✶ ❅❇❈ ◆❇❅✶❈❉❅❈➾ ❋❈ ❍❏◆❑❏❉✶❏✶↕❋❈◗ ❈◗❏ ❋❅◆❑❏❉✶❋❅→❍❋✶❈❉❅◆❏ ❇● ●❉▲▲✱

❰◗❋✶ ▲❏❍ ❈❇ ❈◗❏ ◆❇❅◆❏➙❈ ❇● ❉◆◆❏▲❏❑❉❈❋❇❅ ❉✶ ❈◗❏ ❑❉❈❏❇● ◆◗❉❅→❏ ❇● ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ↕❋❈◗ ❈❋✳❏✱

❰◗❏ ❉✈❏❑❉→❏ ❉◆◆❏▲❏❑❉❈❋❇❅ ➁ ❇✈❏❑ ❉ ❈❋✳❏❋❅❈❏❑✈❉▲ ❋✶ ❍❏●❋❅❏❍ ❉✶ ❈◗❏ ◆◗❉❅→❏ ❇● ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘❍❋✈❋❍❏❍ ➪❘ ❈◗❏ ❈❋✳❏ ❋❅❈❏❑✈❉▲ Ö

Ø ÙØ Ù

❻❻

Ú Ú Ú➁Û Û Û

Ü➄ ➄

Ü Ý➣✱✿Þ

↕◗❏❑❏ ★ß ❉❅❍ ★à ❉❑❏ ❈◗❏ ❋❅✶❈❉❅❈❉❅❏❇❖✶ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❋❏✶❇❑ ✶❋✳➙▲❘ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❋❏✶ ❉❈ ❈❋✳❏ ✜ß ❉❅❍ ✜à ✱ ■❈ ❋✶ ❈◗❏❉✈❏❑❉→❏ ◆◗❉❅→❏ ❇● ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ➙❏❑ ❖❅❋❈ ❈❋✳❏✱ ❰◗❏ Ñ■❖❅❋❈ ❇● ❉◆◆❏▲❏❑❉❈❋❇❅ ❋✶ ✳ ✶➊✷ ✱Õ❅ ❉ ➙▲❇❈ ❇● ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ ✈❏❑✶❖✶ ❈❋✳❏P ❈◗❏ ❉✈❏❑❉→❏

❉◆◆❏▲❏❑❉❈❋❇❅ ❋✶ ❈◗❏ ✶▲❇➙❏ ❇● ❈◗❏ ✶❈❑❉❋→◗❈ ▲❋❅❏◆❇❅❅❏◆❈❋❅→ ❈◗❏ ➙❇❋❅❈✶ ◆❇❑❑❏✶➙❇❅❍❋❅→ ❈❇ Ý★ß✴ ✜ßÞ❉❅❍ Ý★à✴ ✜àÞ✱ ❰◗❏ ❉✈❏❑❉→❏ ❉◆◆❏▲❏❑❉❈❋❇❅●❇❑ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘á❈❋✳❏ →❑❉➙◗ ✶◗❇↕❅ ❋❅ ➔❋→✱ ➣✱↔ ●❇❑❍❋●●❏❑❏❅❈ ❈❋✳❏ ❋❅❈❏❑✈❉▲✶ ✾ ✶ á ❥✾ ✶P ❥✾ ✶ ➾ ❥✽ ✶P❉❅❍ ❥✽ ✶ ➾ ✵✾ ✶ ❉❑❏ Ö

✾ ✶ á ❥✾ ✶â ã

â ã

äåäæçè é ê ëì

çíè ë ìîê é ê ì

ï ð ð

❥✾ ✶ á ❥✽ ✶ñ ò

ñ ò

äåäæçè é çè ëì

ê ë ìîó éîê ì

ï ð ð

❥✽ ✶ á ✵✾ ✶ô õ

ô õ

ö÷öøù ú ûü ý þ

úÿû ý þûù úÿ✶ þ

❛ ❂ ❂

❋�✁✂ ✄✂☎ ❆✆✆✝✞✝✟✠✡☛☞✌ ✠✍ ✠ ✎✏✌✆✡☛☞✌ ☞✎ ✡☛✑✝ ✎☞✟✑☞✡☛☞✌✟✝r✟✝✍✝✌✡✝✒ ☛✌ ✓☛✔✕ ✖✕✖✳

■✢✚✜✤✢✜✤✢✗✙✺✚✤✧✧✗✪✗✰✤✜✛✙✢ ❋✶ ❍❏●❋❅❏❍ ❋❅ ❈◗❏ ✶❉✳❏↕❉❘ ❉✶ ❈◗❏ ❋❅✶❈❉❅❈❉❅❏❇❖✶ ✈❏▲❇◆❋❈❘ Ö

❞t ✗

Ú Ú➁ ❧✘✙

Û Û✚ ✛

Ü➄ ➄

ÜÝ➣✱✲Þ

❰◗❏ ❉◆◆❏▲❏❑❉❈❋❇❅ ❉❈ ❉❅ ❋❅✶❈❉❅❈ ❋✶ ❈◗❏ ✶▲❇➙❏ ❇●❈◗❏ ❈❉❅→❏❅❈ ❈❇ ❈◗❏ ★✈✜ ◆❖❑✈❏ ❉❈ ❈◗❉❈ ❋❅✶❈❉❅❈✱ ➔❇❑❈◗❏ ★✈✜ ◆❖❑✈❏ ✶◗❇↕❅ ❋❅ ➔❋→✱ ➣✱↔P ↕❏ ◆❉❅ ❇➪❈❉❋❅❉◆◆❏▲❏❑❉❈❋❇❅ ❉❈ ❏✈❏❑❘ ❋❅✶❈❉❅❈ ❇● ❈❋✳❏✱ ❰◗❏❑❏✶❖▲❈❋❅→ ✤ ✈ ✜ ◆❖❑✈❏ ❋✶ ✶◗❇↕❅ ❋❅ ➔❋→✱ ➣✱✽✱ ➹❏ ✶❏❏

✜✥✢

✣➊✤✮

Page 50: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✹✆

t✝✞t t✝✟ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍ ☞✎ ✍✌✍✏✍☞✑✌☛✒ ✌✓✟☛ t✝✟

♣✟☛☞✌✔ ✕ ✎ t✌ ✖✕ ✎✗ ✘t ☞✎ ✙✟☛✌ ✚✟t✛✟✟✍ ✖✕ ✎ ✞✍✔

✖✶ ✎ ✞✍✔ ☞✎ ✠✌✍✎t✞✍t ✛☞t✝ ✓✞✡✏✟ ✜✖✢ ✒ ✎➊✣

✚✟t✛✟✟✍ ✖✶ ✎ ✞✍✔ ✢✕ ✎✗ ❜✝✟✍ t✝✟ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍

☞✎ ✏✍☞✑✌☛✒✐ ✌✚✓☞✌✏✎✡✤✐ ☞t ✟✥✏✞✡✎ t✝✟ ✞✓✟☛✞✦✟

✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍ ✌✓✟☛ t✝✞t ♣✟☛☞✌✔✗

❙☞✍✠✟ ✓✟✡✌✠☞t✤ ☞✎ ✞ ✥✏✞✍t☞t✤ ✝✞✓☞✍✦ ✚✌t✝

✒✞✦✍☞t✏✔✟ ✞✍✔ ✔☞☛✟✠t☞✌✍✐ ✞ ✠✝✞✍✦✟ ☞✍ ✓✟✡✌✠☞t✤

✒✞✤ ☞✍✓✌✡✓✟ ✟☞t✝✟☛ ✌☛ ✚✌t✝ ✌✑ t✝✟✎✟ ✑✞✠t✌☛✎✗

❆✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍✐ t✝✟☛✟✑✌☛✟✐ ✒✞✤ ☛✟✎✏✡t ✑☛✌✒ ✞

✠✝✞✍✦✟ ☞✍ ✎♣✟✟✔ ❝✒✞✦✍☞t✏✔✟✧✐ ✞ ✠✝✞✍✦✟ ☞✍

✔☞☛✟✠t☞✌✍ ✌☛ ✠✝✞✍✦✟✎ ☞✍ ✚✌t✝✗ ❞☞★✟ ✓✟✡✌✠☞t✤✐

✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍ ✠✞✍ ✞✡✎✌ ✚✟ ♣✌✎☞t☞✓✟✐ ✍✟✦✞t☞✓✟ ✌☛

✙✟☛✌✗ ③✌✎☞t☞✌✍✩t☞✒✟ ✦☛✞♣✝✎ ✑✌☛ ✒✌t☞✌✍ ✛☞t✝

♣✌✎☞t☞✓✟✐ ✍✟✦✞t☞✓✟ ✞✍✔ ✙✟☛✌ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍ ✞☛✟

✎✝✌✛✍ ☞✍ s☞✦✎✗ ✪✗✫ ❝✞✧✐ ❝✚✧ ✞✍✔ ❝✠✧✐ ☛✟✎♣✟✠t☞✓✟✡✤✗

◆✌t✟ t✝✞t t✝✟ ✦☛✞♣✝ ✠✏☛✓✟✎ ✏♣✛✞☛✔ ✑✌☛ ♣✌✎☞t☞✓✟

✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t ☞✌✍❛ ✔✌✛✍✛✞☛✔ ✑✌☛ ✍✟✦✞t ☞✓✟

✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍ ✞✍✔ ☞t ☞✎ ✞ ✎t☛✞☞✦✝t ✡☞✍✟ ✑✌☛ ✙✟☛✌

✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍✗ ❆✎ ✞✍ ✟✬✟☛✠☞✎✟✐ ☞✔✟✍t☞✑✤ ☞✍ s☞✦✗ ✪✗✪✐

t✝✟ ☛✟✦☞✌✍✎ ✌✑ t✝✟ ✠✏☛✓✟ t✝✞t ✠✌☛☛✟✎♣✌✍✔ t✌ t✝✟✎✟

t✝☛✟✟ ✠✞✎✟✎✗

❆✡t✝✌✏✦✝ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍ ✠✞✍ ✓✞☛✤ ✛☞t✝ t☞✒✟✐

✌✏☛ ✎t✏✔✤ ☞✍ t✝☞✎ ✠✝✞♣t✟☛ ✛☞✡✡ ✚✟ ☛✟✎t☛☞✠t✟✔ t✌

✒✌t☞✌✍ ✛☞t✝ ✠✌✍✎t✞✍t ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍✗ ✘✍ t✝☞✎ ✠✞✎✟✐

t✝✟ ✞✓✟☛✞✦✟ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍ ✟✥✏✞✡✎ t✝✟ ✠✌✍✎t✞✍t

✓✞✡✏✟ ✌✑ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍ ✔✏☛☞✍✦ t✝✟ ☞✍t✟☛✓✞✡✗ ✘✑ t✝✟

✓✟✡✌✠☞t✤ ✌✑ ✞✍ ✌✚✈✟✠t ☞✎ ✭♦✞t ✮ ✯ ✕ ✞✍✔ ✭ ✞t t☞✒✟ ✮✐

✛✟ ✝✞✓✟

✰✱✵

✲✲

✳ ✳✴ ✷ ✳ ✳ ✴ ✸

❾❂ ❂ ✺

❾❝✪✗✻✧

❋✼✽✾ ✿✾❀ ❁❃❄❅❇ ❅❃❈❉❇ ❅❊● ❍■❏❑▲ ▼❃■ ❊❃❇ ❅❃❈ ❖❅❇▲

◗❏❘ ❑❃❄❅❇ ❅❚● ❏❯❯●❱●■❏❇❅❃❈❲ ◗❳❘ ❈●❍❏❇❅❚●

❏❯❯●❱●■❏❇❅❃❈❨ ❏❈❩ ◗❯❘ ❬●■❃ ❏❯❯●❱●■❏❇❅❃❈❭

❞✟t ✏✎ ✎✟✟ ✝✌✛ ✓✟✡✌✠☞t✤✩t☞✒✟ ✦☛✞♣✝ ✡✌✌★✎ ✡☞★✟

✑✌☛ ✎✌✒✟ ✎☞✒♣✡✟ ✠✞✎✟✎✗ s☞✦✗ ✪✗✖✕ ✎✝✌✛✎ ✓✟✡✌✠☞t✤✩

t☞✒✟ ✦☛✞♣✝ ✑✌☛ ✒✌t☞✌✍✛☞t✝ ✠✌✍✎t✞✍t ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍

✑✌☛ t✝✟ ✑✌✡✡✌✛☞✍✦ ✠✞✎✟✎ ❢

❝✞✧ ❆✍ ✌✚✈✟✠t ☞✎ ✒✌✓☞✍✦ ☞✍ ✞ ♣✌✎☞t☞✓✟ ✔☞☛✟✠t☞✌✍

✛☞t✝ ✞ ♣✌✎☞t☞✓✟ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍✐ ✑✌☛ ✟✬✞✒♣✡✟

t✝✟ ✒✌t☞✌✍ ✌✑ t✝✟ ✠✞☛ ☞✍ s☞✦✗ ✪✗✪ ✚✟t✛✟✟✍

✮ ✯ ✕ ✎ ✞✍✔ ✮ ✯ ✖✕ ✎✗

❝✚✧ ❆✍ ✌✚✈✟✠t ☞✎ ✒✌✓☞✍✦ ☞✍ ♣✌✎☞t☞✓✟ ✔☞☛✟✠t☞✌✍

✛☞t✝ ✞ ✍✟✦✞t☞✓✟ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍✐ ✑✌☛ ✟✬✞✒♣✡✟✐

✒✌t☞✌✍ ✌✑ t✝✟ ✠✞☛ ☞✍ s☞✦ ✪✗✪ ✚✟t✛✟✟✍

✮ ✯ ✖✶ ✎ ✞✍✔ ✢✕ ✎✗

❝✠✧ ❆✍ ✌✚✈✟✠t ☞✎ ✒✌✓☞✍✦ ☞✍ ✍✟✦✞t☞✓✟ ✔☞☛✟✠t☞✌✍

✛☞t✝ ✞ ✍✟✦✞t☞✓✟ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍✐ ✑✌☛ ✟✬✞✒♣✡✟

t✝✟ ✒✌t☞✌✍ ✌✑ ✞ ✠✞☛ ✒✌✓☞✍✦ ✑☛✌✒ ❪ ☞✍ s☞✦✗

✪✗✖ ☞✍ ✍✟✦✞t☞✓✟ ①❫✔☞☛✟✠t☞✌✍ ✛☞t✝

☞✍✠☛✟✞✎☞✍✦ ✎♣✟✟✔✗

❝✔✧ ❆✍ ✌✚✈✟✠t ☞✎ ✒✌✓☞✍✦ ☞✍ ♣✌✎☞t☞✓✟ ✔☞☛✟✠t☞✌✍

t☞✡✡ t☞✒✟ ✮❴❵ ✞✍✔ t✝✟✍ t✏☛✍✎ ✚✞✠★ ✛☞t✝ t✝✟

✎✞✒✟ ✍✟✦✞t☞✓✟ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍✐ ✑✌☛ ✟✬✞✒♣✡✟

t✝✟ ✒✌t☞✌✍ ✌✑ ✞ ✠✞☛ ✑☛✌✒ ♣✌☞✍t ❪ t✌ ♣✌☞✍t

Q ☞✍ s☞✦✗ ✪✗✖ t☞✡✡ t☞✒✟ ✮❴ ✛☞t✝ ✔✟✠☛✟✞✎☞✍✦

✎♣✟✟✔ ✞✍✔ t✏☛✍☞✍✦ ✚✞✠★ ✞✍✔ ✒✌✓☞✍✦✛☞t✝

t✝✟ ✎✞✒✟ ✍✟✦✞t☞✓✟ ✞✠✠✟✡✟☛✞t☞✌✍✗

❆✍ ☞✍t✟☛✟✎t☞✍✦ ✑✟✞t✏☛✟ ✌✑ ✞ ✓✟✡✌✠☞t✤✩t☞✒✟ ✦☛✞♣✝

✑✌☛ ✞✍✤✒✌✓☞✍✦ ✌✚✈✟✠t ☞✎ t✝✞t ❡❣❤ ❥❦❤❥ ❧♠♥❤❦ ❡❣❤

q❧❦r❤ ❦❤✉❦❤✇❤♠❡✇ ❡❣❤ ♥②✇✉④❥q❤⑤❤♠❡ ⑥r❤❦ ❥

⑦②r❤♠ ❡②⑤❤ ②♠❡❤❦r❥④✗ ❆ ✦✟✍✟☛✞✡ ♣☛✌✌✑ ✌✑ t✝☞✎

❋✼✽✾ ✿✾⑧⑨ ⑩●❱❃❯❅❇❶❷❇❅❊● ❍■❏❑▲ ▼❃■ ❊❃❇❅❃❈❄ ❖❅❇▲

❯❃❈❄❇❏❈❇ ❏❯❯●❱●■❏❇❅❃❈❸ ◗❏❘❹❃❇❅❃❈ ❅❈ ❑❃❄❅❇❅❚●

❩❅■●❯❇❅❃❈ ❖❅❇▲ ❑❃❄❅❇❅❚● ❏❯❯●❱●■❏❇❅❃❈❨

◗❳❘ ❹❃❇❅❃❈ ❅❈ ❑❃❄❅❇❅❚● ❩❅■●❯❇❅❃❈ ❖❅❇▲

❈●❍❏❇❅❚● ❏❯❯●❱●■❏❇❅❃❈❨ ◗❯❘❹❃❇❅❃❈ ❅❈ ❈●❍❏❇❅❚●

❩❅■●❯❇❅❃❈ ❖❅❇▲ ❈●❍❏❇❅❚● ❏❯❯●❱●■❏❇❅❃❈❨

◗❩❘ ❹❃❇❅❃❈ ❃▼ ❏❈ ❃❳❺●❯❇ ❖❅❇▲ ❈●❍❏❇❅❚●

❏❯❯●❱●■❏❇❅❃❈ ❇▲❏❇ ❯▲❏❈❍●❄❩❅■●❯❇❅❃❈ ❏❇ ❇❅❊●

❇❻❸ ❼●❇❖●●❈ ❇❅❊●❄ ❽ ❇❃ ❇❻❨ ❅❇❄ ❊❃❚●❄ ❅❈

❑❃❄❅❇❅❚● ❿ ❉ ❩❅■●❯❇❅❃❈ ❏❈❩ ❳●❇❖●●❈ ❇❻ ❏❈❩

❇➀ ❅❇ ❊❃❚●❄ ❅❈ ❇▲● ❃❑❑❃❄❅❇● ❩❅■●❯❇❅❃❈❭

Page 51: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✹☛

s☞✌☞✍✎✍✏☞ ✑✍✒✓✔✑✍s ✓s✍ ❡✕ ✖✌✗✖✓✗✓s✘ ✙✍ ✖✌✏✥

❤❡✚✍✛✍✑✥ s✍✍ ☞❤✌☞ ✔☞ ✔s ☞✑✓✍ ✕❡✑ ☞❤✍ s✔✎✱✗✍ ✖✌s✍ ❡✕

✌✏ ❡❛✜✍✖☞ ✎❡✛✔✏✢ ✚✔☞❤ ✖❡✏s☞✌✏☞ ✛✍✗❡✖✔☞✣ ✉✘ ✳☞s

✛✍✗❡✖✔☞✣✈☞✔✎✍ ✢✑✌✱❤ ✔s ✌s s❤❡✚✏ ✔✏ t✔✢✘ ✤✘✦✦✘

❋✧★✩ ✪✩✫✫ ❆✬✭✮ ✯✰✲✭✬ ✴✵✶ ✷✯✬✴✭ ✭✸✯✮✺✻ ✲✼✻✽✺✮✷✭✾✭✰✶♦✿ ✶❀✭ ♦❁❂✭✷✶ ♦✴✭✬ ✮ ❃✼✴✭✰ ✶✼✾✭ ✼✰✶✭✬✴✮✺❄

❚❤✍ ❅❇❈ ✖✓✑✛✍ ✔s ✌ s☞✑✌✔✢❤☞ ✗✔✏✍ ✱✌✑✌✗✗✍✗ ☞❡ ☞❤✍

☞✔✎✍ ✌❉✔s ✌✏❊ ☞❤✍ ✌✑✍✌ ✓✏❊✍✑ ✔☞ ❛✍☞✚✍✍✏ ❈ ● ❍

✌✏❊ ❈ ● ■ ✔s ☞❤✍ ✌✑✍✌ ❡✕ ☞❤✍ ✑✍✖☞✌✏✢✗✍ ❡✕ ❤✍✔✢❤☞ ✉

✌✏❊ ❛✌s✍ ■✘ ❚❤✍✑✍✕❡✑✍✥ ✌✑✍✌ ● ✉ ❏ ■ ● ✉■ ✚❤✔✖❤

✔s ☞❤✍ ❊✔s✱✗✌✖✍✎✍✏☞ ✔✏ ☞❤✔s ☞✔✎✍ ✔✏☞✍✑✛✌✗✘ ✐❡✚

✖❡✎✍ ✔✏ ☞❤✔s ✖✌s✍ ✌✏ ✌✑✍✌ ✔s ✍✒✓✌✗ ☞❡ ✌ ❊✔s☞✌✏✖✍❝

❚❤✔✏❑▲ ◆❡☞✍ ☞❤✍ ❊✔✎✍✏s✔❡✏s ❡✕ ✒✓✌✏☞✔☞✔✍s ❡✏

☞❤✍ ☞✚❡ ✖❡❡✑❊✔✏✌☞✍ ✌❉✍s✥ ✌✏❊ ✣❡✓ ✚✔✗✗ ✌✑✑✔✛✍ ✌☞

☞❤✍ ✌✏s✚✍✑✘

❖P◗❘ ◗❙❯◗ ◗❙❘ ①❱❲❳ ❨❱❲❳ ❯❩❬ ❭❱❲ ❪❫❯❴❙❵ ❵❙P❜❩

❞❩ ❵❘❢❘❫❯❣ ❥❞❪❦❫❘❵ ❞❩ ◗❙❞❵ ❧❙❯❴◗❘❫ ❙❯❢❘ ❵❙❯❫❴

♠❞❩♠❵ ❯◗ ❵P♥❘ ❴P❞❩◗❵ ❞♥❴❣♣❞❩❪ ◗❙❯◗ ◗❙❘

❥❦❩❧◗❞P❩❵ ❯❫❘ ❩P◗ ❬❞❥❥❘❫❘❩◗❞❯q❣❘ ❯◗ ◗❙❘❵❘

❴P❞❩◗❵r ✇❩ ❯❩♣ ❫❘❯❣❞❵◗❞❧ ❵❞◗❦❯◗❞P❩② ◗❙❘

❥❦❩❧◗❞P❩❵ ❜❞❣❣ q❘ ❬❞❥❥❘❫❘❩◗❞❯q❣❘ ❯◗ ❯❣❣ ❴P❞❩◗❵

❯❩❬ ◗❙❘ ❪❫❯❴❙❵ ❜❞❣❣ q❘ ❵♥PP◗❙✘

③❙❯◗ ◗❙❞❵ ♥❘❯❩❵ ❴❙♣❵❞❧❯❣❣♣ ❞❵ ◗❙❯◗

❯❧❧❘❣❘❫❯◗❞P❩ ❯❩❬ ❢❘❣P❧❞◗♣ ❧❯❩❩P◗ ❧❙❯❩❪❘

❢❯❣❦❘❵ ❯q❫❦❴◗❣♣ ❯◗ ❯❩ ❞❩❵◗❯❩◗r ④❙❯❩❪❘❵ ❯❫❘

❯❣❜❯♣❵ ❧P❩◗❞❩❦P❦❵r

⑤r⑥ ⑦✇❖⑧⑨⑩❶✇④ ⑧Q❷⑩❶✇❸❖❹ ❺❸❻

❷❖✇❺❸❻⑨❼❽ ⑩④④⑧❼⑧❻⑩❶⑧❾ ⑨❸❶✇❸❖

t❡✑ ✓✏✔✕❡✑✎✗✣ ✌✖✖✍✗✍✑✌☞✍❊ ✎❡☞✔❡✏✥ ✚✍ ✖✌✏ ❊✍✑✔✛✍

s❡✎✍ s✔✎✱✗✍ ✍✒✓✌☞✔❡✏s ☞❤✌☞ ✑✍✗✌☞✍ ❊✔s✱✗✌✖✍✎✍✏☞

❿➀➁✥ ☞✔✎✍ ☞✌❑✍✏ ❿❈➁✥ ✔✏✔☞✔✌✗ ✛✍✗❡✖✔☞✣ ❿❅➂➁✥ ✕✔✏✌✗

✛✍✗❡✖✔☞✣ ❿❅➁ ✌✏❊ ✌✖✖✍✗✍✑✌☞✔❡✏ ❿➃➁✘ ➄✒✓✌☞✔❡✏ ❿✤✘➅➁

✌✗✑✍✌❊✣ ❡❛☞✌✔✏✍❊ ✢✔✛✍s ✌ ✑✍✗✌☞✔❡✏ ❛✍☞✚✍✍✏ ✕✔✏✌✗

✌✏❊ ✔✏✔☞✔✌✗ ✛✍✗❡✖✔☞✔✍s ❅ ✌✏❊ ❅➂ ❡✕ ✌✏ ❡❛✜✍✖☞ ✎❡✛✔✏✢

✚✔☞❤ ✓✏✔✕❡✑✎ ✌✖✖✍✗✍✑✌☞✔❡✏➃ ➆

❅ ➇ ❅➂ ➈ ➃❈ ❿✤✘➅➁

❚❤✔s ✑✍✗✌☞✔❡✏ ✔s ✢✑✌✱❤✔✖✌✗✗✣ ✑✍✱✑✍s✍✏☞✍❊ ✔✏t✔✢✘ ✤✘✦➉✘

❚❤✍ ✌✑✍✌ ✓✏❊✍✑ ☞❤✔s ✖✓✑✛✍ ✔s ➆➊✑✍✌ ❛✍☞✚✍✍✏ ✔✏s☞✌✏☞s ❍ ✌✏❊ ❈ ● ➊✑✍✌ ❡✕ ☞✑✔✌✏✢✗✍➊➋➌ ➍ ➊✑✍✌ ❡✕ ✑✍✖☞✌✏✢✗✍ ➎➊➌➏

➐ ➑➒ ➓ ➓➔

→ → ➣ ↔ → ➣↕

❋✧★✩ ✪✩✫➛ ❆✬✭✮ ✯✰✲✭✬ ✴➜✶ ✷✯✬✴✭ ✿♦✬ ✮✰ ♦❁❂✭✷✶ ➝✼✶❀✯✰✼✿♦✬✾ ✮✷✷✭✺✭✬✮✶✼♦✰❄

➊s ✍❉✱✗✌✔✏✍❊ ✔✏ ☞❤✍ ✱✑✍✛✔❡✓s s✍✖☞✔❡✏✥ ☞❤✍ ✌✑✍✌

✓✏❊✍✑ ❅❇❈ ✖✓✑✛✍ ✑✍✱✑✍s✍✏☞s ☞❤✍ ❊✔s✱✗✌✖✍✎✍✏☞✘

❚❤✍✑✍✕❡✑✍✥ ☞❤✍ ❊✔s✱✗✌✖✍✎✍✏☞ ➀ ❡✕ ☞❤✍ ❡❛✜✍✖☞ ✔s ➆

➞ ➟➠

➡➢

➤ ➤➥ ➦ ➦ ➧ ➨ ➦ ➧➩ ❿✤✘➫➁

➋✓☞ ✴ ✴ ✮ ✶➭➯ ➲

❚❤✍✑✍✕❡✑✍✥➳

➵➸

➺➻ ➼ ➽ ➾ ➚ ➽➪

❡✑✥➶

➹➠

➢➥ ➦ ➧ ➘➧➩ ➴ ❿✤✘➷➁

➄✒✓✌☞✔❡✏ ❿✤✘➫➁ ✖✌✏ ✌✗s❡ ❛✍ ✚✑✔☞☞✍✏ ✌s

➹➢

➦ ➨ ➦➥ ➧ ➦ ➧➩ ➩ ❿✤✘➬✌➁

✚❤✍✑✍✥

➹➢

➦ ➦➦

➴➩ ➮➱✃❐❒❮❰❐❮ ❰➱➱ÏÐÏÑ❰❮Ò✃❐ ✃❐ÐÓÔ

❿✤✘➬❛➁

➄✒✓✌☞✔❡✏s ❿✤✘➬✌➁ ✌✏❊ ❿✤✘➬❛➁ ✎✍✌✏ ☞❤✌☞ ☞❤✍ ❡❛✜✍✖☞

❤✌s ✓✏❊✍✑✢❡✏✍ ❊✔s✱✗✌✖✍✎✍✏☞ ➀ ✚✔☞❤ ✌✏ ✌✛✍✑✌✢✍

✛✍✗❡✖✔☞✣ ✍✒✓✌✗ ☞❡ ☞❤✍ ✌✑✔☞❤✎✍☞✔✖ ✌✛✍✑✌✢✍ ❡✕ ☞❤✍

✔✏✔☞✔✌✗ ✌✏❊ ✕✔✏✌✗ ✛✍✗❡✖✔☞✔✍s✘

t✑❡✎ ➄✒✘ ❿✤✘➅➁✥ ❈ ➇ ❿❅ Õ ❅Ö➁×➃✘ Ø✓❛s☞✔☞✓☞✔✏✢ ☞❤✔s ✔✏

➄✒✘ ❿✤✘➬✌➁✥ ✚✍ ✢✍☞

➶ ➶➹ ➹ ➹

➢ ➢

➦ ➦ ➦ ➦ ➦ ➦➥ ➦ ➧

➘ ➘

➴ Ù ÙÚ Û Ú Û➩ ➩ ➩Ü Ý Ü ÝÞ ß Þ ß

à àá âã ã äåæ ç ❿✤✘✦❍➁

Page 52: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✹✆

❚✞✟✠ ✡☛☞✌✍✟✎✏ ✑✌✏ ✌✒✠✎ ✓✡ ✎✓✍✌✟✏✡✔ ✓✕✠☞✓✠✍✟✍☞✍✟✏s ✍✞✡ ✖✌✒☞✡ ✎✗ t ✗✥✎✘ ✙☛✚ ✛✜✚✢✣ ✟✏✍✎✙☛✚ ✛✜✚❊✣✚ ❚✞☞✠✤ ✦✡ ✞✌✖✡ ✎✓✍✌✟✏✡✔ ✍✞✥✡✡✟✘✐✎✥✍✌✏✍ ✡☛☞✌✍✟✎✏✠ ✧

✵✈ ✈ ❛★❂ ✩

✷✪

✶✫

① ✬ ✭ ✮✭✯ ✰

✱ ✱✲ ✳✴ ✴ ✸✺✻ ✼ ✛✜✚✽✽✌✣

✑✎✏✏✡✑✍✟✏s ✗✟✖✡ ☛☞✌✏✍✟✍✟✡✠ ✾✿❀ ✾❀ ❁❀ t ✌✏✔ ❃✚ ❚✞✡✠✡✌✥✡ ❄✟✏✡✘✌✍✟✑ ✡☛☞✌✍✟✎✏✠ ✎✗ ✥✡✑✍✟✒✟✏✡✌✥ ✘✎✍✟✎✏✗✎✥ ✑✎✏✠✍✌✏✍ ✌✑✑✡✒✡✥✌✍✟✎✏✚

❚✞✡ ✠✡✍ ✎✗ ✙☛✚ ✛✜✚✽✽✌✣ ✦✡✥✡ ✎✓✍✌✟✏✡✔ ✓✕✌✠✠☞✘✟✏s ✍✞✌✍ ✌✍ t ❅ ❆✤ ✍✞✡ ✐✎✠✟✍✟✎✏ ✎✗ ✍✞✡✐✌✥✍✟✑✒✡✤ ❃ ✟✠ ❆✚ ❇✡ ✑✌✏ ✎✓✍✌✟✏ ✌ ✘✎✥✡ s✡✏✡✥✌✒✡☛☞✌✍✟✎✏ ✟✗ ✦✡ ✍✌❄✡ ✍✞✡ ✐✎✠✟✍✟✎✏ ✑✎✎✥✔✟✏✌✍✡ ✌✍ t❅ ❆ ✌✠ ✏✎✏❈❉✡✥✎✤ ✠✌✕ ❃❋✚ ❚✞✡✏ ✙☛✠✚ ✛✜✚✽✽✌✣ ✌✥✡✘✎✔✟✗✟✡✔ ✛✥✡✐✒✌✑✟✏s ❃ ✓✕ ❃ ➊ ❃❋ ✣ ✍✎ ✧

✵✈ ✈ ❛★❂ ✩

✷✪ ✪

✶✫

① ① ✬ ✭ ✮✭✯ ✰ ✰ ✛✜✚✽✽✓✣

● ●❍ ❍■ ❏ ❑▲ ▲ ▼ ◆ ◆❖ ◗ ❾ ✛✜✚✽✽✑✣

❘❙❯❱❲❳❨ ❩❬❩ ❭✓✍✌✟✏ ✡☛☞✌✍✟✎✏✠ ✎✗ ✘✎✍✟✎✏✗✎✥ ✑✎✏✠✍✌✏✍ ✌✑✑✡✒✡✥✌✍✟✎✏ ☞✠✟✏s ✘✡✍✞✎✔ ✎✗✑✌✒✑☞✒☞✠✚

❪❫❴❵❨❜ ❝✕ ✔✡✗✟✏✟✍✟✎✏❞❞✬✮✭

✔✾ ❡ ❁ ✔t❢✏✍✡s✥✌✍✟✏s ✓✎✍✞ ✠✟✔✡✠

❣ ❤❥ ❥❦ ❧❦ ♠ ♥ ♦♣q q

r ✉✇

② ③④ ⑤ ✛❁ ✟✠ ✑✎✏✠✍✌✏✍✣

⑥⑦✬ ✬ ✮✭✯

⑥✬ ✬ ✮✭✯ ✰

⑧☞✥✍✞✡✥✤❞❞①✬✭

✔❃ ❡ ✾ ✔t❢✏✍✡s✥✌✍✟✏s ✓✎✍✞ ✠✟✔✡✠

❣ ❥⑨⑨ ⑩q ❤ ❥

❧♠ ♦♣ q

❶ ❷rr ✉✇❸ ②③ ③④ ❹⑤

❺❻ ❻

❼❽❿

➀ ➀ ➁ ➂ ➃ ➂➄ ➅

❃ ❅ ➆➇ ➇

➈➉

➋ ➌ ➍ ➎ ➍➏ ➏

❇✡ ✑✌✏ ✦✥✟✍✡❞ ❞ ❞ ❞❞ ❞ ❞ ❞✬ ✬ ① ✬✮ ✬✭ ① ✭ ①

✯ ✯ ✯

✎✥✤ ✾ ✔✾ ❡ ❁ ✔❃❢✏✍✡s✥✌✍✟✏s ✓✎✍✞ ✠✟✔✡✠✤

➐ ➐✉ ✉➑ ➒➑ ➒❸ ❸ ② ➓④⑤ ⑤

➔ →➣ ➣↔ ↔↕ ↕➙

➛ ➛ ➜ ➝ ➝➞

➟ ➠➡ ➡➢ ➢➤ ➥✈ ✈ ❛ ➦ ➦❂ ✩

➧➨➩ ❁➫✾❁➭t❁➯➩ ➲➳ t➨➵➸ ➺➩t➨➲➫ ➵➸ t➨❁t ➵t ➻❁➭ ➼➩➽➸➩➫ ➳➲➾ ➺➲t➵➲➭ ➚➵t➨ ➭➲➭➪➽➭➵➳➲➾➺ ❁➻➻➩➶➩➾❁t➵➲➭❁➶➸➲➹

➘✎✦✤ ✦✡ ✠✞✌✒✒ ☞✠✡ ✍✞✡✠✡ ✡☛☞✌✍✟✎✏✠ ✍✎ ✠✎✘✡✟✘✐✎✥✍✌✏✍ ✑✌✠✡✠✚ ➴

❘❙❯❱❲❳❨ ❩❬➷ ➬ ✓✌✒✒ ✟✠ ✍✞✥✎✦✏ ✖✡✥✍✟✑✌✒✒✕☞✐✦✌✥✔✠ ✦✟✍✞ ✌ ✖✡✒✎✑✟✍✕ ✎✗ ➮❆ ✘ ✠➱✃ ✗✥✎✘✍✞✡ ✍✎✐ ✎✗ ✌ ✘☞✒✍✟✠✍✎✥✡✕ ✓☞✟✒✔✟✏s✚ ❚✞✡✞✡✟s✞✍ ✎✗ ✍✞✡ ✐✎✟✏✍ ✗✥✎✘ ✦✞✡✥✡ ✍✞✡ ✓✌✒✒ ✟✠✍✞✥✎✦✏ ✟✠ ➮❐✚❆ ✘ ✗✥✎✘ ✍✞✡ s✥✎☞✏✔✚ ✛✌✣ ❒✎✦✞✟s✞ ✦✟✒✒ ✍✞✡ ✓✌✒✒ ✥✟✠✡ ❮ ✌✏✔ ✛✓✣ ✞✎✦ ✒✎✏s✦✟✒✒ ✟✍ ✓✡ ✓✡✗✎✥✡ ✍✞✡ ✓✌✒✒ ✞✟✍✠ ✍✞✡ s✥✎☞✏✔❮❚✌❄✡ s ❅ ✽❆ ✘ ✠➱❰✚

❪❫❴❵❨❜ ✛✌✣ Ï✡✍ ☞✠ ✍✌❄✡ ✍✞✡ Ð❈✌Ñ✟✠ ✟✏ ✍✞✡✖✡✥✍✟✑✌✒✒✕ ☞✐✦✌✥✔ ✔✟✥✡✑✍✟✎✏ ✦✟✍✞ ❉✡✥✎ ✌✍ ✍✞✡s✥✎☞✏✔✤ ✌✠ ✠✞✎✦✏ ✟✏ ⑧✟s✚ ✜✚✽✜✚

➘✎✦ ✾Ò ❅ Ó ➮❆ ✘ ✠ÔÕ✤❁ ❅ ➊ ➯ ❡ ➊✽❆ ✘ ✠ÔÖ✤✾ ❅ ❆ ✘ ✠ÔÕ

❢✗ ✍✞✡ ✓✌✒✒ ✥✟✠✡✠ ✍✎ ✞✡✟s✞✍ Ð ✗✥✎✘ ✍✞✡ ✐✎✟✏✍ ✎✗✒✌☞✏✑✞✤ ✍✞✡✏ ☞✠✟✏s ✍✞✡ ✡☛☞✌✍✟✎✏

× ØÙÚ ÚÛÜ Ü Ý Þ ß à ßá â✦✡ s✡✍

❆ ❅ ✛➮❆✣Ö Ó ➮✛➊✽❆✣✛Ð ã Ð❋✣ä✎✒✖✟✏s✤ ✦✡ s✡✍✤ ✛Ð ã Ð❋✣ ❅ ➮❆ ✘✚

✛✓✣ ❇✡ ✑✌✏ ✠✎✒✖✡ ✍✞✟✠ ✐✌✥✍ ✎✗ ✍✞✡ ✐✥✎✓✒✡✘ ✟✏ ✍✦✎✦✌✕✠✚ åæçè éêëèìíîîï çðè ñèçðæòó íóèò✚

Page 53: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✹☛

❋✌✍✎ ✏✎✑✏

✒✓✔✕✖ ✗✘✖✙✚✛ ✿ ✜✢ ✣✤✥ ✦✧★✩✣ ✪✥✣✤✫✬✭ ✮✥ ✩✯✰✧✣

✣✤✥ ✯t✣✤ ✧✢ ✣✮✫ ✯t★✣✩ ✿ ✣✤✥ ✱✯✮t★✬ ✪✫✣✧✫✢ ✲✳ ✣✫

❇✴ t✢✬ ✣✤✥ ✬✫✮✢✮t★✬ ✪✫✣✧✫✢ ✲❇ ✣✫ ✵✴ t✢✬

❝t✰❝✱✰t✣✥ ✣✤✥ ❝✫★★✥✩✯✫✢✬✧✢✶ ✣✧✪✥ ✣t✷✥✢ ✸✺ t✢✬

✸✻✼ ✽✧✢❝✥ ✣✤✥ ✾✥✰✫❝✧✣❀ t✣ ❇ ✧✩ ❁✥★✫✭ ✮✥ ✤t✾✥ ✿

✈ ❂ ✈♦ ❃ ❄✸

❅ ❂ ❆❅ ❈ ❉❅✸✺❖★✭ ✸✺ ❂ ❆ ✩

❚✤✧✩ ✧✩ ✣✤✥ ✣✧✪✥ ✧✢ ✶✫✧✢✶ ✦★✫✪ ❊ ✣✫ ●✼ ❍★✫✪ ●✭ ✫★

✣✤✥ ✯✫✧✢✣ ✫✦ ✣✤✥ ✪t■✧✪✱✪ ✤✥✧✶✤✣✭ ✣✤✥ ❏t✰✰ ✦t✰✰✩

✦★✥✥✰❀ ✱✢✬✥★ ✣✤✥ t❝❝✥✰✥★t✣✧✫✢ ✬✱✥ ✣✫ ✶★t✾✧✣❀✼ ❚✤✥

❏t✰✰ ✧✩ ✪✫✾✧✢✶ ✧✢ ✢✥✶t✣✧✾✥ ② ✬✧★✥❝✣✧✫✢✼ ❡✥ ✱✩✥

✥❑✱t✣✧✫✢

▲◆ ◆

P

◗❘ ❘ ❙ ❯ ❛❯❱ ❲ ❲

❡✥ ✤t✾✥✭ ②❳ ❂ ❨❩✪✭②❂ ❅✭ ✈❬ ❂ ❅✭ ❄ ❭ ❪ ❣ ❂ ❈❉❅✪ ✩➊✻

❅ ❂ ❨❩ ❫ ✲❴✴ ✲❈❉❅✴ ✸✻✻

✽✫✰✾✧✢✶✭ ✮✥ ✶✥✣ ✣✻ ❂ ❵ ✩

❚✤✥★✥✦✫★✥✭ ✣✤✥ ✣✫✣t✰ ✣✧✪✥ ✣t✷✥✢ ❏❀ ✣✤✥ ❏t✰✰ ❏✥✦✫★✥

✧✣ ✤✧✣✩ ✣✤✥ ✶★✫✱✢✬ ❂ ✸✺ ❃ ✸✻ ❂ ❆ ✩❫ ❵ ✩ ❂ ❩ ✩✼

✕✘❜✚❞✛ ✗✘✖✙✚✛ ✿ ❚✤✥ ✣✫✣t✰ ✣✧✪✥ ✣t✷✥✢ ❝t✢

t✰✩✫ ❏✥ ❝t✰❝✱✰t✣✥✬ ❏❀ ✢✫✣✧✢✶ ✣✤✥ ❝✫✫★✬✧✢t✣✥✩ ✫✦

✧✢✧✣✧t✰ t✢✬ ✦✧✢t✰ ✯✫✩✧✣✧✫✢✩ ✫✦ ✣✤✥ ❏t✰✰ ✮✧✣✤ ★✥✩✯✥❝✣

✣✫ ✣✤✥ ✫★✧✶✧✢ ❝✤✫✩✥✢ t✢✬ ✱✩✧✢✶ ✥❑✱t✣✧✫✢

▲◆ ◆

P

◗❘ ❘ ❙ ❯ ❛❯❱ ❲ ❲

❢✫✮ ②❳ ❂ ❆❩ ✪ ② ❂ ❅ ✪

✈❤ ❂ ❆❅ ✪ ✩✐✺✭ ❄ ❂ ❈❉❅✪ ✩➊✻✭ ✸ ❂ ❥

❅ ❂ ❆❩ ❫❆❅ ✸ ❫ ✲❴✴ ✲❦❉❅✴ ✸✻

❖★✭ ❩✸✻ ❈ ❆❅✸ ❈ ❆❩ ❂ ❅

✽✫✰✾✧✢✶ ✣✤✧✩ ❑✱t✬★t✣✧❝ ✥❑✱t✣✧✫✢ ✦✫★ ✸✭ ✮✥ ✶✥✣

✸ ❂ ❩✩

❢✫✣✥ ✣✤t✣ ✣✤✥ ✩✥❝✫✢✬ ✪✥✣✤✫✬ ✧✩ ❏✥✣✣✥★ ✩✧✢❝✥ ✮✥

✬✫✢✫✣ ✤t✾✥ ✣✫✮✫★★❀ t❏✫✱✣ ✣✤✥ ✯t✣✤ ✫✦ ✣✤✥✪✫✣✧✫✢

t✩ ✣✤✥ ✪✫✣✧✫✢ ✧✩ ✱✢✬✥★ ❝✫✢✩✣t✢✣ t❝❝✥✰✥★t✣✧✫✢✼

✘♠♥♣qrs ✉✇① ③④⑤⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨⑨ ⑩ ❶✧✩❝✱✩✩ ✣✤✥

✪✫✣✧✫✢ ✫✦ t✢ ✫❏❷✥❝✣ ✱✢✬✥★ ✦★✥✥ ✦t✰✰✼ ❢✥✶✰✥❝✣

t✧★ ★✥✩✧✩✣t✢❝✥✼

❸❹❺❻s❼ ✳✢ ✫❏❷✥❝✣ ★✥✰✥t✩✥✬ ✢✥t★ ✣✤✥ ✩✱★✦t❝✥ ✫✦

✣✤✥ ❽t★✣✤ ✧✩ t❝❝✥✰✥★t✣✥✬ ✬✫✮✢✮t★✬ ✱✢✬✥★ ✣✤✥

✧✢✦✰✱✥✢❝✥ ✫✦ ✣✤✥ ✦✫★❝✥ ✫✦ ✶★t✾✧✣❀✼ ❚✤✥ ✪t✶✢✧✣✱✬✥

✫✦ t❝❝✥✰✥★t✣✧✫✢ ✬✱✥ ✣✫ ✶★t✾✧✣❀ ✧✩ ★✥✯★✥✩✥✢✣✥✬ ❏❀

❾✼ ✜✦ t✧★ ★✥✩✧✩✣t✢❝✥ ✧✩ ✢✥✶✰✥❝✣✥✬✭ ✣✤✥ ✫❏❷✥❝✣ ✧✩

✩t✧✬ ✣✫ ❏✥ ✧✢ ⑦④⑤⑤ ⑦⑧⑨⑨❿ ✜✦ ✣✤✥ ✤✥✧✶✤✣ ✣✤★✫✱✶✤

✮✤✧❝✤ ✣✤✥ ✫❏❷✥❝✣ ✦t✰✰✩ ✧✩ ✩✪t✰✰ ❝✫✪✯t★✥✬ ✣✫ ✣✤✥

✥t★✣✤➀✩ ★t✬✧✱✩✭ ❣ ❝t✢ ❏✥ ✣t✷✥✢ ✣✫ ❏✥ ❝✫✢✩✣t✢✣✭

✥❑✱t✰ ✣✫ ➁✼➂ ✪ ✩➊✻✼ ❍★✥✥ ✦t✰✰ ✧✩ ✣✤✱✩ t ❝t✩✥ ✫✦

✪✫✣✧✫✢ ✮✧✣✤ ✱✢✧✦✫★✪ t❝❝✥✰✥★t✣✧✫✢✼

❡✥ t✩✩✱✪✥ ✣✤t✣ ✣✤✥ ✪✫✣✧✫✢ ✧✩ ✧✢ ②❦✬✧★✥❝✣✧✫✢✭

✪✫★✥ ❝✫★★✥❝✣✰❀ ✧✢ ❈②➃✬✧★✥❝✣✧✫✢ ❏✥❝t✱✩✥ ✮✥

❝✤✫✫✩✥ ✱✯✮t★✬ ✬✧★✥❝✣✧✫✢ t✩ ✯✫✩✧✣✧✾✥✼ ✽✧✢❝✥ ✣✤✥

t❝❝✥✰✥★t✣✧✫✢ ✬✱✥ ✣✫ ✶★t✾✧✣❀ ✧✩ t✰✮t❀✩ ✬✫✮✢✮t★✬✭

✧✣ ✧✩ ✧✢ ✣✤✥ ✢✥✶t✣✧✾✥ ✬✧★✥❝✣✧✫✢ t✢✬ ✮✥ ✤t✾✥

❄ ❂ ❈ ❣ ❂ ❈ ➁✼➂ ✪ ✩➊✻

❚✤✥ ✫❏❷✥❝✣ ✧✩ ★✥✰✥t✩✥✬ ✦★✫✪ ★✥✩✣ t✣ ② ❂❅✼ ❚✤✥★✥✦✫★✥✭

✈❬ ❂ ❅ t✢✬ ✣✤✥ ✥❑✱t✣✧✫✢✩ ✫✦ ✪✫✣✧✫✢ ❏✥❝✫✪✥✿

✈ ❂ ❅ ❈ ❣ ✸ ❂ ❈➁✼➂ ✸ ✪ ✩➊✺

② ❂ ❅ ❈ ❴ ❣ ✸✻ ❂ ❈❨✼➁ ✸✻ ✪

✈✻ ❂ ❅ ❈ ❆ ❣ ② ❂ ❈❉➁✼➄ ② ✪✻ ✩➊✻

❚✤✥✩✥ ✥❑✱t✣✧✫✢✩ ✶✧✾✥ ✣✤✥ ✾✥✰✫❝✧✣❀ t✢✬ ✣✤✥

✬✧✩✣t✢❝✥ ✣★t✾✥✰✰✥✬ t✩ t ✦✱✢❝✣✧✫✢ ✫✦ ✣✧✪✥ t✢✬ t✰✩✫

✣✤✥ ✾t★✧t✣✧✫✢ ✫✦ ✾✥✰✫❝✧✣❀ ✮✧✣✤ ✬✧✩✣t✢❝✥✼ ❚✤✥

✾t★✧t✣✧✫✢ ✫✦ t❝❝✥✰✥★t✣✧✫✢✭ ✾✥✰✫❝✧✣❀✭ t✢✬ ✬✧✩✣t✢❝✥✭

✮✧✣✤ ✣✧✪✥ ✤t✾✥ ❏✥✥✢ ✯✰✫✣✣✥✬ ✧✢ ❍✧✶✼ ❵✼❉❨✲t✴✭ ✲❏✴

t✢✬ ✲❝✴✼

✲t✴

Page 54: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

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✭✞✟

✭❝✟

❋✠✡☛ ☞☛✌✍ ▼✎✏✑✎✒ ✎✓ ✔✒ ✎✕✖✗✘✏ ✙✒✚✗✛ ✓✛✗✗ ✓✔✜✜✢

✣✔✤ ✥✔✛✑✔✏✑✎✒ ✎✓ ✔✘✘✗✜✗✛✔✏✑✎✒ ❛✑✏✦ ✏✑✧✗✢

✣✕✤ ✥✔✛✑✔✏✑✎✒ ✎✓ ★✗✜✎✘✑✏✩ ❛✑✏✦ ✏✑✧✗✢

✣✘✤ ✥✔✛✑✔✏✑✎✒ ✎✓ ✚✑✪✏✔✒✘✗ ❛✑✏✦ ✏✑✧✗ ✫

❊✬✮✯✰✱✲ ✳✴✵ ✶✷✸✹✸✻✼✽✾ ✸✷✿ ✼❀ ✼❁❁

♥❂❃❄✻❅✾ ❆ ➇❇❈❉ ●❍■❏❑▲◆❉■ ❏❖❑◗❉❖■❉●❘ ●❙❖❍▲❚

❉❡❙❑❯ ❍▲❏❉❖◗❑❯■ ❱❲ ❏❍❳❉❘ ❨❩ ❑ ❨❱●❩ ❲❑❯❯❍▲❚

❲❖❱❳ ❖❉■❏❘ ■❏❑▲● ❏❱ ❱▲❉ ❑▲❱❏❈❉❖ ❍▲ ❏❈❉ ■❑❳❉

❖❑❏❍❱ ❑■ ❏❈❉ ❱●● ▲❙❳❨❉❖■ ❨❉❚❍▲▲❍▲❚ r❍❏❈

❙▲❍❏❩ ❬▲❑❳❉❯❩❘ ❭❆ ❪❆ ❫❆ ❴❵❜❜❜❞❜❢ ❣❤✐❥❦ ❧♠❜

♦♣qs✲t ✉❦♠ ✈✇ ①❧❥❧①❦ ♠②❦ ♠❧③❦ ❧④♠❦❤❥⑤⑥ ✐⑦

③✐♠❧✐④ ✐⑦ ⑤④ ✐✞⑧❦❝♠ ✈④①❦❤ ⑦❤❦❦ ⑦⑤⑥⑥ ❧④♠✐ ③⑤④⑨

❦⑩✈⑤⑥ ❧④♠❦❤❥⑤⑥✇ ❶ ⑤④① ⑦❧④① ✐✈♠ ♠②❦ ①❧✇♠⑤④❝❦✇

♠❤⑤❥❦❤✇❦① ①✈❤❧④❷ ✇✈❝❝❦✇✇❧❥❦ ❧④♠❦❤❥⑤⑥✇ ✐⑦

♠❧③❦❜ ❸❧④❝❦ ❧④❧♠❧⑤⑥ ❥❦⑥✐❝❧♠⑨ ❧✇ ❹❦❤✐❺ ❻❦ ②⑤❥❦

❼✇❧④❷ ♠②❧✇ ❦⑩✈⑤♠❧✐④❺ ❻❦ ❝⑤④ ❝⑤⑥❝✈⑥⑤♠❦ ♠②❦

❽✐✇❧♠❧✐④ ✐⑦ ♠②❦ ✐✞⑧❦❝♠ ⑤⑦♠❦❤ ①❧⑦⑦❦❤❦④♠ ♠❧③❦

❧④♠❦❤❥⑤⑥✇❺ ❾❺ ❶❺ ❿❶ ❺ ❪❶❵ ❻②❧❝② ⑤❤❦ ❷❧❥❦④ ❧④

✇❦❝✐④① ❝✐⑥✈③④ ✐⑦ ➀⑤✞⑥❦ ❪❜❿❜ ➁⑦ ❻❦ ♠⑤➂❦

✭➃❭➄❿✟ ❚❶ ➅⑤✇ ❩➆➋ ♠②❦ ❽✐✇❧♠❧✐④ ❝✐✐❤①❧④⑤♠❦ ⑤⑦♠❦❤

⑦❧❤✇♠ ♠❧③❦ ❧④♠❦❤❥⑤⑥ ❶ ❺ ♠②❦④ ♠②❧❤① ❝✐⑥✈③④ ❷❧❥❦✇

♠②❦ ❽✐✇❧♠❧✐④✇ ❧④ ♠②❦ ✈④❧♠ ✐⑦ ❩➈❜ ➀②❦ ⑦✐✈❤♠②

❝✐⑥✈③④ ❷❧❥❦✇ ♠②❦ ①❧✇♠⑤④❝❦✇ ♠❤⑤❥❦❤✇❦① ❧④

✇✈❝❝❦✇✇❧❥❦ ❶✇❜ ➉❦ ⑦❧④① ♠②⑤♠ ♠②❦ ①❧✇♠⑤④❝❦✇ ⑤❤❦

❧④ ♠②❦ ✇❧③❽⑥❦ ❤⑤♠❧✐ ❭❆ ❪❆ ❫❆ ❴❆ ➊❆ ❭❭❵ ⑤✇ ✇②✐❻④

❧④ ♠②❦ ⑥⑤✇♠ ❝✐⑥✈③④❜ ➀②❧✇ ⑥⑤❻ ❻⑤✇ ❦✇♠⑤✞⑥❧✇②❦①

✞⑨ ➌⑤⑥❧⑥❦✐ ➌⑤⑥❧⑥❦❧ ✭❭❫➍➎➏❭➍➎❿✟ ❻②✐ ❻⑤✇ ♠②❦ ⑦❧❤✇♠

♠✐ ③⑤➂❦ ⑩✈⑤④♠❧♠⑤♠❧❥❦ ✇♠✈①❧❦✇ ✐⑦ ⑦❤❦❦ ⑦⑤⑥⑥❜ ✫

❊✬✮✯✰✱✲ ✳✴➐ ➑➒✼➓➓✹♥➔ ❁✹✾➒✷♥→✻ ✼❀

➣✻↔✹→✸✻✾ ↕ ➉②❦④ ✞❤⑤➂❦✇ ⑤❤❦ ⑤❽❽⑥❧❦① ♠✐ ⑤

③✐❥❧④❷ ❥❦②❧❝⑥❦❺ ♠②❦ ①❧✇♠⑤④❝❦ ❧♠ ♠❤⑤❥❦⑥✇ ✞❦⑦✐❤❦

✇♠✐❽❽❧④❷ ❧✇ ❝⑤⑥⑥❦① ✇♠✐❽❽❧④❷ ①❧✇♠⑤④❝❦❜ ➁♠ ❧✇

⑤④ ❧③❽✐❤♠⑤④♠ ⑦⑤❝♠✐❤ ⑦✐❤ ❤✐⑤① ✇⑤⑦❦♠⑨ ⑤④①

①❦❽❦④①✇ ✐④ ♠②❦ ❧④❧♠❧⑤⑥ ❥❦⑥✐❝❧♠⑨ ✭◗➙✟ ⑤④① ♠②❦

✞❤⑤➂❧④❷ ❝⑤❽⑤❝❧♠⑨❺ ✐❤ ①❦❝❦⑥❦❤⑤♠❧✐④❺ ➃❑ ♠②⑤♠

❧✇ ❝⑤✈✇❦① ✞⑨ ♠②❦ ✞❤⑤➂❧④❷❜ ➛❦❤❧❥❦ ⑤④

❦➜❽❤❦✇✇❧✐④ ⑦✐❤ ✇♠✐❽❽❧④❷ ①❧✇♠⑤④❝❦ ✐⑦ ⑤ ❥❦②❧❝⑥❦

❧④ ♠❦❤③✇ ✐⑦ ◗➝ ⑤④①❑❜

♦♣qs✲t ✉❦♠ ♠②❦ ①❧✇♠⑤④❝❦ ♠❤⑤❥❦⑥⑥❦① ✞⑨ ♠②❦ ❥❦②❧❝⑥❦

✞❦⑦✐❤❦ ❧♠ ✇♠✐❽✇ ✞❦ ●➞❜ ➀②❦④❺ ✈✇❧④❷ ❦⑩✈⑤♠❧✐④ ✐⑦

③✐♠❧✐④ ◗➅ ➟ ◗➝➅ ➠ ❿ ❑➡❺ ⑤④① ④✐♠❧④❷ ♠②⑤♠ ◗ ➢ ❾❺ ❻❦

②⑤❥❦ ♠②❦ ✇♠✐❽❽❧④❷ ①❧✇♠⑤④❝❦

➀②✈✇❺ ♠②❦ ✇♠✐❽❽❧④❷ ①❧✇♠⑤④❝❦ ❧✇ ❽❤✐❽✐❤♠❧✐④⑤⑥ ♠✐

♠②❦ ✇⑩✈⑤❤❦ ✐⑦ ♠②❦ ❧④❧♠❧⑤⑥ ❥❦⑥✐❝❧♠⑨❜ ➛✐✈✞⑥❧④❷ ♠②❦

➤➥➦➧➨ ➩➫➭

➯➲

➳➵ ➸➺➻ ➼

Page 55: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✺☛

✐✌✐✍✐✎✏ ✑✒✏✓✔✐✍✕ ✐✌✔✖✒✎✗✒✗ ✍✘✒ ✗✍✓✙✙✐✌✚ ✛✐✗✍✎✌✔✒

❜✕ ✎ ✜✎✔✍✓✖ ✓✜ ✢ ✣✜✓✖ ✍✘✒ ✗✎✤✒ ✛✒✔✒✏✒✖✎✍✐✓✌✥✦

❋✓✖ ✍✘✒ ✔✎✖ ✓✜ ✎ ✙✎✖✍✐✔✧✏✎✖ ✤✎★✒✩ ✍✘✒ ❜✖✎★✐✌✚

✛✐✗✍✎✌✔✒ ❞✎✗ ✜✓✧✌✛ ✍✓ ❜✒ ✪✫ ✤✩ ✬✫ ✤✩ ✭✢ ✤ ✎✌✛

✮✫ ✤ ✔✓✖✖✒✗✙✓✌✛✐✌✚ ✍✓ ✑✒✏✓✔✐✍✐✒✗ ✓✜ ✪✪✩ ✪✮✩ ✬✫

✎✌✛ ✬✮ ✤❛✗ ❞✘✐✔✘ ✎✖✒ ✌✒✎✖✏✕ ✔✓✌✗✐✗✍✒✌✍ ❞✐✍✘

✍✘✒ ✎❜✓✑✒ ✜✓✖✤✧✏✎✦

❙✍✓✙✙✐✌✚ ✛✐✗✍✎✌✔✒ ✐✗ ✎✌ ✐✤✙✓✖✍✎✌✍ ✜✎✔✍✓✖

✔✓✌✗✐✛✒✖✒✛ ✐✌ ✗✒✍✍✐✌✚ ✗✙✒✒✛ ✏✐✤✐✍✗✩ ✜✓✖ ✒❝✎✤✙✏✒✩

✐✌ ✗✔✘✓✓✏ ✯✓✌✒✗✦ ✰

❊✱✲✳✴✵✶ ✷✸✹ ❘✻✼✽✾✿❀❁ ✾✿❂✻ ❃ ❲✘✒✌ ✎

✗✐✍✧✎✍✐✓✌ ✛✒✤✎✌✛✗ ✓✧✖ ✐✤✤✒✛✐✎✍✒

✎✔✍✐✓✌✩ ✐✍ ✍✎★✒✗ ✗✓✤✒ ✍✐✤✒ ❜✒✜✓✖✒ ❞✒

✖✒✎✏✏✕ ✖✒✗✙✓✌✛✦ r✒✎✔✍✐✓✌ ✍✐✤✒ ✐✗ ✍✘✒

✍✐✤✒ ✎ ✙✒✖✗✓✌ ✍✎★✒✗ ✍✓ ✓❜✗✒✖✑✒✩ ✍✘✐✌★

✎✌✛ ✎✔✍✦ ❋✓✖ ✒❝✎✤✙✏✒✩ ✐✜ ✎ ✙✒✖✗✓✌ ✐✗

✛✖✐✑✐✌✚ ✎✌✛ ✗✧✛✛✒✌✏✕ ✎ ❜✓✕ ✎✙✙✒✎✖✗ ✓✌

✍✘✒ ✖✓✎✛✩ ✍✘✒✌ ✍✘✒ ✍✐✤✒ ✒✏✎✙✗✒✛ ❜✒✜✓✖✒

✘✒ ✗✏✎✤✗ ✍✘✒ ❜✖✎★✒✗ ✓✜ ✍✘✒ ✔✎✖ ✐✗ ✍✘✒

✖✒✎✔✍✐✓✌ ✍✐✤✒✦ r✒✎✔✍✐✓✌ ✍✐✤✒ ✛✒✙✒✌✛✗

✓✌ ✔✓✤✙✏✒❝✐✍✕ ✓✜ ✍✘✒ ✗✐✍✧✎✍✐✓✌ ✎✌✛ ✓✌

✎✌ ✐✌✛✐✑✐✛✧✎✏✦

❨✓✧ ✔✎✌ ✤✒✎✗✧✖✒ ✕✓✧✖ ✖✒✎✔✍✐✓✌ ✍✐✤✒

❜✕ ✎ ✗✐✤✙✏✒ ✒❝✙✒✖✐✤✒✌✍✦ ❄✎★✒ ✎ ✖✧✏✒✖

✎✌✛ ✎✗★ ✕✓✧✖ ✜✖✐✒✌✛ ✍✓ ✛✖✓✙ ✐✍ ✑✒✖✍✐✔✎✏✏✕

✍✘✖✓✧✚✘ ✍✘✒ ✚✎✙ ❜✒✍❞✒✒✌ ✕✓✧✖ ✍✘✧✤❜

✎✌✛ ✜✓✖✒✜✐✌✚✒✖ ✣❋✐✚✦ ✭✦✪✮✥✦ ❅✜✍✒✖ ✕✓✧

✔✎✍✔✘ ✐✍✩ ✜✐✌✛ ✍✘✒ ✛✐✗✍✎✌✔✒ ❆ ✍✖✎✑✒✏✏✒✛

❜✕ ✍✘✒ ✖✧✏✒✖✦ ❇✌ ✎ ✙✎✖✍✐✔✧✏✎✖ ✔✎✗✒✩ ❆ ❞✎✗

✜✓✧✌✛ ✍✓ ❜✒ ✬✪✦✫ ✔✤✦ ❢✗✍✐✤✎✍✒ ✖✒✎✔✍✐✓✌

✍✐✤✒✦

❈❉

●❍ ■t

❏❑ ▲

❖✖✩◆

sP◗

❚❣

❱✐✑✒✌ ❆ ❳ ✬✪✦✫ ✔✤ ✎✌✛ ❩ ❳ ❬✦❭ ✤ ✗➊❪✍✘✒ ✖✒✎✔✍✐✓✌

✍✐✤✒ ✐✗

❫❴❵❡❫❤❥ ❵❡❫ ❥❡

❦❡❧❉t ❑ ♠ ✰

♥♦♣ ❘q✉✈✇①②q ②q✉③④①✇⑤

❨✓✧ ✤✧✗✍ ❜✒ ✜✎✤✐✏✐✎✖ ❞✐✍✘ ✍✘✒ ✒❝✙✒✖✐✒✌✔✒ ✓✜

✍✖✎✑✒✏✏✐✌✚ ✐✌ ✎ ✍✖✎✐✌ ✎✌✛ ❜✒✐✌✚ ✓✑✒✖✍✎★✒✌ ❜✕

✎✌✓✍✘✒✖ ✍✖✎✐✌ ✤✓✑✐✌✚ ✐✌ ✍✘✒ ✗✎✤✒ ✛✐✖✒✔✍✐✓✌ ✎✗

✕✓✧ ✎✖✒✦ ❲✘✐✏✒ ✍✘✎✍ ✍✖✎✐✌ ✤✧✗✍ ❜✒ ✍✖✎✑✒✏✏✐✌✚ ✜✎✗✍✒✖

✍✘✎✌ ✕✓✧ ✍✓ ❜✒ ✎❜✏✒ ✍✓ ✙✎✗✗ ✕✓✧✩ ✐✍ ✛✓✒✗ ✗✒✒✤

✗✏✓❞✒✖ ✍✓ ✕✓✧ ✍✘✎✌ ✐✍ ❞✓✧✏✛ ❜✒ ✍✓ ✗✓✤✒✓✌✒

✗✍✎✌✛✐✌✚ ✓✌ ✍✘✒ ✚✖✓✧✌✛ ✎✌✛ ❞✎✍✔✘✐✌✚ ❜✓✍✘ ✍✘✒

✍✖✎✐✌✗✦ ❇✌ ✔✎✗✒ ❜✓✍✘ ✍✘✒ ✍✖✎✐✌✗ ✘✎✑✒ ✍✘✒ ✗✎✤✒

✑✒✏✓✔✐✍✕ ❞✐✍✘ ✖✒✗✙✒✔✍ ✍✓ ✍✘✒ ✚✖✓✧✌✛✩ ✍✘✒✌ ✍✓ ✕✓✧

✍✘✒ ✓✍✘✒✖ ✍✖✎✐✌ ❞✓✧✏✛ ✗✒✒✤ ✍✓ ❜✒ ✌✓✍ ✤✓✑✐✌✚ ✎✍

✎✏✏✦ ❄✓ ✧✌✛✒✖✗✍✎✌✛ ✗✧✔✘ ✓❜✗✒✖✑✎✍✐✓✌✗✩ ❞✒ ✌✓❞

✐✌✍✖✓✛✧✔✒ ✍✘✒ ✔✓✌✔✒✙✍ ✓✜ ✖✒✏✎✍✐✑✒ ✑✒✏✓✔✐✍✕✦

⑥✓✌✗✐✛✒✖ ✍❞✓ ✓❜⑦✒✔✍✗ ⑧ ✎✌✛ ⑨ ✤✓✑✐✌✚

✧✌✐✜✓✖✤✏✕ ❞✐✍✘ ✎✑✒✖✎✚✒ ✑✒✏✓✔✐✍✐✒✗ ⑩❶ ✎✌✛ ⑩❷ ✐✌

✓✌✒ ✛✐✤✒✌✗✐✓✌✩ ✗✎✕ ✎✏✓✌✚ ❸❹✎❝✐✗✦ ✣❺✌✏✒✗✗

✓✍✘✒✖❞✐✗✒ ✗✙✒✔✐✜✐✒✛✩ ✍✘✒ ✑✒✏✓✔✐✍✐✒✗ ✤✒✌✍✐✓✌✒✛ ✐✌

✍✘✐✗ ✔✘✎✙✍✒✖ ✎✖✒ ✤✒✎✗✧✖✒✛ ❞✐✍✘ ✖✒✜✒✖✒✌✔✒ ✍✓ ✍✘✒

✚✖✓✧✌✛✥✦ ❇✜ ❸❶ ✣✫✥ ✎✌✛ ❸❷ ✣✫✥ ✎✖✒ ✙✓✗✐✍✐✓✌✗ ✓✜ ✓❜⑦✒✔✍✗

⑧ ✎✌✛ ⑨✩ ✖✒✗✙✒✔✍✐✑✒✏✕ ✎✍ ✍✐✤✒ ❻ ❳ ✫✩ ✍✘✒✐✖ ✙✓✗✐✍✐✓✌✗

❸❶ ✣❻✥ ✎✌✛ ❸❷ ✣❻✥ ✎✍ ✍✐✤✒ ❻ ✎✖✒ ✚✐✑✒✌ ❜✕❼

❸❶ ✣❻ ✥ ❳ ❸❶ ✣✫✥ ❽ ⑩❶ ❻ ✣✭✦✪✬✎✥

❸❷ ✣❻✥ ❳ ❸❷ ✣✫✥ ❽ ⑩❷ ❻ ✣✭✦✪✬❜✥

❄✘✒✌✩ ✍✘✒ ✛✐✗✙✏✎✔✒✤✒✌✍ ✜✖✓✤ ✓❜⑦✒✔✍ ⑧ ✍✓ ✓❜⑦✒✔✍

⑨ ✐✗ ✚✐✑✒✌ ❜✕

❸❷❶✣❻✥ ❳ ❸❷ ✣❻✥ ❾ ❸❶ ✣❻✥

❳ ❿ ❸❷ ✣✫✥ ❾ ❸❶ ✣✫✥ ➀ ❽ ✣⑩❷ ❾ ⑩❶✥ ❻✦ ✣✭✦✪✭✥

❢➁✧✎✍✐✓✌ ✣✭✦✪✭✥ ✐✗ ✒✎✗✐✏✕ ✐✌✍✒✖✙✖✒✍✒✛✦ ❇✍ ✍✒✏✏✗ ✧✗

✍✘✎✍ ✎✗ ✗✒✒✌ ✜✖✓✤ ✓❜⑦✒✔✍ ⑧✩ ✓❜⑦✒✔✍ ⑨ ✘✎✗ ✎

✑✒✏✓✔✐✍✕ ⑩❷ ➂ ⑩❶ ❜✒✔✎✧✗✒ ✍✘✒ ✛✐✗✙✏✎✔✒✤✒✌✍ ✜✖✓✤

⑧ ✍✓ ⑨ ✔✘✎✌✚✒✗ ✗✍✒✎✛✐✏✕ ❜✕ ✍✘✒ ✎✤✓✧✌✍ ⑩❷ ➂ ⑩❶ ✐✌

✒✎✔✘ ✧✌✐✍ ✓✜ ✍✐✤✒✦ ❲✒ ✗✎✕ ✍✘✎✍ ✍✘✒ ✑✒✏✓✔✐✍✕ ✓✜

✓❜⑦✒✔✍ ⑨ ➃➄➅➆❻➇⑩➄ ❻➈ ➈➉➋➄➌❻ ⑧ ✐✗ ⑩❷ ➂ ⑩❶ ❼

⑩❷❶ ➍ ⑩❷ ➂ ⑩❶ ✣✭✦✪✢✎✥

❙✐✤✐✏✎✖✏✕✩ ✑✒✏✓✔✐✍✕ ✓✜ ✓❜⑦✒✔✍ ⑧ ➃➄➅➆❻➇⑩➄ ❻➈ ➈➉➋➄➌❻ ⑨

✐✗❼

⑩❶❷ ➍ ⑩❶ ➂ ⑩❷ ✣✭✦✪✢❜✥

➎➏➐➑ ➒➑➓➔ →➣↔↕➙➛➜➝➞ ➟➠➣ ➛➣↔➡➟➜➢➝ ➟➜➤➣➥

➦➧➨➩✶➫ ❄✘✒ ✖✧✏✒✖ ✛✖✓✙✗ ✧✌✛✒✖ ✜✖✒✒ ✜✎✏✏✦

❄✘✒✖✒✜✓✖✒✩ ⑩➭ ❳ ✫✩ ✎✌✛ ❩ ❳ ❾❬✦❭ ✤ ✗➊❪✦ ❄✘✒

✛✐✗✍✎✌✔✒ ✍✖✎✑✒✏✏✒✛ ❆ ✎✌✛ ✍✘✒ ✖✒✎✔✍✐✓✌ ✍✐✤✒ ❻➯ ✎✖✒

✖✒✏✎✍✒✛ ❜✕

Page 56: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✺✆

❚✝✞✟ ✟✝✠✡✟☛ ✈❇☞ ❂ ✌ ✈☞❇ ✭✍✎✏✑✒✓

◆✠✡ ✡✔ ✒✠✕✟✞✖✔✗ ✟✠✘✔ ✟✙✔✒✞✚✛ ✒✚✟✔✟ ☛

✭✚✓ ✜✢ ✈❇ ❂ ✈☞✱ ✈❇✌✈☞ ✥ ✣✎ ❚✝✔✕✱ ✢✗✠✘ ✤✦✎ ✭✍✎✏✍✓✱ ①❇

✭t✓ ✮ ①☞ ✭t✓ ✥ ①❇ ✭✣✓ ✮ ①☞ ✭✣✓✎ ❚✝✔✗✔✢✠✗✔✱ ✧✝✔ ✧✡✠

✠♦★✔✒✧✟ ✟✧✚✩ ✚✧ ✚ ✒✠✕✟✧✚✕✧ ✖✞✟✧✚✕✒✔ ✭①❇ ✭✣✓ ✮ ①☞

✭✣✓✓ ✚✙✚✗✧✱ ✚✕✖ ✧✝✔✞✗ ✙✠✟✞✧✞✠✕✮✧✞✘✔ ✪✗✚✙✝✟ ✚✗✔

✟✧✗✚✞✪✝✧ ✛✞✕✔✟ ✙✚✗✚✛✛✔✛ ✧✠ ✔✚✒✝ ✠✧✝✔✗ ✚✟ ✟✝✠✡✕

✞✕ ✐✞✪✎ ✍✎✏✫✎ ❚✝✔ ✗✔✛✚✧✞✬✔ ✬✔✛✠✒✞✧✩ ✈☞❇ ✠✗ ✈❇☞ ✞✟

③✔✗✠ ✞✕ ✧✝✞✟ ✒✚✟✔✎

✭♦✓ ✜✢ ✈☞ ✯ ✈❇✰ ✈❇ ✌ ✈☞ ✞✟ ✕✔✪✚✧✞✬✔✎ ✲✕✔ ✪✗✚✙✝ ✞✟

✟✧✔✔✙✔✗ ✧✝✚✕ ✧✝✔ ✠✧✝✔✗ ✚✕✖ ✧✝✔✩ ✘✔✔✧ ✚✧ ✚

✒✠✘✘✠✕✙✠✞✕✧✎ ✐✠✗✔❝✚✘✙✛✔✱ ✟✳✙✙✠✟✔ ✈❆ ✥✴✣✘✟✵✶

✚✕✖ ①☞ ✭✣✓ ✥ ✏✣ ✘✷ ✚✕✖ ✈❇ ✥ ✏✣ ✘ ✟✵✶✱ ①❇ ✭✣✓ ✥ ✑✣

✘✷ ✧✝✔✕ ✧✝✔ ✧✞✘✔ ✚✧ ✡✝✞✒✝ ✧✝✔✩ ✘✔✔✧ ✞✟ t ✥ ✍ ✟

✭✐✞✪✎ ✍✎✏✸✓✎ ✹✧ ✧✝✞✟ ✞✕✟✧✚✕✧ ✧✝✔✩ ✚✗✔ ♦✠✧✝ ✚✧ ✚

✙✠✟✞✧✞✠✕ ①☞ ✭t✓ ✥ ①❇ ✭t✓ ✥ ✸✣ ✘✎ ❚✝✳✟✱ ✠♦★✔✒✧ ✻

✠✬✔✗✧✚✼✔✟ ✠♦★✔✒✧ ✽ ✚✧ ✧✝✞✟ ✧✞✘✔✎ ✜✕ ✧✝✞✟ ✒✚✟✔✱✈❇☞

✥ ✏✣ ✘ ✟➊✶ ✮ ✴✣ ✘ ✟➊✶ ✥ ✮ ✏✣ ✘ ✟➊✶✥ ✮ ✈☞❇✎

✭✒✓ ✾✳✙✙✠✟✔ ✈❆ ✚✕✖ ✈✿ ✚✗✔ ✠✢ ✠✙✙✠✟✞✧✔ ✟✞✪✕✟✎ ✐✠✗

✔❝✚✘✙✛✔✱ ✞✢ ✞✕ ✧✝✔ ✚♦✠✬✔ ✔❝✚✘✙✛✔ ✠♦★✔✒✧ ✻ ✞✟

✘✠✬✞✕✪ ✡✞✧✝ ✴✣ ✘ ✟➊✶ ✟✧✚✗✧✞✕✪ ✚✧ ①❆✭✣✓ ✥ ✏✣ ✘

✚✕✖ ✠♦★✔✒✧ ✽ ✞✟ ✘✠✬✞✕✪ ✡✞✧✝ ✮ ✏✣ ✘ ✟➊✶ ✟✧✚✗✧✞✕✪

✚✧ ①✿ ✭✣✓ ✥ ✑✣ ✘✱ ✧✝✔ ✧✡✠ ✠♦★✔✒✧✟ ✘✔✔✧ ✚✧ t ✥ ✏ ✟

✭✐✞✪✎ ✍✎✏❀✓✎ ❚✝✔ ✬✔✛✠✒✞✧✩ ✠✢ ✽ ✗✔✛✚✧✞✬✔ ✧✠ ✻✱

✈✿❆ ✥ ❁✮✏✣ ✮ ✭✴✣✓❃ ✘ ✟➊✶ ✥ ✮✍✣ ✘ ✟➊✶✥ ✮ ✈❆✿✎ ✜✕ ✧✝✞✟

✒✚✟✔✱ ✧✝✔ ✘✚✪✕✞✧✳✖✔ ✠✢ ✈✿❆ ✠✗ ✈❆✿ ✭ ✥ ✍✣ ✘ ✟➊✶✓ ✞✟

✪✗✔✚✧✔✗ ✧✝✚✕ ✧✝✔ ✘✚✪✕✞✧✳✖✔ ✠✢ ✬✔✛✠✒✞✧✩ ✠✢ ✻ ✠✗

✧✝✚✧ ✠✢ ✽✎ ✜✢ ✧✝✔ ✠♦★✔✒✧✟ ✳✕✖✔✗ ✒✠✕✟✞✖✔✗✚✧✞✠✕ ✚✗✔

✧✡✠ ✧✗✚✞✕✟✱ ✧✝✔✕ ✢✠✗ ✚ ✙✔✗✟✠✕ ✟✞✧✧✞✕✪ ✠✕ ✔✞✧✝✔✗ ✠✢

✧✝✔ ✧✡✠✱ ✧✝✔ ✠✧✝✔✗ ✧✗✚✞✕ ✟✔✔✘✟ ✧✠ ✪✠ ✬✔✗✩ ✢✚✟✧✎

◆✠✧✔ ✧✝✚✧ ✤✦✎ ✭✍✎✏✑✓ ✚✗✔ ✬✚✛✞✖ ✔✬✔✕ ✞✢ ✈❆ ✚✕✖ ✈✿

✗✔✙✗✔✟✔✕✧ ✞✕✟✧✚✕✧✚✕✔✠✳✟ ✬✔✛✠✒✞✧✞✔✟✎

❊❄❅❈❉❋● ❍■❏ ❑✡✠ ✙✚✗✚✛✛✔✛ ✗✚✞✛ ✧✗✚✒✼✟ ✗✳✕

✕✠✗✧✝♥✟✠✳✧✝✎ ❚✗✚✞✕ ✹ ✘✠✬✔✟ ✕✠✗✧✝ ✡✞✧✝ ✚

✟✙✔✔✖✠✢ s✑ ✼✘✝➊✶✱ ✚✕✖ ✧✗✚✞✕ ▲✘✠✬✔✟ ✟✠✳✧✝

✡✞✧✝ ✚ ✟✙✔✔✖ ✠✢ ✇✣ ✼✘ ✝➊✶✎ ▼✝✚✧ ✞✟ ✧✝✔

✭✚✓ ✬✔✛✠✒✞✧✩ ✠✢ ▲ ✡✞✧✝ ✗✔✟✙✔✒✧ ✧✠ ✹ ❖✱

✭♦✓ ✬✔✛✠✒✞✧✩ ✠✢ ✪✗✠✳✕✖ ✡✞✧✝ ✗✔✟✙✔✒✧ ✧✠ ▲ ❖✱

✚✕✖

✭✒✓ ✬✔✛✠✒✞✧✩ ✠✢ ✚ ✘✠✕✼✔✩ ✗✳✕✕✞✕✪ ✠✕ ✧✝✔

✗✠✠✢ ✠✢ ✧✝✔ ✧✗✚✞✕ ✹ ✚✪✚✞✕✟✧ ✞✧✟ ✘✠✧✞✠✕

✭✡✞✧✝ ✚ ✬✔✛✠✒✞✧✩ ✠✢ ✏❀ ✼✘ ✝➊✶ ✡✞✧✝

✗✔✟✙✔✒✧ ✧✠ ✧✝✔ ✧✗✚✞✕ ✹✓ ✚✟ ✠♦✟✔✗✬✔✖ ♦✩

✚ ✘✚✕ ✟✧✚✕✖✞✕✪ ✠✕ ✧✝✔ ✪✗✠✳✕✖ ❖

◗❘❙❯●❱ ❲✝✠✠✟✔ ✧✝✔ ✙✠✟✞✧✞✬✔ ✖✞✗✔✒✧✞✠✕ ✠✢ ①♥✚❝✞✟

✧✠ ♦✔ ✢✗✠✘ ✟✠✳✧✝ ✧✠ ✕✠✗✧✝✎ ❚✝✔✕✱

❳❨❩❬ ❭❬❪❫ ❴❵❛❜❞❜❵❡❢❞❜❣❤ ❥❦❧♠♣❛ ❵q ❞r❵ ❵✉②❤④❞❛ r❜❞♣

❤⑤⑥❧⑦ ⑧❤⑦❵④❜❞❜❤❛⑨

❳❨❩❬ ❭❬❪⑩ ❴❵❛❜❞❜❵❡❢❞❜❣❤ ❥❦❧♠♣❛ ❵q ❞r❵ ❵✉②❤④❞❛ r❜❞♣

⑥❡❤⑤⑥❧⑦ ⑧❤⑦❵④❜❞❜❤❛❶ ❛♣❵r❜❡❥ ❞♣❤ ❞❜❣❤ ❵q

❣❤❤❞❜❡❥⑨

❳❨❩❬ ❭❬❪❷ ❴❵❛❜❞❜❵❡❢❞❜❣❤ ❥❦❧♠♣❛ ❵q ❞r❵ ❵✉②❤④❞❛ r❜❞♣

⑧❤⑦❵④❜❞❜❤❛ ❜❡ ❵♠♠❵❛❜❞❤ ❸❜❦❤④❞❜❵❡❛❶ ❛♣❵r❜❡❥

❞♣❤ ❞❜❣❤ ❵q ❣❤❤❞❜❡❥⑨

❹❺❻❼

Page 57: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✺☛

✈❆ ✥ ☞ ✌✍ ✎✏ ✑➊✒ ✥ ✓✌ ✏ ✔➊✒

✈❇ ✥ ✕ ✖✗ ✎✏ ✑➊✒ ✥ ✕ ✘✌ ✏ ✔➊✒

❘✙✚✛✜✢✣✙ ✣✙✚✤✦✢✜✧ ✤★ ✩ ✪✢✜✑ ✫✙✔✬✙✦✜ ✜✤ ✭ ✥ ✈❇✕ ✈❆✥

✕ ✍✗ ✏ ✔➊✒ ✮ ✢✯✙✯ ✜✑✙ ✜✫✛✢✰ ✩ ✛✬✬✙✛✫✔ ✜✤ ✭ ✜✤ ✏✤✣✙

✪✢✜✑ ✛ ✔✬✙✙✇ ✤★ ✍✗ ✏ ✔➊✒ ★✫✤✏ ✰✤✫✜✑ ✜✤ ✔✤✱✜✑✯

❘✙✚✛✜✢✣✙ ✣✙✚✤✦✢✜✧ ✤★ ✲✫✤✱✰✇ ✪✢✜✑ ✫✙✔✬✙✦✜ ✜✤

✩ ✥ ✗ ✕ ✈❇ ✥ ✘✌ ✏ ✔➊✒✯

■✰ ✳✦✴✮ ✚✙✜ ✜✑✙ ✣✙✚✤✦✢✜✧ ✤★ ✜✑✙✏✤✰✎✙✧ ✪✢✜✑ ✫✙✔✬✙✦✜

✜✤ ✲✫✤✱✰✇ t✙ ✈✵✯ ❘✙✚✛✜✢✣✙ ✣✙✚✤✦✢✜✧ ✤★ ✜✑✙✏✤✰✎✙✧

✪✢✜✑ ✫✙✔✬✙✦✜ ✜✤ ✭✶

✈✵❆ ✥ ✈✵ ✕ ✈❆ ✥ ✕✓❂ ✎✏ ✑➊✒ ✥✕✌ ✏✔➊✒✯ ✷✑✙✫✙★✤✫✙✮

✈✵ ✥ ✳✓✌ ✕ ✌✴ ✏ ✔➊✒ ✥ ✓✗ ✏ ✔➊✒✯

❙✹✻✻✼✽✾

✿❀ ❁❃ ❄❅❈❉❊❋ ●❍ ❍❏●❑ ❋❄ ❅❉ ●❃ ♠▲◆❖▲P ●◗ ●❋❍ ❚❄❍●❋●❄❃ ❊❯❏❃❱❉❍ ❲●❋❯ ❋●❳❉❀ ❨❯❉ ❚❄❍●❋●❄❃ ❄◗ ❋❯❉

❄❅❈❉❊❋ ❊❏❃ ❅❉ ❍❚❉❊●◗●❉❑ ❲●❋❯ ♦❉◗❉♦❉❃❊❉ ❋❄ ❏ ❊❄❃❩❉❃●❉❃❋❬❭ ❊❯❄❍❉❃ ❄♦●❱●❃❀ ❪❄♦ ❳❄❋●❄❃ ●❃

❏ ❍❋♦❏●❱❯❋ ❬●❃❉❛ ❚❄❍●❋●❄❃ ❋❄ ❋❯❉ ♦●❱❯❋ ❄◗ ❋❯❉ ❄♦●❱●❃ ●❍ ❋❏❫❉❃ ❏❍ ❚❄❍●❋●❩❉ ❏❃❑ ❋❄ ❋❯❉ ❬❉◗❋ ❏❍

❃❉❱❏❋●❩❉❀

❴❀ ❵❜◆❝ ❞❡P❢◆❝ ●❍ ❑❉◗●❃❉❑ ❏❍ ❋❯❉ ❋❄❋❏❬ ❬❉❃❱❋❯ ❄◗ ❋❯❉ ❚❏❋❯ ❋♦❏❩❉♦❍❉❑ ❅❭ ❏❃ ❄❅❈❉❊❋❀

❣❀ ❤❖✐❥❞❜❦❡♠❡P◆ ●❍ ❋❯❉ ❊❯❏❃❱❉ ●❃ ❚❄❍●❋●❄❃ ❧ ♥① ♣ ①q r ①s❀ ✉❏❋❯ ❬❉❃❱❋❯ ●❍ ❱♦❉❏❋❉♦ ❄♦ ❉②③❏❬ ❋❄

❋❯❉ ❳❏❱❃●❋③❑❉ ❄◗ ❋❯❉ ❑●❍❚❬❏❊❉❳❉❃❋ ❅❉❋❲❉❉❃ ❋❯❉ ❍❏❳❉ ❚❄●❃❋❍❀

④❀ ❁❃ ❄❅❈❉❊❋ ●❍ ❍❏●❑ ❋❄ ❅❉ ●❃ ⑤P❖⑥▲⑦♠ ♠▲◆❖▲P ●❃ ❏ ❍❋♦❏●❱❯❋ ❬●❃❉ ●◗ ●❋❍ ❑●❍❚❬❏❊❉❳❉❃❋ ●❍ ❉②③❏❬

●❃ ❉②③❏❬ ●❃❋❉♦❩❏❬❍ ❄◗ ❋●❳❉❀ ⑧❋❯❉♦❲●❍❉❛ ❋❯❉ ❳❄❋●❄❃ ●❍ ❍❏●❑ ❋❄ ❅❉ P▲P⑨⑤P❖⑥▲⑦♠⑩

❶❀ ❷❸❡⑦❜❢❡ ❸❡❞▲❦❖◆❹ ●❍ ❋❯❉ ❑●❍❚❬❏❊❉❳❉❃❋ ❑●❩●❑❉❑ ❅❭ ❋❯❉ ❋●❳❉ ●❃❋❉♦❩❏❬ ●❃ ❲❯●❊❯ ❋❯❉

❑●❍❚❬❏❊❉❳❉❃❋ ❄❊❊③♦❍ ❧

❸①

◆❺♥

⑧❃ ❏❃ ①⑨◆ ❱♦❏❚❯❛ ❋❯❉ ❏❩❉♦❏❱❉ ❩❉❬❄❊●❋❭ ❄❩❉♦ ❏ ❋●❳❉ ●❃❋❉♦❩❏❬ ●❍ ❋❯❉ ❍❬❄❚❉ ❄◗ ❋❯❉ ❬●❃❉

❊❄❃❃❉❊❋●❃❱ ❋❯❉ ●❃●❋●❏❬ ❏❃❑ ◗●❃❏❬ ❚❄❍●❋●❄❃❍ ❊❄♦♦❉❍❚❄❃❑●❃❱ ❋❄ ❋❯❏❋ ●❃❋❉♦❩❏❬❀

❻❀ ❷❸❡⑦❜❢❡ ❼❥❡❡❽ ●❍ ❋❯❉ ♦❏❋●❄ ❄◗ ❋❄❋❏❬ ❚❏❋❯ ❬❉❃❱❋❯ ❋♦❏❩❉♦❍❉❑ ❏❃❑ ❋❯❉ ❊❄♦♦❉❍❚❄❃❑●❃❱ ❋●❳❉

●❃❋❉♦❩❏❬❀

❨❯❉ ❏❩❉♦❏❱❉ ❍❚❉❉❑ ❄◗ ❏❃ ❄❅❈❉❊❋ ●❍ ❱♦❉❏❋❉♦ ❄♦ ❉②③❏❬ ❋❄ ❋❯❉ ❳❏❱❃●❋③❑❉ ❄◗ ❋❯❉ ❏❩❉♦❏❱❉

❩❉❬❄❊●❋❭ ❄❩❉♦ ❏ ❱●❩❉❃ ❋●❳❉ ●❃❋❉♦❩❏❬❀

❾❀ ❿P✐◆❜P◆❜P❡▲⑤✐ ❸❡❞▲❦❖◆❹ ❄♦ ❍●❳❚❬❭ ❩❉❬❄❊●❋❭ ●❍ ❑❉◗●❃❉❑ ❏❍ ❋❯❉ ❬●❳●❋ ❄◗ ❋❯❉ ❏❩❉♦❏❱❉ ❩❉❬❄❊●❋❭ ❏❍

❋❯❉ ❋●❳❉ ●❃❋❉♦❩❏❬ ♥◆ ❅❉❊❄❳❉❍ ●❃◗●❃●❋❉❍●❳❏❬❬❭ ❍❳❏❬❬ ❧

➀➁ ➂ ➁ ➂

➃ ➃➄ ➅➆➇ ➄ ➅➆➇

➈ ➈➉ ➋ ➉ ➋

➌➍ ➍ ➍

❨❯❉ ❩❉❬❄❊●❋❭ ❏❋ ❏ ❚❏♦❋●❊③❬❏♦ ●❃❍❋❏❃❋ ●❍ ❉②③❏❬ ❋❄ ❋❯❉ ❍❬❄❚❉ ❄◗ ❋❯❉ ❋❏❃❱❉❃❋ ❑♦❏❲❃ ❄❃

❚❄❍●❋●❄❃➎❋●❳❉ ❱♦❏❚❯ ❏❋ ❋❯❏❋ ●❃❍❋❏❃❋❀

➏❀ ❷❸❡⑦❜❢❡ ❜❦❦❡❞❡⑦❜◆❖▲P ●❍ ❋❯❉ ❊❯❏❃❱❉ ●❃ ❩❉❬❄❊●❋❭ ❑●❩●❑❉❑ ❅❭ ❋❯❉ ❋●❳❉ ●❃❋❉♦❩❏❬ ❑③♦●❃❱ ❲❯●❊❯

❋❯❉ ❊❯❏❃❱❉ ❄❊❊③♦❍ ❧

➄➐

➌➍➌

➑❀ ❿P✐◆❜P◆❜P❡▲⑤✐ ❜❦❦❡❞❡⑦❜◆❖▲P ●❍ ❑❉◗●❃❉❑ ❏❍ ❋❯❉ ❬●❳●❋ ❄◗ ❋❯❉ ❏❩❉♦❏❱❉ ❏❊❊❉❬❉♦❏❋●❄❃ ❏❍ ❋❯❉ ❋●❳❉

●❃❋❉♦❩❏❬ ♥◆ ❱❄❉❍ ❋❄ ➒❉♦❄ ❧

➀➁ ➂ ➁ ➂

➄ ➄➐ ➅➆➇ ➐ ➅➆➇

➈ ➈➉ ➋ ➉ ➋

➌➍ ➍ ➍

❨❯❉ ❏❊❊❉❬❉♦❏❋●❄❃ ❄◗ ❏❃ ❄❅❈❉❊❋ ❏❋ ❏ ❚❏♦❋●❊③❬❏♦ ❋●❳❉ ●❍ ❋❯❉ ❍❬❄❚❉ ❄◗ ❋❯❉ ❩❉❬❄❊●❋❭➎❋●❳❉

❱♦❏❚❯ ❏❋ ❋❯❏❋ ●❃❍❋❏❃❋ ❄◗ ❋●❳❉❀ ❪❄♦ ③❃●◗❄♦❳ ❳❄❋●❄❃❛ ❏❊❊❉❬❉♦❏❋●❄❃ ●❍ ➒❉♦❄ ❏❃❑ ❋❯❉ ①⑨◆

❱♦❏❚❯ ●❍ ❏ ❍❋♦❏●❱❯❋ ❬●❃❉ ●❃❊❬●❃❉❑ ❋❄ ❋❯❉ ❋●❳❉ ❏➓●❍ ❏❃❑ ❋❯❉ ❸⑨◆ ❱♦❏❚❯ ●❍ ❏ ❍❋♦❏●❱❯❋ ❬●❃❉

Page 58: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✺✆

♣✝✞✝✟✟✠✟ ✡☛ ✡☞✠ ✡✌✍✠ ✝✎✌✏✑ ✒☛✞ ✍☛✡✌☛✓ ✔✌✡☞ ✕✓✌✖☛✞✍ ✝✗✗✠✟✠✞✝✡✌☛✓✘ ①✙✚ ❣✞✝♣☞ ✌✏ ✝ ♣✝✞✝✛☛✟✝

✔☞✌✟✠ ✡☞✠ ✈✙✚ ❣✞✝♣☞ ✌✏ ✝ ✏✡✞✝✌❣☞✡ ✟✌✓✠ ✌✓✗✟✌✓✠✥ ✡☛ ✡☞✠ ✡✌✍✠ ✝✎✌✏✑

✶✵✑ ❚☞✠ ✝✞✠✝ ✕✓✥✠✞ ✡☞✠ ✜✠✟☛✗✌✡✢✣✡✌✍✠ ✗✕✞✜✠ ✛✠✡✔✠✠✓ ✡✌✍✠✏ ✚✤✝✓✥ ✚✷ ✌✏ ✠✦✕✝✟ ✡☛ ✡☞✠ ✥✌✏♣✟✝✗✠✍✠✓✡

☛✖ ✡☞✠ ☛✛♦✠✗✡ ✥✕✞✌✓❣ ✡☞✝✡ ✌✓✡✠✞✜✝✟ ☛✖ ✡✌✍✠✑

✶✶✑ ✒☛✞ ☛✛♦✠✗✡✏ ✌✓ ✕✓✌✖☛✞✍✟✢ ✝✗✗✠✟✠✞✝✡✠✥ ✞✠✗✡✌✟✌✓✠✝✞ ✍☛✡✌☛✓✘ ✡☞✠ ✖✌✜✠ ✦✕✝✓✡✌✡✌✠✏✘ ✥✌✏♣✟✝✗✠✍✠✓✡

①✘ ✡✌✍✠ ✡✝✱✠✓ ✚✘ ✌✓✌✡✌✝✟ ✜✠✟☛✗✌✡✢ ✈✧✘ ✖✌✓✝✟ ✜✠✟☛✗✌✡✢ ✈ ✝✓✥ ✝✗✗✠✟✠✞✝✡✌☛✓ ❛ ✝✞✠ ✞✠✟✝✡✠✥ ✛✢ ✝ ✏✠✡

☛✖ ✏✌✍♣✟✠ ✠✦✕✝✡✌☛✓✏ ✗✝✟✟✠✥ ❦★✩✪✫❛✚★✬ ✪✭✮❛✚★✯✩✰ ✯✲ ✫✯✚★✯✩ ✳

✈ ✴ ✈✸ ✹ ❛✚

✻ ✼ t✽

✿t❀❁

❂ ❃

❄ ❄ ❅❆❇❈

❉❈

❊ ❋

✌✖ ✡☞✠ ♣☛✏✌✡✌☛✓ ☛✖ ✡☞✠ ☛✛♦✠✗✡ ✝✡ ✡✌✍✠ ✚ ● ✵ ✌✏ ✵✑ ❍✖ ✡☞✠ ♣✝✞✡✌✗✟✠ ✏✡✝✞✡✏ ✝✡ ① ✴ ①✸ ■ ① ✌✓ ✝✛☛✜✠

✠✦✕✝✡✌☛✓✏ ✌✏ ✞✠♣✟✝✗✠✥ ✛✢ ❡① ❏ ①✸❑✑

Page 59: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✺✺

P☛☞✌✍✎ ✍☛ P☛✌✏✑✒

✶✳ ❚✓✔ ✕✖✗✓ ✘✔✙✚✗✓ ✗✛✖✜✔✛✢✔✣ ✤✥ ✖✙ ✦✤✧✔★✗ ✤✔✗✩✔✔✙ ✗✩✦ ✕✦✪✙✗✢ ✪✢✫ ✪✙ ✚✔✙✔✛✖✘✫ ✙✦✗ ✗✓✔ ✢✖✬✔

✖✢ ✗✓✔ ✬✖✚✙✪✗❛✣✔ ✦✭ ✣✪✢✕✘✖★✔✬✔✙✗✳ ❚✓✔ ✣✪✢✕✘✖★✔✬✔✙✗ ✣✔✕✔✙✣✢ ✦✙✘✥ ✦✙ ✗✓✔ ✔✙✣ ✕✦✪✙✗✢✮

✗✓✔ ✕✖✗✓ ✘✔✙✚✗✓ t✖✢ ✗✓✔ ✙✖✬✔ ✪✬✕✘✪✔✢✯ ✣✔✕✔✙✣✢ ✦✙ ✗✓✔ ✖★✗❛✖✘ ✕✖✗✓✳ ✰✙ ✦✙✔ ✣✪✬✔✙✢✪✦✙✫

✗✓✔ ✗✩✦ ✱❛✖✙✗✪✗✪✔✢ ✖✛✔ ✔✱❛✖✘ ✦✙✘✥ ✪✭ ✗✓✔ ✦✤✧✔★✗ ✣✦✔✢ ✙✦✗ ★✓✖✙✚✔ ✪✗✢ ✣✪✛✔★✗✪✦✙ ✣❛✛✪✙✚ ✗✓✔

★✦❛✛✢✔ ✦✭ ✬✦✗✪✦✙✳ ✰✙ ✖✘✘ ✦✗✓✔✛ ★✖✢✔✢✫ ✗✓✔ ✕✖✗✓ ✘✔✙✚✗✓ ✪✢ ✚✛✔✖✗✔✛ ✗✓✖✙ ✗✓✔ ✬✖✚✙✪✗❛✣✔ ✦✭

✣✪✢✕✘✖★✔✬✔✙✗✳

✷✳ ✰✙ ✜✪✔✩ ✦✭ ✕✦✪✙✗ ✶ ✖✤✦✜✔✫ ✗✓✔ ✖✜✔✛✖✚✔ ✢✕✔✔✣ ✦✭ ✖✙ ✦✤✧✔★✗ ✪✢ ✚✛✔✖✗✔✛ ✗✓✖✙ ✦✛ ✔✱❛✖✘ ✗✦ ✗✓✔

✬✖✚✙✪✗❛✣✔ ✦✭ ✗✓✔ ✖✜✔✛✖✚✔ ✜✔✘✦★✪✗✥ ✦✜✔✛ ✖ ✚✪✜✔✙ ✗✪✬✔ ✪✙✗✔✛✜✖✘✳ ❚✓✔ ✗✩✦ ✖✛✔ ✔✱❛✖✘ ✦✙✘✥ ✪✭

✗✓✔ ✕✖✗✓ ✘✔✙✚✗✓ ✪✢ ✔✱❛✖✘ ✗✦ ✗✓✔ ✬✖✚✙✪✗❛✣✔ ✦✭ ✣✪✢✕✘✖★✔✬✔✙✗✳

✸✳ ❚✓✔ ✦✛✪✚✪✙ ✖✙✣ ✗✓✔ ✕✦✢✪✗✪✜✔ ✣✪✛✔★✗✪✦✙ ✦✭ ✖✙ ✖❡✪✢ ✖✛✔ ✖ ✬✖✗✗✔✛ ✦✭ ★✓✦✪★✔✳ ✲✦❛ ✢✓✦❛✘✣ ✭✪✛✢✗

✢✕✔★✪✭✥ ✗✓✪✢ ★✓✦✪★✔ ✤✔✭✦✛✔ ✥✦❛ ✖✢✢✪✚✙ ✢✪✚✙✢ ✗✦ ✱❛✖✙✗✪✗✪✔✢ ✘✪s✔ ✣✪✢✕✘✖★✔✬✔✙✗✫ ✜✔✘✦★✪✗✥

✖✙✣ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙✳

✹✳ ✰✭ ✖ ✕✖✛✗✪★✘✔ ✪✢ ✢✕✔✔✣✪✙✚ ❛✕✫ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙ ✪✢ ✪✙ ✗✓✔ ✣✪✛✔★✗✪✦✙ ✦✭ ✜✔✘✦★✪✗✥✮ ✪✭ ✪✗✢ ✢✕✔✔✣ ✪✢

✣✔★✛✔✖✢✪✙✚✫ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙ ✪✢ ✪✙ ✗✓✔ ✣✪✛✔★✗✪✦✙ ✦✕✕✦✢✪✗✔ ✗✦ ✗✓✖✗ ✦✭ ✗✓✔ ✜✔✘✦★✪✗✥✳ ❚✓✪✢

✢✗✖✗✔✬✔✙✗ ✪✢ ✪✙✣✔✕✔✙✣✔✙✗ ✦✭ ✗✓✔ ★✓✦✪★✔ ✦✭ ✗✓✔ ✦✛✪✚✪✙ ✖✙✣ ✗✓✔ ✖❡✪✢✳

✴✳ ❚✓✔ ✢✪✚✙ ✦✭ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙ ✣✦✔✢ ✙✦✗ ✗✔✘✘ ❛✢ ✩✓✔✗✓✔✛ ✗✓✔ ✕✖✛✗✪★✘✔✵✢ ✢✕✔✔✣ ✪✢ ✪✙★✛✔✖✢✪✙✚ ✦✛

✣✔★✛✔✖✢✪✙✚✳ ❚✓✔ ✢✪✚✙ ✦✭ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙ t✖✢ ✬✔✙✗✪✦✙✔✣ ✪✙ ✕✦✪✙✗ ✸✯ ✣✔✕✔✙✣✢ ✦✙ ✗✓✔ ★✓✦✪★✔

✦✭ ✗✓✔ ✕✦✢✪✗✪✜✔ ✣✪✛✔★✗✪✦✙ ✦✭ ✗✓✔ ✖❡✪✢✳ ♦✦✛ ✔❡✖✬✕✘✔✫ ✪✭ ✗✓✔ ✜✔✛✗✪★✖✘✘✥ ❛✕✩✖✛✣ ✣✪✛✔★✗✪✦✙ ✪✢

★✓✦✢✔✙ ✗✦ ✤✔ ✗✓✔ ✕✦✢✪✗✪✜✔ ✣✪✛✔★✗✪✦✙ ✦✭ ✗✓✔ ✖❡✪✢✫ ✗✓✔ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙ ✣❛✔ ✗✦ ✚✛✖✜✪✗✥ ✪✢

✙✔✚✖✗✪✜✔✳ ✰✭ ✖ ✕✖✛✗✪★✘✔ ✪✢ ✭✖✘✘✪✙✚ ❛✙✣✔✛ ✚✛✖✜✪✗✥✫ ✗✓✪✢ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙✫ ✗✓✦❛✚✓ ✙✔✚✖✗✪✜✔✫

✛✔✢❛✘✗✢ ✪✙ ✪✙★✛✔✖✢✔ ✪✙ ✢✕✔✔✣✳ ♦✦✛ ✖ ✕✖✛✗✪★✘✔ ✗✓✛✦✩✙ ❛✕✩✖✛✣✫ ✗✓✔ ✢✖✬✔ ✙✔✚✖✗✪✜✔

✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙ t✦✭ ✚✛✖✜✪✗✥✯ ✛✔✢❛✘✗✢ ✪✙ ✣✔★✛✔✖✢✔ ✪✙ ✢✕✔✔✣✳

✻✳ ❚✓✔ ✼✔✛✦ ✜✔✘✦★✪✗✥ ✦✭ ✖ ✕✖✛✗✪★✘✔ ✖✗ ✖✙✥ ✪✙✢✗✖✙✗ ✣✦✔✢ ✙✦✗ ✙✔★✔✢✢✖✛✪✘✥ ✪✬✕✘✥ ✼✔✛✦ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙

✖✗ ✗✓✖✗ ✪✙✢✗✖✙✗✳ ✽ ✕✖✛✗✪★✘✔ ✬✖✥ ✤✔ ✬✦✬✔✙✗✖✛✪✘✥ ✖✗ ✛✔✢✗ ✖✙✣ ✥✔✗ ✓✖✜✔ ✙✦✙✾✼✔✛✦

✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙✳ ♦✦✛ ✔❡✖✬✕✘✔✫ ✖ ✕✖✛✗✪★✘✔ ✗✓✛✦✩✙ ❛✕ ✓✖✢ ✼✔✛✦ ✜✔✘✦★✪✗✥ ✖✗ ✪✗✢ ❛✕✕✔✛✬✦✢✗

✕✦✪✙✗ ✤❛✗ ✗✓✔ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙ ✖✗ ✗✓✖✗ ✪✙✢✗✖✙✗ ★✦✙✗✪✙❛✔✢ ✗✦ ✤✔ ✗✓✔ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙ ✣❛✔ ✗✦

✚✛✖✜✪✗✥✳

✿✳ ✰✙ ✗✓✔ s✪✙✔✬✖✗✪★ ✔✱❛✖✗✪✦✙✢ ✦✭ ✬✦✗✪✦✙ ■❀✱✳ t✸✳✶✶✯❁✫ ✗✓✔ ✜✖✛✪✦❛✢ ✱❛✖✙✗✪✗✪✔✢ ✖✛✔ ✖✘✚✔✤✛✖✪★✫

✪✳✔✳ ✗✓✔✥ ✬✖✥ ✤✔ ✕✦✢✪✗✪✜✔ ✦✛ ✙✔✚✖✗✪✜✔✳ ❚✓✔ ✔✱❛✖✗✪✦✙✢ ✖✛✔ ✖✕✕✘✪★✖✤✘✔ ✪✙ ✖✘✘ ✢✪✗❛✖✗✪✦✙✢

t✭✦✛ ✦✙✔ ✣✪✬✔✙✢✪✦✙✖✘ ✬✦✗✪✦✙ ✩✪✗✓ ★✦✙✢✗✖✙✗ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙✯ ✕✛✦✜✪✣✔✣ ✗✓✔ ✜✖✘❛✔✢ ✦✭ ✣✪✭✭✔✛✔✙✗

✱❛✖✙✗✪✗✪✔✢ ✖✛✔ ✢❛✤✢✗✪✗❛✗✔✣ ✪✙ ✗✓✔ ✔✱❛✖✗✪✦✙✢ ✩✪✗✓ ✕✛✦✕✔✛ ✢✪✚✙✢✳

❂✳ ❚✓✔ ✣✔✭✪✙✪✗✪✦✙✢ ✦✭ ✪✙✢✗✖✙✗✖✙✔✦❛✢ ✜✔✘✦★✪✗✥ ✖✙✣ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙ t❀✱✢✳ t✸✳✸✯ ✖✙✣ t✸✳✴✯✯ ✖✛✔

✔❡✖★✗ ✖✙✣ ✖✛✔ ✖✘✩✖✥✢ ★✦✛✛✔★✗ ✩✓✪✘✔ ✗✓✔ s✪✙✔✬✖✗✪★ ✔✱❛✖✗✪✦✙✢ t❀✱✳ t✸✳✶✶✯✯ ✖✛✔ ✗✛❛✔ ✦✙✘✥

✭✦✛ ✬✦✗✪✦✙ ✪✙ ✩✓✪★✓ ✗✓✔ ✬✖✚✙✪✗❛✣✔ ✖✙✣ ✗✓✔ ✣✪✛✔★✗✪✦✙ ✦✭ ✖★★✔✘✔✛✖✗✪✦✙ ✖✛✔ ★✦✙✢✗✖✙✗

✣❛✛✪✙✚ ✗✓✔ ★✦❛✛✢✔ ✦✭ ✬✦✗✪✦✙✳

✑❊✑✒❃☞✎✑✎

❄❅❆ ✰✙ ✩✓✪★✓ ✦✭ ✗✓✔ ✭✦✘✘✦✩✪✙✚ ✔❡✖✬✕✘✔✢ ✦✭ ✬✦✗✪✦✙✫ ★✖✙ ✗✓✔ ✤✦✣✥ ✤✔ ★✦✙✢✪✣✔✛✔✣

✖✕✕✛✦❡✪✬✖✗✔✘✥ ✖ ✕✦✪✙✗ ✦✤✧✔★✗❇

t✖✯ ✖ ✛✖✪✘✩✖✥ ★✖✛✛✪✖✚✔ ✬✦✜✪✙✚ ✩✪✗✓✦❛✗ ✧✔✛s✢ ✤✔✗✩✔✔✙ ✗✩✦ ✢✗✖✗✪✦✙✢✳

t✤✯ ✖ ✬✦✙s✔✥ ✢✪✗✗✪✙✚ ✦✙ ✗✦✕ ✦✭ ✖ ✬✖✙ ★✥★✘✪✙✚ ✢✬✦✦✗✓✘✥ ✦✙ ✖ ★✪✛★❛✘✖✛ ✗✛✖★s✳

t★✯ ✖ ✢✕✪✙✙✪✙✚ ★✛✪★s✔✗ ✤✖✘✘ ✗✓✖✗ ✗❛✛✙✢ ✢✓✖✛✕✘✥ ✦✙ ✓✪✗✗✪✙✚ ✗✓✔ ✚✛✦❛✙✣✳

t✣✯ ✖ ✗❛✬✤✘✪✙✚ ✤✔✖s✔✛ ✗✓✖✗ ✓✖✢ ✢✘✪✕✕✔✣ ✦✭✭ ✗✓✔ ✔✣✚✔ ✦✭ ✖ ✗✖✤✘✔✳

❄❅❈ ❚✓✔ ✕✦✢✪✗✪✦✙✾✗✪✬✔ t①❉❋✯ ✚✛✖✕✓✢ ✭✦✛ ✗✩✦ ★✓✪✘✣✛✔✙ ✽ ✖✙✣ ● ✛✔✗❛✛✙✪✙✚ ✭✛✦✬ ✗✓✔✪✛ ✢★✓✦✦✘

❖ ✗✦ ✗✓✔✪✛ ✓✦✬✔✢ ❍ ✖✙✣ Q ✛✔✢✕✔★✗✪✜✔✘✥ ✖✛✔ ✢✓✦✩✙ ✪✙ ♦✪✚✳ ✸✳✶❏✳ ❑✓✦✦✢✔ ✗✓✔ ★✦✛✛✔★✗

✔✙✗✛✪✔✢ ✪✙ ✗✓✔ ✤✛✖★s✔✗✢ ✤✔✘✦✩ ✮

t✖✯ t✽▲●✯ ✘✪✜✔✢ ★✘✦✢✔✛ ✗✦ ✗✓✔ ✢★✓✦✦✘ ✗✓✖✙ t●▲✽✯

t✤✯ t✽▲●✯ ✢✗✖✛✗✢ ✭✛✦✬ ✗✓✔ ✢★✓✦✦✘ ✔✖✛✘✪✔✛ ✗✓✖✙ t●▲✽✯

t★✯ t✽▲●✯ ✩✖✘s✢ ✭✖✢✗✔✛ ✗✓✖✙ t●▲✽✯

t✣✯ ✽ ✖✙✣ ● ✛✔✖★✓ ✓✦✬✔ ✖✗ ✗✓✔ t✢✖✬✔▲✣✪✭✭✔✛✔✙✗✯ ✗✪✬✔

t✔✯ t✽▲●✯ ✦✜✔✛✗✖s✔✢ t●▲✽✯ ✦✙ ✗✓✔ ✛✦✖✣ t✦✙★✔▲✗✩✪★✔✯✳

Page 60: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✺✆

✸✝✸ ❆ ✞✟✠✡☛ ☞✌✡✍✌☞ ✎✍✟✠ ✏✑✍ ✏✟✠✑ ✡✌ ✒✓✔✔ ✡✠✕ ✞✡✖✗☞ ✞✘✌✏ ✡ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✛ ✗✠ ✏➊✜ ✟☛ ✡

☞✌✍✡✘s✏✌ ✍✟✡✚ ✢✙ ✌✟ ✏✑✍ ✟✎✎✘✣✑ ✤✓✛ ✗✠ ✡✞✡✥✕ ☞✌✡✥☞ ✡✌ ✌✏✑ ✟✎✎✘✣✑ ✢✙ ✌✟ ✛✓✔✔ ✙✠✕ ✡☛✚

✍✑✌✢✍☛☞ ✏✟✠✑ r✥ ✡☛ ✡✢✌✟ ✞✘✌✏ ✡ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✤✛ ✗✠ ✏➊✜✓ ✳✏✟✟☞✑ ☞✢✘✌✡r✖✑ ☞✣✡✖✑☞ ✡☛✚

✙✖✟✌ ✌✏✑ ①✲t s✍✡✙✏ ✟✎ ✏✑✍ ✠✟✌✘✟☛✓

✸✝✦ ❆ ✚✍✢☛✗✡✍✚ ✞✡✖✗✘☛s ✘☛ ✡ ☛✡✍✍✟✞ ✖✡☛✑ ✌✡✗✑☞ ✛ ☞✌✑✙☞ ✎✟✍✞✡✍✚ ✡☛✚ ✧ ☞✌✑✙☞ r✡✣✗✞✡✍✚✕

✎✟✖✖✟✞✑✚ ✡s✡✘☛ r✥ ✛ ☞✌✑✙☞ ✎✟✍✞✡✍✚ ✡☛✚ ✧ ☞✌✑✙☞ r✡✣✗✞✡✍✚✕ ✡☛✚ ☞✟ ✟☛✓ ❢✡✣✏ ☞✌✑✙ ✘☞ ✜

✠ ✖✟☛s ✡☛✚ ✍✑♠✢✘✍✑☞ ✜ ☞✓ ★✖✟✌ ✌✏✑ ①✲t s✍✡✙✏ ✟✎ ✏✘☞ ✠✟✌✘✟☛✓ ✩✑✌✑✍✠✘☛✑ s✍✡✙✏✘✣✡✖✖✥

✡☛✚ ✟✌✏✑✍✞✘☞✑ ✏✟✞ ✖✟☛s ✌✏✑ ✚✍✢☛✗✡✍✚ ✌✡✗✑☞ ✌✟ ✎✡✖✖ ✘☛ ✡ ✙✘✌ ✜✧ ✠ ✡✞✡✥ ✎✍✟✠ ✌✏✑

☞✌✡✍✌✓

✸✝✪ ❆ ✫✑✌ ✡✘✍✙✖✡☛✑ ✌✍✡✬✑✖✖✘☛s ✡✌ ✌✏✑ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✛✔✔ ✗✠ ✏➊✜ ✑✫✑✣✌☞ ✘✌☞ ✙✍✟✚✢✣✌☞ ✟✎ ✣✟✠r✢☞✌✘✟☛

✡✌ ✌✏✑ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✜✛✔✔ ✗✠ ✏➊✜ ✍✑✖✡✌✘✬✑ ✌✟ ✌✏✑ ✫✑✌ ✙✖✡☛✑✓ ✭✏✡✌ ✘☞ ✌✏✑ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✌✏✑

✖✡✌✌✑✍ ✞✘✌✏ ✍✑☞✙✑✣✌ ✌✟ ✡☛ ✟r☞✑✍✬✑✍ ✟☛ ✌✏✑ s✍✟✢☛✚ ❧

✸✝✮ ❆ ✣✡✍ ✠✟✬✘☛s ✡✖✟☛s ✡ ☞✌✍✡✘s✏✌ ✏✘s✏✞✡✥ ✞✘✌✏ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✜✤✯ ✗✠ ✏➊✜ ✘☞ r✍✟✢s✏✌ ✌✟ ✡

☞✌✟✙ ✞✘✌✏✘☛ ✡ ✚✘☞✌✡☛✣✑ ✟✎ ✤✔✔ ✠✓ ✭✏✡✌ ✘☞ ✌✏✑ ✍✑✌✡✍✚✡✌✘✟☛ ✟✎ ✌✏✑ ✣✡✍ ✰✡☞☞✢✠✑✚

✢☛✘✎✟✍✠✉✕ ✡☛✚ ✏✟✞ ✖✟☛s ✚✟✑☞ ✘✌ ✌✡✗✑ ✎✟✍ ✌✏✑ ✣✡✍ ✌✟ ☞✌✟✙ ❧

✸✝✱ ❚✞✟ ✌✍✡✘☛☞ ❆ ✡☛✚ ✴ ✟✎ ✖✑☛s✌✏ ✵✔✔ ✠ ✑✡✣✏ ✡✍✑ ✠✟✬✘☛s ✟☛ ✌✞✟ ✙✡✍✡✖✖✑✖ ✌✍✡✣✗☞ ✞✘✌✏ ✡

✢☛✘✎✟✍✠ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✶✤ ✗✠ ✏➊✜ ✘☛ ✌✏✑ ☞✡✠✑ ✚✘✍✑✣✌✘✟☛✕ ✞✘✌✏ ❆ ✡✏✑✡✚ ✟✎ ✴✓ ❚✏✑ ✚✍✘✬✑✍ ✟✎

✴ ✚✑✣✘✚✑☞ ✌✟ ✟✬✑✍✌✡✗✑ ❆ ✡☛✚ ✡✣✣✑✖✑✍✡✌✑☞ r✥ ✜ ✠ ☞✷✹✓ ✻✎ ✡✎✌✑✍ ✛✔ ☞✕ ✌✏✑ s✢✡✍✚ ✟✎ ✴ ✫✢☞✌

r✍✢☞✏✑☞ ✙✡☞✌ ✌✏✑ ✚✍✘✬✑✍ ✟✎ ❆✕ ✞✏✡✌ ✞✡☞ ✌✏✑ ✟✍✘s✘☛✡✖ ✚✘☞✌✡☛✣✑ r✑✌✞✑✑☛ ✌✏✑✠ ❧

✸✝✼ ❖☛ ✡ ✌✞✟✲✖✡☛✑ ✍✟✡✚✕ ✣✡✍ ❆ ✘☞ ✌✍✡✬✑✖✖✘☛s ✞✘✌✏ ✡ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✧✯ ✗✠ ✏➊✜✓ ❚✞✟ ✣✡✍☞ ✴ ✡☛✚

✳ ✡✙✙✍✟✡✣✏ ✣✡✍ ❆ ✘☛ ✟✙✙✟☞✘✌✑ ✚✘✍✑✣✌✘✟☛☞ ✞✘✌✏ ✡ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✛✵ ✗✠ ✏➊✜ ✑✡✣✏✓ ❆✌ ✡

✣✑✍✌✡✘☛ ✘☛☞✌✡☛✌✕ ✞✏✑☛ ✌✏✑ ✚✘☞✌✡☛✣✑ ❆✴ ✘☞ ✑♠✢✡✖ ✌✟ ❆✳✕ r✟✌✏ r✑✘☛s ✜ ✗✠✕ ✴ ✚✑✣✘✚✑☞

✌✟ ✟✬✑✍✌✡✗✑ ❆ r✑✎✟✍✑ ✳ ✚✟✑☞✓ ✭✏✡✌ ✠✘☛✘✠✢✠ ✡✣✣✑✖✑✍✡✌✘✟☛ ✟✎ ✣✡✍ ✴ ✘☞ ✍✑♠✢✘✍✑✚ ✌✟

✡✬✟✘✚ ✡☛ ✡✣✣✘✚✑☛✌ ❧

✸✝✽ ❚✞✟ ✌✟✞☛☞ ❆ ✡☛✚ ✴ ✡✍✑ ✣✟☛☛✑✣✌✑✚ r✥ ✡ ✍✑s✢✖✡✍ r✢☞ ☞✑✍✬✘✣✑ ✞✘✌✏ ✡ r✢☞ ✖✑✡✬✘☛s ✘☛

✑✘✌✏✑✍ ✚✘✍✑✣✌✘✟☛ ✑✬✑✍✥ ✾ ✠✘☛✢✌✑☞✓ ❆ ✠✡☛ ✣✥✣✖✘☛s ✞✘✌✏ ✡ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✤✔ ✗✠ ✏➊✜ ✘☛ ✌✏✑

✚✘✍✑✣✌✘✟☛ ❆ ✌✟ ✴ ☛✟✌✘✣✑☞ ✌✏✡✌ ✡ r✢☞ s✟✑☞ ✙✡☞✌ ✏✘✠ ✑✬✑✍✥ ✜❞ ✠✘☛ ✘☛ ✌✏✑ ✚✘✍✑✣✌✘✟☛ ✟✎

✏✘☞ ✠✟✌✘✟☛✕ ✡☛✚ ✑✬✑✍✥ ✯ ✠✘☛ ✘☛ ✌✏✑ ✟✙✙✟☞✘✌✑ ✚✘✍✑✣✌✘✟☛✓ ✭✏✡✌ ✘☞ ✌✏✑ ✙✑✍✘✟✚ ✾ ✟✎ ✌✏✑

r✢☞ ☞✑✍✬✘✣✑ ✡☛✚ ✞✘✌✏ ✞✏✡✌ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✰✡☞☞✢✠✑✚ ✣✟☛☞✌✡☛✌✉ ✚✟ ✌✏✑ r✢☞✑☞ ✙✖✥ ✟☛ ✌✏✑

✍✟✡✚❧

✸✝✿❀ ❆ ✙✖✡✥✑✍ ✌✏✍✟✞☞ ✡ r✡✖✖ ✢✙✞✡✍✚☞ ✞✘✌✏ ✡☛ ✘☛✘✌✘✡✖ ☞✙✑✑✚ ✟✎ ✤✒✓✵ ✠ ☞✷❁✓

✰✡✉ ✭✏✡✌ ✘☞ ✌✏✑ ✚✘✍✑✣✌✘✟☛ ✟✎ ✡✣✣✑✖✑✍✡✌✘✟☛ ✚✢✍✘☛s ✌✏✑ ✢✙✞✡✍✚ ✠✟✌✘✟☛ ✟✎ ✌✏✑ r✡✖✖ ❧

✰r✉ ✭✏✡✌ ✡✍✑ ✌✏✑ ✬✑✖✟✣✘✌✥ ✡☛✚ ✡✣✣✑✖✑✍✡✌✘✟☛ ✟✎ ✌✏✑ r✡✖✖ ✡✌ ✌✏✑ ✏✘s✏✑☞✌ ✙✟✘☛✌ ✟✎ ✘✌☞

✠✟✌✘✟☛ ❧

✰✣✉ ✳✏✟✟☞✑ ✌✏✑ ① ❂ ✔ ✠ ✡☛✚ t ❂ ✔ ☞ ✌✟ r✑ ✌✏✑ ✖✟✣✡✌✘✟☛ ✡☛✚ ✌✘✠✑ ✟✎ ✌✏✑ r✡✖✖ ✡✌ ✘✌☞

✏✘s✏✑☞✌ ✙✟✘☛✌✕ ✬✑✍✌✘✣✡✖✖✥ ✚✟✞☛✞✡✍✚ ✚✘✍✑✣✌✘✟☛ ✌✟ r✑ ✌✏✑ ✙✟☞✘✌✘✬✑ ✚✘✍✑✣✌✘✟☛ ✟✎

①✲✡❃✘☞✕ ✡☛✚ s✘✬✑ ✌✏✑ ☞✘s☛☞ ✟✎ ✙✟☞✘✌✘✟☛✕ ✬✑✖✟✣✘✌✥ ✡☛✚ ✡✣✣✑✖✑✍✡✌✘✟☛ ✟✎ ✌✏✑ r✡✖✖

✚✢✍✘☛s ✘✌☞ ✢✙✞✡✍✚✕ ✡☛✚ ✚✟✞☛✞✡✍✚ ✠✟✌✘✟☛✓

✰✚✉ ❚✟ ✞✏✡✌ ✏✑✘s✏✌ ✚✟✑☞ ✌✏✑ r✡✖✖ ✍✘☞✑ ✡☛✚ ✡✎✌✑✍ ✏✟✞ ✖✟☛s ✚✟✑☞ ✌✏✑ r✡✖✖ ✍✑✌✢✍☛ ✌✟ ✌✏✑

✙✖✡✥✑✍♣☞ ✏✡☛✚☞ ❧ ✰❚✡✗✑ ❣ ❂ ✒✓❞ ✠ ☞✷✹ ✡☛✚ ☛✑s✖✑✣✌ ✡✘✍ ✍✑☞✘☞✌✡☛✣✑✉✓

❋❄❅❇ ❈❇❉❊

Page 61: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✺☛

✸☞✌✌ ❘✍✎✏ ✍✎✑✒ ✓✔✎✔✍✕✍✖✔ ✗✍✘✙✚ ✑✎✛✍✜✢✘✘✣ ✎✖✏ ✓✔✎✔✍ ✚✤✔✒ ✛✍✎✓✙✖✓ ✎✖✏ ✍✥✎✕✦✘✍✓✧ ✤✜ ✤✔ ✤✓

✔✛✢✍ ✙✛ ✜✎✘✓✍ t

★ ✦✎✛✔✤✑✘✍ ✤✖ ✙✖✍♦✏✤✕✍✖✓✤✙✖✎✘ ✕✙✔✤✙✖

✭✎✮ ✚✤✔✒ ✇✍✛✙ ✓✦✍✍✏ ✎✔ ✎✖ ✤✖✓✔✎✖✔ ✕✎✣ ✒✎✩✍ ✖✙✖♦✇✍✛✙ ✎✑✑✍✘✍✛✎✔✤✙✖ ✎✔ ✔✒✎✔ ✤✖✓✔✎✖✔

✭✗✮ ✚✤✔✒ ✇✍✛✙ ✓✦✍✍✏ ✕✎✣ ✒✎✩✍ ✖✙✖♦✇✍✛✙ ✩✍✘✙✑✤✔✣✧

✭✑✮ ✚✤✔✒ ✑✙✖✓✔✎✖✔ ✓✦✍✍✏ ✕✢✓✔ ✒✎✩✍ ✇✍✛✙ ✎✑✑✍✘✍✛✎✔✤✙✖✧

✭✏✮ ✚✤✔✒ ✦✙✓✤✔✤✩✍ ✩✎✘✢✍ ✙✜ ✎✑✑✍✘✍✛✎✔✤✙✖ ♠✪✫✬ ✗✍ ✓✦✍✍✏✤✖✯ ✢✦✰

✸☞✌✱ ★ ✗✎✘✘ ✤✓ ✏✛✙✦✦✍✏ ✜✛✙✕ ✎ ✒✍✤✯✒✔ ✙✜ ✲✳ ✕ ✙✖ ✎ ✜✘✙✙✛✰ ★✔ ✍✎✑✒ ✑✙✘✘✤✓✤✙✖ ✚✤✔✒ ✔✒✍ ✜✘✙✙✛✧

✔✒✍ ✗✎✘✘ ✘✙✓✍✓ ✙✖✍ ✔✍✖✔✒ ✙✜ ✤✔✓ ✓✦✍✍✏✰ ✴✘✙✔ ✔✒✍ ✓✦✍✍✏♦✔✤✕✍ ✯✛✎✦✒ ✙✜ ✤✔✓ ✕✙✔✤✙✖

✗✍✔✚✍✍✖ ✬ ✵ ✳ ✔✙ ✶✷ ✓✰

✸☞✌✸ ❊✥✦✘✎✤✖ ✑✘✍✎✛✘✣✧ ✚✤✔✒ ✍✥✎✕✦✘✍✓✧ ✔✒✍ ✏✤✓✔✤✖✑✔✤✙✖ ✗✍✔✚✍✍✖ ✹

✭✎✮ ✕✎✯✖✤✔✢✏✍ ✙✜ ✏✤✓✦✘✎✑✍✕✍✖✔ ✭✓✙✕✍✔✤✕✍✓ ✑✎✘✘✍✏ ✏✤✓✔✎✖✑✍✮ ✙✩✍✛ ✎✖ ✤✖✔✍✛✩✎✘ ✙✜ ✔✤✕✍✧

✎✖✏ ✔✒✍ ✔✙✔✎✘ ✘✍✖✯✔✒ ✙✜ ✦✎✔✒ ✑✙✩✍✛✍✏ ✗✣ ✎ ✦✎✛✔✤✑✘✍ ✙✩✍✛ ✔✒✍ ✓✎✕✍ ✤✖✔✍✛✩✎✘t

✭✗✮ ✕✎✯✖✤✔✢✏✍ ✙✜ ✎✩✍✛✎✯✍ ✩✍✘✙✑✤✔✣ ✙✩✍✛ ✎✖ ✤✖✔✍✛✩✎✘ ✙✜ ✔✤✕✍✧ ✎✖✏ ✔✒✍ ✎✩✍✛✎✯✍ ✓✦✍✍✏

✙✩✍✛ ✔✒✍ ✓✎✕✍ ✤✖✔✍✛✩✎✘✰ ✻★✩✍✛✎✯✍ ✓✦✍✍✏ ✙✜ ✎ ✦✎✛✔✤✑✘✍ ✙✩✍✛ ✎✖ ✤✖✔✍✛✩✎✘ ✙✜ ✔✤✕✍ ✤✓

✏✍✜✤✖✍✏ ✎✓ ✔✒✍ ✔✙✔✎✘ ✦✎✔✒ ✘✍✖✯✔✒ ✏✤✩✤✏✍✏ ✗✣ ✔✒✍ ✔✤✕✍ ✤✖✔✍✛✩✎✘❞✰ ✼✒✙✚ ✤✖ ✗✙✔✒ ✭✎✮

✎✖✏ ✭✗✮ ✔✒✎✔ ✔✒✍ ✓✍✑✙✖✏ ❛✢✎✖✔✤✔✣ ✤✓ ✍✤✔✒✍✛ ✯✛✍✎✔✍✛ ✔✒✎✖ ✙✛ ✍❛✢✎✘ ✔✙ ✔✒✍ ✜✤✛✓✔✰

❲✒✍✖ ✤✓ ✔✒✍ ✍❛✢✎✘✤✔✣ ✓✤✯✖ ✔✛✢✍ ✽ ✻✾✙✛ ✓✤✕✦✘✤✑✤✔✣✧ ✑✙✖✓✤✏✍✛ ✙✖✍♦✏✤✕✍✖✓✤✙✖✎✘

✕✙✔✤✙✖ ✙✖✘✣❞✰

✸☞✌✿ ★ ✕✎✖ ✚✎✘❆✓ ✙✖ ✎ ✓✔✛✎✤✯✒✔ ✛✙✎✏ ✜✛✙✕ ✒✤✓ ✒✙✕✍ ✔✙ ✎ ✕✎✛❆✍✔ ✷✰❀ ❆✕ ✎✚✎✣ ✚✤✔✒ ✎

✓✦✍✍✏ ✙✜ ❀ ❆✕ ✒➊✶✰ ✾✤✖✏✤✖✯ ✔✒✍ ✕✎✛❆✍✔ ✑✘✙✓✍✏✧ ✒✍ ✤✖✓✔✎✖✔✘✣ ✔✢✛✖✓ ✎✖✏ ✚✎✘❆✓ ✗✎✑❆

✒✙✕✍ ✚✤✔✒ ✎ ✓✦✍✍✏ ✙✜ ❤✰❀ ❆✕ ✒➊✶✰ ❲✒✎✔ ✤✓ ✔✒✍

✭✎✮ ✕✎✯✖✤✔✢✏✍ ✙✜ ✎✩✍✛✎✯✍ ✩✍✘✙✑✤✔✣✧ ✎✖✏

✭✗✮ ✎✩✍✛✎✯✍ ✓✦✍✍✏ ✙✜ ✔✒✍ ✕✎✖ ✙✩✍✛ ✔✒✍ ✤✖✔✍✛✩✎✘ ✙✜ ✔✤✕✍ ✭✤✮ ✳ ✔✙ ❁✳ ✕✤✖✧ ✭✤✤✮ ✳ ✔✙

❀✳ ✕✤✖✧ ✭✤✤✤✮ ✳ ✔✙ ❂✳ ✕✤✖ ✽ ✻❃✙✔✍✹ ❄✙✢ ✚✤✘✘ ✎✦✦✛✍✑✤✎✔✍ ✜✛✙✕ ✔✒✤✓ ✍✥✍✛✑✤✓✍ ✚✒✣ ✤✔

✤✓ ✗✍✔✔✍✛ ✔✙ ✏✍✜✤✖✍ ✎✩✍✛✎✯✍ ✓✦✍✍✏ ✎✓ ✔✙✔✎✘ ✦✎✔✒ ✘✍✖✯✔✒ ✏✤✩✤✏✍✏ ✗✣ ✔✤✕✍✧ ✎✖✏ ✖✙✔

✎✓ ✕✎✯✖✤✔✢✏✍ ✙✜ ✎✩✍✛✎✯✍ ✩✍✘✙✑✤✔✣✰ ❄✙✢ ✚✙✢✘✏ ✖✙✔ ✘✤❆✍ ✔✙ ✔✍✘✘ ✔✒✍ ✔✤✛✍✏ ✕✎✖ ✙✖

✒✤✓ ✛✍✔✢✛✖ ✒✙✕✍ ✔✒✎✔ ✒✤✓ ✎✩✍✛✎✯✍ ✓✦✍✍✏ ✚✎✓ ✇✍✛✙ ❅❞

✸☞✌❇ ■✖ ❊✥✍✛✑✤✓✍✓ ❁✰✶❁ ✎✖✏ ❁✰✶❂✧ ✚✍ ✒✎✩✍ ✑✎✛✍✜✢✘✘✣ ✏✤✓✔✤✖✯✢✤✓✒✍✏ ✗✍✔✚✍✍✖ ❈❉❋●❈❍❋ ✓✦✍✍✏

✎✖✏ ✕✎✯✖✤✔✢✏✍ ✙✜ ❈❉❋●❈❍❋ ✩✍✘✙✑✤✔✣✰ ❃✙ ✓✢✑✒ ✏✤✓✔✤✖✑✔✤✙✖ ✤✓ ✖✍✑✍✓✓✎✛✣ ✚✒✍✖ ✚✍

✑✙✖✓✤✏✍✛ ✤✖✓✔✎✖✔✎✖✍✙✢✓ ✓✦✍✍✏ ✎✖✏ ✕✎✯✖✤✔✢✏✍ ✙✜ ✩✍✘✙✑✤✔✣✰ ❝✒✍ ✤✖✓✔✎✖✔✎✖✍✙✢✓ ✓✦✍✍✏

✤✓ ✎✘✚✎✣✓ ✍❛✢✎✘ ✔✙ ✔✒✍ ✕✎✯✖✤✔✢✏✍ ✙✜ ✤✖✓✔✎✖✔✎✖✍✙✢✓ ✩✍✘✙✑✤✔✣✰ ❲✒✣ ✽

✸☞✌❏ ▲✙✙❆ ✎✔ ✔✒✍ ✯✛✎✦✒✓ ✭✎✮ ✔✙ ✭✏✮ ✭✾✤✯✰ ❁✰✷✳✮ ✑✎✛✍✜✢✘✘✣ ✎✖✏ ✓✔✎✔✍✧ ✚✤✔✒ ✛✍✎✓✙✖✓✧ ✚✒✤✑✒ ✙✜

✔✒✍✓✍ ❑❈◆◆❖✬ ✦✙✓✓✤✗✘✣ ✛✍✦✛✍✓✍✖✔ ✙✖✍♦✏✤✕✍✖✓✤✙✖✎✘ ✕✙✔✤✙✖ ✙✜ ✎ ✦✎✛✔✤✑✘✍✰

P◗❙❚ ❯❚❱❳

Page 62: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✺✆

❋✝✞✟ ✠✟✡☛

❋✝✞✟ ✠✟✡✥

✸☞✌✍ ✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✕✖✗✘ ✙✚✛✜✙ ✢✚✔ ①✣✤ ✦✧✛✢ ✛★ ✛✩✔✪✫✏✬✔✩✙✏✛✩✭✧

✬✛✢✏✛✩ ✛★ ✭ ✦✭✓✢✏♠✧✔✖ ✮✙ ✏✢ ♠✛✓✓✔♠✢ ✢✛ ✙✭✯ ★✓✛✬ ✢✚✔

✑✓✭✦✚ ✢✚✭✢ ✢✚✔ ✦✭✓✢✏♠✧✔ ✬✛❣✔✙ ✏✩ ✭ ✙✢✓✭✏✑✚✢ ✧✏✩✔ ★✛✓

✤ ✰ ✱ ✭✩✫ ✛✩ ✭ ✦✭✓✭✲✛✧✏♠ ✦✭✢✚ ★✛✓ ✤ ✳✱ ✴ ✮★ ✩✛✢✵ ✙✒✑✑✔✙✢

✭ ✙✒✏✢✭✲✧✔ ✦✚✯✙✏♠✭✧ ♠✛✩✢✔❛✢ ★✛✓ ✢✚✏✙ ✑✓✭✦✚✖

✸☞✌✶ ❆ ✦✛✧✏♠✔ ❣✭✩ ✬✛❣✏✩✑ ✛✩ ✭ ✚✏✑✚✜✭✯ ✜✏✢✚ ✭ ✙✦✔✔✫ ✛★

✕✱ ✷✬ ✚➊✹ ★✏✓✔✙ ✭ ✲✒✧✧✔✢ ✭✢ ✭ ✢✚✏✔★✻✙ ♠✭✓ ✙✦✔✔✫✏✩✑ ✭✜✭✯

✏✩ ✢✚✔ ✙✭✬✔ ✫✏✓✔♠✢✏✛✩ ✜✏✢✚ ✭ ✙✦✔✔✫ ✛★ ✘✐✗ ✷✬ ✚➊✹✖ ✮★

✢✚✔ ✬✒tt✧✔ ✙✦✔✔✫ ✛★ ✢✚✔ ✲✒✧✧✔✢ ✏✙ ✘✼✱ ✬ ✙➊✹✵ ✜✏✢✚

✜✚✭✢ ✙✦✔✔✫ ✫✛✔✙ ✢✚✔ ✲✒✧✧✔✢ ✚✏✢ ✢✚✔ ✢✚✏✔★✻✙ ♠✭✓ ✴ ✇✽✛✢✔✾

❖✲✢✭✏✩ ✢✚✭✢ ✙✦✔✔✫ ✜✚✏♠✚ ✏✙ ✓✔✧✔❣✭✩✢ ★✛✓ ✫✭✬✭✑✏✩✑

✢✚✔ ✢✚✏✔★✻✙ ♠✭✓✿✖

✸☞✌❀ ❙✒✑✑✔✙✢ ✭ ✙✒✏✢✭✲✧✔ ✦✚✯✙✏♠✭✧ ✙✏✢✒✭✢✏✛✩ ★✛✓ ✔✭♠✚ ✛★ ✢✚✔

★✛✧✧✛✜✏✩✑ ✑✓✭✦✚✙ ✇✎✏✑ ✕✖✗✗✿✾

❋✝✞✟ ✠✟✡✡

✸☞❁❂ ✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✕✖✗✕ ✑✏❣✔✙ ✢✚✔ ①✣✤ ✦✧✛✢ ✛★ ✭ ✦✭✓✢✏♠✧✔ ✔❛✔♠✒✢✏✩✑ ✛✩✔✪✫✏✬✔✩✙✏✛✩✭✧ ✙✏✬✦✧✔

✚✭✓✬✛✩✏♠ ✬✛✢✏✛✩✖ ✇❃✛✒ ✜✏✧✧ ✧✔✭✓✩ ✭✲✛✒✢ ✢✚✏✙ ✬✛✢✏✛✩ ✏✩ ✬✛✓✔ ✫✔✢✭✏✧ ✏✩ ♥✚✭✦✢✔✓✘❄✿✖

●✏❣✔ ✢✚✔ ✙✏✑✩✙ ✛★ ✦✛✙✏✢✏✛✩✵ ❣✔✧✛♠✏✢✯ ✭✩✫ ✭♠♠✔✧✔✓✭✢✏✛✩ ❣✭✓✏✭✲✧✔✙ ✛★ ✢✚✔ ✦✭✓✢✏♠✧✔ ✭✢

✤ ❅ ✱✖✕ ✙✵ ✘✖✗ ✙✵ ❇ ✘✖✗ ✙✖

❋✝✞✟ ✠✟✡✠

✸☞❁✌ ✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✕✖✗❄ ✑✏❣✔✙ ✢✚✔ ①✣✤ ✦✧✛✢ ✛★ ✭

✦✭✓✢✏♠✧✔ ✏✩ ✛✩✔✪✫✏✬✔✩✙✏✛✩✭✧ ✬✛✢✏✛✩✖

❚✚✓✔✔ ✫✏★★✔✓✔✩✢ ✔❈✒✭✧ ✏✩✢✔✓❣✭✧✙ ✛★ ✢✏✬✔

✭✓✔ ✙✚✛✜✩✖ ✮✩ ✜✚✏♠✚ ✏✩✢✔✓❣✭✧ ✏✙ ✢✚✔

✭❣✔✓✭✑✔ ✙✦✔✔✫ ✑✓✔✭✢✔✙✢✵ ✭✩✫ ✏✩ ✜✚✏♠✚

✏✙ ✏✢ ✢✚✔ ✧✔✭✙✢ ✴ ●✏❣✔ ✢✚✔ ✙✏✑✩ ✛★ ✭❣✔✓✭✑✔

❣✔✧✛♠✏✢✯ ★✛✓ ✔✭♠✚ ✏✩✢✔✓❣✭✧✖

Page 63: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✺☛

✸☞✌✌ ❋✍✎✏✑✒ ✓✔✷✕ ✎✍✖✒✗ ✘ ✗✙✒✒✚✛✜✍✢✒ ✎✑✘✙✣ ✤✥

✘ ✙✘✑✜✍r✦✒ ✍✧ ✢✤✜✍✤✧ ✘✦✤✧✎ ✘ r✤✧✗✜✘✧✜

✚✍✑✒r✜✍✤✧✔ ❞✣✑✒✒ ✒★✏✘✦ ✍✧✜✒✑✖✘✦✗ ✤✥ ✜✍✢✒

✘✑✒ ✗✣✤❛✧✔ ✩✧ ❛✣✍r✣ ✍✧✜✒✑✖✘✦ ✍✗ ✜✣✒

✘✖✒✑✘✎✒ ✘rr✒✦✒✑✘✜ ✍✤✧ ✎✑✒✘✜✒✗✜ ✍✧

✢✘✎✧✍✜✏✚✒ ♠ ✩✧ ❛✣✍r✣ ✍✧✜✒✑✖✘✦ ✍✗ ✜✣✒

✘✖✒✑✘✎✒ ✗✙✒✒✚ ✎✑✒✘✜✒✗✜ ♠ ✪✣✤✤✗✍✧✎ ✜✣✒

✙✤✗✍✜✍✖✒ ✚✍✑✒r✜✍✤✧ ✘✗ ✜✣✒ r✤✧✗✜✘✧✜

✚✍✑✒r✜✍✤✧ ✤✥ ✢✤✜✍✤✧✫ ✎✍✖✒ ✜✣✒ ✗✍✎✧✗ ✤✥ ✈

✘✧✚ ✬ ✍✧ ✜✣✒ ✜✣✑✒✒ ✍✧✜✒✑✖✘✦✗✔ ✭✣✘✜ ✘✑✒

✜✣✒ ✘rr✒✦✒✑✘✜✍✤✧✗ ✘✜ ✜✣✒ ✙✤✍✧✜✗ t✫ ✮✫ ✪

✘✧✚ ❉ ♠

❆✯✯✰✱✰✲✳✴✵ ✶✹✻✼✽✰✾✻✾

✸☞✌✸ t ✜✣✑✒✒✛❛✣✒✒✦✒✑ ✗✜✘✑✜✗ ✥✑✤✢ ✑✒✗✜✫ ✘rr✒✦✒✑✘✜✒✗ ✏✧✍✥✤✑✢✦✿ ❛✍✜✣ ❀ ✢ ✗➊❁ ✤✧ ✘ ✗✜✑✘✍✎✣✜

✑✤✘✚ ✥✤✑ ❀❂ ✗✫ ✘✧✚ ✜✣✒✧ ✢✤✖✒✗ ❛✍✜✣ ✏✧✍✥✤✑✢ ✖✒✦✤r✍✜✿✔ ❃✦✤✜ ✜✣✒ ✚✍✗✜✘✧r✒ r✤✖✒✑✒✚ ❄✿

✜✣✒ ✖✒✣✍r✦✒ ✚✏✑✍✧✎ ✜✣✒ ✧❅❇ ✗✒r✤✧✚ ❈✧ ❊ ❀✫✷✫✓●✔❍ ✖✒✑✗✏✗ ✧✔ ✭✣✘✜ ✚✤ ✿✤✏ ✒■✙✒r✜ ✜✣✍✗

✙✦✤✜ ✜✤ ❄✒ ✚✏✑✍✧✎ ✘rr✒✦✒✑✘✜✒✚ ✢✤✜✍✤✧ ♣ ✘ ✗✜✑✘✍✎✣✜ ✦✍✧✒ ✤✑ ✘ ✙✘✑✘❄✤✦✘ ♠

✸☞✌❏ t ❄✤✿ ✗✜✘✧✚✍✧✎ ✤✧ ✘ ✗✜✘✜✍✤✧✘✑✿ ✦✍✥✜ ❈✤✙✒✧ ✥✑✤✢ ✘❄✤✖✒❍ ✜✣✑✤❛✗ ✘ ❄✘✦✦ ✏✙❛✘✑✚✗ ❛✍✜✣

✜✣✒ ✢✘■✍✢✏✢ ✍✧✍✜✍✘✦ ✗✙✒✒✚ ✣✒ r✘✧✫ ✒★✏✘✦ ✜✤ ❑▲ ✢ ✗➊◆✔ ❖✤❛ ✢✏r✣ ✜✍✢✒ ✚✤✒✗ ✜✣✒ ❄✘✦✦

✜✘P✒ ✜✤ ✑✒✜✏✑✧ ✜✤ ✣✍✗ ✣✘✧✚✗♠ ✩✥ ✜✣✒ ✦✍✥✜ ✗✜✘✑✜✗ ✢✤✖✍✧✎ ✏✙ ❛✍✜✣ ✘ ✏✧✍✥✤✑✢ ✗✙✒✒✚ ✤✥

✕ ✢ ✗◗◆ ✘✧✚ ✜✣✒ ❄✤✿ ✘✎✘✍✧ ✜✣✑✤❛✗ ✜✣✒ ❄✘✦✦ ✏✙ ❛✍✜✣ ✜✣✒ ✢✘■✍✢✏✢ ✗✙✒✒✚ ✣✒ r✘✧✫ ✣✤❛

✦✤✧✎ ✚✤✒✗ ✜✣✒ ❄✘✦✦ ✜✘P✒ ✜✤ ✑✒✜✏✑✧ ✜✤ ✣✍✗ ✣✘✧✚✗ ♠

✸☞✌❘ ❙✧ ✘ ✦✤✧✎ ✣✤✑✍❚✤✧✜✘✦✦✿ ✢✤✖✍✧✎ ❄✒✦✜ ❈❋✍✎✔ ✓✔✷❯❍✫ ✘ r✣✍✦✚ ✑✏✧✗ ✜✤ ✘✧✚ ✥✑✤ ❛✍✜✣ ✘ ✗✙✒✒✚

▲ P✢ ✣➊◆

❈❛✍✜✣ ✑✒✗✙✒r✜ ✜✤ ✜✣✒ ❄✒✦✜❍ ❄✒✜❛✒✒✧ ✣✍✗ ✥✘✜✣✒✑ ✘✧✚ ✢✤✜✣✒✑ ✦✤r✘✜✒✚ ✕❂ ✢ ✘✙✘✑✜

✤✧ ✜✣✒ ✢✤✖✍✧✎ ❄✒✦✜✔ ❞✣✒ ❄✒✦✜ ✢✤✖✒✗ ❛✍✜✣ ✘ ✗✙✒✒✚ ✤✥ ❑ P✢ ✣➊◆✔ ❋✤✑ ✘✧ ✤❄✗✒✑✖✒✑ ✤✧ ✘

✗✜✘✜✍✤✧✘✑✿ ✙✦✘✜✥✤✑✢ ✤✏✜✗✍✚✒✫ ❛✣✘✜ ✍✗ ✜✣✒

❈✘❍ ✗✙✒✒✚ ✤✥ ✜✣✒ r✣✍✦✚ ✑✏✧✧✍✧✎ ✍✧ ✜✣✒ ✚✍✑✒r✜✍✤✧ ✤✥ ✢✤✜✍✤✧ ✤✥ ✜✣✒ ❄✒✦✜ ♠✔

❈❄❍ ✗✙✒✒✚ ✤✥ ✜✣✒ r✣✍✦✚ ✑✏✧✧✍✧✎ ✤✙✙✤✗✍✜✒ ✜✤ ✜✣✒ ✚✍✑✒r✜✍✤✧ ✤✥ ✢✤✜✍✤✧ ✤✥ ✜✣✒ ❄✒✦✜ ♠

❈r❍ ✜✍✢✒ ✜✘P✒✧ ❄✿ ✜✣✒ r✣✍✦✚ ✍✧ ❈✘❍ ✘✧✚ ❈❄❍ ♠

✭✣✍r✣ ✤✥ ✜✣✒ ✘✧✗❛✒✑✗ ✘✦✜✒✑ ✍✥ ✢✤✜✍✤✧ ✍✗ ✖✍✒❛✒✚ ❄✿ ✤✧✒ ✤✥ ✜✣✒ ✙✘✑✒✧✜✗ ♠

❱❲❳❨ ❩❨❬❭

✸☞✌❪ ❞❛✤ ✗✜✤✧✒✗ ✘✑✒ ✜✣✑✤❛✧ ✏✙ ✗✍✢✏✦✜✘✧✒✤✏✗✦✿ ✥✑✤✢ ✜✣✒ ✒✚✎✒ ✤✥ ✘ r✦✍✥✥ ✷❂❂ ✢ ✣✍✎✣ ❛✍✜✣

✍✧✍✜✍✘✦ ✗✙✒✒✚✗ ✤✥ ❀✕ ✢ ✗➊◆ ✘✧✚ ✓❂ ✢ ✗➊◆✔ ❫✒✑✍✥✿ ✜✣✘✜ ✜✣✒ ✎✑✘✙✣ ✗✣✤❛✧ ✍✧ ❋✍✎✔ ✓✔✷❡

r✤✑✑✒r✜✦✿ ✑✒✙✑✒✗✒✧✜✗ ✜✣✒ ✜✍✢✒ ✖✘✑✍✘✜✍✤✧ ✤✥ ✜✣✒ ✑✒✦✘✜✍✖✒ ✙✤✗✍✜✍✤✧ ✤✥ ✜✣✒ ✗✒r✤✧✚ ✗✜✤✧✒

❛✍✜✣ ✑✒✗✙✒r✜ ✜✤ ✜✣✒ ✥✍✑✗✜✔ ✇✒✎✦✒r✜ ✘✍✑ ✑✒✗✍✗✜✘✧r✒ ✘✧✚ ✘✗✗✏✢✒ ✜✣✘✜ ✜✣✒ ✗✜✤✧✒✗ ✚✤ ✧✤✜

✑✒❄✤✏✧✚ ✘✥✜✒✑ ✣✍✜✜✍✧✎ ✜✣✒ ✎✑✤✏✧✚✔ ❞✘P✒ ❣ ❊ ❀❂ ✢ ✗➊❁✔ ❴✍✖✒ ✜✣✒ ✒★✏✘✜✍✤✧✗ ✥✤✑ ✜✣✒

✦✍✧✒✘✑ ✘✧✚ r✏✑✖✒✚ ✙✘✑✜✗ ✤✥ ✜✣✒ ✙✦✤✜✔

❱❲❳❨ ❩❨❬❵

Page 64: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✻✆

✥✝✞✟ ✠✟✡☛

✸☞✌✍ ❚✎✏ ✑✒✏✏✓✔✕✖✗✏ ✘✙✚✒✎ ✛✜ ✚ ✒✚✙✕✖✢✣✏ ✗✛✤✖✦✘ ✚✣✛✦✘ ✚ ✜✖✧✏✓ ✓✖✙✏✢✕✖✛✦ ✖✑ ✑✎✛★✦ ✖✦

❋✖✘✩ ✪✩✫✬✩ ✭✮✕✚✖✦ ✕✎✏ ✓✖✑✕✚✦✢✏ ✕✙✚✤✏✙✑✏✓ ✮✯ ✕✎✏ ✒✚✙✕✖✢✣✏ ✮✏✕★✏✏✦ ✰✚✱ t ✲ ✳ ✑ ✕✛ ✴✳ ✑✵

✰✮✱ t ✲ ✫ ✑ ✕✛ ✶ ✑✩

✥✝✞✟ ✠✟✡✷

❲✎✚✕ ✖✑ ✕✎✏ ✚✤✏✙✚✘✏ ✑✒✏✏✓ ✛✜ ✕✎✏ ✒✚✙✕✖✢✣✏ ✛✤✏✙ ✕✎✏ ✖✦✕✏✙✤✚✣✑ ✖✦ ✰✚✱ ✚✦✓ ✰✮✱ ✹

✸☞✌✺ ❚✎✏ ✤✏✣✛✢✖✕✯✔✕✖✗✏ ✘✙✚✒✎ ✛✜ ✚ ✒✚✙✕✖✢✣✏ ✖✦ ✛✦✏✔✓✖✗✏✦✑✖✛✦✚✣ ✗✛✕✖✛✦ ✖✑ ✑✎✛★✦ ✖✦

❋✖✘✩ ✪✩✫✼ ✽

✥✝✞✟ ✠✟✡✾

❲✎✖✢✎ ✛✜ ✕✎✏ ✜✛✣✣✛★✖✦✘ ✜✛✙✗✿✣✚✏ ✚✙✏ ✢✛✙✙✏✢✕ ✜✛✙ ✓✏✑✢✙✖✮✖✦✘ ✕✎✏ ✗✛✕✖✛✦ ✛✜ ✕✎✏ ✒✚✙✕✖✢✣✏

✛✤✏✙ ✕✎✏ ✕✖✗✏✔✖✦✕✏✙✤✚✣ t❀✕✛ t

❁✽

✰✚✱ ①❂t❁ ❃ ❄ ①❂t❀❃ ❅ ❆ ❂t❀❃ ❂t❁ ➊ t❀❃ ❅✰➼✱ ❇ ❂t❁ ➊ t❀❃❁

✰✮✱ ❆❂t❁ ❃ ❄ ❆❂t❀❃ ❅ ❇ ❂t❁ ➊ t❀❃

✰✢✱ ❆❛❈❉❊❛●❉ ❄ ❂①❂t❁❃ ➊ ①❂t❀❃❃❍❂t❁ ➊ t❀❃

✰✓✱ ❇❛❈❉❊❛●❉ ❄ ❂❆❂t❁❃ ➊ ❆❂t❀❃❃❍❂t❁ ➊ t❀❃

✰✏✱ ①❂t❁ ❃ ❄ ①❂t❀❃ ❅ ❆❛❈❉❊❛●❉ ❂t❁ ➊ t❀❃ ❅ ❂➼❃ ❇❛❈❉❊❛●❉ ❂t❁ ➊ t❀❃❁

✰✜✱ ①❂t❁ ❃ ➊ ①❂t❀❃ ❄ ✚✙✏✚ ✿✦✓✏✙ ✕✎✏ ❆✈t ✢✿✙✤✏ ✮✛✿✦✓✏✓ ✮✯ ✕✎✏ t✔✚✧✖✑ ✚✦✓ ✕✎✏ ✓✛✕✕✏✓ ✣✖✦✏

✑✎✛★✦✩

Page 65: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✻☛

❆☞☞✌✍✎✏✑ ✒✓✔ ✕ ✌✖✌✗✌✍✘✙ ✚✛ ✜❆✖✜✢✖✢✙

✎❉✣✣✤✥✤✦✧❉★✩ ✜★✩✪✫✩✫✬

❯✭✮✯✰ ✱✲✳ ✴✵✯✴✳✶✱ ✵✷ ✸✹✮✷✷✳✺✳✯✱✮✼✽ ✴✵✳✷✷✮✴✮✳✯✱✾ ✵✺ ✸✹✳✺✮✿✼✱✮✿✳✾❀ ❁✳ ✴✼✯ ✳✼✭✮✽❂ ✹✳✷✮✯✳ ✿✳✽✵✴✮✱❂ ✼✯✹

✼✴✴✳✽✳✺✼✱✮✵✯❛ ❃✲✵❄✰✲ ❂✵❄ ❁✮✽✽ ✽✳✼✺✯ ✮✯ ✹✳✱✼✮✽ ✮✯❅✼✱✲✳❅✼✱✮✴✭ ✼❇✵❄✱ ✹✳✺✮✿✼✱✮✿✳✭❀❁✳ ✭✲✼✽✽ ✮✯✱✺✵✹❄✴✳

✱✲✮✭ ✴✵✯✴✳✶✱ ✮✯ ❇✺✮✳✷ ✮✯ ✱✲✮✭ t✶✶✳✯✹✮❈ ✭✵ ✼✭ ✱✵ ✷✼✴✮✽✮✱✼✱✳ ✮✱✭ ❄✭✳ ✮✯ ✹✳✭✴✺✮❇✮✯✰ ✶✲❂✭✮✴✼✽ ❊❄✼✯✱✮✱✮✳✭

✮✯✿✵✽✿✳✹ ✮✯ ❅✵✱✮✵✯❛

❙❄✶✶✵✭✳ ❁✳ ✲✼✿✳ ✼ ❊❄✼✯✱✮✱❂ ② ❁✲✵✭✳ ✿✼✽❄✳ ✹✳✶✳✯✹✭ ❄✶✵✯ ✼ ✭✮✯✰✽✳ ✿✼✺✮✼❇✽✳ ①❀ ✼✯✹ ✮✭ ✳❈✶✺✳✭✭✳✹

❇❂ ✼✯ ✳❊❄✼✱✮✵✯ ✹✳✷✮✯✮✯✰ ② ✼✭ ✭✵❅✳ ✭✶✳✴✮✷✮✴ ✷❄✯✴✱✮✵✯ ✵✷ ①✓ ❃✲✮✭ ✮✭ ✺✳✶✺✳✭✳✯✱✳✹ ✼✭❚

② ❋ ● ❍①■ ❍❏■

❃✲✮✭ ✺✳✽✼✱✮✵✯✭✲✮✶ ✴✼✯ ❇✳ ✿✮✭❄✼✽✮✭✳✹ ❇❂ ✹✺✼❁✮✯✰ ✼ ✰✺✼✶✲ ✵✷ ✷❄✯✴✱✮✵✯ ② ❋ ● ❍①■ ✺✳✰✼✺✹✮✯✰ ② ✼✯✹ ① ✼✭

❑✼✺✱✳✭✮✼✯ ✴✵✵✺✹✮✯✼✱✳✭❀ ✼✭ ✭✲✵❁✯ ✮✯ ▲✮✰❛ ◆❛◆❖ ❍✼■❛

❍✼■ ❍❇■

P◗❘❱ ❲❱❲❳

❑✵✯✭✮✹✳✺ ✱✲✳ ✶✵✮✯✱ ❨ ✵✯ ✱✲✳ ✴❄✺✿✳ ② ❋ ● ❍①❩ ❁✲✵✭✳ ✴✵✵✺✹✮✯✼✱✳✭ ✼✺✳ ❍①❬ ②■ ✼✯✹ ✼✯✵✱✲✳✺ ✶✵✮✯✱ ❭

❁✲✳✺✳ ✴✵✵✺✹✮✯✼✱✳✭ ✼✺✳ ❍① ❪ ❫①❬ ② ❪ ❫②❩❛ ❃✲✳ ✭✽✵✶✳ ✵✷ ✱✲✳ ✽✮✯✳ ❴✵✮✯✮✯✰ ❨ ✼✯✹ ❭ ✮✭ ✰✮✿✳✯ ❇❂❚

❵ ❜

❞❞❞

❞❡❢❣

❾❤✐❥

❤❥❦ ❍❧■

❙❄✶✶✵✭✳ ✯✵❁ ✱✲✼✱ ✱✲✳ ✶✵✮✯✱ ❭ ❅✵✿✳✭ ✼✽✵✯✰ ✱✲✳ ✴❄✺✿✳ ✱✵❁✼✺✹✭ ❨❛ ♠✯ ✱✲✮✭ ✶✺✵✴✳✭✭❀ ❫② ♥♦♣ ❫①

✹✳✴✺✳✼✭✳ ✼✯✹ ✼✶✶✺✵✼✴✲ q✳✺✵r ✱✲✵❄✰✲ ✱✲✳✮✺ ✺✼✱✮✵s

s

y

x❁✮✽✽ ✯✵✱ ✯✳✴✳✭✭✼✺✮✽❂ ✿✼✯✮✭✲❛ ✉✲✼✱ ✲✼✶✶✳✯✭

✱✵ ✱✲✳ ✽✮✯✳ ❨❭ ✼✭ ❫②✈❖❀ ❫①✈❖❛ ✇✵❄ ✴✼✯ ✭✳✳ ✱✲✼✱ ✱✲✮✭ ✽✮✯✳ ❇✳✴✵❅✳✭ ✼ ✱✼✯✰✳✯✱ ✱✵ ✱✲✳ ✴❄✺✿✳ ✼✱

✶✵✮✯✱ ❨ ✼✭ ✭✲✵❁✯ ✮✯ ▲✮✰❛ ◆❛◆❖❍❇■❛ ❃✲✮✭ ❅✳✼✯✭ ✱✲✼✱ ✱✼✯ ③ ✼✶✶✺✵✼✴✲✳✭ ✱✲✳ ✭✽✵✶✳ ✵✷ ✱✲✳ ✱✼✯✰✳✯✱ ✼✱

❨❀ ✹✳✯✵✱✳✹ ❇❂ ④❚

⑤ ⑥ ⑥

⑦ ⑧⑨⑩❶ ⑨⑩❶

❸ ❸ ❸ ❸❹

❺ ❺❻ ❼ ❻ ❼

s ❽ s ❿➀ ➀

s s❍◆■

➁➂➃ ➄➅④➅➆ ➇● ➆➂➃ ➈♥➆➅➇ ❫②➉❫① ♥➊ ❫① ♥➋➋➈➇♥➌➂➃➊ ➍➃➈➇ ➅➊ ➌♥➄➄➃♣ ➆➂➃ ♣➃➈➅➎♥➆➅➎➃ ➇● ② ➏➅➆➂ ➈➃➊➋➃➌➆ ➆➇ ①

✼✯✹ ✮✭ ❁✺✮✱✱✳✯ ✼✭ ✹②➉✹①❛ ♠✱ ✺✳✶✺✳✭✳✯✱✭ ✱✲✳ ✭✽✵✶✳ ✵✷ ✱✲✳ ✱✼✯✰✳✯✱ ✽✮✯✳ ✱✵ ✱✲✳ ✴❄✺✿✳ ② ❋ ● ❍①■ ✼✱ ✱✲✳

✶✵✮✯✱ ❍①❬ ②■➐

❙✮✯✴✳ ② ❋ ● ❍①■ ✼✯✹ ② ❪ ❫② ❋ ● ❍① ❪ ❫①■❬ ❁✳ ✴✼✯ ❁✺✮✱✳ ✱✲✳ ✹✳✷✮✯✮✱✮✵✯ ✵✷ ✱✲✳ ✹✳✺✮✿✼✱✮✿✳ ✼✭❚

➑➒

➓➔→

↔↕➙

↔➙➙

➛➜➛➜ ➝

➝➞➝➝➞

➟➠➡

➤➥➦➤➥➧➨➩➧➨➩

➫➭

➫➭

➫➯

➲➲➳

xf

➵✮✿✳✯ ❇✳✽✵❁ ✼✺✳ ✭✵❅✳ ✳✽✳❅✳✯✱✼✺❂ ✷✵✺❅❄✽✼✳ ✷✵✺ ✹✳✺✮✿✼✱✮✿✳✭ ✵✷ ✷❄✯✴✱✮✵✯✭❛ ♠✯ ✱✲✳✭✳ ➸ ❍①■ ✼✯✹ ➎ ❍①■

✺✳✶✺✳✭✳✯✱ ✼✺❇✮✱✺✼✺❂ ✷❄✯✴✱✮✵✯✭ ✵✷ ①❬ ✼✯✹ ✼ ✼✯✹ ❇ ✹✳✯✵✱✳ ✴✵✯✭✱✼✯✱ ❊❄✼✯✱✮✱✮✳✭ ✱✲✼✱ ✼✺✳ ✮✯✹✳✶✳✯✹✳✯✱

✵✷ ①➐ ➺✳✺✮✿✼✱✮✿✳✭ ✵✷ ✭✵❅✳ ✴✵❅❅✵✯ ✷❄✯✴✱✮✵✯✭ ✼✺✳ ✼✽✭✵ ✽✮✭✱✳✹ ➐

Page 66: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✻✆

xu

axu

dd

d) (a d❂ ❀

d d d= .

d d du u xt x t

xu

vxv

ux

uv)

dd

dd

d d(

✰❂ ❀✭ ✮

✷❞ ✝ ✶ ❞ ❞

➊❞ ❞ ❞

✉ ✞ ✉ ✞✉

① ① ①✞✟

xvxu

vu

dddd

dd

✡ ☛ xx x

cossindd

☞ ❀ ✌ ✍✎

❝✏s ✑ s✐♥✎

✒ ✒✒

✔✎✕✖✗♥ ✘ s✙❝

✎✒ ✒

✒✓ ❀ ✚✛

✜✢✣t ✤ ✥ ✢✣✦✛

✧ ★✩ ✧✧

x xxx

sec tan ) (sec dd

❂ ❀ ✫✬✯✱♦✲❡✱ ✳ ✴ ✱♦✵ ✱♦ ✲❡✱

✬✸ ✸ ✸

✸✹

✺✼

✼✽✼✺

✾✾✿✿

❁❃✿✿ ❄❅❆ ❀

✎ ❇❧♥

✎❈ ❉❊

❉ ❉=

❋●❍ ■ ❍

❋❏ ❏

❑▲

▼◆ ❖◗❘❙❚ ❯❱ ❲◗❘❳❨❩❖❳❨◗❚❬ ❳◆❚❖❩◆❖❩◆◗❯❭❚ ❨◗❪❯❫❳❖❴ ❩◆❲ ❩❫❫◗❪◗❘❩❖❳❯◆ ❩❘◗ ❲◗❱❳◆◗❲ ❩❚

❵❛

❵❛

✈❜ ❋

❋❢❣❤

❥▲

❦❦

▲♠♣

q

qr✇ ✇

②③④✇ ✇⑤

⑥ ⑥ ⑦⑧

⑨ ⑨ ⑨D ®

D= = =

D⑩❶❷❸❹❺❻❼ ❽❻❼❾❿❼❿➀

➁❯❭ ❩❘◗ ❱❩❙❳❪❳❩❘ ➂❳❖➃ ❖➃◗ ◆❯❖❳❯◆ ❯❱ ❩❘◗❩➄ ➅➃◗ ❱❯❘❙❭❪❩◗ ❱❯❘ ❩❘◗❩❚ ❯❱ ❚❳❙➆❪◗ ➇◗❯❙◗❖❘❳❫❩❪ ❱❳➇❭❘◗❚ ❩❘◗❩❪❚❯ ➈◆❯➂◆ ❖❯ ❴❯❭➄ ➉❯❘ ◗➋❩❙➆❪◗❬ ❖➃◗ ❩❘◗❩ ❯❱ ❩ ❘◗❫❖❩◆➇❪◗ ❳❚ ❪◗◆➇❖➃ ❖❳❙◗❚ ➌❘◗❩❲❖➃ ❩◆❲ ❖➃❩❖ ❯❱ ❩❖❘❳❩◆➇❪◗ ❳❚ ➃❩❪❱ ❯❱ ❖➃◗ ➆❘❯❲❭❫❖ ❯❱ ➌❩❚◗ ❩◆❲ ➃◗❳➇➃❖➄ ➍❭❖ ➃❯➂ ❖❯ ❲◗❩❪ ➂❳❖➃ ❖➃◗ ➆❘❯➌❪◗❙ ❯❱ ❲◗❖◗❘❙❳◆❩❖❳❯◆❯❱ ❩❘◗❩ ❯❱ ❩◆ ❳❘❘◗➇❭❪❩❘ ❱❳➇❭❘◗➎ ➅➃◗ ❙❩❖➃◗❙❩❖❳❫❩❪ ◆❯❖❳❯◆ ❯❱ ❳◆❖◗➇❘❩❪ ❳❚ ◆◗❫◗❚❚❩❘❴ ❳◆ ❫❯◆◆◗❫❖❳❯◆ ➂❳❖➃❚❭❫➃ ➆❘❯➌❪◗❙❚➄

➏◗❖ ❭❚ ❖❩➈◗ ❩ ❫❯◆❫❘◗❖◗ ◗➋❩❙➆❪◗➄ ➐❭➆➆❯❚◗ ❩ ❨❩❘❳❩➌❪◗ ❱❯❘❫◗ ➑ ➒➓➔ ❩❫❖❚ ❯◆ ❩ ➆❩❘❖❳❫❪◗ ❳◆ ❳❖❚ ❙❯❖❳❯◆❩❪❯◆➇ ➓ → ❩➋❳❚ ❱❘❯❙ ➓ ➣ ❩ ↔↕ ➓ ➣ ➌➙ ➅➃◗ ➆❘❯➌❪◗❙ ❳❚ ❖❯ ❲◗❖◗❘❙❳◆◗ ❖➃◗ ➂❯❘➈ ❲❯◆◗ ➒➛➔ ➌❴ ❖➃◗ ❱❯❘❫◗ ❯◆ ❖➃◗➆❩❘❖❳❫❪◗ ❲❭❘❳◆➇ ❖➃◗ ❙❯❖❳❯◆➄ ➅➃❳❚ ➆❘❯➌❪◗❙ ❳❚ ❲❳❚❫❭❚❚◗❲ ❳◆ ❲◗❖❩❳❪ ❳◆ ➜➃❩➆❖◗❘ ➝➄

➉❳➇❭❘◗ ➞➄➞➟ ❚➃❯➂❚ ❖➃◗ ❨❩❘❳❩❖❳❯◆ ❯❱ ➠➒➓➔ ➂❳❖➃ ➓➙ ▼❱ ❖➃◗ ❱❯❘❫◗ ➂◗❘◗ ❫❯◆❚❖❩◆❖❬ ➂❯❘➈ ➂❯❭❪❲ ➌◗ ❚❳❙➆❪❴❖➃◗ ❩❘◗❩ ➠ ➒➡→➢➔ ❩❚ ❚➃❯➂◆ ❳◆ ➉❳➇➄ ➞➄➞➟➒❳➔➄ ➍❭❖ ❳◆ ❖➃◗ ➇◗◆◗❘❩❪ ❫❩❚◗❬ ❱❯❘❫◗ ❳❚ ❨❩❘❴❳◆➇ ➄

➤➥➦➧ ➨➧➨➩

Page 67: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✁✝☎✂✞✟✁ ✠✂✄✡ ✻☛

❚☞ ✌✍✎✌✏✎✍✑✒ ✑✓✒ ✍✔✒✍ ✏✕✖✒✔ ✑✓✗✘ ✌✏✔✙✒ ✚✛✗✜✢ ✣✢✣✤ ✥✗✗✦✧★ ✎✒✑ ✏✘ ✒✩✪✎☞✫ ✑✓✒ ✬☞✎✎☞✭✗✕✜ ✑✔✗✌✮✢ ✯✗✙✗✖✒ ✑✓✒✗✕✑✒✔✙✍✎ ☞✕ ①✰✱①✲✳ ✬✔☞✩ ✱ ❛✴ ✵ ✗✕✑☞ ✍ ✎✍✔✜✒ ✕✏✩✶✒✔ ✥◆✦ ☞✬ ✘✩✍✎✎ ✗✕✑✒✔✙✍✎✘✷ ①✸✥❂✱✦ ❛✴ ①✹✺ ①✹ ❛✴ ①✼ ❀ ①✼ ❛✴ ①✽✺✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾✾ ①✿❁✹ ❛✴ ①✿ ✥❂✵✦✢ ❚✓✒ ✍✔✒✍ ✏✕✖✒✔ ✑✓✒ ✌✏✔✙✒ ✗✘ ✑✓✏✘ ✖✗✙✗✖✒✖ ✗✕✑☞ ◆ ✘✑✔✗✪✘✢ ❃✍✌✓ ✘✑✔✗✪✗✘ ✍✪✪✔☞✐✗✩✍✑✒✎✫ ✍ ✔✒✌✑✍✕✜✎✒★ ✘✗✕✌✒ ✑✓✒ ✙✍✔✗✍✑✗☞✕ ☞✬ ❋✥①✦ ☞✙✒✔ ✍ ✘✑✔✗✪ ✗✘ ✕✒✜✎✗✜✗✶✎✒✢ ❚✓✒ ✍✔✒✍ ☞✬ ✑✓✒ ✗t❄✘✑✔✗✪ ✘✓☞✭✕ ✚✛✗✜✢ ✣✢✣✤✥✗✗✦✧ ✗✘ ✑✓✒✕ ✍✪✪✔☞✐✗✩✍✑✒✎✫

❅❅❆❅❅❅❆❇ ❈❈❈❈❈ ❉❊❊❉ ●❍●➊●❍❍ ■❏✭✓✒✔✒ ❑① ✗✘ ✑✓✒ ✭✗✖✑✓ ☞✬ ✑✓✒ ✘✑✔✗✪ ✭✓✗✌✓ ✭✒ ✓✍✙✒ ✑✍✮✒✕ ✑☞ ✶✒ ✑✓✒ ✘✍✩✒ ✬☞✔ ✍✎✎ ✑✓✒ ✘✑✔✗✪✘✢ ▲☞✏ ✩✍✫✭☞✕✖✒✔ ✭✓✒✑✓✒✔ ✭✒ ✘✓☞✏✎✖ ✪✏✑ ❋✥①❖❁✹✦ ☞✔ ✑✓✒ ✩✒✍✕ ☞✬ ❋✥①❖✦ ✍✕✖ ❋✥①❖❁✹✦ ✗✕ ✑✓✒ ✍✶☞✙✒ ✒✐✪✔✒✘✘✗☞✕✢ P✬ ✭✒✑✍✮✒ ◆ ✑☞ ✶✒ ✙✒✔✫ ✙✒✔✫ ✎✍✔✜✒ ✥◆◗❘✦★ ✗✑ ✖☞✒✘ ✕☞✑ ✔✒✍✎✎✫ ✩✍✑✑✒✔★ ✘✗✕✌✒ ✑✓✒✕ ✑✓✒ ✘✑✔✗✪ ✭✗✎✎ ✶✒ ✘☞ ✑✓✗✕ ✑✓✍✑✑✓✒ ✖✗✬✬✒✔✒✕✌✒ ✶✒✑✭✒✒✕ ❋✥①❖✦ ✍✕✖ ❋✥①❖❁✹✦ ✗✘ ✙✍✕✗✘✓✗✕✜✎✫ ✘✩✍✎✎✢ ❚✓✒ ✑☞✑✍✎ ✍✔✒✍ ✏✕✖✒✔ ✑✓✒ ✌✏✔✙✒ ✑✓✒✕ ✗✘✷

❙❙❯❯

❱❲❱❲❳

❨❨

❨❨ ❩❩❬❭❭

❪❪❫❴

❚✓✒ ✎✗✩✗✑ ☞✬ ✑✓✗✘ ✘✏✩ ✍✘ ◆◗❘ ✗✘ ✮✕☞✭✕ ✍✘ ✑✓✒ ✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✎ ☞✬ ❋✥①✦ ☞✙✒✔ ① ✬✔☞✩ ✍ ✑☞ ✶✢ P✑ ✗✘ ✜✗✙✒✕ ✍ ✘✪✒✌✗✍✎✘✫✩✶☞✎ ✍✘ ✘✓☞✭✕ ✶✒✎☞✭✷

❵❜❝

❞❡❢❢❣❤ ❥❦

❚✓✒ ✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✎ ✘✗✜✕ ❧ ✎☞☞✮✘ ✎✗✮✒ ✍✕ ✒✎☞✕✜✍✑✒✖ ♠✺ ✔✒✩✗✕✖✗✕✜ ✏✘ ✑✓✍✑ ✗✑ ✶✍✘✗✌✍✎✎✫ ✗✘ ✑✓✒ ✎✗✩✗✑ ☞✬ ✑✓✒ ✘✏✩☞✬ ✍✕ ✗✕✬✗✕✗✑✒ ✕✏✩✶✒✔ ☞✬ ✑✒✔✩✘✢

♥ ✩☞✘✑ ✘✗✜✕✗✬✗✌✍✕✑ ✩✍✑✓✒✩✍✑✗✌✍✎ ✬✍✌✑ ✗✘ ✑✓✍✑ ✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✑✗☞✕ ✗✘★ ✗✕ ✍ ✘✒✕✘✒★ ✍✕ ✗✕✙✒✔✘✒ ☞✬ ✖✗✬✬✒✔✒✕✑✗✍✑✗☞✕✢

♠✏✪✪☞✘✒ ✭✒ ✓✍✙✒ ✍ ✬✏✕✌✑✗☞✕ ♦ ✥①✦ ✭✓☞✘✒ ✖✒✔✗✙✍✑✗✙✒ ✗✘ ♣ ✥①✦★ ✗✢✒✢ qrrqsr✉ ✈✇✈✇ ②

❚✓✒ ✬✏✕✌✑✗☞✕ ✜ ✥①✦ ✗✘ ✮✕☞✭✕ ✍✘ ✑✓✒ ✗✕✖✒✬✗✕✗✑✒ ✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✎ ☞✬ ♣ ✥①✦ ✍✕✖ ✗✘ ✖✒✕☞✑✒✖ ✍✘③

④⑤ ⑥⑦⑦⑧⑦⑨ ⑩❶⑩❶

♥✕ ✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✎ ✭✗✑✓ ✎☞✭✒✔ ✍✕✖ ✏✪✪✒✔ ✎✗✩✗✑✘ ✗✘ ✮✕☞✭✕ ✍✘ ✍ ✖✒✬✗✕✗✑✒ ✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✎✢ P✑ ✗✘ ✍ ✕✏✩✶✒✔✢ P✕✖✒✬✗✕✗✑✒✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✎ ✓✍✘ ✕☞ ✎✗✩✗✑✘❷ ✗✑ ✗✘ ✍ ✬✏✕✌✑✗☞✕✢

♥ ✬✏✕✖✍✩✒✕✑✍✎ ✑✓✒☞✔✒✩ ☞✬ ✩✍✑✓✒✩✍✑✗✌✘ ✘✑✍✑✒✘ ✑✓✍✑

❸❹❺❸❹❸❹❸❹ ❻❼❽❼❾❼❿❾❾➀ ➁➂

➂➃➄➅

♥✘ ✍✕ ✒✐✍✩✪✎✒★ ✘✏✪✪☞✘✒ ♣ ✥①✦ ❂ ①➆ ✍✕✖ ✭✒ ✭✗✘✓ ✑☞ ✖✒✑✒✔✩✗✕✒ ✑✓✒ ✙✍✎✏✒ ☞✬ ✑✓✒ ✖✒✬✗✕✗✑✒ ✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✎ ✬✔☞✩① ❂✤ ✑☞ ① ❂ ➇✾ ❚✓✒ ✬✏✕✌✑✗☞✕ ♦ ✥①✦ ✭✓☞✘✒ ✖✒✔✗✙✍✑✗✙✒ ✗✘ ①✼ ✗✘ ①➈➉✣✢ ❚✓✒✔✒✬☞✔✒★

➋➌

➋➍❺➋

➎➏

➐➏ ➄➄➄➅ ➑

❾❿❾❾➒

➓✎✒✍✔✎✫★ ✑☞ ✒✙✍✎✏✍✑✒ ✖✒✬✗✕✗✑✒ ✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✎✘★ ✭✒ ✕✒✒✖ ✑☞ ✮✕☞✭ ✑✓✒ ✌☞✔✔✒✘✪☞✕✖✗✕✜ ✗✕✖✒✬✗✕✗✑✒ ✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✎✘✢ ♠☞✩✒✌☞✩✩☞✕ ✗✕✖✒✬✗✕✗✑✒ ✗✕✑✒✜✔✍✎✘ ✍✔✒

Page 68: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✻✆

✶❞ ✥ ➊✝✮

♥♥ ①① ① ✞✞

✰❂ ✟

✠✡

☛✭ ☞✌ ❧✍ ✭ ✵☞✎ ✎ ✎✎

✏ ✑✒

s✓✔ ✕ ✖ ❝✗s ❝✗s ✕ s✓✔

❡ ✕ ❡✘ ✘✙ ✙ ✙ ✙ ✙ ✙

✚ ✚

✚✛ ✛

❚✜✢✣ ✢✤✦✧★✩✪✫✦✢★✤ ✦★ ✩✢✬✬✯✧✯✤✦✢✱✲ ✱✤✩ ✢✤✦✯✳✧✱✲ ✫✱✲✫✪✲✪✣ ✢✣ ✤★✦ ✧✢✳★✧★✪✣ ✱✤✩ ✢✣ ✢✤✦✯✤✩✯✩ ✦★ ✫★✤✴✯✷ ✦★✷★✪ ✦✜✯ ②✱✣✢✫ ✤★✦✢★✤✣ ★✬ ✫✱✲✫✪✲✪✣✸

Page 69: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❈❍�✁✂✄☎ ✥❖✆☎

▼✝✞✟✝✠ ✟✠ ❆ ✡▲❆✠☛

✹☞✌ ■✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✎■✑✍

✕✖ ✗✘✙ ✚✛✜✗ ✢✘✛✣✗✙✤ ✦✙ ✧✙★✙✚✩✣✙✧ ✗✘✙ ✢✩✖✢✙✣✗✜ ✩✪ ✣✩✜✫✗✫✩✖✬✧✫✜✣✚✛✢✙❞✙✖✗✬ ★✙✚✩✢✫✗✭ ✛✖✧ ✛✢✢✙✚✙✤✛✗✫✩✖ ✗✘✛✗ ✛✤✙ ✖✙✙✧✙✧ ✗✩✧✙✜✢✤✫✮✙ ✗✘✙ ❞✩✗✫✩✖ ✩✪ ✛✖ ✩✮✯✙✢✗ ✛✚✩✖✰ ✛ ✜✗✤✛✫✰✘✗ ✚✫✖✙✱ ✲✙✪✩❢✖✧ ✗✘✛✗ ✗✘✙ ✧✫✤✙✢✗✫✩✖✛✚ ✛✜✣✙✢✗ ✩✪ ✗✘✙✜✙ ✳❢✛✖✗✫✗✫✙✜ ✢✛✖ ✮✙✗✛t✙✖ ✢✛✤✙ ✩✪ ✮✭ ✴ ✛✖✧ ✵ ✜✫✰✖✜✬ ✛✜ ✫✖ ✩✖✙ ✧✫❞✙✖✜✫✩✖ ✩✖✚✭ ✗✦✩✧✫✤✙✢✗✫✩✖✜ ✛✤✙ ✣✩✜✜✫✮✚✙✱ ✶❢✗ ✫✖ ✩✤✧✙✤ ✗✩ ✧✙✜✢✤✫✮✙ ❞✩✗✫✩✖ ✩✪ ✛✖✩✮✯✙✢✗ ✫✖ ✗✦✩ ✧✫❞✙✖✜✫✩✖✜ ♦✛ ✣✚✛✖✙✷ ✩✤ ✗✘✤✙✙ ✧✫❞✙✖✜✫✩✖✜♦✜✣✛✢✙✷✬ ✦✙ ✖✙✙✧ ✗✩ ❢✜✙ ★✙✢✗✩✤✜ ✗✩ ✧✙✜✢✤✫✮✙ ✗✘✙ ✛✮✩★✙✸❞✙✖✗✫✩✖✙✧ ✣✘✭✜✫✢✛✚ ✳❢✛✖✗✫✗✫✙✜✱ ♠✘✙✤✙✪✩✤✙✬ ✫✗ ✫✜ ✪✫✤✜✗ ✖✙✢✙✜✜✛✤✭✗✩ ✚✙✛✤✖ ✗✘✙ ✚✛✖✰❢✛✰✙ ✩✪ ★✙✢✗✩✤✜✱ ✲✘✛✗ ✫✜ ✛ ★✙✢✗✩✤❄ ✺✩✦ ✗✩✛✧✧✬ ✜❢✮✗✤✛✢✗ ✛✖✧ ❞❢✚✗✫✣✚✭ ★✙✢✗✩✤✜ ❄ ✲✘✛✗ ✫✜ ✗✘✙ ✤✙✜❢✚✗ ✩✪❞❢✚✗✫✣✚✭✫✖✰ ✛ ★✙✢✗✩✤ ✮✭ ✛ ✤✙✛✚ ✖❢❞✮✙✤ ❄ ✲✙ ✜✘✛✚✚ ✚✙✛✤✖ ✗✘✫✜✗✩ ✙✖✛✮✚✙ ❢✜ ✗✩ ❢✜✙ ★✙✢✗✩✤✜ ✪✩✤ ✧✙✪✫✖✫✖✰ ★✙✚✩✢✫✗✭ ✛✖✧✛✢✢✙✚✙✤✛✗✫✩✖ ✫✖ ✛ ✣✚✛✖✙✱ ✲✙ ✗✘✙✖ ✧✫✜✢❢✜✜ ❞✩✗✫✩✖ ✩✪ ✛✖ ✩✮✯✙✢✗✫✖ ✛ ✣✚✛✖✙✱ ✐✜ ✛ ✜✫❞✣✚✙ ✢✛✜✙ ✩✪ ❞✩✗✫✩✖ ✫✖ ✛ ✣✚✛✖✙✬ ✦✙ ✜✘✛✚✚✧✫✜✢❢✜✜ ❞✩✗✫✩✖ ✦✫✗✘ ✢✩✖✜✗✛✖✗ ✛✢✢✙✚✙✤✛✗✫✩✖ ✛✖✧ ✗✤✙✛✗ ✫✖ ✧✙✗✛✫✚✗✘✙ ✣✤✩✯✙✢✗✫✚✙ ❞✩✗✫✩✖✱ ✻✫✤✢❢✚✛✤ ❞✩✗✫✩✖ ✫✜ ✛ ✪✛❞✫✚✫✛✤ ✢✚✛✜✜ ✩✪❞✩✗✫✩✖ ✗✘✛✗ ✘✛✜ ✛ ✜✣✙✢✫✛✚ ✜✫✰✖✫✪✫✢✛✖✢✙ ✫✖ ✧✛✫✚✭✸✚✫✪✙ ✜✫✗❢✛✗✫✩✖✜✱✲✙ ✜✘✛✚✚ ✧✫✜✢❢✜✜ ❢✖✫✪✩✤❞ ✢✫✤✢❢✚✛✤ ❞✩✗✫✩✖ ✫✖ ✜✩❞✙ ✧✙✗✛✫✚✱♠✘✙ ✙✳❢✛✗✫✩✖✜ ✧✙★✙✚✩✣✙✧ ✫✖ ✗✘✫✜ ✢✘✛✣✗✙✤ ✪✩✤ ❞✩✗✫✩✖ ✫✖ ✛

✣✚✛✖✙ ✢✛✖ ✮✙ ✙✛✜✫✚✭ ✙♣✗✙✖✧✙✧ ✗✩ ✗✘✙ ✢✛✜✙ ✩✪ ✗✘✤✙✙ ✧✫❞✙✖✜✫✩✖✜✱

✹☞✼ ❙✔✽✾✽✏❙ ✽✍✒ ✿❀✔✎✑✏❙✕✖ ✣✘✭✜✫✢✜✬ ✦✙ ✢✛✖ ✢✚✛✜✜✫✪✭ ✳❢✛✖✗✫✗✫✙✜ ✛✜ ✜✢✛✚✛✤✜ ✩✤★✙✢✗✩✤✜✱ ✶✛✜✫✢✛✚✚✭✬ ✗✘✙ ✧✫✪✪✙✤✙✖✢✙ ✫✜ ✗✘✛✗ ✛ ❁❂❃❅❇❉❂❊❋ ✫✜✛✜✜✩✢✫✛✗✙✧ ✦✫✗✘ ✛ ★✙✢✗✩✤ ✮❢✗ ✖✩✗ ✦✫✗✘ ✛ ✜✢✛✚✛✤✱ ✐ ✜✢✛✚✛✤✳❢✛✖✗✫✗✭ ✫✜ ✛ ✳❢✛✖✗✫✗✭ ✦✫✗✘ ❞✛✰✖✫✗❢✧✙ ✩✖✚✭✱ ✕✗ ✫✜ ✜✣✙✢✫✪✫✙✧✢✩❞✣✚✙✗✙✚✭ ✮✭ ✛ ✜✫✖✰✚✙ ✖❢❞✮✙✤✬ ✛✚✩✖✰ ✦✫✗✘ ✗✘✙ ✣✤✩✣✙✤❢✖✫✗✱ ✉♣✛❞✣✚✙✜ ✛✤✙ ● ✗✘✙ ✧✫✜✗✛✖✢✙ ✮✙✗✦✙✙✖ ✗✦✩ ✣✩✫✖✗✜✬❞✛✜✜ ✩✪ ✛✖ ✩✮✯✙✢✗✬ ✗✘✙ ✗✙❞✣✙✤✛✗❢✤✙ ✩✪ ✛ ✮✩✧✭ ✛✖✧ ✗✘✙✗✫❞✙ ✛✗ ✦✘✫✢✘ ✛ ✢✙✤✗✛✫✖ ✙★✙✖✗ ✘✛✣✣✙✖✙✧✱ ♠✘✙ ✤❢✚✙✜ ✪✩✤✢✩❞✮✫✖✫✖✰ ✜✢✛✚✛✤✜ ✛✤✙ ✗✘✙ ✤❢✚✙✜ ✩✪ ✩✤✧✫✖✛✤✭ ✛✚✰✙✮✤✛✱❏✢✛✚✛✤✜ ✢✛✖ ✮✙ ✛✧✧✙✧✬ ✜❢✮✗✤✛✢✗✙✧✬ ❞❢✚✗✫✣✚✫✙✧ ✛✖✧ ✧✫★✫✧✙✧

✹☞✌ ❑◆P◗❘❚❯❱P❲❘◆✹☞✼ ❳❱❨❩❨◗❬ ❨◆❚ ❭❪❱P❘◗❬✹☞❫ ❴❯❩P❲❵❩❲❱❨P❲❘◆ ❘❛ ❭❪❱P❘◗❬ ❜❝

◗❪❨❩ ◆❯r❜❪◗❬✹☞✹ ❡❚❚❲P❲❘◆ ❨◆❚ ❬❯❜P◗❨❱P❲❘◆ ❘❛

❭❪❱P❘◗❬ ✈ ❣◗❨❵❤❲❱❨❩ r❪P❤❘❚✹☞❥ ❦❪❬❘❩❯P❲❘◆ ❘❛ ❭❪❱P❘◗❬✹☞❧ ♥❪❱P❘◗ ❨❚❚❲P❲❘◆ ✈ ❨◆❨❩❝P❲❱❨❩

r❪P❤❘❚✹☞q ❴❘P❲❘◆ ❲◆ ❨ ❵❩❨◆❪✹☞s ❴❘P❲❘◆ ❲◆ ❨ ❵❩❨◆❪ ✇❲P❤

❱❘◆❬P❨◆P ❨❱❱❪❩❪◗❨P❲❘◆✹☞① ❦❪❩❨P❲❭❪ ❭❪❩❘❱❲P❝ ❲◆ P✇❘

❚❲r❪◆❬❲❘◆❬✹☞✌② ③◗❘④❪❱P❲❩❪ r❘P❲❘◆✹☞✌✌ ⑤◆❲❛❘◗r ❱❲◗❱❯❩❨◗ r❘P❲❘◆

❳❯rr❨◗❝③❘❲◆P❬ P❘ ❵❘◆❚❪◗⑥⑦❪◗❱❲❬❪❬❡❚❚❲P❲❘◆❨❩ ❪⑦❪◗❱❲❬❪❬

Page 70: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✻✻

❥✆✝✞ ✟✝ ✞✠✡ ☛☞✌✍✎✟☞✏ ✎✆✑✒✡☞✝✯✳ ✓☛☞ ✡✔✟✑✕✖✡✗

✍✐ ✞✠✡ ✖✡✎✘✞✠ ✟✎✌ ✒☞✡✟✌✞✠ ☛✐ ✟ ☞✡✙✞✟✎✘✖✡ ✟☞✡

✶✳✚ ✑ ✟✎✌ ✚✳✛ ✑ ☞✡✝✕✡✙✞✍r✡✖✏✗ ✞✠✡✎ ✍✞✝

✕✡☞✍✑✡✞✡☞ ✍✝ ✞✠✡ ✝✆✑ ☛✐ ✞✠✡ ✖✡✎✘✞✠✝ ☛✐ ✞✠✡

✐☛✆☞ ✝✍✌✡✝✗ ✶✳✚ ✑ ❢ ✚✳✛ ✑ ❢✶✳✚ ✑ ❢ ✚✳✛ ✑ ✜

✸✳✚ ✑✳ ✢✠✡ ✖✡✎✘✞✠ ☛✐ ✡✟✙✠ ✝✍✌✡ ✍✝ ✟ ✝✙✟✖✟☞

✟✎✌ ✞✠✡ ✕✡☞✍✑✡✞✡☞ ✍✝ ✟✖✝☛ ✟ ✝✙✟✖✟☞✳ ✢✟❛✡

✟✎☛✞✠✡☞ ✡✔✟✑✕✖✡✣ ✞✠✡ ✑✟✔✍✑✆✑ ✟✎✌

✑✍✎✍✑✆✑ ✞✡✑✕✡☞✟✞✆☞✡✝ ☛✎ ✟ ✕✟☞✞✍✙✆✖✟☞ ✌✟✏

✟☞✡ ✸✛✳✤ ✥✦ ✟✎✌ ✧★✳✧ ✥✦ ☞✡✝✕✡✙✞✍r✡✖✏✳ ✢✠✡✎✗

✞✠✡ ✌✍✐✐✡☞✡✎✙✡ ✒✡✞t✡✡✎ ✞✠✡ ✞t☛ ✞✡✑✕✡☞✟✞✆☞✡✝

✍✝ ✶✶✳★ ✥✦✳ ✩✍✑✍✖✟☞✖✏✗ ✍✐ ✟ ✆✎✍✐☛☞✑ ✝☛✖✍✌ ✙✆✒✡

☛✐ ✟✖✆✑✍✎✍✆✑ ☛✐ ✝✍✌✡ ✶✚ ✙✑ ✠✟✝ ✟ ✑✟✝✝ ☛✐

✧✳✷ ❛✘✗ ✞✠✡✎ ✍✞✝ r☛✖✆✑✡ ✍✝ ✶✚➊✪ ✑✪ ✫✟ ✝✙✟✖✟☞✬

✟✎✌ ✍✞✝ ✌✡✎✝✍✞✏ ✍✝ ✧✳✷× ✶✚✪ ❛✘ ✑➊✪ ✫✟ ✝✙✟✖✟☞✬✳

❆ ✈✭✮✰✱✲ ✴✆✟✎✞✍✞✏ ✍✝ ✟ ✴✆✟✎✞✍✞✏ ✞✠✟✞ ✠✟✝ ✒☛✞✠

✟ ✑✟✘✎✍✞✆✌✡ ✟✎✌ ✟ ✌✍☞✡✙✞✍☛✎ ✟✎✌ ☛✒✡✏✝ ✞✠✡

✰✲✵✹✺✼✽✭ ✽✹✾ ✱✿ ✹❀❀✵✰✵✱✺ ☛☞ ✡✴✆✍r✟✖✡✎✞✖✏ ✞✠✡

♣✹✲✹✽✽✭✽✱✼✲✹❁ ✽✹✾ ✱✿ ✹❀❀✵✰✵✱✺✳ ✩☛✗ ✟ r✡✙✞☛☞ ✍✝

✝✕✡✙✍✐✍✡✌ ✒✏ ✘✍r✍✎✘ ✍✞✝ ✑✟✘✎✍✞✆✌✡ ✒✏ ✟ ✎✆✑✒✡☞

✟✎✌ ✍✞✝ ✌✍☞✡✙✞✍☛✎✳ ✩☛✑✡ ✕✠✏✝✍✙✟✖ ✴✆✟✎✞✍✞✍✡✝ ✞✠✟✞

✟☞✡ ☞✡✕☞✡✝✡✎✞✡✌ ✒✏ r✡✙✞☛☞✝ ✟☞✡ ✌✍✝✕✖✟✙✡✑✡✎✞✗

r✡✖☛✙✍✞✏✗ ✟✙✙✡✖✡☞✟✞✍☛✎ ✟✎✌ ✐☛☞✙✡✳

✢☛ ☞✡✕☞✡✝✡✎✞ ✟ r✡✙✞☛☞✗ t✡ ✆✝✡ ✟ ✒☛✖✌ ✐✟✙✡ ✞✏✕✡

✍✎ ✞✠✍✝ ✒☛☛❛✳ ✢✠✆✝✗ ✟ r✡✖☛✙✍✞✏ r✡✙✞☛☞ ✙✟✎ ✒✡

☞✡✕☞✡✝✡✎✞✡✌ ✒✏ ✟ ✝✏✑✒☛✖ ✈✳ ✩✍✎✙✡ ✒☛✖✌ ✐✟✙✡ ✍✝

✌✍✐✐✍✙✆✖✞ ✞☛ ✕☞☛✌✆✙✡✗ t✠✡✎ t☞✍✞✞✡✎ ✒✏ ✠✟✎✌✗ ✟

r✡✙✞☛☞ ✍✝ ☛✐✞✡✎ ☞✡✕☞✡✝✡✎✞✡✌ ✒✏ ✟✎ ✟☞☞☛t ✕✖✟✙✡✌

☛r✡☞ ✟ ✖✡✞✞✡☞✗ ✝✟✏❂❃ ✳ ✢✠✆✝✗ ✒☛✞✠ ✈ ✟✎✌

❄❅

☞✡✕☞✡✝✡✎✞ ✞✠✡ r✡✖☛✙✍✞✏ r✡✙✞☛☞✳ ✢✠✡ ✑✟✘✎✍✞✆✌✡ ☛✐

✟ r✡✙✞☛☞ ✍✝ ☛✐✞✡✎ ✙✟✖✖✡✌ ✍✞✝ ✟✒✝☛✖✆✞✡ r✟✖✆✡✗

✍✎✌✍✙✟✞✡✌ ✒✏ ❇✈❇ ✜ ❈✳ ✢✠✆✝✗ ✟ r✡✙✞☛☞ ✍✝

☞✡✕☞✡✝✡✎✞✡✌ ✒✏ ✟ ✒☛✖✌ ✐✟✙✡✗ ✡✳✘✳ ✒✏ ❉❊ ✹❊ ♣❊ ❋❊ ✲❊ ●●●

①❊ ❍✗ t✍✞✠ ☞✡✝✕✡✙✞✍r✡ ✑✟✘✎✍✞✆✌✡✝ ✌✡✎☛✞✡✌ ✒✏ ✖✍✘✠✞

✐✟✙✡ ■❏ ❑❏ ▲❏ ▼❏ ◆❏ ❖❖❖ ◗❏ ❘✳

❙●❚●❯ ❱✱❲✵✰✵✱✺ ✹✺❀ ❳✵❲♣✽✹✮✭❁✭✺✰ ❨✭✮✰✱✲❲

✢☛ ✌✡✝✙☞✍✒✡ ✞✠✡ ✕☛✝✍✞✍☛✎ ☛✐ ✟✎ ☛✒❥✡✙✞ ✑☛r✍✎✘ ✍✎

✟ ✕✖✟✎✡✗ t✡ ✎✡✡✌ ✞☛ ✙✠☛☛✝✡ ✟ ✙☛✎r✡✎✍✡✎✞ ✕☛✍✎✞✗

✝✟✏ s ✟✝ ☛☞✍✘✍✎✳ ❩✡✞ ❬ ✟✎✌ ❬❭ ✒✡ ✞✠✡ ✕☛✝✍✞✍☛✎✝ ☛✐

✞✠✡ ☛✒❥✡✙✞ ✟✞ ✞✍✑✡ ❪ ✟✎✌ ❪❭ ✗ ☞✡✝✕✡✙✞✍r✡✖✏ ❫✓✍✘✳ ★✳✶✫✟✬❴✳

❵✡ ❥☛✍✎ s ✟✎✌ ❬ ✒✏ ✟ ✝✞☞✟✍✘✠✞ ✖✍✎✡✳ ✢✠✡✎✗ ❜❱ ✍✝

✞✠✡ ✕☛✝✍✞✍☛✎ r✡✙✞☛☞ ☛✐ ✞✠✡ ☛✒❥✡✙✞ ✟✞ ✞✍✑✡ ❪✳ ❆✎

✟☞☞☛t ✍✝ ✑✟☞❛✡✌ ✟✞ ✞✠✡ ✠✡✟✌ ☛✐ ✞✠✍✝ ✖✍✎✡✳ ❝✞ ✍✝

☞✡✕☞✡✝✡✎✞✡✌ ✒✏ ✟ ✝✏✑✒☛✖ ✲✗ ✍✳✡✳ ❜❱✜ ✲✳ ❬☛✍✎✞ ❬❭ ✍✝

☞✡✕☞✡✝✡✎✞✡✌ ✒✏ ✟✎☛✞✠✡☞ ✕☛✝✍✞✍☛✎ r✡✙✞☛☞✗ ❜❱❭

✌✡✎☛✞✡✌ ✒✏ ✲❭ ✳ ✢✠✡ ✖✡✎✘✞✠ ☛✐ ✞✠✡ r✡✙✞☛☞ ✲

☞✡✕☞✡✝✡✎✞✝ ✞✠✡ ✑✟✘✎✍✞✆✌✡ ☛✐ ✞✠✡ r✡✙✞☛☞ ✟✎✌ ✍✞✝

✌✍☞✡✙✞✍☛✎ ✍✝ ✞✠✡ ✌✍☞✡✙✞✍☛✎ ✍✎ t✠✍✙✠ ❬ ✖✍✡✝ ✟✝ ✝✡✡✎

✐☞☛✑ s✳ ❝✐ ✞✠✡ ☛✒❥✡✙✞ ✑☛r✡✝ ✐☞☛✑ ❬ ✞☛ ❬❭ ✗ ✞✠✡

r✡✙✞☛☞ ❱❱❭ ✫t✍✞✠ ✞✟✍✖ ✟✞ ❬ ✟✎✌ ✞✍✕ ✟✞ ❬❭ ✬ ✍✝ ✙✟✖✖✡✌

✞✠✡ ❀✵❲♣✽✹✮✭❁✭✺✰ ✈✭✮✰✱✲ ✙☛☞☞✡✝✕☛✎✌✍✎✘ ✞☛

✑☛✞✍☛✎ ✐☞☛✑✕☛✍✎✞❬ ✫✟✞ ✞✍✑✡ ❪✬ ✞☛ ✕☛✍✎✞ ❬❭ ✫✟✞ ✞✍✑✡ ❪❭ ✬✳

❞❡❣❤ ❦❤❧ ♠♥♦ q✉✇②③②✉④ ⑤④⑥ ⑥②✇⑦⑧⑤⑨⑩❶⑩④③ ❷⑩⑨③✉❸✇❹♠❺♦ ❻②✇⑦⑧⑤⑨⑩❶⑩④③ ❷⑩⑨③✉❸ ❼Q ⑤④⑥ ⑥②❽❽⑩❸⑩④③

⑨✉❾❸✇⑩✇ ✉❽ ❶✉③②✉④❹

❝✞ ✍✝ ✍✑✕☛☞✞✟✎✞ ✞☛ ✎☛✞✡ ✞✠✟✞ ✌✍✝✕✖✟✙✡✑✡✎✞

r✡✙✞☛☞ ✍✝ ✞✠✡ ✝✞☞✟✍✘✠✞ ✖✍✎✡ ❥☛✍✎✍✎✘ ✞✠✡ ✍✎✍✞✍✟✖ ✟✎✌

✐✍✎✟✖ ✕☛✝✍✞✍☛✎✝ ✟✎✌ ✌☛✡✝ ✎☛✞ ✌✡✕✡✎✌ ☛✎ ✞✠✡ ✟✙✞✆✟✖

✕✟✞✠ ✆✎✌✡☞✞✟❛✡✎ ✒✏ ✞✠✡ ☛✒❥✡✙✞ ✒✡✞t✡✡✎ ✞✠✡ ✞t☛

✕☛✝✍✞✍☛✎✝✳ ✓☛☞ ✡✔✟✑✕✖✡✗ ✍✎ ✓✍✘✳ ★✳✶✒✗ ✘✍r✡✎ ✞✠✡

✍✎✍✞✍✟✖ ✟✎✌ ✐✍✎✟✖ ✕☛✝✍✞✍☛✎✝ ✟✝ ❬ ✟✎✌ Q✗ ✞✠✡

✌✍✝✕✖✟✙✡✑✡✎✞ r✡✙✞☛☞ ✍✝ ✞✠✡ ✝✟✑✡ ❱Q ✐☛☞ ✌✍✐✐✡☞✡✎✞

✕✟✞✠✝ ☛✐ ❥☛✆☞✎✡✏✗ ✝✟✏ ❬❆❿✦Q✗ ❬➀Q✗ ✟✎✌ ❬❿➁✓Q✳

✢✠✡☞✡✐☛☞✡✗ ✞✠✡ ❁✹✼✺✵✰➂❀✭ ✱✿ ❀✵❲♣✽✹✮✭❁✭✺✰ ✵❲

✭✵✰➃✭✲ ✽✭❲❲ ✱✲ ✭❋➂✹✽ ✰✱ ✰➃✭ ♣✹✰➃ ✽✭✺✼✰➃ ✱✿ ✹✺

✱➄➅✭✮✰ ➄✭✰✾✭✭✺ ✰✾✱ ♣✱✵✺✰❲❖ ✢✠✍✝ ✐✟✙✞ t✟✝

✡✑✕✠✟✝✍✝✡✌ ✍✎ ✞✠✡ ✕☞✡r✍☛✆✝ ✙✠✟✕✞✡☞ ✟✖✝☛ t✠✍✖✡

✌✍✝✙✆✝✝✍✎✘ ✑☛✞✍☛✎ ✟✖☛✎✘ ✟ ✝✞☞✟✍✘✠✞ ✖✍✎✡✳

❙●❚●❚ ➆❋➂✹✽✵✰❍ ✱✿ ❨✭✮✰✱✲❲

✢t☛ r✡✙✞☛☞✝ ❉ ✟✎✌ ➇ ✟☞✡ ✝✟✍✌ ✞☛ ✒✡ ✡✴✆✟✖ ✍✐✗ ✟✎✌

☛✎✖✏ ✍✐✗ ✞✠✡✏ ✠✟r✡ ✞✠✡ ✝✟✑✡ ✑✟✘✎✍✞✆✌✡ ✟✎✌ ✞✠✡

✝✟✑✡ ✌✍☞✡✙✞✍☛✎✳✯✯

✓✍✘✆☞✡ ★✳✧✫✟✬ ✝✠☛t✝ ✞t☛ ✡✴✆✟✖ r✡✙✞☛☞✝ ❉ ✟✎✌

➇✳ ❵✡ ✙✟✎ ✡✟✝✍✖✏ ✙✠✡✙❛ ✞✠✡✍☞ ✡✴✆✟✖✍✞✏✳ ✩✠✍✐✞ ➇

✕✟☞✟✖✖✡✖ ✞☛ ✍✞✝✡✖✐ ✆✎✞✍✖ ✍✞✝ ✞✟✍✖ Q ✙☛✍✎✙✍✌✡✝ t✍✞✠ ✞✠✟✞

☛✐ ■✗ ✍✳✡✳ Q ✙☛✍✎✙✍✌✡✝ t✍✞✠ s✳ ✢✠✡✎✗ ✝✍✎✙✡ ✞✠✡✍☞

✞✍✕✝ ✩ ✟✎✌ ❬ ✟✖✝☛ ✙☛✍✎✙✍✌✡✗ ✞✠✡ ✞t☛ r✡✙✞☛☞✝ ✟☞✡

✝✟✍✌ ✞☛ ✒✡ ✡✴✆✟✖✳ ❝✎ ✘✡✎✡☞✟✖✗ ✡✴✆✟✖✍✞✏ ✍✝ ✍✎✌✍✙✟✞✡✌

✯ ➈⑥⑥②③②✉④ ⑤④⑥ ✇❾➉③❸⑤⑨③②✉④ ✉❽ ✇⑨⑤⑧⑤❸✇ ❶⑤➋⑩ ✇⑩④✇⑩ ✉④⑧➌ ❽✉❸ ➍❾⑤④③②③②⑩✇ ➎②③➏ ✇⑤❶⑩ ❾④②③✇❹ ➐✉➎⑩❷⑩❸➑ ➌✉❾ ⑨⑤④ ❶❾⑧③②⑦⑧➌

⑤④⑥ ⑥②❷②⑥⑩ ✇⑨⑤⑧⑤❸✇ ✉❽ ⑥②❽❽⑩❸⑩④③ ❾④②③✇❹

✯✯ ➒④ ✉❾❸ ✇③❾⑥➌➑ ❷⑩⑨③✉❸✇ ⑥✉ ④✉③ ➏⑤❷⑩ ❽②➓⑩⑥ ⑧✉⑨⑤③②✉④✇❹ ➔✉ ⑥②✇⑦⑧⑤⑨②④→ ⑤ ❷⑩⑨③✉❸ ⑦⑤❸⑤⑧⑧⑩⑧ ③✉ ②③✇⑩⑧❽ ⑧⑩⑤❷⑩✇ ③➏⑩ ❷⑩⑨③✉❸

❾④⑨➏⑤④→⑩⑥❹ ➔❾⑨➏ ❷⑩⑨③✉❸✇ ⑤❸⑩ ⑨⑤⑧⑧⑩⑥ ❽➣↔↔ ↕↔➙➛➜➣➝➞ ➐✉➎⑩❷⑩❸➑ ②④ ✇✉❶⑩ ⑦➏➌✇②⑨⑤⑧ ⑤⑦⑦⑧②⑨⑤③②✉④✇➑ ⑧✉⑨⑤③②✉④ ✉❸ ⑧②④⑩ ✉❽⑤⑦⑦⑧②⑨⑤③②✉④ ✉❽ ⑤ ❷⑩⑨③✉❸ ②✇ ②❶⑦✉❸③⑤④③❹ ➔❾⑨➏ ❷⑩⑨③✉❸✇ ⑤❸⑩ ⑨⑤⑧⑧⑩⑥ ➟➜➙♥➟➠➝↔➡ ↕↔➙➛➜➣➝➞

Page 71: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✻✟

❛✠ ❆ ✥ ❇✳ ✡☛☞✌ ☞✍❛☞ ✎✏ ✑✎✒✳ ✓✳✔✕✖✗✘ ✙✌✚☞☛✛✠ ❆✜ ❛✏✢❇✜ ✍❛✙✌ ☞✍✌ ✠❛✣✌ ✣❛✒✏✎☞✤✢✌ ✖✤☞ ☞✍✌✦ ❛✛✌ ✏☛☞✌❡✤❛✧ ✖✌✚❛✤✠✌ ☞✍✌✦ ✍❛✙✌ ✢✎★★✌✛✌✏☞ ✢✎✛✌✚☞✎☛✏✠✳❊✙✌✏ ✎★ ✩✌ ✠✍✎★☞ ❇✜ ✪❛✛❛✧✧✌✧ ☞☛ ✎☞✠✌✧★ ✠☛ ☞✍❛☞ ✎☞✠ ☞❛✎✧Q✜ ✚☛✎✏✚✎✢✌✠✩✎☞✍ ☞✍✌ ☞❛✎✧✫✜ ☛★ ❆✜ ✘ ☞✍✌ ☞✎✪ ✱✜ ☛★ ❇✜✢☛✌✠ ✏☛☞ ✚☛✎✏✚✎✢✌✩✎☞✍ ☞✍✌ ☞✎✪ ❞✜ ☛★ ❆✜ ✳

✹✬✭ ✮✯✰❚✲✴✰✲✵❆❚✲✶✷✶✸✺✼✵❚✶✽✾❇✿✽✼❆✰✷✯✮❇✼✽✾

❀✤✧☞✎✪✧✦✎✏✒ ❛ ✙✌✚☞☛✛ ❆ ✩✎☞✍ ❛ ✪☛✠✎☞✎✙✌ ✏✤✣✖✌✛ ❁✒✎✙✌✠ ❛ ✙✌✚☞☛✛ ✩✍☛✠✌ ✣❛✒✏✎☞✤✢✌ ✎✠ ✚✍❛✏✒✌✢ ✖✦☞✍✌ ★❛✚☞☛✛ ❁ ✖✤☞ ☞✍✌ ✢✎✛✌✚☞✎☛✏ ✎✠ ☞✍✌ ✠❛✣✌ ❛✠ ☞✍❛☞☛★ ❆ ❂

❃ ❁❆❃ ✥❁❃ ❆❃ ✎★❁❄❅✳

✑☛✛ ✌❋❛✣✪✧✌✘ ✎★ ❆ ✎✠ ✣✤✧☞✎✪✧✎✌✢ ✖✦ ✔✘ ☞✍✌ ✛✌✠✤✧☞❛✏☞✙✌✚☞☛✛ ✔❆ ✎✠ ✎✏ ☞✍✌ ✠❛✣✌ ✢✎✛✌✚☞✎☛✏ ❛✠ ❆ ❛✏✢ ✍❛✠❛ ✣❛✒✏✎☞✤✢✌ ☞✩✎✚✌ ☛★ ❈❆❈ ❛✠ ✠✍☛✩✏ ✎✏ ✑✎✒✳ ✓✳⑤✕❛✗✳

❀✤✧☞✎✪✧✦✎✏✒ ❛ ✙✌✚☞☛✛ ❆ ✖✦ ❛ ✏✌✒❛☞✎✙✌ ✏✤✣✖✌✛❁ ✒✎✙✌✠ ❛ ✙✌✚☞☛✛ ❁❆ ✩✍☛✠✌ ✢✎✛✌✚☞✎☛✏ ✎✠ ☛✪✪☛✠✎☞✌☞☛ ☞✍✌ ✢✎✛✌✚☞✎☛✏ ☛★ ❆ ❛✏✢ ✩✍☛✠✌ ✣❛✒✏✎☞✤✢✌ ✎✠➊❁ ☞✎✣✌✠ ❈❆❈✳

❀✤✧☞✎✪✧✦✎✏✒ ❛ ✒✎✙✌✏ ✙✌✚☞☛✛ ❆ ✖✦ ✏✌✒❛☞✎✙✌✏✤✣✖✌✛✠✘ ✠❛✦ ➊♥ ❛✏✢ ➊♥✳❉✘ ✒✎✙✌✠ ✙✌✚☞☛✛✠ ❛✠✠✍☛✩✏ ✎✏ ✑✎✒ ✓✳⑤✕✖✗✳

●✍✌ ★❛✚☞☛✛ ❁ ✖✦ ✩✍✎✚✍ ❛ ✙✌✚☞☛✛ ❆ ✎✠ ✣✤✧☞✎✪✧✎✌✢✚☛✤✧✢ ✖✌ ❛ ✠✚❛✧❛✛ ✍❛✙✎✏✒ ✎☞✠ ☛✩✏ ✪✍✦✠✎✚❛✧✢✎✣✌✏✠✎☛✏✳ ●✍✌✏✘ ☞✍✌ ✢✎✣✌✏✠✎☛✏ ☛★ ❁ ❆ ✎✠ ☞✍✌✪✛☛✢✤✚☞ ☛★ ☞✍✌ ✢✎✣✌✏✠✎☛✏✠ ☛★ ❁ ❛✏✢ ❆✳ ✑☛✛✌❋❛✣✪✧✌✘ ✎★ ✩✌✣✤✧☞✎✪✧✦ ❛ ✚☛✏✠☞❛✏☞ ✙✌✧☛✚✎☞✦ ✙✌✚☞☛✛✖✦ ✢✤✛❛☞✎☛✏ ✕☛★ ☞✎✣✌✗✘ ✩✌ ✒✌☞ ❛ ✢✎✠✪✧❛✚✌✣✌✏☞✙✌✚☞☛✛✳

✹✬✹ ❆❍❍✲❚✲✶✷ ❆✷❍ ✾✯❇❚✽❆✵❚✲✶✷ ✶✸✺✼✵❚✶✽✾❱■✽❆✴❏✲✵❆✰✮✼❚❏✶❍

❑✠ ✣✌✏☞✎☛✏✌✢ ✎✏ ✠✌✚☞✎☛✏ ✓✳✔✘ ✙✌✚☞☛✛✠✘ ✖✦✢✌★✎✏✎☞✎☛✏✘ ☛✖✌✦ ☞✍✌ ☞✛✎❛✏✒✧✌ ✧❛✩ ☛✛ ✌❡✤✎✙❛✧✌✏☞✧✦✘☞✍✌ ✪❛✛❛✧✧✌✧☛✒✛❛✣ ✧❛✩ ☛★ ❛✢✢✎☞✎☛✏✳ t✌ ✠✍❛✧✧ ✏☛✩✢✌✠✚✛✎✖✌ ☞✍✎✠ ✧❛✩ ☛★ ❛✢✢✎☞✎☛✏ ✤✠✎✏✒ ☞✍✌ ✒✛❛✪✍✎✚❛✧✣✌☞✍☛✢✳ ♠✌☞ ✤✠ ✚☛✏✠✎✢✌✛ ☞✩☛ ✙✌✚☞☛✛✠ ❆ ❛✏✢ ❇ ☞✍❛☞✧✎✌ ✎✏ ❛ ✪✧❛✏✌ ❛✠ ✠✍☛✩✏ ✎✏ ✑✎✒✳ ✓✳✓✕❛✗✳ ●✍✌ ✧✌✏✒☞✍✠☛★ ☞✍✌ ✧✎✏✌ ✠✌✒✣✌✏☞✠ ✛✌✪✛✌✠✌✏☞✎✏✒ ☞✍✌✠✌ ✙✌✚☞☛✛✠❛✛✌ ✪✛☛✪☛✛☞✎☛✏❛✧ ☞☛ ☞✍✌✣❛✒✏✎☞✤✢✌ ☛★ ☞✍✌ ✙✌✚☞☛✛✠✳●☛ ★✎✏✢ ☞✍✌ ✠✤✣ ❆ ▲ ❇✘ ✩✌ ✪✧❛✚✌ ✙✌✚☞☛✛ ❇ ✠☛ ☞✍❛☞✎☞✠ ☞❛✎✧ ✎✠ ❛☞ ☞✍✌ ✍✌❛✢ ☛★ ☞✍✌ ✙✌✚☞☛✛ ❆✘ ❛✠ ✎✏✑✎✒✳ ✓✳✓✕✖✗✳ ●✍✌✏✘ ✩✌ ◆☛✎✏ ☞✍✌ ☞❛✎✧ ☛★ ❆ ☞☛ ☞✍✌ ✍✌❛✢☛★ ❇✳ ●✍✎✠ ✧✎✏✌ ✫Q ✛✌✪✛✌✠✌✏☞✠ ❛ ✙✌✚☞☛✛ ✽❘ ☞✍❛☞ ✎✠✘☞✍✌ ✠✤✣ ☛★ ☞✍✌ ✙✌✚☞☛✛✠ ❆ ❛✏✢ ❇✳ ✱✎✏✚✌✘ ✎✏ ☞✍✎✠✪✛☛✚✌✢✤✛✌ ☛★ ✙✌✚☞☛✛ ❛✢✢✎☞✎☛✏✘ ✙✌✚☞☛✛✠ ❛✛✌

❖P◗❙ ❯❙❲ ❳❨❩ ❬❭❪ ❫❴❵❜❝ ❢❫❣❤❪✐❥ ❦ ❜❧♦ ♣q ❳r❩ ❬❭❪❢❫❣❤❪✐❥ ❦✜ ❜❧♦ ♣✜ ❜✐❫ ❵❧❫❴❵❜❝ ❤s❪❵✉s ❤s❫✈❜✐❫ ❪✇ ❤s❫ ❥❜①❫ ❝❫❧✉❤s②

❖P◗❙ ❯❙③ ❳❨❩ ④❫❣❤❪✐ ❦ ❜❧♦ ❤s❫ ✐❫❥❵❝❤❜❧❤ ❢❫❣❤❪✐ ❜✇❤❫✐①❵❝❤⑥⑦❝✈⑥❧✉ ❦ ⑧✈ ❜ ⑦❪❥⑥❤⑥❢❫ ❧❵①⑧❫✐ ⑨q❳r❩ ④❫❣❤❪✐ ❦ ❜❧♦ ✐❫❥❵❝❤❜❧❤ ❢❫❣❤❪✐❥ ❜✇❤❫✐①❵❝❤⑥⑦❝✈⑥❧✉ ⑥❤ ⑧✈ ❜ ❧❫✉❜❤⑥❢❫ ❧❵①⑧❫✐ ⑩❶❜❧♦ ❷❶q❸②

❳❹❩ ❳❺❩

❖P◗❙ ❯❙❯ ❳❨❩ ④❫❣❤❪✐❥ ❦ ❜❧♦ ♣q ❳r❩ ④❫❣❤❪✐❥ ❦ ❜❧♦ ♣❜♦♦❫♦ ✉✐❜⑦s⑥❣❜❝❝✈q ❳❹❩ ④❫❣❤❪✐❥ ♣ ❜❧♦ ❦❜♦♦❫♦ ✉✐❜⑦s⑥❣❜❝❝✈q ❳❺❩ ❻❝❝❵❥❤✐❜❤⑥❧✉ ❤s❫❜❥❥❪❣⑥❜❤⑥❢❫ ❝❜❭ ❪✇ ❢❫❣❤❪✐ ❜♦♦⑥❤⑥❪❧q

Page 72: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✻✆

❛✝✝❛✞✟✠✡ ☛✠❛✡ ☞✌ ☞❛✍✎✏ ☞☛✍✑ ✟✝❛✒☛✍✓❛✎ ✔✠☞☛✌✡ ✍✑

✓❛✎✎✠✡ ☞☛✠ ❤✕✖✗✘✙✚✘✙✖✛✜ ✢✕✙❤✚✗✳ ✣☛✠ ☞✤✌ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑

❛✞✡ ☞☛✠✍✝ ✝✠✑✦✎☞❛✞☞ ✧✌✝✔ ☞☛✝✠✠ ✑✍✡✠✑ ✌✧ ❛ ☞✝✍❛✞✟✎✠✏

✑✌ ☞☛✍✑✔✠☞☛✌✡ ✍✑ ❛✎✑✌ s✞✌✤✞ ❛✑ ✙t✛✖★✩✜✕✢✕✙❤✚✗

✚♦ ✪✕✫✙✚t ✖✗✗✛✙✛✚★✳ ✬✧ ✤✠ ✧✍✞✡ ☞☛✠ ✝✠✑✦✎☞❛✞☞ ✌✧

❇ ✰ ❆ ❛✑ ✍✞ ✭✍✟✳ ✮✳✮✯✓✱✏ ☞☛✠ ✑❛✔✠ ✥✠✓☞✌✝ ❘ ✍✑

✌✲☞❛✍✞✠✡✳ ✣☛✦✑✏ ✥✠✓☞✌✝ ❛✡✡✍☞✍✌✞ ✍✑ ✫✚✢✢❝✙✖✙✛✪✕✿

❆ ✰ ❇ ❂ ❇ ✰ ❆ ✯✮✳✴✱

✣☛✠ ❛✡✡✍☞✍✌✞ ✌✧ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑ ❛✎✑✌ ✌✲✠❚✑ ☞☛✠ ❛✑✑✌✓✍❛☞✍✥✠

✎❛✤ ❛✑ ✍✎✎✦✑☞✝❛☞✠✡ ✍✞ ✭✍✟✳ ✮✳✮✯✡✱✳ ✣☛✠ ✝✠✑✦✎☞ ✌✧

❛✡✡✍✞✟ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑ ❆ ❛✞✡ ❇ ✧✍✝✑☞ ❛✞✡ ☞☛✠✞ ❛✡✡✍✞✟

✥✠✓☞✌✝ ❈ ✍✑ ☞☛✠ ✑❛✔✠ ❛✑ ☞☛✠ ✝✠✑✦✎☞ ✌✧ ❛✡✡✍✞✟ ❇

❛✞✡ ❈ ✧✍✝✑☞ ❛✞✡ ☞☛✠✞ ❛✡✡✍✞✟ ✥✠✓☞✌✝ ❆ ✿

✯❆ ✰ ❇✱ ✰ ❈ ❂ ❆ ✰ ✯❇ ✰ ❈✱ ✯✮✳✵✱

❲☛❛☞ ✍✑ ☞☛✠ ✝✠✑✦✎☞ ✌✧ ❛✡✡✍✞✟ ☞✤✌ ✠✶✦❛✎ ❛✞✡

✌✒✒✌✑✍☞✠ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑ ✷ ✸✌✞✑✍✡✠✝ ☞✤✌ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑ ❆ ❛✞✡

➊❆ ✑☛✌✤✞ ✍✞ ✭✍✟✳ ✮✳✹✯✲✱✳ ✣☛✠✍✝ ✑✦✔ ✍✑ ❆ ✰ ✯➊❆✱✳

❙✍✞✓✠ ☞☛✠ ✔❛✟✞✍☞✦✡✠✑ ✌✧ ☞☛✠ ☞✤✌ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑ ❛✝✠ ☞☛✠

✑❛✔✠✏ ✲✦☞ ☞☛✠ ✡✍✝✠✓☞✍✌✞✑ ❛✝✠ ✌✒✒✌✑✍☞✠✏ ☞☛✠

✝✠✑✦✎☞❛✞☞ ✥✠✓☞✌✝ ☛❛✑ r✠✝✌ ✔❛✟✞✍☞✦✡✠ ❛✞✡ ✍✑

✝✠✒✝✠✑✠✞☞✠✡ ✲❚ ✺ ✓❛✎✎✠✡ ❛ ★❝✜✜ ✪✕✫✙✚t ✌✝ ❛ ③✕t✚

✪✕✫✙✚t ✿

❆ ➊ ❆ ❂ ✺ ⑤✺⑤❂ ✼ ✯✮✳✹✱

❙✍✞✓✠ ☞☛✠ ✔❛✟✞✍☞✦✡✠ ✌✧ ❛ ✞✦✎✎ ✥✠✓☞✌✝ ✍✑ r✠✝✌✏ ✍☞✑

✡✍✝✠✓☞✍✌✞ ✓❛✞✞✌☞ ✲✠ ✑✒✠✓✍✧✍✠✡✳

✣☛✠ ✞✦✎✎ ✥✠✓☞✌✝ ❛✎✑✌ ✝✠✑✦✎☞✑ ✤☛✠✞ ✤✠✔✦✎☞✍✒✎❚

❛ ✥✠✓☞✌✝ ❆ ✲❚ ☞☛✠ ✞✦✔✲✠✝ r✠✝✌✳ ✣☛✠ ✔❛✍✞

✒✝✌✒✠✝☞✍✠✑ ✌✧ ✺ ❛✝✠ ✿

❆ ✰ ✺ ❂ ❆

✽ ✺ ❂ ✺

✼ ❆ ❂ ✺ ✯✮✳✮✱

❋✾❀❁ ❃❁❄ ❅❉❊ ●❍■ ❏❑▲▼■◆❖ ◗ ❯❱❳ ❨❩ ❬ ❨ ✐❖ ❯❭❖■ ❖❪■❍❱❫ ❅❴❊ ❵❜❞▼◆❯▲▼✐❱❡ ❏❑▲▼■◆ ❨ ❢◆■❣ ❏❑▲▼■◆ ◗ ❬ ▼❪❑ ◆❑❖❜❭▼ ✐❖ ❥❦❫ ❧■◆

▲■❣♠❯◆✐❖■❱♥ ❯❳❳✐▼✐■❱ ■❢ ❏❑▲▼■◆❖ ◗ ❯❱❳ ❨❩ ✐❫❑❫ ❥♣ ✐❖ ❯❭❖■ ❖❪■❍❱❫

❲☛❛☞ ✍✑ ☞☛✠ ✒☛❚✑✍✓❛✎ ✔✠❛✞✍✞✟ ✌✧ ❛ r✠✝✌ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✷

✸✌✞✑✍✡✠✝ ☞☛✠ ✒✌✑✍☞✍✌✞ ❛✞✡ ✡✍✑✒✎❛✓✠✔✠✞☞ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑

✍✞ ❛ ✒✎❛✞✠ ❛✑ ✑☛✌✤✞ ✍✞ ✭✍✟✳ ✮✳✴✯❛✱✳ q✌✤ ✑✦✒✒✌✑✠

☞☛❛☞ ❛✞ ✌✲✉✠✓☞ ✤☛✍✓☛ ✍✑ ❛☞ ✈ ❛☞ ☞✍✔✠ ✇✏ ✔✌✥✠✑ ☞✌

✈① ❛✞✡ ☞☛✠✞ ✓✌✔✠✑ ✲❛✓s ☞✌ ✈✳ ✣☛✠✞✏ ✤☛❛☞ ✍✑ ✍☞✑

✡✍✑✒✎❛✓✠✔✠✞☞✷ ❙✍✞✓✠ ☞☛✠ ✍✞✍☞✍❛✎ ❛✞✡ ✧✍✞❛✎

✒✌✑✍☞✍✌✞✑ ✓✌✍✞✓✍✡✠✏ ☞☛✠ ✡✍✑✒✎❛✓✠✔✠✞☞ ✍✑ ❛ ②✞✦✎✎

✥✠✓☞✌✝④✳

⑥❝⑦✙t✖✫✙✛✚★ ✚♦ ✪✕✫✙✚t⑧ ✓❛✞ ✲✠ ✡✠✧✍✞✠✡ ✍✞ ☞✠✝✔✑

✌✧ ❛✡✡✍☞✍✌✞ ✌✧ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑✳ ❲✠ ✡✠✧✍✞✠ ☞☛✠ ✡✍✧✧✠✝✠✞✓✠

✌✧ ☞✤✌ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑ ❆ ❛✞✡ ❇ ❛✑ ☞☛✠ ✑✦✔ ✌✧ ☞✤✌ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑

❆ ❛✞✡ ➊❇ ✿

❆ ➊ ❇ ❂ ❆ ✰ ✯➊❇✱ ✯✮✳⑨✱

✬☞ ✍✑ ✑☛✌✤✞ ✍✞ ✭✍✟ ✮✳⑨✳ ✣☛✠ ✥✠✓☞✌✝ ➊❇ ✍✑ ❛✡✡✠✡ ☞✌

✥✠✓☞✌✝ ❆ ☞✌ ✟✠☞ ❘⑩ ❂ ✯❆ ➊ ❇✱✳ ✣☛✠ ✥✠✓☞✌✝ ❘❶ ❂ ❆ ✰ ❇

✍✑ ❛✎✑✌ ✑☛✌✤✞ ✍✞ ☞☛✠ ✑❛✔✠ ✧✍✟✦✝✠ ✧✌✝ ✓✌✔✒❛✝✍✑✌✞✳

❲✠ ✓❛✞ ❛✎✑✌ ✦✑✠ ☞☛✠ ❷✖t✖✜✜✕✜✚✩t✖✢ ✢✕✙❤✚✗ ☞✌

✧✍✞✡ ☞☛✠ ✑✦✔ ✌✧ ☞✤✌ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑✳ ❙✦✒✒✌✑✠ ✤✠ ☛❛✥✠

☞✤✌ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑ ❆ ❛✞✡ ❇✳ ✣✌ ❛✡✡ ☞☛✠✑✠ ✥✠✓☞✌✝✑✏ ✤✠

✲✝✍✞✟ ☞☛✠✍✝ ☞❛✍✎✑ ☞✌ ❛ ✓✌✔✔✌✞ ✌✝✍✟✍✞ ❸ ❛✑

✑☛✌✤✞ ✍✞ ✭✍✟✳ ✮✳❹✯❛✱✳ ✣☛✠✞ ✤✠ ✡✝❛✤ ❛ ✎✍✞✠ ✧✝✌✔

☞☛✠ ☛✠❛✡ ✌✧ ❆ ✒❛✝❛✎✎✠✎ ☞✌ ❇ ❛✞✡ ❛✞✌☞☛✠✝ ✎✍✞✠ ✧✝✌✔

☞☛✠ ☛✠❛✡ ✌✧ ❇ ✒❛✝❛✎✎✠✎ ☞✌ ❆ ☞✌ ✓✌✔✒✎✠☞✠ ❛

✒❛✝❛✎✎✠✎✌✟✝❛✔ ❸Q❙✈✳ q✌✤ ✤✠ ✉✌✍✞ ☞☛✠ ✒✌✍✞☞ ✌✧

☞☛✠ ✍✞☞✠✝✑✠✓☞✍✌✞ ✌✧ ☞☛✠✑✠ ☞✤✌ ✎✍✞✠✑ ☞✌ ☞☛✠ ✌✝✍✟✍✞

❸✳ ✣☛✠ ✝✠✑✦✎☞❛✞☞ ✥✠✓☞✌✝ ❘ ✍✑ ✡✍✝✠✓☞✠✡ ✧✝✌✔ ☞☛✠

✓✌✔✔✌✞ ✌✝✍✟✍✞ ❸ ❛✎✌✞✟ ☞☛✠ ✡✍❛✟✌✞❛✎ ✯❸❙✱ ✌✧ ☞☛✠

✒❛✝❛✎✎✠✎✌✟✝❛✔ ❺✭✍✟✳ ✮✳❹✯✲✱❻✳ ✬✞ ✭✍✟✳✮✳❹✯✓✱✏ ☞☛✠

☞✝✍❛✞✟✎✠ ✎❛✤ ✍✑ ✦✑✠✡ ☞✌ ✌✲☞❛✍✞ ☞☛✠ ✝✠✑✦✎☞❛✞☞ ✌✧ ❆

❛✞✡ ❇ ❛✞✡✤✠ ✑✠✠ ☞☛❛☞ ☞☛✠ ☞✤✌ ✔✠☞☛✌✡✑ ❚✍✠✎✡ ☞☛✠

✑❛✔✠ ✝✠✑✦✎☞✳ ✣☛✦✑✏ ☞☛✠ ☞✤✌ ✔✠☞☛✌✡✑ ❛✝✠

✠✶✦✍✥❛✎✠✞☞✳

Page 73: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✻✟

✠❊✡☛☞✌✍✎ ✏✑✒ ❘✓✔✕ ✔✖ ✗✓✘✘✔✕✙ ✚✛✜✢✔✣✓✘✘✤ ✥✔✢✦

✓ ✖❛✛✛✧ ★✗ ✩✪ ✫ ✖➊✬✳ ✭✔✕✧✖ ✖✢✓✜✢✖ ✮✘★✥✔✕✙

✓✗✢✛✜ ✖★✫✛✢✔✫✛ ✥✔✢✦ ✓ ✖❛✛✛✧ ★✗ ✯✰ ✫ ✖➊✬ ✔✕

✛✓✖✢ ✢★ ✥✛✖✢ ✧✔✜✛✣✢✔★✕✳ ❡✕ ✥✦✔✣✦ ✧✔✜✛✣✢✔★✕

✖✦★s✘✧ ✓ ✮★✤ ✥✓✔✢✔✕✙ ✓✢ ✓ ✮s✖ ✖✢★❛ ✦★✘✧

✦✔✖ s✫✮✜✛✘✘✓ ❤

❋✱✲✴ ✵✴✶

❆✷✸✹✎✺ ✼✦✛ ✚✛✘★✣✔✢✤ ★✗ ✢✦✛ ✜✓✔✕ ✓✕✧ ✢✦✛ ✥✔✕✧

✓✜✛ ✜✛❛✜✛✖✛✕✢✛✧ ✮✤ ✢✦✛ ✚✛✣✢★✜✖ ✈r ✓✕✧ ✈✇ ✔✕ ✽✔✙✳

✾✳✿ ✓✕✧ ✓✜✛ ✔✕ ✢✦✛ ✧✔✜✛✣✢✔★✕ ✖❛✛✣✔✗✔✛✧ ✮✤ ✢✦✛

❛✜★✮✘✛✫✳ ♣✖✔✕✙ ✢✦✛ ✜s✘✛ ★✗ ✚✛✣✢★✜ ✓✧✧✔✢✔★✕❀ ✥✛

✖✛✛ ✢✦✓✢ ✢✦✛ ✜✛✖s✘✢✓✕✢ ★✗ ✈r ✓✕✧ ✈✇ ✔✖ ❁ ✓✖ ✖✦★✥✕

✔✕ ✢✦✛ ✗✔✙s✜✛✳ ✼✦✛ ✫✓✙✕✔✢s✧✛ ★✗ ❁ ✔✖

❂ ❃ ❃❄❅

❇❅

❈ ❉ ❈ ❉ ❈❾ ❾

●❍ ■❏ ♠ ❑ ●▲ ♠ ❑◆ ◆ ❖ ❖

✼✦✛ ✧✔✜✛✣✢✔★✕ P ✢✦✓✢ ◗ ✫✓❙✛✖ ✥✔✢✦ ✢✦✛ ✚✛✜✢✔✣✓✘

✔✖ ✙✔✚✛✕ ✮✤

❚❯t❱❲ ❳❨❩❬❩

❩❭

❴❵ ❜ ❜ ❜

❝✜❀ ❞ ❢❣ ✐ ✐ ➦❥❦♥❧

♦q✉ ①②① ③④

✼✦✛✜✛✗★✜✛❀ ✢✦✛ ✮★✤ ✖✦★s✘✧ ✦★✘✧ ✦✔✖ s✫✮✜✛✘✘✓

✔✕ ✢✦✛ ✚✛✜✢✔✣✓✘ ❛✘✓✕✛ ✓✢ ✓✕ ✓✕✙✘✛ ★✗ ✓✮★s✢ ✯⑤⑥

✥✔✢✦ ✢✦✛ ✚✛✜✢✔✣✓✘ ✢★✥✓✜✧✖ ✢✦✛ ✛✓✖✢✳ ⑦

❋✱✲✴ ✵✴⑧ ⑨❦⑩ ❶❷❸ ❹❺❻❼❸❽❿ ➀ ➁➂➃ ➄ ❷➅❼➆ ❼➆❺➅❽ ❼➁➅➇❿ ➈❽❸➉➋➆❼ ❼❸ ➁ ❻❸➌➌❸➂ ❸❽➅➋➅➂♦ ⑨➍⑩ ❶➆❺ ❿➉➌ ➀ ➎ ➄ ❸➈❼➁➅➂❺➃ ➉❿➅➂➋

❼➆❺ ➏➁❽➁➇➇❺➇❸➋❽➁➌➌❺❼➆❸➃♦ ⑨➐⑩ ❶➆❺ ➏➁❽➁➇➇❺➇❸➋❽➁➌➌❺❼➆❸➃ ❸➑ ❹❺❻❼❸❽ ➁➃➃➅❼➅❸➂ ➅❿ ❺➒➉➅❹➁➇❺➂❼ ❼❸ ❼➆❺ ❼❽➅➁➂➋➇❺

➌❺❼➆❸➃♦

➓➔→ ❁➣↔↕➙➛➜➝↕➞ ↕➟ ➠➣➡➜↕❁↔

➢✛✢ ➤ ✓✕✧ ➥ ✮✛ ✓✕✤ ✢✥★ ✕★✕➧➨✛✜★ ✚✛✣✢★✜✖ ✔✕ ✓

❛✘✓✕✛ ✥✔✢✦ ✧✔✗✗✛✜✛✕✢ ✧✔✜✛✣✢✔★✕✖ ✓✕✧ ✘✛✢ ➩ ✮✛

✓✕★✢✦✛✜ ✚✛✣✢★✜ ✔✕ ✢✦✛ ✖✓✫✛ ❛✘✓✕✛➫✽✔✙✳ ✾✳➭➯✳ ➩ ✣✓✕

✮✛ ✛➲❛✜✛✖✖✛✧ ✓✖ ✓ ✖s✫ ★✗ ✢✥★ ✚✛✣✢★✜✖ ➳ ★✕✛

★✮✢✓✔✕✛✧ ✮✤✫s✘✢✔❛✘✤✔✕✙ ➤ ✮✤ ✓ ✜✛✓✘ ✕s✫✮✛✜ ✓✕✧

✢✦✛ ★✢✦✛✜ ★✮✢✓✔✕✛✧ ✮✤ ✫s✘✢✔❛✘✤✔✕✙ ➥ ✮✤ ✓✕★✢✦✛✜

✜✛✓✘ ✕s✫✮✛✜✳ ✼★ ✖✛✛ ✢✦✔✖❀ ✘✛✢ ❝ ✓✕✧ ➵ ✮✛ ✢✦✛ ✢✓✔✘

✓✕✧ ✦✛✓✧ ★✗ ✢✦✛ ✚✛✣✢★✜ ➩✳ ✼✦✛✕❀ ✢✦✜★s✙✦ ❝❀ ✧✜✓✥

✓ ✖✢✜✓✔✙✦✢ ✘✔✕✛ ❛✓✜✓✘✘✛✘ ✢★ ➤❀ ✓✕✧ ✢✦✜★s✙✦ ➵❀ ✓

✖✢✜✓✔✙✦✢ ✘✔✕✛ ❛✓✜✓✘✘✛✘ ✢★ ➥✳ ➢✛✢ ✢✦✛✫ ✔✕✢✛✜✖✛✣✢ ✓✢

Q✳ ✼✦✛✕❀ ✥✛ ✦✓✚✛

➩ ➸ ↕➺ ➸ ↕Q ➻ Q➺ ➫✾✳➼➯

➽s✢ ✖✔✕✣✛ ↕Q ✔✖ ❛✓✜✓✘✘✛✘ ✢★ ➤❀ ✓✕✧ Q➺ ✔✖ ❛✓✜✓✘✘✛✘

✢★ ➥❀ ✥✛ ✣✓✕ ✥✜✔✢✛ ➾

↕Q ➸ ➚ ➤❀ ✓✕✧ Q➺ ➸ ➪ ➥ ➫✾✳✿➯

✥✦✛✜✛ ➚ ✓✕✧ ➪ ✓✜✛ ✜✛✓✘ ✕s✫✮✛✜✖✳

✼✦✛✜✛✗★✜✛❀ ➩ ➸ ➚ ➤ ➻ ➪ ➥ ➫✾✳➭➯

❋✱✲✴ ✵✴➶ ⑨❦⑩ ❶❷❸ ➂❸➂➹❻❸➇➅➂❺➁❽ ❹❺❻❼❸❽❿ ➘ ➁➂➃ ➴♦

⑨➍⑩ ➷❺❿❸➇❹➅➂➋ ➁ ❹❺❻❼❸❽ ➀ ➅➂ ❼❺❽➌❿ ❸➑ ❹❺❻❼❸❽❿

➘ ➁➂➃ ➴➬

✭✛ ✖✓✤ ✢✦✓✢ ➩ ✦✓✖ ✮✛✛✕ ✜✛✖★✘✚✛✧ ✔✕✢★ ✢✥★

✣★✫❛★✕✛✕✢ ✚✛✣✢★✜✖ ➚ ➤ ✓✕✧ ➮ ➥ ✓✘★✕✙ ➤ ✓✕✧ ➥

✜✛✖❛✛✣✢✔✚✛✘✤✳ ♣✖✔✕✙ ✢✦✔✖ ✫✛✢✦★✧ ★✕✛ ✣✓✕ ✜✛✖★✘✚✛

Page 74: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✼✆

❋✝✞✟ ✠✟✡ ✭☛☞ ❯✌✍✎ ✏✑✒✎✓✔✕ ✖✐ ✱ ✗❥ ✥✘✙ ✖❦ ❧✍✑ ✚❧✓✌✛ ✎✜✑ ✢✣✤ ✦✣✤ ✚✌✧ ★✣✚✢✑✕✩ ✭✪☞ ✫ ✏✑✒✎✓✔ ❆ ✍✕ ✔✑✕✓❧✏✑✧ ✍✌✎✓ ✍✎✕ ✒✓✬✮✓✣✌✑✌✎✕ ❆✶ ✚✌✧ ❆✷ ✚❧✓✌✛ ✢✣✤ ✚✌✧ ✦✣ ✚✢✑✕✩ ✭✯☞ ❆✶ ✚✌✧ ❆✷ ✑✢✮✔✑✕✕✑✧ ✍✌ ✎✑✔✬✕ ✓❡ ✖✐ ✚✌✧

✗❥ ✩

✥ ❛✰✲✳✘ ✲✳✴✵✸✹ ✰✘✵✸ ✵✺✸ ✴✸✻✽✸✘✳✘✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾ ✥✿✸✘❛✥ ✾✳✵ ✸❀ ✵✺✸ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾ ❁ ✥✿✿ ✵❂✳ ✵❂✹✳✳ ✿✰✳ ✰✘ ✵❂✳ ✾✥✻✳✽✿✥✘✳♣ ❃✵ ✰✾ ✴✸✘✲✳✘✰✳✘✵ ✵✸ ✹✳✾✸✿✲✳ ✥ ❛✳✘✳✹✥✿ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✥✿✸✘❛ ✵❂✳ ✥❄✳✾ ✸❀ ✥ ✹✳✴✵✥✘❛❅✿✥✹ ✴✸✸✹✙✰✘✥✵✳✾s✾✵✳✻ ❅✾✰✘❛ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾ ✸❀ ❅✘✰✵ ✻✥❛✘✰✵❅✙✳♣ ❇❂✳✾✳✥✹✳ ✴✥✿✿✳✙ ❅✘✰✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾ ✵❂✥✵ ✺✳ ✙✰✾✴❅✾✾ ✘✸✺♣❈❉❊● ❍■❏●❑▲▼◆ ❖ ❅✘✰✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹ ✰✾ ✥ ✲✳✴✵✸✹ ✸❀ ❅✘✰✵✻✥❛✘✰✵❅✙✳ ✥✘✙ ✽✸✰✘✵✾ ✰✘ ✥ ✽✥✹✵✰✴❅✿✥✹ ✙✰✹✳✴✵✰✸✘♣❃✵ ❂✥✾✘✸ ✙✰✻✳✘✾✰✸✘ ✥✘✙ ❅✘✰✵♣ ❃✵ ✰✾ ❅✾✳✙ ✵✸ ✾✽✳✴✰❀s✥ ✙✰✹✳✴✵✰✸✘ ✸✘✿s♣ ◗✘✰✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾ ✥✿✸✘❛ ✵❂✳ ①❘❙ ②❚✥✘✙ ③❘✥❄✳✾ ✸❀ ✥ ✹✳✴✵✥✘❛❅✿✥✹ ✴✸✸✹✙✰✘✥✵✳ ✾s✾✵✳✻

✥✹✳ ✙✳✘✸✵✳✙ ❱s ❲❼ ❙ ❳❨ ✥✘✙ ❩❬ ❙ ✹✳✾✽✳✴✵✰✲✳✿s❙ ✥✾✾❂✸✺✘ ✰✘ ❭✰❛♣ ❪♣❫❴✥❵♣

❜✰✘✴✳ ✵❂✳✾✳ ✥✹✳ ❅✘✰✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾❙ ✺✳ ❂✥✲✳

❝ ❞❢❝ ❣❝ ❤♠❝ ❣❝ ♥♦❝ ❣q ❴❪♣❫❵

❇❂✳✾✳ ❅✘✰✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾ ✥✹✳ ✽✳✹✽✳✘✙✰✴❅✿✥✹ ✵✸ ✳✥✴❂✸✵❂✳✹♣ ❃✘ ✵❂✰✾ ✵✳❄✵❙ ✵❂✳s ✥✹✳ ✽✹✰✘✵✳✙ ✰✘ ❱✸✿✙ ❀✥✴✳✺✰✵❂ ✥ ✴✥✽ ❴✇❵ ✵✸ ✙✰✾✵✰✘❛❅✰✾❂ ✵❂✳✻ ❀✹✸✻ ✸✵❂✳✹✲✳✴✵✸✹✾♣ ❜✰✘✴✳✺✳ ✥✹✳ ✙✳✥✿✰✘❛ ✺✰✵❂ ✻✸✵✰✸✘ ✰✘ ✵✺✸✙✰✻✳✘✾✰✸✘✾ ✰✘ ✵❂✰✾ ✴❂✥✽✵✳✹❙ ✺✳ ✹✳r❅✰✹✳ ❅✾✳ ✸❀✸✘✿s ✵✺✸❅✘✰✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾♣ ❃❀ ✺✳✻❅✿✵✰✽✿s ✥ ❅✘✰✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹❙✾✥s t ❱s ✥ ✾✴✥✿✥✹❙ ✵❂✳ ✹✳✾❅✿✵ ✰✾ ✥ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✉✉✉✉ ❣ ✈ ④ ♣ ❃✘ ❛✳✘✳✹✥✿❙ ✥ ✲✳✴✵✸✹ ⑤ ✴✥✘ ❱✳ ✺✹✰✵✵✳✘ ✥✾

⑤ ❣ ⑥⑤⑥⑦ ❴❪♣q⑧❵

✺❂✳✹✳ ⑨ ✰✾ ✥ ❅✘✰✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹ ✥✿✸✘❛ ⑤♣

⑩✳ ✴✥✘ ✘✸✺ ✹✳✾✸✿✲✳ ✥ ✲✳✴✵✸✹ ⑤ ✰✘ ✵✳✹✻✾✸❀ ✴✸✻✽✸✘✳✘✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾ ✵❂✥✵ ✿✰✳ ✥✿✸✘❛ ❅✘✰✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾

❶❷ ✥✘✙ ❸❹♣ ❺✸✘✾✰✙✳✹ ✥ ✲✳✴✵✸✹ ⑤ ✵❂✥✵ ✿✰✳✾ ✰✘ ①❚②✽✿✥✘✳ ✥✾ ✾❂✸✺✘ ✰✘ ❭✰❛♣ ❪♣❫❴❱❵♣ ⑩✳ ✙✹✥✺ ✿✰✘✳✾ ❀✹✸✻✵❂✳ ❂✳✥✙ ✸❀ ⑤ ✽✳✹✽✳✘✙✰✴❅✿✥✹ ✵✸ ✵❂✳ ✴✸✸✹✙✰✘✥✵✳✥❄✳✾ ✥✾ ✰✘ ❭✰❛♣ ❪♣❫❴❱❵❙ ✥✘✙ ❛✳✵ ✲✳✴✵✸✹✾ ⑤❻ ✥✘✙ ⑤❽✾❅✴❂ ✵❂✥✵ ⑤❻ ❾ ⑤❽ ❣ ⑤♣ ❜✰✘✴✳ ⑤❻ ✰✾ ✽✥✹✥✿✿✳✿ ✵✸

❿➀

✥✘✙ ⑤❽ ✰✾ ✽✥✹✥✿✿✳✿ ✵✸❸❹❙ ✺✳ ❂✥✲✳ ◆

⑤❻❣ ➁➂ ❿➀ ❙ ⑤❽ ❣ ➁➃ ➄➅ ❴❪♣qq❵

✺❂✳✹✳ ➁➂ ✥✘✙ ➁➃ ✥✹✳ ✹✳✥✿ ✘❅✻❱✳✹✾♣

❇❂❅✾❙ ⑤ ❣ ➁➂ ❿➀ ❾ ➁➃ ➄➅ ❴❪♣q➆❵

❇❂✰✾ ✰✾ ✹✳✽✹✳✾✳✘✵✳✙ ✰✘ ❭✰❛♣ ❪♣❫❴✴❵♣ ❇❂✳ r❅✥✘✵✰✵✰✳✾➁➂ ✥✘✙ ➁➃ ✥✹✳ ✴✥✿✿✳✙ ①❚❙ ✥✘✙ ②❚ ✴✸✻✽✸✘✳✘✵✾ ✸❀ ✵❂✳✲✳✴✵✸✹ ⑤♣ ➇✸✵✳ ✵❂✥✵ ➁➂ ✰✾ ✰✵✾✳✿❀ ✘✸✵ ✥ ✲✳✴✵✸✹❙ ❱❅✵

➁➂❿➀ ✰✾ ✥ ✲✳✴✵✸✹❙ ✥✘✙ ✾✸ ✰✾ ➁➃

➄➅♣ ◗✾✰✘❛ ✾✰✻✽✿✳✵✹✰❛✸✘✸✻✳✵✹s❙ ✺✳ ✴✥✘ ✳❄✽✹✳✾✾ ➁➂ ✥✘✙ ➁➃ ✰✘ ✵✳✹✻✾✸❀ ✵❂✳ ✻✥❛✘✰✵❅✙✳ ✸❀ ⑤ ✥✘✙ ✵❂✳ ✥✘❛✿✳ ➈ ✰✵ ✻✥➉✳✾✺✰✵❂ ✵❂✳ ①❘✥❄✰✾ ◆

➁➂ ❣ ➁ ✴✸✾ ➈➁➃ ❣ ➁ ✾✰✘ ➈ ❴❪♣q➊❵

❖✾ ✰✾ ✴✿✳✥✹ ❀✹✸✻ ➋r♣ ❴❪♣q➊❵❙ ✥ ✴✸✻✽✸✘✳✘✵ ✸❀ ✥✲✳✴✵✸✹ ✴✥✘ ❱✳ ✽✸✾✰✵✰✲✳❙ ✘✳❛✥✵✰✲✳ ✸✹ ➌✳✹✸✙✳✽✳✘✙✰✘❛ ✸✘ ✵❂✳ ✲✥✿❅✳ ✸❀ ➈♣

➇✸✺❙ ✺✳ ❂✥✲✳ ✵✺✸ ✺✥s✾ ✵✸ ✾✽✳✴✰❀s ✥ ✲✳✴✵✸✹ ⑤✰✘ ✥ ✽✿✥✘✳♣ ❃✵ ✴✥✘ ❱✳ ✾✽✳✴✰❀✰✳✙ ❱s ◆❴✰❵ ✰✵✾ ✻✥❛✘✰✵❅✙✳ ➁ ✥✘✙ ✵❂✳ ✙✰✹✳✴✵✰✸✘ ➍ ✰✵ ✻✥➉✳✾

✺✰✵❂ ✵❂✳ ①❘✥❄✰✾➎ ✸✹❴✰✰❵ ✰✵✾ ✴✸✻✽✸✘✳✘✵✾ ➁➂ ✥✘✙ ➁➃❃❀ ❖ ✥✘✙ ➍ ✥✹✳ ❛✰✲✳✘❙ ➁➂✥✘✙ ➁➃ ✴✥✘ ❱✳ ✸❱✵✥✰✘✳✙❅✾✰✘❛ ➋r♣ ❴❪♣q➊❵♣ ❃❀ ➁➂ ✥✘✙ ➁➃ ✥✹✳ ❛✰✲✳✘❙ ➁ ✥✘✙ ➈✴✥✘ ❱✳ ✸❱✵✥✰✘✳✙ ✥✾ ❀✸✿✿✸✺✾ ◆

✫ ✫ ✫ ✫➏➐

➑➐ ➐ ➐ ➐ ➐➒ ➓ ➒✯➔→ →➣↔↕ ↕

❣ ➁➙

➛✹❙ ➜ ➜ ➜➏➐

➑➐➝ ➞ ❴❪♣q❪❵

❖✘✙ ➟➠➡ ➟➠➡➢

➢➤

➢➥

➧ ➥

➦➨ ➨➩ ➩ ➫

❴❪♣q➭❵

Page 75: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✼✟

❇ ✡ ❥❂ ☛☞ ☞① ✌✍ ✍

▲✎✏ ❘ ❜✎ ✏✑✎✒✓ ✔✕✖✗ ✘✎ ✑❡✙✎❘ ✚ ❆ ✥ ✛

✭ ✜ ✭ ✜✢ ✣ ✣ ✣✤ ✤ ✦ ✦✧ ★ ✧ ★✩ ✩ ✩ ✩✐ ✪ ✐ ✪ ✫✬✗✮✯❡✰

❙✒✱✲✎ ✙✎✲✏✳✓✔ ✳❜✎✴ ✏✑✎ ✲✳✖✖✕✏❡✏✒✙✎ ❡✱✵❡✔✔✳✲✒❡✏✒✙✎ ❛❡✶✔✷ ✶✎ ✲❡✱ ❡✓✓❡✱✸✎ ❡✱✵ ✓✎✸✓✳✕✹✏✑✎ ✙✎✲✏✳✓✔ ✒✱ t✺✗ ✫✬✗✮✯❡✰ ❡✔ ✲✳✱✙✎✱✒✎✱✏ ✏✳ ✕✔ ✻

✽ ✾ ✿ ❀❁ ❃ ❄❅ ❈ ❈ ❈❉ ❊ ❉ ❊✧ ✧ ★ ★❋ ❋ ✫✬✗✮✯❜✰

❙✒✱✲✎● ❍ ■❏ ❑◆ ◆❖ P◗ ◗ ✫✬✗❚❯✰

✶✎ ✑❡✙✎✷ ❱ ❱ ❱ ② ② ②❲ ❳ ❨ ❩ ❲ ❳ ❨❬ ❭ ❬ ❭ ✫✬✗❚✮✰❪✑✕✔✷ ✎❡✲✑ ✲✳✖✹✳✱✎✱✏ ✳❫ ✏✑✎ ✓✎✔✕❛✏❡✱✏

✙✎✲✏✳✓ ❘ ✒✔ ✏✑✎ ✔✕✖ ✳❫ ✏✑✎ ✲✳✓✓✎✔✹✳✱✵✒✱✸✲✳✖✹✳✱✎✱✏✔ ✳❫ ❆ ❡✱✵ ✛✗❴✱ ✏✑✓✎✎ ✵✒✖✎✱✔✒✳✱✔✷ ✶✎ ✑❡✙✎

❵ ❍ ■ ❦❏ ❑ ❑❝ ❝ ❝❖ P ③◗ ◗ ◗

❞ ❍ ■ ❦❏ ❑ ❑❢ ❢ ❢❖ P ③◗ ◗ ◗

● ❵ ❞ ❍ ■ ❦❏ ❑ ❏ ❑ ❑◆ ◆ ◆❖ P ③◗ ◗ ◗

✶✒✏✑ ❣ ❤ ❧♠ ♠ ♠♥ ♦◆ ❝ ❢P P P❏ ❑

❣ ❤ ❧♣ ♣ ♣♥ ♦ ✫✬✗❚❚✰

❪✑✒✔ ✖✎✏✑✳✵ ✲❡✱ ❜✎ ✎q✏✎✱✵✎✵ ✏✳ ❡✵✵✒✏✒✳✱ ❡✱✵✔✕❜✏✓❡✲✏✒✳✱ ✳❫ ❡✱✴ ✱✕✖❜✎✓ ✳❫ ✙✎✲✏✳✓✔✗ s✳✓✎q❡✖✹❛✎✷ ✒❫ ✙✎✲✏✳✓✔ r✷ ✉ ❡✱✵ ✈ ❡✓✎ ✸✒✙✎✱ ❡✔

✇ ❍ ■ ❦❏ ❑ ❑④ ④ ④❖ P ③◗ ◗ ◗

⑤ ❍ ■ ❦❏ ❑ ❑⑥ ⑥ ⑥❖ P ③◗ ◗ ◗

⑦ ❍ ■ ❦❏ ❑ ❑⑧ ⑧ ⑧❖ P ③◗ ◗ ◗ ✫✬✗❚⑨❡✰✏✑✎✱✷ ❡ ✙✎✲✏✳✓ ⑩ ✚ r ✥ ✉ ❶ ✈ ✑❡✔ ✲✳✖✹✳✱✎✱✏✔ ✻

❷ ❸ ❹ ❺❻ ❻ ❻ ❻❼ ❽ ❾❿ ④ ⑥ ⑧P P P P❏ ❑ ➀ ✫✬✗❚⑨❜✰

➁ ➂ ➃ ➄♣ ♣ ♣ ♣♥ ♦ ➅ ✗

➆➇➈➉➊➋➌ ➍➎➏ s✒✱✵ ✏✑✎ ✖❡✸✱✒✏✕✵✎ ❡✱✵✵✒✓✎✲✏✒✳✱ ✳❫ ✏✑✎ ✓✎✔✕❛✏❡✱✏ ✳❫ ✏✶✳ ✙✎✲✏✳✓✔ ❆❡✱✵ ✛ ✒✱ ✏✎✓✖✔ ✳❫ ✏✑✎✒✓ ✖❡✸✱✒✏✕✵✎✔ ❡✱✵❡✱✸❛✎ ➐ ❜✎✏✶✎✎✱ ✏✑✎✖✗

➑➒➓➔ →➔➣ ↔↕➙ ➛ ➜➝➞➟➠➡➢ ➡➝➤➠➥➜➝➦ ➧➨➟➠ ➞➠➩➫➠➨➝➨➟➤ ➭➥➠➨➯➲➳➵ ➸➳➵ ➭➨➦ ➺➳➭➲➝➤

➻ ➼➠➟➝ ➟➽➭➟ ➭➨➯➥➝➤ ➾➵ ➚➵ ➭➨➦ ➪ ➭➡➝ ➭➨➯➥➝➤ ➧➨ ➤➫➭➞➝➶ ➹➽➝➸ ➭➡➝ ➘➝➟➴➝➝➨ ➫➭➧➡➤ ➠➷ ➥➧➨➝➤➵ ➴➽➧➞➽ ➭➡➝ ➨➠➟ ➞➠➫➥➭➨➭➡➶

❙✳ ❫❡✓ ✶✎ ✑❡✙✎ ✲✳✱✔✒✵✎✓✎✵ ❡ ✙✎✲✏✳✓ ❛✴✒✱✸ ✒✱❡✱ ➬➮➱ ✹❛❡✱✎✗ ❪✑✎ ✔❡✖✎ ✹✓✳✲✎✵✕✓✎ ✲❡✱ ❜✎ ✕✔✎✵✏✳ ✓✎✔✳❛✙✎ ❡ ✸✎✱✎✓❡❛ ✙✎✲✏✳✓ ❆ ✒✱✏✳ ✏✑✓✎✎✲✳✖✹✳✱✎✱✏✔ ❡❛✳✱✸ ➬➮✷ ➱➮✃ ❡✱✵ ❐❒❡q✎✔ ✒✱ ✏✑✓✎✎✵✒✖✎✱✔✒✳✱✔✗ ❴❫ ❮✷ ❰✷ ❡✱✵ Ï ❡✓✎ ✏✑✎ ❡✱✸❛✎✔➻❜✎✏✶✎✎✱ ❆ ❡✱✵ ✏✑✎ ➬❒✷ ➱❒✷ ❡✱✵ ❐❒❡q✎✔✷ ✓✎✔✹✎✲✏✒✙✎❛✴s✒✸✗ ✬✗✯✫✵✰✷ ✶✎ ✑❡✙✎

↔↕➙

Ð Ñ ÒÓ Ó ÔÕÖ × Ó Ó ÔÕÖ × Ó Ó ÔÕÖØ Ù Ú❬ ❬ ❬ ✫✬✗✮Û❡✰❴✱ ✸✎✱✎✓❡❛✷ ✶✎ ✑❡✙✎

Ü Ü ÜÝ Þ ßà à àá â âã ä å æ ✫✬✗✮Û❜✰❪✑✎ ✖❡✸✱✒✏✕✵✎ ✳❫ ✙✎✲✏✳✓ ❆ ✒✔

ç çèé ê ë❝ ❝ ❝ ❝❏ ❑ ❑ ✫✬✗✮Û✲✰

ì ✹✳✔✒✏✒✳✱ ✙✎✲✏✳✓ í ✲❡✱ ❜✎ ✎q✹✓✎✔✔✎✵ ❡✔î ï ð ñò ó óô õ ö÷ ÷ ÷ ✫✬✗✮ø✰

✶✑✎✓✎ ➬✃ ➱✷ ❡✱✵ ❐ ❡✓✎ ✏✑✎ ✲✳✖✹✳✱✎✱✏✔ ✳❫ í ❡❛✳✱✸➬➮✃ ➱➮✃ ❐➮❡q✎✔✷ ✓✎✔✹✎✲✏✒✙✎❛✴✗

ùúû üýþ⑩ÿ❘ ❆❱❱�⑩�ÿ✁ ✂ ❆✁❆✄☎⑩�þ❆✄▼ý⑩✆ÿ❱

ì❛✏✑✳✕✸✑ ✏✑✎ ✸✓❡✹✑✒✲❡❛ ✖✎✏✑✳✵ ✳❫ ❡✵✵✒✱✸ ✙✎✲✏✳✓✔✑✎❛✹✔ ✕✔ ✒✱ ✙✒✔✕❡❛✒✔✒✱✸ ✏✑✎ ✙✎✲✏✳✓✔ ❡✱✵ ✏✑✎✓✎✔✕❛✏❡✱✏ ✙✎✲✏✳✓✷ ✒✏ ✒✔ ✔✳✖✎✏✒✖✎✔ ✏✎✵✒✳✕✔ ❡✱✵ ✑❡✔❛✒✖✒✏✎✵ ❡✲✲✕✓❡✲✴✗ ❴✏ ✒✔ ✖✕✲✑ ✎❡✔✒✎✓ ✏✳ ❡✵✵ ✙✎✲✏✳✓✔❜✴ ✲✳✖❜✒✱✒✱✸ ✏✑✎✒✓ ✓✎✔✹✎✲✏✒✙✎ ✲✳✖✹✳✱✎✱✏✔✗❈✳✱✔✒✵✎✓ ✏✶✳ ✙✎✲✏✳✓✔ ❆ ❡✱✵ ✛ ✒✱ ➬❒➱ ✹❛❡✱✎ ✶✒✏✑✲✳✖✹✳✱✎✱✏✔ ❆①✷ ❆② ❡✱✵ ❇①✷ ❇② ✻

✝ ✡ ❥❂ ☛✞ ✞① ✌✍ ✍ ✫✬✗✮✭✰

Page 76: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✼✆

❋✞✟✠ ✡✠☛☞

❆✌✍✎✏✑ ✥✒✓❖✔✕✖✗❖Q ✘✒✙✘✒✚✒✖✓ ✓✛✒ ✓✜✢ ✣✒✤✓✢✘✚

✦ ✕✖✗ ❇ ✧✕★✩✖✪ ✕✖ ✕✖✪✫✒ ✬ ✭✮✩✪✯ ✰✯✱✲✳✯ ✴✛✒✖✵

✉✚✩✖✪ ✓✛✒ ✙✕✘✕✫✫✒✫✢✪✘✕✧ ✧✒✓✛✢✗ ✢✶ ✣✒✤✓✢✘

✕✗✗✩✓✩✢✖✵ ❖✷ ✘✒✙✘✒✚✒✖✓✚ ✓✛✒ ✘✒✚✉✫✓✕✖✓ ✣✒✤✓✢✘ ❘ ✿

❘ ❂ ✦ ✸ ❇

❙✹ ✩✚ ✖✢✘✧✕✫ ✓✢ ✺✻ ✕✖✗ ✻✽ ✩✚ ✖✢✘✧✕✫ ✓✢ ✺❙✯

✮✘✢✧ ✓✛✒ ✪✒✢✧✒✓✘✾ ✢✶ ✓✛✒ ✶✩✪✉✘✒✵

✺❙❀ ❂ ✺✹❀ ✸ ❙✹❀

❜✉✓ ✺✹ ❂ ✺✻ ✸ ✻✹ ❂ ❁ ✸ ❃ ✤✢✚ ✬

❙✹ ❂ ❃ ✚✩✖ ✬

✺❙❀ ❂ ✭❁ ✸ ❃ ✤✢✚ ✬✳❄ ✸ ✭❃ ✚✩✖ ✬✳❄

✢✘✵ ❅❀ ❂ ❁❀ ✸ ❃❀ ✸ ❈❁❃ ✤✢✚ ✬

❉ ❊ ● ❍❊●■ ■

❏ ❑ ❑ ❝▲s▼ ✭✰✯❈✰✕✳

◆✖ ◗ ❚❯❱✵ ❙✹ ❂ ✺❙ ✚✩✖❲ ❂ ❅ ✚✩✖❲❳ ✕✖✗

✩✖ ◗ ❨❯❱✵ ❙✹ ❂ ✻❙ ✚✩✖ ✬ ❂ ❃ ✚✩✖ ✬

✴✛✒✘✒✶✢✘✒✵ ❅ ✚✩✖ ❲ ❂ ❃ ✚✩✖ ✬

✢✘✵❩ ❬

❭❪❫ ❭❪❫❴ ❵❛ ✭✰✯❈✰❜✳

❯✩✧✩✫✕✘✫✾✵

❨❞ ❂ ❁ ✚✩✖ ❲ ❂ ❃ ✚✩✖ ❡

✢✘✵❢ ❣

❤✐❥ ❤✐❥❦ ❧♠ ✭✰✯❈✰✤✳

♥✢✧❜✩✖✩✖✪ ♦♣✚✯ ✭✰✯❈✰❜✳ ✕✖✗ ✭✰✯❈✰✤✳✵ ✜✒ ✪✒✓

q r

t✈✇ t✈✇ t✈✇① ② ③④ ④

⑤✭✰✯❈✰✗✳

⑥✚✩✖✪ ♦♣✯ ✭✰✯❈✰✗✳✵ ✜✒ ✪✒✓✿

⑦⑧⑨ ⑦⑧⑨⑩ ❶❷❸

❹✭✰✯❈✰✒✳

✜✛✒✘✒ ❅ ✩✚ ✪✩✣✒✖ ❜✾ ♦♣✯ ✭✰✯❈✰✕✳✯

✢✘✵❺❻❼

❽❾❼❿➀❺

➁➂ ➃

➄➅ ➅➂ ➆ ➃

➇➈

➇➉ ➉

➊ ➊✭✰✯❈✰✶✳

♦♣✉✕✓✩✢✖ ✭✰✯❈✰✕✳ ✪✩✣✒✚ ✓✛✒ ✧✕✪✖✩✓✉✗✒ ✢✶ ✓✛✒

✘✒✚✉✫✓✕✖✓ ✕✖✗♦♣✚✯ ✭✰✯❈✰✒✳ ✕✖✗ ✭✰✯❈✰✶✳ ✩✓✚ ✗✩✘✒✤✓✩✢✖✯

♦♣✉✕✓✩✢✖ ✭✰✯❈✰✕✳ ✩✚ ★✖✢✜✖ ✕✚ ✓✛✒ ➋➌➍ ➎➏ ➐➎➑➒➓➔➑

✕✖✗♦♣✯ ✭✰✯❈✰✗✳ ✕✚ ✓✛✒ ➋➌➍ ➎➏ ➑➒➓➔➑✯ →

➣↔↕➙➛➜✏ ➝➞➟ ➠ ✧✢✓✢✘❜✢✕✓ ✩✚ ✘✕✤✩✖✪

✓✢✜✕✘✗✚ ✖✢✘✓✛ ✕✓ ❈➡ ★✧➢✛ ✕✖✗ ✓✛✒ ✜✕✓✒✘

✤✉✘✘✒✖✓ ✩✖ ✓✛✕✓ ✘✒✪✩✢✖ ✩✚ ✱✲ ★✧➢✛ ✩✖ ✓✛✒

✗✩✘✒✤✓✩✢✖ ✢✶ ➤✲➥ ✒✕✚✓ ✢✶ ✚✢✉✓✛✯ ✮✩✖✗ ✓✛✒

✘✒✚✉✫✓✕✖✓ ✣✒✫✢✤✩✓✾ ✢✶ ✓✛✒ ❜✢✕✓✯

❆✌✍✎✏✑ ✴✛✒ ✣✒✤✓✢✘ ➦➧ ✘✒✙✘✒✚✒✖✓✩✖✪ ✓✛✒ ✣✒✫✢✤✩✓✾

✢✶ ✓✛✒ ✧✢✓✢✘❜✢✕✓ ✕✖✗ ✓✛✒ ✣✒✤✓✢✘ ➦➨ ✘✒✙✘✒✚✒✖✓✩✖✪

✓✛✒ ✜✕✓✒✘ ✤✉✘✘✒✖✓ ✕✘✒ ✚✛✢✜✖ ✩✖ ✮✩✪✯ ✰✯✱✱ ✩✖

✗✩✘✒✤✓✩✢✖✚ ✚✙✒✤✩✶✩✒✗ ❜✾ ✓✛✒ ✙✘✢❜✫✒✧✯ ⑥✚✩✖✪ ✓✛✒

✙✕✘✕✫✫✒✫✢✪✘✕✧ ✧✒✓✛✢✗ ✢✶ ✕✗✗✩✓✩✢✖✵ ✓✛✒ ✘✒✚✉✫✓✕✖✓

❘ ✩✚ ✢❜✓✕✩✖✒✗ ✩✖ ✓✛✒ ✗✩✘✒✤✓✩✢✖ ✚✛✢✜✖ ✩✖ ✓✛✒

✶✩✪✉✘✒✯

❋✞✟✠ ✡✠☛☛

➩✒ ✤✕✖ ✢❜✓✕✩✖ ✓✛✒✧✕✪✖✩✓✉✗✒ ✢✶ ❘ ✉✚✩✖✪ ✓✛✒ ✥✕✜

✢✶ ✤✢✚✩✖✒ ✿

➫ ➭ ➭ ➭ ➭➯ ➲➳

➵➳

➲ ➵➸ ➺➻➼➽➸➾➚ ➚➪

➶ ➹➘ ➴➷ ➹ ➹➘ ➴➷ ➬➴➮➹ ➹➹ ➱✃➮❐❒ ❒❮ ❮ × × ❰ Ï Ð

✴✢ ✢❜✓✕✩✖ ✓✛✒ ✗✩✘✒✤✓✩✢✖✵ ✜✒ ✕✙✙✫✾ ✓✛✒ ✥✕✜ ✢✶ ✚✩✖✒✚

Ñ ÒÓ

ÔÕÖ ÔÕÖØ ÙÚ ✢✘✵ ⑦⑧⑨ Û ❶❷

Ü

Ý⑦⑧⑨

Þßà áâãßäà

äßåæ

ßà ç

ä äßåæàåçèé

êÞ

êë

ì

Û í îïðñò →

óôõ ö❖÷ø❖ù øù ✦ ✔➋✦ùú

◆✖ ✓✛✩✚ ✚✒✤✓✩✢✖ ✜✒ ✚✛✕✫✫ ✚✒✒ ✛✢✜ ✓✢ ✗✒✚✤✘✩❜✒

✧✢✓✩✢✖ ✩✖ ✓✜✢ ✗✩✧✒✖✚✩✢✖✚ ✉✚✩✖✪ ✣✒✤✓✢✘✚✯

Page 77: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✼✟

✹✠✡✠☛ P☞✌✍✎✍☞✏ ✑❡✒✎☞✓ ✔✏✕ ✖✍✌✗✘✔✒❡✙❡✏✎

❚✚✛ ✜✢✣✤✥✤✢✦ ✧✛★✥✢✩ ✓ ✢✪ ✫ ✜✫✩✥✤★✬✛ ✭ ✬✢★✫✥✛❧ ✤✦ ✫✜✬✫✦✛ ♣✤✥✚ ✩✛✪✛✩✛✦★✛ ✥✢ ✥✚✛ ✢✩✤✮✤✦ ✢✪ ✫✦ ①✯✰✩✛✪✛✩✛✦★✛ ✪✩✫r✛ ✱✲✤✮✳ ✴✳✵✶✷ ✤✣ ✮✤✧✛✦ ✸✺

✻ ✽ ❥❂ ✾✿ ❀❁ ❁

♣✚✛✩✛ ① ✫✦❧ ✰ ✫✩✛ ★✢r✜✢✦✛✦✥✣ ✢✪ ✓ ✫✬✢✦✮ ①❃❄ ✫✦❧✰❃ ✫❅✛✣ ✢✩ ✣✤r✜✬✺ ✥✚✛✺ ✫✩✛ ✥✚✛ ★✢✢✩❧✤✦✫✥✛✣ ✢✪✥✚✛ ✢✸t✛★✥✳

❆❇❈

❆❉❈❋❊●❍ ■❍❏❑ ❆❇❈ ▲◆❖◗❘◗◆❙ ❯❱❲❘◆❳ ❨❩ ❆❉❈ ❬◗❖❭❪❫❲❱❴❱❙❘ ❵❨❫❙❛

❫❯❱❳❫❜❱ ❯❱❪◆❲◗❘❝ ✈ ◆♦ ❫ ❭❫❳❘◗❲❪❱❩

❞❢✜✜✢✣✛ ✫ ✜✫✩✥✤★✬✛ r✢✧✛✣ ✫✬✢✦✮ ✥✚✛ ★❢✩✧✛ ✣✚✢♣✦✸✺ ✥✚✛ ✥✚✤★❣ ✬✤✦✛ ✫✦❧ ✤✣ ✫✥ ✭ ✫✥ ✥✤r✛ ❤ ✫✦❧ ✭✐ ✫✥✥✤r✛ ❤✐ ❦✲✤✮✳ ✴✳✵✶✱✸✷♠✳ ❚✚✛✦❄ ✥✚✛ ❧✤✣✜✬✫★✛r✛✦✥ ✤✣ ♥

q✓ s ✓✐ ✉ ✓ ✱✴✳✶✇✷✫✦❧ ✤✣ ❧✤✩✛★✥✛❧ ✪✩✢r ✭ ✥✢ ✭✐ ✳

②✛ ★✫✦ ♣✩✤✥✛ ③④✳ ✱✴✳✶✇✷ ✤✦ ✫ ★✢r✜✢✦✛✦✥ ✪✢✩r♥

q✓ ⑤ ⑥ ⑤ ⑥⑦ ⑧ ❾ ⑧⑨⑩ ❶⑩ ⑨❷ ❷ ❷ ❷❸ ❹ ❸ ❹❺

❻ ❼❽ ❽❿ ➀➁ ➁➂ ➃

♣✚✛✩✛ q① s ① ✐ ✉ ①❄ q✰ s ✰✐ ✉ ✰ ✱✴✳✶➄✷

✑❡✘☞✒✍✎➅

❚✚✛ ✫✧✛✩✫✮✛ ✧✛✬✢★✤✥✺ ➆ ➇➈ ✢✪ ✫✦ ✢✸t✛★✥ ✤✣ ✥✚✛ ✩✫✥✤✢

✢✪ ✥✚✛ ❧✤✣✜✬✫★✛r✛✦✥ ✫✦❧ ✥✚✛ ★✢✩✩✛✣✜✢✦❧✤✦✮ ✥✤r✛✤✦✥✛✩✧✫✬ ♥

✈❨ ➉ ➊

➉ ➊➋ ➋➌

➋ ➌❵

❵ ❵

❵❘

➍ ❝

➎ ➎➎ ➎ ✱✴✳✶➏✷

➐✩❄ µ➑➒ ➓➔ ➔⑦ ⑧→ ❸ ❹

❞✤✦★✛ ✈❨

➋❵

❵❘❄ ✥✚✛ ❧✤✩✛★✥✤✢✦ ✢✪ ✥✚✛ ✫✧✛✩✫✮✛ ✧✛✬✢★✤✥✺

✤✣ ✥✚✛ ✣✫r✛ ✫✣ ✥✚✫✥ ✢✪ q✓ ✱✲✤✮✳ ✴✳✵✶✷✳ ❚✚✛ ➣❡✘☞✒✍✎➅✱✤✦✣✥✫✦✥✫✦✛✢❢✣ ✧✛✬✢★✤✥✺✷ ✤✣ ✮✤✧✛✦ ✸✺ ✥✚✛ ✬✤r✤✥✤✦✮✧✫✬❢✛ ✢✪ ✥✚✛ ✫✧✛✩✫✮✛ ✧✛✬✢★✤✥✺ ✫✣ ✥✚✛ ✥✤r✛ ✤✦✥✛✩✧✫✬✫✜✜✩✢✫★✚✛✣ ↔✛✩✢ ♥

↕➙ ➙

➛ ➛➜

➝➞➟➠ ➠➡➢

➤➤➥

➦➦

✱✴✳✶➧✷

❚✚✛ r✛✫✦✤✦✮ ✢✪ ✥✚✛ ✬✤r✤✥✤✦✮ ✜✩✢★✛✣✣ ★✫✦ ✸✛ ✛✫✣✤✬✺❢✦❧✛✩✣✥✢✢❧ ♣✤✥✚ ✥✚✛ ✚✛✬✜ ✢✪ ✲✤✮ ✴✳✵➨✱✫✷ ✥✢ ✱❧✷✳ ➩✦✥✚✛✣✛ ✪✤✮❢✩✛✣❄ ✥✚✛ ✥✚✤★❣ ✬✤✦✛ ✩✛✜✩✛✣✛✦✥✣ ✥✚✛ ✜✫✥✚✢✪ ✫✦ ✢✸t✛★✥❄ ♣✚✤★✚ ✤✣ ✫✥ ✭ ✫✥ ✥✤r✛ ❤✳ ✭➫❄ ✭➭ ✫✦❧✭➯ ✩✛✜✩✛✣✛✦✥ ✥✚✛ ✜✢✣✤✥✤✢✦✣ ✢✪ ✥✚✛ ✢✸t✛★✥ ✫✪✥✛✩✥✤r✛✣ ➲❤➫❄➲❤➭❄ ✫✦❧ ➲❤➯✳ ➲✓➫❄ ➲✓➭❄ ✫✦❧ ➲✓➯ ✫✩✛ ✥✚✛❧✤✣✜✬✫★✛r✛✦✥✣ ✢✪ ✥✚✛ ✢✸t✛★✥ ✤✦ ✥✤r✛✣ ➲❤➫❄ ➲❤➭❄ ✫✦❧

❋❊●❍ ■❍❏➳ ➵❖ ❘➸❱ ❘◗❴❱ ◗❙❘❱❳❯❫❪ ❵❘ ❫❭❭❳◆❫❲➸❱❖ ➺❱❳◆➻ ❘➸❱ ❫❯❱❳❫❜❱ ❯❱❪◆❲◗❘❝ ❫❭❭❳◆❫❲➸❱❖ ❘➸❱ ❯❱❪◆❲◗❘❝ ✈❩ ➼➸❱ ❛◗❳❱❲❘◗◆❙◆♦ ➽ ◗❖ ❭❫❳❫❪❪❱❪ ❘◆ ❘➸❱ ❪◗❙❱ ❘❫❙❜❱❙❘ ❘◆ ❘➸❱ ❭❫❘➸❩

Page 78: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✼✆

✠t✸✱ ✝✞✟✡✞☛☞✌✍✞✎✏✑ ✒✓✞ ✔✌✝✞☛☞✌✕✖ ✕✗ ☞✓✞ ✘✍✞✝✘✙✞✍✞✎✕☛✌☞✏ ✈ ✌✟ ✟✓✕✥✖ ✌✖ ✗✌✙✚✝✞✟ ✛✘✜✱ ✛✢✜ ✘✖✔ ✛☛✜ ✗✕✝☞✓✝✞✞ ✔✞☛✝✞✘✟✌✖✙ ✍✘✎✚✞✟ ✕✗ ✣t✱ ✌✑✞✑ ✣t✶✱✣t✷✱ ✘✖✔ ✣t✸✱✛✣t✶ ❃ ✣t✷ ❃ ✣t✸✜✑ ✮✟ ✣t ✤✤ ✦✱ ✣r ✤✤ ✦✘✖✔ ✌✟ ✘✎✕✖✙ ☞✓✞ ☞✘✖✙✞✖☞ ☞✕ ☞✓✞ ✡✘☞✓ ❛✧✌✙✑ ★✑✩✪✛✔✜✭✑✒✓✞✝✞✗✕✝✞✱ ✫✬✯ ✰✲r✯✳✫✲✴✵ ✴✹ ✺✯✻✴✳✲✫✽ ✾✫ ✾✵✽ ✿✴✲✵✫✴✵ ✫✬✯ ✿✾✫✬ ✴✹ ✾✵ ✴♦❀✯✳✫ ✲❁ ✫✾✵❂✯✵✫✲✾✻ ✫✴ ✫✬✯✿✾✫✬ ✾✫ ✫✬✾✫ ✿✴✲✵✫ ✾✵✰ ✲❁ ✲✵ ✫✬✯ ✰✲r✯✳✫✲✴✵ ✴✹♠✴✫✲✴✵✑❲✞ ☛✘✖ ✞❡✡✝✞✟✟ ✺ ✌✖ ✘ ☛✕✐✡✕✖✞✖☞ ✗✕✝✐ ❄

✈❅

❆❞

❞❇

❆ ❈❉

❊❋

❍■

❏❧❑▲

❇▼◆

❖◗❘ ❘❙ ❚ ✛★✑❯❱✜

❆ ❈❏ ❏

❘ ❘❙ ❚❧❑▲①

❇❧❑▲

❇▼ ▼◆ ◆

❖◗ ◗

❳✝✱ ❨ ❩ ❥ ❩ ❥❬ ❭ ❬ ❭❪ ❪ ❪ ❪❫❫

❫❫

❴❵

❜❵

❝ ❝❢ ❣ ✑

✥✓✞✝✞ ❝❴❵❝

❜❵❢ ❣❬ ❬

❫❫

❫❫

❤ ✛★✑✪✦✘✜

❦✕✱ ✌✗ ☞✓✞ ✞❡✡✝✞✟✟✌✕✖✟ ✗✕✝ ☞✓✞ ☛✕✕✝✔✌✖✘☞✞✟ ♥ ✘✖✔♣ ✘✝✞ q✖✕✥✖ ✘✟ ✗✚✖☛☞✌✕✖✟ ✕✗ ☞✌✐✞✱ ✥✞ ☛✘✖ ✚✟✞☞✓✞✟✞ ✞s✚✘☞✌✕✖✟ ☞✕ ✗✌✖✔ ✉✇ ✘✖✔ ✉③✑✒✓✞ ✐✘✙✖✌☞✚✔✞ ✕✗ ✺ ✌✟ ☞✓✞✖

④ ④ ④⑤⑥

⑦⑥⑧ ⑨ ✛★✑✪✦✢✜

✘✖✔ ☞✓✞ ✔✌✝✞☛☞✌✕✖ ✕✗ ✺ ✌✟ ✙✌✍✞✖ ✢✏ ☞✓✞ ✘✖✙✎✞ ⑩ ❄

❶❷❸ ❶❷❸ ❹❺ ❺❆ ❆❉

❊❋❋

❍■■

❾❻

❻y

x

y

x

, ✛★✑✪✦☛✜

✉✇❼ ✉③ ✘✖✔ ✘✖✙✎✞ ⑩ ✘✝✞ ✟✓✕✥✖ ✌✖ ✧✌✙✑ ★✑✩★ ✗✕✝ ✘✍✞✎✕☛✌☞✏ ✍✞☛☞✕✝ ✺✑

❽✳✳✯✻✯r✾✫✲✴✵✒✓✞ ✾✺✯r✾❂✯ ✾✳✳✯✻✯r✾✫✲✴✵ ✾ ✕✗ ✘✖ ✕✢❿✞☛☞ ✗✕✝ ✘☞✌✐✞ ✌✖☞✞✝✍✘✎ ✠t✐✕✍✌✖✙ ✌✖ ♥➀♣ ✡✎✘✖✞ ✌✟ ☞✓✞ ☛✓✘✖✙✞✌✖ ✍✞✎✕☛✌☞✏ ✔✌✍✌✔✞✔ ✢✏ ☞✓✞ ☞✌✐✞ ✌✖☞✞✝✍✘✎ ❄

➁ ➂➃

➄ ➅ ➆➅ ➆➇ ➇

➈➇ ➈

➉➊

➋ ➋

➍ ➎ ➍ ➎➏ ➏

➏ ➏ ✛★✑✪✩✘✜

❳✝✱ ➐ ➑ ➒➓ ➔→ →➣ ↔↕ ↕✑ ✛★✑✪✩✢✜

✒✓✞ ✾✳✳✯✻✯r✾✫✲✴✵ ✛✌✖✟☞✘✖☞✘✖✞✕✚✟ ✘☛☛✞✎✞✝✘☞✌✕✖✜✌✟ ☞✓✞ ✎✌✐✌☞✌✖✙ ✍✘✎✚✞ ✕✗ ☞✓✞ ✘✍✞✝✘✙✞ ✘☛☛✞✎✞✝✘☞✌✕✖✘✟ ☞✓✞ ☞✌✐✞ ✌✖☞✞✝✍✘✎ ✘✡✡✝✕✘☛✓✞✟ ➙✞✝✕ ❄

➛➜

➝➞➟➠➡

➢➤➥

➦➧✛★✑✪❯✘✜

❦✌✖☛✞ ➨ ➨ ➨➩ ➫ ➭➯ ➯ ➲➳ ➵➸ ➸➺ ➻ ✥✞ ✓✘✍✞

➼ ➽ ➾➚ ➪➶ ➶

➹ ➹➘➴➷➬

➮➘➴➷

➮➱✃

❒ ❒

❮❰ ❰

❳✝✱ Ï ❩ ❥❬ ❭Ð Ð❢ ❣❪ ❪ ✛★✑✪❯✢✜

✥✓✞✝✞✱ ÑÒ

ÓÔ Ñ

Ò

ÓÕÕ

ÖÖ

× ×Ø

Ø

Ø

Ø✛★✑✪❯☛✜Ù

✮✟ ✌✖ ☞✓✞ ☛✘✟✞ ✕✗ ✍✞✎✕☛✌☞✏✱ ✥✞ ☛✘✖ ✚✖✔✞✝✟☞✘✖✔✙✝✘✡✓✌☛✘✎✎✏ ☞✓✞ ✎✌✐✌☞✌✖✙ ✡✝✕☛✞✟✟ ✚✟✞✔ ✌✖ ✔✞✗✌✖✌✖✙✘☛☛✞✎✞✝✘☞✌✕✖ ✕✖ ✘ ✙✝✘✡✓ ✟✓✕✥✌✖✙ ☞✓✞ ✡✘☞✓ ✕✗ ☞✓✞✕✢❿✞☛☞Ú✟ ✐✕☞✌✕✖✑ ✒✓✌✟ ✌✟ ✟✓✕✥✖ ✌✖ ✧✌✙✟✑ ★✑✩Û✛✘✜ ☞✕✛✔✜✑ Ü ✝✞✡✝✞✟✞✖☞✟ ☞✓✞ ✡✕✟✌☞✌✕✖ ✕✗ ☞✓✞ ✕✢❿✞☛☞ ✘☞☞✌✐✞ t ✘✖✔ ÜÝ✱ ÜÞ✱ Üß ✡✕✟✌☞✌✕✖✟ ✘✗☞✞✝ ☞✌✐✞ ✠tÝ✱ ✠tÞ✱✠tß✱ ✝✞✟✡✞☛☞✌✍✞✎✏ ✛✠t Ý❃ ✠tÞ❃✠tß✜✑ ✒✓✞ ✍✞✎✕☛✌☞✏✍✞☛☞✕✝✟ ✘☞ ✡✕✌✖☞✟ Ü✱ ÜÝ✱ ÜÞ✱ Üß ✘✝✞ ✘✎✟✕ ✟✓✕✥✖ ✌✖✧✌✙✟✑ ★✑✩Û ✛✘✜✱ ✛✢✜ ✘✖✔ ✛☛✜✑ à✖ ✞✘☛✓ ☛✘✟✞ ✕✗ ✠t✱ ✠✺ ✌✟✕✢☞✘✌✖✞✔ ✚✟✌✖✙ ☞✓✞ ☞✝✌✘✖✙✎✞ ✎✘✥ ✕✗ ✍✞☛☞✕✝ ✘✔✔✌☞✌✕✖✑á✏ ✔✞✗✌✖✌☞✌✕✖✱ ☞✓✞ ✔✌✝✞☛☞✌✕✖ ✕✗ ✘✍✞✝✘✙✞✘☛☛✞✎✞✝✘☞✌✕✖ ✌✟ ☞✓✞ ✟✘✐✞ ✘✟ ☞✓✘☞ ✕✗ ✠✺✑ ❲✞ ✟✞✞☞✓✘☞ ✘✟ ✠t ✔✞☛✝✞✘✟✞✟✱ ☞✓✞ ✔✌✝✞☛☞✌✕✖ ✕✗ ✠✺ ☛✓✘✖✙✞✟✘✖✔ ☛✕✖✟✞s✚✞✖☞✎✏✱ ☞✓✞ ✔✌✝✞☛☞✌✕✖ ✕✗ ☞✓✞✘☛☛✞✎✞✝✘☞✌✕✖ ☛✓✘✖✙✞✟✑ ✧✌✖✘✎✎✏✱ ✌✖ ☞✓✞ ✎✌✐✌☞ ✠t â✦

ãäåæ çæèç éêë ìí▲îíïëï❇ð ❻ñ òïó ❻ôíõ ❻ë❧íì❑❇② ✈ òïó❇êë òïö❧ë ÷ ❑❇ ▲òøëðù❑❇ê ①úò①❑ðû üí❇ë ❇êò❇❻ñ ý ❻ þÿ❝ ÷✱ ❻ô ý ❻ ❝s❸ ÷✳

Ù ■ï ❇ë�▲ð íõ ① òïó ②✁ òñ òïó òô ìòï ✥ë ë①î�ëððëó òð

✷ ✷❞ ❞ ❞ ❞ ❞ ❞✂ ✄ ✂✷ ✷❞ ❞ ❞ ❞❞ ❞

① ① ② ②

t t t tt t❂ ❂

✌ ☎ ✌ ☎✎ ✆ ✎ ✆✍ ✝ ✍ ✝

a ax y

Page 79: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✼✟

✥ ✡☛☞

❋✌✍✎ ✏✎✑✒✓✔✕✖ ✗✘✙ ✚✛✙✜✚✍✙ ✚✢✢✙✣✙✜✚✗✌✤✦ ✧✙✢✤★✙✩✗✘✙ ✌✦✩✗✚✦✗✚✦✙✤t✩ ✚✢✢✙✣✙✜✚✗✌✤✦ ✚✦✔ ✘✚✩ ✗✘✙✔✌✜✙✢✗✌✤✦ ✚✩ ✩✘✤❞✦✎◆✪✫✬ ✫✭✮✫ ✯✰ ✪✰✬ ✱✯✲✬✰✳✯✪✰✴ ✫✭✬ ✵✬✶✪✷✯✫✸ ✮✰✱✫✭✬ ✮✷✷✬✶✬✹✮✫✯✪✰ ✪✺ ✮✰ ✪✻✽✬✷✫ ✮✹✬ ✮✶✾✮✸✳ ✮✶✪✰✿✫✭✬ ✳✮✲✬ ✳✫✹✮✯✿✭✫ ✶✯✰✬ ❧✬✯✫✭✬✹ ✯✰ ✫✭✬ ✳✮✲✬ ✱✯❀✹✬✷✫✯✪✰ ✪✹ ✯✰ ✫✭✬ ✪❡❡✪✳✯✫✬ ✱✯✹✬✷✫✯✪✰❁❂ ❃✪✾✬✵✬✹✴✺✪✹ ✲✪✫✯✪✰ ✯✰ ✫✾✪ ✪✹ ✫✭✹✬✬ ✱✯✲✬✰✳✯✪✰✳✴ ✵✬✶✪✷❀✯✫✸ ✮✰✱ ✮✷✷✬✶✬✹✮✫✯✪✰ ✵✬✷✫✪✹✳ ✲✮✸ ✭✮✵✬ ✮✰✸✮✰✿✶✬ ✻✬✫✾✬✬✰ ❛❄ ✮✰✱ ❅❆❛❄ ✻✬✫✾✬✬✰ ✫✭✬✲❂

❊❇❈❉●❍■ ❏❑❏ ❚✘✙ ▲✤✩✌✗✌✤✦ ✤❖ ✚ ▲✚✜✗✌✢✣✙ ✌✩✍✌✛✙✦ ✧❣

r i j k P ◗ ◗3.0t ❼ ❘ ❼ ❘ ❼❙ ❯ ❱ ❯❲❳❞✘✙✜✙ ❨ ✌✩ ✌✦ ✩✙✢✤✦✔✩ ✚✦✔ ✗✘✙ ✢✤✙❖❖✌✢✌✙✦✗✩✘✚✛✙ ✗✘✙ ▲✜✤▲✙✜ t✦✌✗✩ ❖✤✜ ✹ ✗✤ ✧✙ ✌✦ ★✙✗✜✙✩✎✓✚✕ ❋✌✦✔ ✵✓❨✕ ✚✦✔ ✮✓❨✕ ✤❖ ✗✘✙ ▲✚✜✗✌✢✣✙✎ ✓✧✕ ❋✌✦✔✗✘✙ ★✚✍✦✌✗t✔✙ ✚✦✔ ✔✌✜✙✢✗✌✤✦ ✤❖ ✵✓❨✕ ✚✗❨ ❩ ✑✎❬ ✩✎

❭❪❫❴■❵

❜ ❝ ❢ ❤✈r

✐ ❥ ❦♠♠ ♠

♠ ♠♥♦ ♦ ♣ ♣q

q

q

qs✉✇ ①✉✇ ②✉✇③ ③ ③

④ ⑤⑥⑦⑧ ⑦⑧⑨ ⑨⑩ ❶❷ t

❜ ❝❸✈

❥♠♠

♦q

q❹ ❺❻✉✇③

❽ ❩ ✏✎❬ ★ ✩➊❾ ✚✣✤✦✍ ❿➀ ✔✌✜✙✢✗✌✤✦

➁✗ ❨ ❩ ✑✎❬ ✩✖ ➂ ➂➃➄➅ ➆➄➅➇ ➈ ➉ ➋ ➌

➍✗➎✩ ★✚✍✦✌✗t✔✙ ✌✩ ➏ ➏ ➐➑➒ ➓ ➔ →➣↔ ↕ ➙➛ ➜ ➝✚✦✔ ✔✌✜✙✢✗✌✤✦ ✌✩

➞➟ ➟ ➠➡ ➢➤➥ ➢➤➥ ➦➧➧

➨➩

➫➫

➭ ➯➲ ➳ ➲ ➳ ➵➸ ➺➻ ➼ ➻ ➼➽ ➾➽ ➾❞✌✗✘ ➚➀✚➪✌✩✎

➹❂❆ ➘➴➷➬➴◆ ➬◆ ➮ ➱✃➮◆❐ ❒➬➷❃ ❮➴◆❰➷➮◆➷➮❮❮❐✃❐Ï➮➷➬➴◆

Ðt▲▲✤✩✙ ✗✘✚✗ ✚✦ ✤✧Ñ✙✢✗ ✌✩ ★✤✛✌✦✍ ✌✦ ➚Ò❿ ▲✣✚✦✙✚✦✔ ✌✗✩ ✚✢✢✙✣✙✜✚✗✌✤✦ ✮ ✌✩ ✢✤✦✩✗✚✦✗✎ Ó✛✙✜ ✚✦✌✦✗✙✜✛✚✣ ✤❖ ✗✌★✙✖ ✗✘✙ ✚✛✙✜✚✍✙ ✚✢✢✙✣✙✜✚✗✌✤✦ ❞✌✣✣✙Ôt✚✣ ✗✘✌✩ ✢✤✦✩✗✚✦✗ ✛✚✣t✙✎ Õ✤❞✖ ✣✙✗ ✗✘✙ ✛✙✣✤✢✌✗❣✤❖ ✗✘✙ ✤✧Ñ✙✢✗ ✧✙ ✵Ö ✚✗ ✗✌★✙ ❨ ❩ ❬ ✚✦✔ ✵ ✚✗ ✗✌★✙ ❨✎❚✘✙✦✖ ✧❣ ✔✙❖✌✦✌✗✌✤✦

×Ø Ø Ø ØÙ Ù➸ÚÚ

➸Ú

Û ÛÜ

Ó✜✖ ✈ ✈ ❸Ù♦ ♣ ♠ ✓✏✎ÝÝ✚✕

➍✦ ✗✙✜★✩ ✤❖ ✢✤★▲✤✦✙✦✗✩ Þß ß à áâ ãâ âä å

æ æ ç èé êé éë ì ✓✏✎ÝÝ✧✕í✙✗ t✩ ✦✤❞ ❖✌✦✔ ✘✤❞ ✗✘✙ ▲✤✩✌✗✌✤✦ ✹ ✢✘✚✦✍✙✩❞✌✗✘✗✌★✙✎ î✙ ❖✤✣✣✤❞ ✗✘✙ ★✙✗✘✤✔ t✩✙✔ ✌✦ ✗✘✙ ✤✦✙➀✔✌★✙✦✩✌✤✦✚✣ ✢✚✩✙✎ í✙✗ ✹ï ✚✦✔ ✹ ✧✙ ✗✘✙ ▲✤✩✌✗✌✤✦✛✙✢✗✤✜✩ ✤❖ ✗✘✙ ▲✚✜✗✌✢✣✙ ✚✗ ✗✌★✙ ❬ ✚✦✔ ❨ ✚✦✔ ✣✙✗ ✗✘✙✛✙✣✤✢✌✗✌✙✩ ✚✗ ✗✘✙✩✙ ✌✦✩✗✚✦✗✩ ✧✙ ✵ï ✚✦✔ ✵✎ ❚✘✙✦✖✤✛✙✜ ✗✘✌✩ ✗✌★✙ ✌✦✗✙✜✛✚✣ ❨✖ ✗✘✙ ✚✛✙✜✚✍✙ ✛✙✣✤✢✌✗❣ ✌✩✓✵ï ð ✵✕ñò✎ ❚✘✙ ✔✌✩▲✣✚✢✙★✙✦✗ ✌✩ ✗✘✙ ✚✛✙✜✚✍✙✛✙✣✤✢✌✗❣ ★t✣✗✌▲✣✌✙✔ ✧❣ ✗✘✙ ✗✌★✙ ✌✦✗✙✜✛✚✣ Þ

ó ôõ õ

öö ö

÷ øù ùù÷ øú û ûü ý ü ýþ ÿ þ ÿ✵ ✵✵

✈ � ✈✈ ✈r r

❋✁✂✄ ☎✄✆✝ ❚✞✟ ✠✡✟☛✠☞✟ ✠✌✌✟✍✟☛✠♠✎✏✑ ✒✏☛ ♠✞☛✟✟ ♠✎✓✟ ✎✑♠✟☛✡✠✍✔ ✭✕✖ ✗♠✶✱ ✭✘✖ ✗♠✷✱ ✠✑✙ ✭✚✖ ✗♠✸✱ ✛✗♠✶❃ ✗♠✷❃ ✗♠✸✮✜ ✭q✖ ■✑ ♠✞✟✍✎✓✎♠ ✗♠✢✣✱ ♠✞✟ ✠✡✟☛✠☞✟ ✠✌✌✟✍✟☛✠♠✎✏✑ ✤✟✌✏✓✟✔ ♠✞✟ ✠✌✌✟✍✟☛✠♠✎✏✑✜

Page 80: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✼✆

✷✶✞

t t❂ ✟✵✈ ✠

❖✡✱ r r ✈ ✠☛ ☛❂ ✟ ✟t t✶✞

☞ ✭✌✍✎✌✏✑

■✒ ✓✏✔ ✕✖ ✖✏✗✘✙✚ ✛✖✡✘✜✘✖✢ ✒✣✏✒ ✒✣✖ ✢✖✡✘✛✏✒✘✛✖ ✤✜

❊✥✍ ✭✌✍✎✌✏✑✱ ✘✍✖✍❞❞rt✦✘✛✖✗ ❊✥✍✭✌✍✎✎✏✑ ✏✔✢ ✘✒ ✏✙✗✤

✗✏✒✘✗✜✘✖✗ ✒✣✖ ✓✤✔✢✘✒✘✤✔ ✒✣✏✒ ✏✒ ✧★✩✱ ✪ ★ ✪♦✍❊✥✫✏✒✘✤✔ ✭✌✍✎✌✏✑ ✓✏✔ ✕✖ ✬✡✘✒✒✖✔ ✘✔ ✓✤✮✯✤✔✖✔✒✜✤✡✮ ✏✗

① ① ✰ ✲ ❛ ✲✳✴ ✴✸ ✹ ✹✺✻✽

✷✶✞✿ ❀② ②❁ ❁ ❃ t ❄ t❂ ✟ ✟ ✭✌✍✎✌✕✑

❖✔✖ ✘✮✮✖✢✘✏✒✖ ✘✔✒✖✡✯✡✖✒✏✒✘✤✔ ✤✜ ❊✥✍✭✌✍✎✌✕✑ ✘✗ ✒✣✏✒✒✣✖ ✮✤✒✘✤✔✗ ✘✔ ❅❆ ✏✔✢ ❇❈✢✘✡✖✓✒✘✤✔✗ ✓✏✔ ✕✖ ✒✡✖✏✒✖✢✘✔✢✖✯✖✔✢✖✔✒✙✚ ✤✜ ✖✏✓✣ ✤✒✣✖✡✍ ❉✣✏✒ ✘✗✱ ♠❋●❍❋❏ ❍❏❑ ▲▼❑❏◆ ◗●❘❋❙❚❍♠◆❏❯❍❋❏❯❱ ❲❑❏ ❳◆ ●✪◆❑●◆❚ ❑❯ ●❘❋❯◆▲❑✪❑●◆ ❯❍♠s▼●❑❏◆❋s❯ ❋❏◆❙❚❍♠◆❏❯❍❋❏❑▼♠❋●❍❋❏❯ ❘❍●❨ ❲❋❏❯●❑❏● ❑❲❲◆▼◆✪❑●❍❋❏ ❑▼❋❏❩ ●❘❋▲◆✪▲◆❏❚❍❲s▼❑✪ ❚❍✪◆❲●❍❋❏❯✍ ❉✣✘✗ ✘✗ ✏✔ ✘✮✯✤✡✒✏✔✒✡✖✗✫✙✒ ✏✔✢ ✘✗✫✗✖✜✫✙ ✘✔ ✏✔✏✙✚✗✘✔✦✮✤✒✘✤✔ ✤✜ ✤✕❬✖✓✒✗✘✔ ✒✬✤✢✘✮✖✔✗✘✤✔✗❭ ❪ ✗✘✮✘✙✏✡ ✡✖✗✫✙✒ ✣✤✙✢✗ ✜✤✡ ✒✣✡✖✖✢✘✮✖✔✗✘✤✔✗✍ ❉✣✖ ✓✣✤✘✓✖ ✤✜ ✯✖✡✯✖✔✢✘✓✫✙✏✡✢✘✡✖✓✒✘✤✔✗ ✘✗ ✓✤✔✛✖✔✘✖✔✒ ✘✔ ✮✏✔✚ ✯✣✚✗✘✓✏✙✗✘✒✫✏✒✘✤✔✗✱ ✏✗ ✬✖ ✗✣✏✙✙ ✗✖✖ ✘✔ ✗✖✓✒✘✤✔ ✌✍❫✩ ✜✤✡✯✡✤❬✖✓✒✘✙✖✮✤✒✘✤✔✍

❴❵❜❝❡❢❣ ❤✐❥ ❪ ✯✏✡✒✘✓✙✖ ✗✒✏✡✒✗ ✜✡✤✮ ✤✡✘✦✘✔✏✒ ✧ ★ ✩ ✬✘✒✣ ✏ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✚ ❦✍✩ î ✮❧✗ ✏✔✢✮✤✛✖✗✘✔ ❅❆❇ ✯✙✏✔✖ ✫✔✢✖✡ ✏✓✒✘✤✔ ✤✜ ✏ ✜✤✡✓✖ ✬✣✘✓✣✯✡✤✢✫✓✖✗ ✏ ✓✤✔✗✒✏✔✒ ✏✓✓✖✙✖✡✏✒✘✤✔ ✤✜♥ ♣ q ♣✉ ✉✇ ③④ ⑤⑥⑦ ✮❧✗⑧✍ ✭✏✑ ⑨✣✏✒ ✘✗ ✒✣✖❇❆✓✤✤✡✢✘✔✏✒✖ ✤✜ ✒✣✖ ✯✏✡✒✘✓✙✖ ✏✒ ✒✣✖ ✘✔✗✒✏✔✒✘✒✗ ❅❆✓✤✤✡✢✘✔✏✒✖ ✘✗ ⑩✌ ✮ ❶ ✭✕✑ ⑨✣✏✒ ✘✗ ✒✣✖✗✯✖✖✢ ✤✜ ✒✣✖ ✯✏✡✒✘✓✙✖ ✏✒ ✒✣✘✗ ✒✘✮✖ ❶

❷❸❹❺❣❻ ❉✣✖ ✯✤✗✘✒✘✤✔ ✤✜ ✒✣✖ ✯✏✡✒✘✓✙✖ ✘✗ ✦✘✛✖✔ ✕✚

❼ ❽ ✷✶✞

t t t❂ ✟✵r ✈ ✠

❼ ❽ ❾ ❿ ✷➀ ➀ ➀➁➂➃ ✶➄✞ ➅➂➃ ✞➂➃t t❂ ✟ ✟➆ ➆ ➇

➈ ➉➊ ➊➋ ➋➌➍➎ ➏➍➌ ➏➍➎➐ ➐ ➐➑ ➒ ➒➓ ➔

❉✣✖✡✖✜✤✡✖✱ → ➣ ↔↕➙➛ ➜➙↕➝ ➞ ➞ ➞➟ ➠

➡ ➢ ➤➥➦➧➨ ➩ ➩➫ ➭

➯✘✛✖✔❅ ✭✧✑ ★ ⑩✌ ✮✱ ✧ ★ ❶

❦✍✩ ✧ ➲ ❫✍❦ ✧ ⑧ ★ ⑩✌ ➳✧ ★ ➵ ✗❪✒ ✧ ★ ➵ ✗✱ ❇ ★ ❫✍✩ ✭➵✑⑧ ★ ✎➵✍✩ ✮

➸✤✬✱ ✒✣✖ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✚ ➺ ➻➼ ➽ ➽➾➚➪ ➶➚➪ ➹➚➪➼

➘ ➘➘

➴ ➴ ➷ ➷➬➮ ➱ ✃

❪✒ ✧ ★ ➵ ✗✱ ❐ ❒ ❮❰ ÏÐÑÒ Ó ÓÔ ÕÐÒÔ

✗✯✖✖✢ Ö Ö ×ØÙ ÚØ ØÛ Ü ÝÞß ß à áâ ✍ ã

äåæ çèéêëìíèíèéïðìëñ ìò ëóïôìõèòöìïòö

❉✣✖ ✓✤✔✓✖✯✒ ✤✜ ✡✖✙✏✒✘✛✖ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✚✱ ✘✔✒✡✤✢✫✓✖✢ ✘✔✗✖✓✒✘✤✔ ✎✍÷ ✜✤✡ ✮✤✒✘✤✔ ✏✙✤✔✦ ✏ ✗✒✡✏✘✦✣✒ ✙✘✔✖✱ ✓✏✔✕✖ ✖✏✗✘✙✚ ✖ø✒✖✔✢✖✢ ✒✤ ✘✔✓✙✫✢✖ ✮✤✒✘✤✔ ✘✔ ✏ ✯✙✏✔✖✤✡ ✘✔ ✒✣✡✖✖ ✢✘✮✖✔✗✘✤✔✗✍ ù✫✯✯✤✗✖ ✒✣✏✒ ✒✬✤ ✤✕❬✖✓✒✗❪ ✏✔✢ ú ✏✡✖ ✮✤✛✘✔✦ ✬✘✒✣ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✘✖✗ ûü ✏✔✢ ûý✭✖✏✓✣ ✬✘✒✣ ✡✖✗✯✖✓✒ ✒✤ ✗✤✮✖ ✓✤✮✮✤✔ ✜✡✏✮✖ ✤✜✡✖✜✖✡✖✔✓✖✱ ✗✏✚ ✦✡✤✫✔✢✍✑✍ ❉✣✖✔✱ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✚ ✤✜ ✤✕❬✖✓✒❪ ✪◆▼❑●❍û◆ ●❋ ●❨❑● ❋þ ÿ ❍❯ ✥

û❆� ★ û❆ ➊ û� ✭✌✍✎❦✏✑✏✔✢ ✗✘✮✘✙✏✡✙✚✱ ✒✣✖ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✚ ✤✜ ✤✕❬✖✓✒ ú r✁✂✄✧☎✆✁ ✧✝✧t✄✧ ✝✞ ❪ ✘✗ ✥

û�❆ ★ û� ➊ û❆❉✣✖✡✖✜✤✡✖✱ û❆� ★ ➊ û�❆ ✭✌✍✎❦✕✑

✏✔✢✱ ✈ ✈✟✠ ✠✟➫ ✭✌✍✎❦✓✑

❴❵❜❝❡❢❣ ❤✐❊ ✡✏✘✔ ✘✗ ✜✏✙✙✘✔✦ ✛✖✡✒✘✓✏✙✙✚ ✬✘✒✣✏ ✗✯✖✖✢ ✤✜ ✎❦✮ ✗☛☞✍ ❪✬✤✮✏✔ ✡✘✢✖✗ ✏ ✕✘✓✚✓✙✖✬✘✒✣ ✏ ✗✯✖✖✢ ✤✜ ❫✇ ✮ ✗☛☞ ✘✔ ✖✏✗✒ ✒✤ ✬✖✗✒✢✘✡✖✓✒✘✤✔✍ ⑨✣✏✒ ✘✗ ✒✣✖ ✢✘✡✖✓✒✘✤✔ ✘✔ ✬✣✘✓✣✗✣✖ ✗✣✤✫✙✢ ✣✤✙✢ ✣✖✡ ✫✮✕✡✖✙✙✏ ❶

❷❸❹❺❣❻ ■✔ ✌✘✦✍ ✌✍❫➵ û✍ ✡✖✯✡✖✗✖✔✒✗ ✒✣✖ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✚✤✜ ✡✏✘✔ ✏✔✢ û❜ ✱ ✒✣✖ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✚ ✤✜ ✒✣✖ ✕✘✓✚✓✙✖✱ ✒✣✖✬✤✮✏✔ ✘✗ ✡✘✢✘✔✦✍ ú✤✒✣ ✒✣✖✗✖ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✘✖✗ ✏✡✖ ✬✘✒✣✡✖✗✯✖✓✒ ✒✤ ✒✣✖ ✦✡✤✫✔✢✍ ù✘✔✓✖ ✒✣✖✬✤✮✏✔ ✘✗ ✡✘✢✘✔✦✏ ✕✘✓✚✓✙✖✱ ✒✣✖ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✚ ✤✜ ✡✏✘✔ ✏✗ ✖ø✯✖✡✘✖✔✓✖✢ ✕✚

❋✎✏✑ ✒✑✓✔

✣✖✡ ✘✗ ✒✣✖ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✚ ✤✜ ✡✏✘✔ ✡✖✙✏✒✘✛✖ ✒✤ ✒✣✖ ✛✖✙✤✓✘✒✚✤✜ ✒✣✖ ✕✘✓✚✓✙✖ ✗✣✖ ✘✗ ✡✘✢✘✔✦✍ ❉✣✏✒ ✘✗ û✍❜★ û✍ ➊ û❜

Page 81: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✼✼

❚✟✠✡ ☛☞✌✍✎✠✏☞ ✏☞✌✑✒✠✎✓ ✏☞✒✎✑☛ ✍✡ ✡✟✑✔✕ ✠✕

❋✠✖✗ ✹✗✘✙ ✥✍✚☞✡ ✍✕ ✍✕✖✌☞ ✛ ✔✠✎✟ ✎✟☞ ✏☞☛✎✠✒✍✌✗ ✇✎ ✠✡

✖✠✏☞✕ ❣✓

t✜♥✶✢

✸✣✵✳✸✤✸✦ ❂ ❂ ❂

r

❖☛✱ ✧ ★ ✩✪✫

❚✟☞☛☞✬✑☛☞✱ ✎✟☞ ✔✑✥✍✕ ✡✟✑✭✌✮ ✟✑✌✮ ✟☞☛

✭✥❣☛☞✌✌✍ ✍✎ ✍✕ ✍✕✖✌☞ ✑✬ ✍❣✑✭✎ ✘✉✯ ✔✠✎✟ ✎✟☞

✏☞☛✎✠✒✍✌ ✎✑✔✍☛✮✡ ✎✟☞ ✔☞✡✎✗

◆✰✲✴ ✷✺✻✴✽✾✿✿❀ ✲❁✴ ❃❄✽✽✴✻✴❅✷✴ ❆✴✲❇✴✴❅ ✲❁❄❈

❊❉✺●❍✿✴ ✺❅❃ ✲❁✴ ❊❉✺●❍✿✴ ■❏❑❏ ▲❅ ❊❉✺●❍✿✴ ■❏❑P

✲❁✴ ❆✰❀ ✴❉❍✴✻❄✴❅✷✴❈ ✲❁✴ ✻✴❈✾✿✲✺❅✲ ◗❘✴✷✲✰✻

❈✾●s ✰✽ ✲❇✰ ❘✴✿✰✷❄✲❄✴❈ ❇❁❄✿✴ ❄❅ ✲❁❄❈ ✴❉✺●❍✿✴P

✲❁✴ ❇✰●✺❅ ✴❉❍✴✻❄✴❅✷✴❈ ✲❁✴ ❘✴✿✰✷❄✲❀ ✰✽ ✻✺❄❅

✻✴✿✺✲❄❘✴ ✲✰ ✲❁✴ ❆❄✷❀✷✿✴ ◗✲❁✴ ❘✴✷✲✰✻ ❃❄✽✽✴✻✴❅✷✴

✰✽ ✲❁✴ ✲❇✰ ❘✴✿✰✷❄✲❄✴❈s❏ ❙

■❏❑❯ ❱❲❳❨❊❩❬▲❭❊❪❳❬▲❳◆

❫✡ ✍✕ ✍❴❴✌✠✒✍✎✠✑✕ ✑✬ ✎✟☞ ✠✮☞✍✡ ✮☞✏☞✌✑❴☞✮ ✠✕ ✎✟☞

❴☛☞✏✠✑✭✡ ✡☞✒✎✠✑✕✡✱ ✔☞ ✒✑✕✡✠✮☞☛ ✎✟☞ ✥✑✎✠✑✕ ✑✬ ✍

❴☛✑♣☞✒✎✠✌☞✗ ❫✕ ✑❣♣☞✒✎ ✎✟✍✎ ✠✡ ✠✕ ✬✌✠✖✟✎ ✍✬✎☞☛ ❣☞✠✕✖

✎✟☛✑✔✕ ✑☛ ❴☛✑♣☞✒✎☞✮ ✠✡ ✒✍✌✌☞✮ ✍ ❍✻✰❵✴✷✲❄✿✴✗ ❛✭✒✟

✍ ❴☛✑♣☞✒✎✠✌☞ ✥✠✖✟✎ ❣☞ ✍ ✬✑✑✎❣✍✌✌✱ ✍ ✒☛✠✒✚☞✎ ❣✍✌✌✱ ✍

❣✍✡☞❣✍✌✌ ✑☛ ✍✕✓ ✑✎✟☞☛ ✑❣♣☞✒✎✗ ❚✟☞ ✥✑✎✠✑✕ ✑✬ ✍

❴☛✑♣☞✒✎✠✌☞ ✥✍✓ ❣☞ ✎✟✑✭✖✟✎ ✑✬ ✍✡ ✎✟☞ ☛☞✡✭✌✎ ✑✬ ✎✔✑

✡☞❴✍☛✍✎☞✱ ✡✠✥✭✌✎✍✕☞✑✭✡✌✓ ✑✒✒✭☛☛✠✕✖ ✒✑✥❴✑✕☞✕✎✡

✑✬ ✥✑✎✠✑✕✡✗ ❖✕☞ ✒✑✥❴✑✕☞✕✎ ✠✡ ✍✌✑✕✖ ✍ ✟✑☛✠♦✑✕✎✍✌

✮✠☛☞✒✎✠✑✕ ✔✠✎✟✑✭✎ ✍✕✓ ✍✒✒☞✌☞☛✍✎✠✑✕ ✍✕✮ ✎✟☞ ✑✎✟☞☛

✍✌✑✕✖ ✎✟☞ ✏☞☛✎✠✒✍✌ ✮✠☛☞✒✎✠✑✕ ✔✠✎✟ ✒✑✕✡✎✍✕✎

✍✒✒☞✌☞☛✍✎✠✑✕ ✮✭☞ ✎✑ ✎✟☞ ✬✑☛✒☞ ✑✬ ✖☛✍✏✠✎✓✗ ✇✎ ✔✍✡

❝✍✌✠✌☞✑ ✔✟✑ ✬✠☛✡✎ ✡✎✍✎☞✮ ✎✟✠✡ ✠✕✮☞❴☞✕✮☞✕✒✓ ✑✬ ✎✟☞

✟✑☛✠♦✑✕✎✍✌ ✍✕✮ ✎✟☞ ✏☞☛✎✠✒✍✌ ✒✑✥❴✑✕☞✕✎✡ ✑✬

❴☛✑♣☞✒✎✠✌☞ ✥✑✎✠✑✕ ✠✕ ✟✠✡ ❞❄✺✿✰❡✾✴ ✰❅ ✲❁✴ ❡✻✴✺✲

❇✰✻✿❃ ❈❀❈✲✴●❈ ❢✘✙❤✐❥✗

✇✕ ✑✭☛ ✮✠✡✒✭✡✡✠✑✕✱ ✔☞ ✡✟✍✌✌ ✍✡✡✭✥☞ ✎✟✍✎ ✎✟☞

✍✠☛ ☛☞✡✠✡✎✍✕✒☞ ✟✍✡ ✕☞✖✌✠✖✠❣✌☞ ☞✬✬☞✒✎ ✑✕ ✎✟☞✥✑✎✠✑✕

✑✬ ✎✟☞ ❴☛✑♣☞✒✎✠✌☞✗ ❛✭❴❴✑✡☞ ✎✟✍✎ ✎✟☞ ❴☛✑♣☞✒✎✠✌☞ ✠✡

✌✍✭✕✒✟☞✮ ✔✠✎✟ ✏☞✌✑✒✠✎✓ ❘❦ ✎✟✍✎ ✥✍✚☞✡ ✍✕ ✍✕✖✌☞

✛❦ ✔✠✎✟ ✎✟☞ ①❧✍♠✠✡ ✍✡ ✡✟✑✔✕ ✠✕ ❋✠✖✗ ✹✗✘q✗

❫✬✎☞☛ ✎✟☞ ✑❣♣☞✒✎ ✟✍✡ ❣☞☞✕ ❴☛✑♣☞✒✎☞✮✱ ✎✟☞

✍✒✒☞✌☞☛✍✎✠✑✕ ✍✒✎✠✕✖ ✑✕ ✠✎ ✠✡ ✎✟✍✎ ✮✭☞ ✎✑ ✖☛✍✏✠✎✓

✔✟✠✒✟ ✠✡ ✮✠☛☞✒✎☞✮ ✏☞☛✎✠✒✍✌✌✓ ✮✑✔✕✔✍☛✮②

③ ④⑤ ⑥⑦ ⑧

❖☛✱ ⑨⑩ ❶ ❷✱ ⑨❸ ❹ ❺ g ❢✹✗❤✙❥

❚✟☞ ✒✑✥❴✑✕☞✕✎✡ ✑✬ ✠✕✠✎✠✍✌ ✏☞✌✑✒✠✎✓ ❘❻ ✍☛☞ ②

❼❽⑩ ❹ ❼❽ ✒✑✡ ✛❽

❼❽❸❹ ❼❽ ✡✠✕ ✛❽ ❢✹✗❤q❥

✇✬ ✔☞ ✎✍✚☞ ✎✟☞ ✠✕✠✎✠✍✌ ❴✑✡✠✎✠✑✕ ✎✑ ❣☞ ✎✟☞ ✑☛✠✖✠✕ ✑✬

✎✟☞ ☛☞✬☞☛☞✕✒☞ ✬☛✍✥☞ ✍✡ ✡✟✑✔✕ ✠✕ ❋✠✖✗ ✹✗✘q✱ ✔☞

✟✍✏☞ ②

①❽ ❹ ❷✱ ❾❽ ❹ ❷

❚✟☞✕✱ ❿➀✗❢✹✗✹q❣❥ ❣☞✒✑✥☞✡ ②

① ❹ ❼❽⑩ ➁ ❹ ❢❼❽ ✒✑✡ ✛❽ ❥ ➁

✍✕✮ ❾ ❹ ❢❼❽ ✡✠✕ ✛❽ ❥ ➁ ❺ ❢ ➂ ❥➃ ➁➄ ❢✹✗❤➅❥

❚✟☞ ✒✑✥❴✑✕☞✕✎✡ ✑✬ ✏☞✌✑✒✠✎✓ ✍✎ ✎✠✥☞ ➁ ✒✍✕ ❣☞

✑❣✎✍✠✕☞✮ ✭✡✠✕✖ ❿➀✗❢✹✗❤❤❣❥ ②

❼⑩ ❹ ❼❽⑩ ❹ ❼❽ ✒✑✡ ✛❽

❼❸ ❹ ❼❽ ✡✠✕ ✛❽ ❺ ➃ ➁ ❢✹✗❤✉❥

❿➀✭✍✎✠✑✕ ❢✹✗❤➅❥ ✖✠✏☞✡ ✎✟☞ ①❧✱ ✍✕✮ ❾❧✒✑✑☛✮✠✕✍✎☞✡

✑✬ ✎✟☞ ❴✑✡✠✎✠✑✕ ✑✬ ✍ ❴☛✑♣☞✒✎✠✌☞ ✍✎ ✎✠✥☞ ➁ ✠✕ ✎☞☛✥✡ ✑✬

✎✔✑ ❴✍☛✍✥☞✎☞☛✡ ➆ ✠✕✠✎✠✍✌ ✡❴☞☞✮ ❼❦ ✍✕✮ ❴☛✑♣☞✒✎✠✑✕

✍✕✖✌☞ ✛❦➇ ➈✑✎✠✒☞ ✎✟✍✎ ✎✟☞ ✒✟✑✠✒☞ ✑✬ ✥✭✎✭✍✌✌✓

❴☞☛❴☞✕✮✠✒✭✌✍☛ ①❧✱ ✍✕✮ ❾❧✮✠☛☞✒✎✠✑✕✡ ✬✑☛ ✎✟☞

✍✕✍✌✓✡✠✡ ✑✬ ✎✟☞ ❴☛✑♣☞✒✎✠✌☞ ✥✑✎✠✑✕ ✟✍✡ ☛☞✡✭✌✎☞✮ ✠✕

✍ ✡✠✥❴✌✠✬✠✒✍✎✠✑✕✗ ❖✕☞ ✑✬ ✎✟☞ ✒✑✥❴✑✕☞✕✎✡ ✑✬

✏☞✌✑✒✠✎✓✱ ✠✗☞✗ ①❧✒✑✥❴✑✕☞✕✎ ☛☞✥✍✠✕✡ ✒✑✕✡✎✍✕✎

✎✟☛✑✭✖✟✑✭✎ ✎✟☞ ✥✑✎✠✑✕ ✍✕✮ ✑✕✌✓ ✎✟☞

❾❧ ✒✑✥❴✑✕☞✕✎ ✒✟✍✕✖☞✡✱ ✌✠✚☞ ✍✕ ✑❣♣☞✒✎ ✠✕ ✬☛☞☞ ✬✍✌✌

✠✕ ✏☞☛✎✠✒✍✌ ✮✠☛☞✒✎✠✑✕✗ ❚✟✠✡ ✠✡ ✡✟✑✔✕ ✖☛✍❴✟✠✒✍✌✌✓

✍✎ ✬☞✔ ✠✕✡✎✍✕✎✡ ✠✕ ❋✠✖✗ ✹✗✘➅✗ ➈✑✎☞ ✎✟✍✎ ✍✎ ✎✟☞ ❴✑✠✕✎

✑✬ ✥✍♠✠✥✭✥ ✟☞✠✖✟✎✱ ❼❸❹ ❷ ✍✕✮ ✎✟☞☛☞✬✑☛☞✱

➉ ➊ ➊➋

➌➍➎ ➏➐ ➑

➔→➣↔↕➙➛➜ ➛➝ ➞↔↕➟ ➛➝ ↔ ➞➠➛➡➢➤↕➙➥➢

➦✟✍✎ ✠✡ ✎✟☞ ✡✟✍❴☞ ✑✬ ✎✟☞ ❴✍✎✟ ✬✑✌✌✑✔☞✮ ❣✓ ✎✟☞

❴☛✑♣☞✒✎✠✌☞➧ ❚✟✠✡ ✒✍✕ ❣☞ ✡☞☞✕ ❣✓ ☞✌✠✥✠✕✍✎✠✕✖ ✎✟☞

✎✠✥☞ ❣☞✎✔☞☞✕ ✎✟☞ ☞♠❴☛☞✡✡✠✑✕✡ ✬✑☛ ① ✍✕✮ ❾ ✍✡

✖✠✏☞✕ ✠✕ ❿➀✗ ❢✹✗❤➅❥✗ ➦☞ ✑❣✎✍✠✕②

➨➩➫ ➭➯➲➳ ➵➸➺➻➸➼ ➸➽ ➾➼ ➸➚➪➶➹➺ ➘➴➸➪➶➹➺➶➷ ➬➻➺➮ ✈➶➱➸➹➻➺✃

❐❒ ➾➺ ➾➼❮➱➶ ❰Ï✳

Page 82: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✼✆

✭ ✞✭ ✞

✷♦ ✷

♦ ♦t✟✠

✡ ☛☞s

❣② ✌ ✌

✈✍

✍❂ ✎ ✏✑✒✑✓✔

◆✕✖✗ ✘✙✚✛✜ ✢✗ ✣✤ ❛✚✥ ✦✤ ❛✧✜ ✛✕✚✘★❛✚★✘✗ ✩✪✒ ✏✑✒✑✓✔✙✘ ✕✐ ★✫✜ ✐✕✧✬ ✮ ✯ ✰ ✱ ✲ ✳ ✱✴✗ ✙✚ ✖✫✙✛✫ ✰ ❛✚✥ ✳ ❛✧✜✛✕✚✘★❛✚★✘✒ ❝✫✙✘ ✙✘ ★✫✜ ✜✪✵❛★✙✕✚ ✕✐ ❛ ✶❛✧❛✸✕✹❛✗✙✒✜✒ ★✫✜ ✶❛★✫ ✕✐ ★✫✜ ✶✧✕✺✜✛★✙✹✜ ✙✘ ❛ ✶❛✧❛✸✕✹❛✏✻✙✽✒ ✑✒✾✿✔✒

❋❀❁❃ ❄❃❅❆ ❇❈❉ ❊●❍❈ ■❏ ● ❊❑■▲❉▼❍❖◗❉ ❖❘ ● ❊●❑●❙■◗●❚

❯❱❲❳ ❨❩ ❲❬❭❱❲❪❲❫❳❱❴❫❵

❜✕✖✬✵✛✫ ★✙✬✜ ✥✕✜✘ ★✫✜ ✶✧✕✺✜✛★✙✹✜ ★❛❞✜ ★✕ ✧✜❛✛✫★✫✜✬❛❡✙✬✵✬ ✫✜✙✽✫★ ❢ ❤✜★ ★✫✙✘ ★✙✬✜ ✸✜ ✥✜✚✕★✜✥✸❥ ❦♠✒ ❧✙✚✛✜ ❛★ ★✫✙✘ ✶✕✙✚★✗ ✦♥✯ ✓✗ ✖✜ ✫❛♣✜ ✐✧✕✬✩✪✒ ✏✑✒qr✔✉

✦♥ ✯ ✦✇ ✘✙✚✣✇ ① ✢ ❦♠ ✯ ✓③✧✗ ❦♠ ✯ ✦✇ ✘✙✚✣✇④✢ ✏✑✒✑✾❛✔

❝✫✜ ★✕★❛✹ ★✙✬✜ ⑤⑥ ✥✵✧✙✚✽ ✖✫✙✛✫ ★✫✜ ✶✧✕✺✜✛★✙✹✜ ✙✘✙✚ ✐✹✙✽✫★ ✛❛✚ ✸✜ ✕✸★❛✙✚✜✥ ✸❥ ✶✵★★✙✚✽ ✮ ⑦ ✓ ✙✚✩✪✒ ✏✑✒q✿✔✒ ⑧✜ ✽✜★ ✉

⑤⑥ ⑦ ⑨ ✏✦✇ ✘✙✚ ✣✇ ✔⑩✢ ✏✑✒✑✾✸✔

⑤⑥ ✙✘ ❞✚✕✖✚ ❛✘ ★✫✜ ❶❷❸❹ ❺❻ ❻❼❷❽❾❶ ✕✐ ★✫✜✶✧✕✺✜✛★✙✹✜✒⑧✜ ✚✕★✜ ★✫❛★ ⑤⑥ ⑦ ⑨ ❦♠ ✗ ✖✫✙✛✫ ✙✘ ✜❡✶✜✛★✜✥✸✜✛❛✵✘✜ ✕✐ ★✫✜ ✘❥✬✬✜★✧❥ ✕✐ ★✫✜ ✶❛✧❛✸✕✹✙✛ ✶❛★✫✒

❿❬❭❱❲❪❲❫❳❱❴❫❵ ❨❩ ❬ ➀➁❨➂❳➃❵❱➄❳

❝✫✜ ✬❛❡✙✬✵✬ ✫✜✙✽✫★ ➅♠ ✧✜❛✛✫✜✥ ✸❥ ★✫✜✶✧✕✺✜✛★✙✹✜ ✛❛✚ ✸✜ ✛❛✹✛✵✹❛★✜✥ ✸❥ ✘✵✸✘★✙★✵★✙✚✽❦ ✯ ❦♠ ✙✚ ✩✪✒ ✏✑✒q✿✔ ✉

➆ ➇➈ ❈ ➉➉

➊ ➉

➊➋ ➌

➌ ➌➍ ➍➎

➏➐➐

➒➓➓ ➔

➏➐➐

➒➓➓→➣↔

→➣↔

→➣↔➙

➙ ➙➛

➜➜ ➜

③✧✗➝ ➞

➟➠

➡➢➤➥➦➧ ➨➩

➭ g✏✑✒✑⑨✔

➯❨➁❱➲❨➳❵❬➄ ➁❬➳❴❳ ❨❩ ❬ ➀➁❨➂❳➃❵❱➄❳

❝✫✜ ✫✕✧✙➵✕✚★❛✹ ✥✙✘★❛✚✛✜ ★✧❛♣✜✹✹✜✥ ✸❥ ❛ ✶✧✕✺✜✛★✙✹✜✐✧✕✬ ✙★✘ ✙✚✙★✙❛✹ ✶✕✘✙★✙✕✚ ✏✱ ✯ ✮ ✯ ✓➸ ★✕ ★✫✜ ✶✕✘✙★✙✕✚✖✫✜✧✜ ✙★ ✶❛✘✘✜✘ ✮ ⑦ ✓ ✥✵✧✙✚✽ ✙★✘ ✐❛✹✹ ✙✘ ✛❛✹✹✜✥ ★✫✜❾❺➺❷➻❺➼❶➽❼ ➺➽➼❽❹✗ ➾✒ ➚★ ✙✘ ★✫✜ ✥✙✘★❛✚✛✜ ★✧❛♣✜✹✹✜✥✥✵✧✙✚✽ ★✫✜ ★✙✬✜ ✕✐ ✐✹✙✽✫★ ⑤➪ ✒ ❝✫✜✧✜✐✕✧✜✗ ★✫✜ ✧❛✚✽✜➾ ✙✘

➾ ⑦ ✏✦➶ ✛✕✘ ✣➶✔ ✏⑤➪ ✔

⑦✏✦➶ ✛✕✘ ✣➶✔ ✏⑨ ✦➶ ✘✙✚ ✣➹✔⑩✢

③✧✗ ➘➉

➌➴

➍→➣↔ ↕ ➙➜

✏✑✒✑q❛✔

✩✪✵❛★✙✕✚ ✏✑✒✑q❛✔ ✘✫✕✖✘ ★✫❛★ ✐✕✧ ❛ ✽✙♣✜✚✶✧✕✺✜✛★✙✕✚ ♣✜✹✕✛✙★❥ ✦➹ ✗ ➾ ✙✘ ✬❛❡✙✬✵✬ ✖✫✜✚ ✘✙✚⑨✣➷ ✙✘ ✬❛❡✙✬✵✬✗ ✙✒✜✒✗ ✖✫✜✚ ✣➷ ⑦ ✑➬

➷✒❝✫✜ ✬❛❡✙✬✵✬ ✫✕✧✙➵✕✚★❛✹ ✧❛✚✽✜ ✙✘✗ ★✫✜✧✜✐✕✧✜✗

➮➱

✃❐

❒❮

❰ ✏✑✒✑q✸✔

Ï❭❬❲➀➄❳ ÐÑÒ Ó❛✹✙✹✜✕✗ ✙✚ ✫✙✘ ✸✕✕❞ ÔÕ❺ ➼❹ÕÖ×❷❹➼×❹ÖØ ✘★❛★✜✥ ★✫❛★ Ù✐✕✧ ✜✹✜♣❛★✙✕✚✘ ✖✫✙✛✫✜❡✛✜✜✥ ✕✧ ✐❛✹✹ ✘✫✕✧★ ✕✐ ✑➬Ú ✸❥ ✜✪✵❛✹❛✬✕✵✚★✘✗ ★✫✜ ✧❛✚✽✜✘ ❛✧✜ ✜✪✵❛✹Û✒ Ü✧✕♣✜ ★✫✙✘✘★❛★✜✬✜✚★✒

Ý➳Þß❳➁ ✻✕✧ ❛ ✶✧✕✺✜✛★✙✹✜ ✹❛✵✚✛✫✜✥ ✖✙★✫ ♣✜✹✕✛✙★❥àá ❛★ ❛✚ ❛✚✽✹✜ ✣✤ ✗ ★✫✜ ✧❛✚✽✜ ✙✘ ✽✙♣✜✚ ✸❥

âãäåæçèéê

ë

ìí

◆✕✖✗ ✐✕✧ ❛✚✽✹✜✘✗ ✏✑➬Ú î ï✔ ❛✚✥ ✏ ✑➬Ú ð ï✔✗ ⑨✣➹ ✙✘✏r✓Ú î ⑨ï✔ ❛✚✥ ✏ r✓Ú ð ⑨ï✔ ✗ ✧✜✘✶✜✛★✙♣✜✹❥✒ ❝✫✜♣❛✹✵✜✘ ✕✐ ✘✙✚ ✏r✓Ú î ⑨ï✔ ❛✚✥ ✘✙✚ ✏r✓Ú ð ⑨ï✔ ❛✧✜★✫✜ ✘❛✬✜✗ ✜✪✵❛✹ ★✕ ★✫❛★ ✕✐ ✛✕✘ ⑨ï✒ ❝✫✜✧✜✐✕✧✜✗✧❛✚✽✜✘ ❛✧✜ ✜✪✵❛✹ ✐✕✧ ✜✹✜♣❛★✙✕✚✘ ✖✫✙✛✫ ✜❡✛✜✜✥ ✕✧✐❛✹✹ ✘✫✕✧★ ✕✐ ✑➬Ú ✸❥ ✜✪✵❛✹ ❛✬✕✵✚★✘ ï✒ ñ

Ï❭❬❲➀➄❳ ÐÑò ó ✫✙❞✜✧ ✘★❛✚✥✘ ✕✚ ★✫✜ ✜✥✽✜✕✐ ❛ ✛✹✙✐✐ ✑r✓ ✬ ❛✸✕♣✜ ★✫✜ ✽✧✕✵✚✥ ❛✚✥★✫✧✕✖✘ ❛ ✘★✕✚✜ ✫✕✧✙➵✕✚★❛✹✹❥ ✖✙★✫ ❛✚ ✙✚✙★✙❛✹✘✶✜✜✥ ✕✐ ✾➬✬ ✘ôõ✒ ◆✜✽✹✜✛★✙✚✽ ❛✙✧ ✧✜✘✙✘★❛✚✛✜✗✐✙✚✥ ★✫✜ ★✙✬✜ ★❛❞✜✚ ✸❥ ★✫✜ ✘★✕✚✜ ★✕ ✧✜❛✛✫★✫✜ ✽✧✕✵✚✥✗ ❛✚✥ ★✫✜ ✘✶✜✜✥ ✖✙★✫ ✖✫✙✛✫ ✙★✫✙★✘ ★✫✜ ✽✧✕✵✚✥✒ ✏❝❛❞✜ ✢ ⑦ r✒✿ ✬ ✘ôö ✔✒

Page 83: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✼✟

❆✡☛☞✌✍ ❲❡ ✎✏✑✑✒❡ ✓✏❡ ✑✔✕✖✕✗ ✑✘ ✓✏❡ ①✲✙✚✗✛ ②✲✚❛✕✒ ✚✓ ✓✏❡ ❡✛✖❡ ✑✘ ✓✏❡ ✎✜✕✘✘ ✚✗✛ t ❂ ✢ ✒ ✚✓ ✓✏❡✕✗✒✓✚✗✓ ✓✏❡ ✒✓✑✗❡ ✕✒ ✓✏✔✑✐✗✣ ✤✏✑✑✒❡ ✓✏❡ ✥✑✒✕✓✕✦❡✛✕✔❡✎✓✕✑✗ ✑✘ ①✲✚❛✕✒ ✓✑ ✧❡ ✚✜✑✗✖ ✓✏❡ ✕✗✕✓✕✚✜ ✦❡✜✑✎✕✓★✚✗✛ ✓✏❡ ✥✑✒✕✓✕✦❡ ✛✕✔❡✎✓✕✑✗ ✑✘ ②✲✚❛✕✒ ✓✑ ✧❡ ✓✏❡✦❡✔✓✕✎✚✜✜★ ✈✥✐✚✔✛ ✛✕✔❡✎✓✕✑✗✣ ✩✏❡ ①✲✙ ✚✗✛ ②✲✎✑❝✥✑✗❡✗✓✒ ✑✘ ✓✏❡ ❝✑✓✕✑✗ ✎✚✗ ✧❡ ✓✔❡✚✓❡✛✕✗✛❡✥❡✗✛❡✗✓✜★✣ ✩✏❡ ❡✪✈✚✓✕✑✗✒ ✑✘ ❝✑✓✕✑✗ ✚✔❡ ✫

① ✬t✭ ✮ ①♦ ✯ ✰♦✱ t② ✬t✭ ✮ ②♦ ✯ ✰♦✳ t ✯✴✵✶✷✸ ✹✺ t

❍❡✔❡✙ ①✽ ✮ ②✽ ❂ ✢✙ ✰✽✾ ❂ ✢✙ ✹✺ ✮ ➊✿ ❂ ❀❁✣❃ ❝ ✒❄❅❇✰✽❈ ❂ ✵❉ ❝ ✒❄❊✣

✩✏❡ ✒✓✑✗❡ ✏✕✓✒ ✓✏❡ ✖✔✑✈✗✛ ✐✏❡✗ ②✬t✭ ❂ ❀ ❋❁✢ ❝✣❀ ❋❁✢ ❝ ❂ ❀✴✵✶✷✸✴❁✣❃✸ t❅✣

✩✏✕✒ ✖✕✦❡✒ t ❂✵✢ ✒✣✩✏❡ ✦❡✜✑✎✕✓★ ✎✑❝✥✑✗❡✗✓✒ ✚✔❡ ✰✱ ✮ ✰♦✱ ✚✗✛✰✳ ✮ ✰♦✳ ➊ ✿ t✒✑ ✓✏✚✓ ✐✏❡✗ ✓✏❡ ✒✓✑✗❡ ✏✕✓✒ ✓✏❡ ✖✔✑✈✗✛ ✫

✰♦✱ ❂ ✵❉ ❝ ✒●❊

✰♦✳ ❂ ✢ ❀ ❁✣❃ ■ ✵✢ ❂ ❀ ❁❃ ❝ ✒●❊

✩✏❡✔❡✘✑✔❡✙ ✓✏❡ ✒✥❡❡✛ ✑✘ ✓✏❡ ✒✓✑✗❡ ✕✒

❏ ❏❑▲ ◆❖ ◆◆ ♠ P◗ ◗ ❘❙ ❚❯ ❯ ❾❱ ❳ ❱ ❳ ❨

❩❬❭❪❫❴✌ ❵❜❞ ❢ ✎✔✕✎❣❡✓ ✧✚✜✜ ✕✒ ✓✏✔✑✐✗ ✚✓ ✚✒✥❡❡✛ ✑✘ ✷❃ ❝ ✒❤❥ ✕✗ ✚ ✛✕✔❡✎✓✕✑✗ ❦✢❧ ✚✧✑✦❡✓✏❡ ✏✑✔✕♥✑✗✓✚✜✣ ✤✚✜✎✈✜✚✓❡ ✴✚✸ ✓✏❡ ❝✚❛✕❝✈❝✏❡✕✖✏✓✙ ✴✧✸ ✓✏❡ ✓✕❝❡ ✓✚❣❡✗ ✧★ ✓✏❡ ✧✚✜✜ ✓✑✔❡✓✈✔✗ ✓✑ ✓✏❡ ✒✚❝❡ ✜❡✦❡✜✙ ✚✗✛ ✴✎✸ ✓✏❡✛✕✒✓✚✗✎❡ ✘✔✑❝ ✓✏❡ ✓✏✔✑✐❡✔ ✓✑ ✓✏❡ ✥✑✕✗✓✐✏❡✔❡ ✓✏❡ ✧✚✜✜ ✔❡✓✈✔✗✒ ✓✑ ✓✏❡ ✒✚❝❡ ✜❡✦❡✜✣

❆✡☛☞✌✍ ✴✚✸ ✩✏❡ ❝✚❛✕❝✈❝ ✏❡✕✖✏✓ ✕✒ ✖✕✦❡✗ ✧★

♣ q r s

r s

✉ ✉✇③④⑤ ⑥⑦③④⑤⑧⑨

⑩⑥ ⑥ ❶❷⑦

❸❹

❺❻

❽ ➦❿ ❿

❳××

❳❑➀ ❑➀

➁ ◆➂❖❑➃➂➃ ♠

✴✧✸ ✩✏❡ ✓✕❝❡ ✓✚❣❡✗ ✓✑ ✔❡✓✈✔✗ ✓✑ ✓✏❡ ✒✚❝❡ ✜❡✦❡✜ ✕✒➄➅❂ ✴✷ ✰➆ ✒✕✗ ➇➆ ✸✶✿ ❂ ✴✷■ ✷❃ ■ ✒✕✗ ❦✢❧ ✸✶❁✣❃❂ ✷❃✶❁✣❃ ✒ ➈ ✷✣❁ ✒

✴✎✸ ✩✏❡ ✛✕✒✓✚✗✎❡ ✘✔✑❝ ✓✏❡ ✓✏✔✑✐❡✔ ✓✑ ✓✏❡ ✥✑✕✗✓✐✏❡✔❡ ✓✏❡ ✧✚✜✜ ✔❡✓✈✔✗✒ ✓✑ ✓✏❡ ✒✚❝❡ ✜❡✦❡✜ ✕✒

➉➋ ➌➍➎ ➎➏➐➑➒ ➒➓ ➒➓ ➏➐➑➔→

➔➣ ↔➣↕➓

➙➛

➝ ➞ ➞➟ ➟ ➟

➠➡➢➢ ➤➥➧➨➩➫➭➯➧➫➯➤➲➳➫ ➭➩➵➧➩➥

❲✏❡✗ ✚✗ ✑✧➸❡✎✓ ✘✑✜✜✑✐✒ ✚ ✎✕✔✎✈✜✚✔ ✥✚✓✏ ✚✓ ✚✎✑✗✒✓✚✗✓ ✒✥❡❡✛✙ ✓✏❡❝✑✓✕✑✗ ✑✘ ✓✏❡ ✑✧➸❡✎✓ ✕✒ ✎✚✜✜❡✛➺➻➼➽➾➚➪ ➶➼➚➶➺➹➘➚ ➪➾➴➼➾➻✣ ✩✏❡ ✐✑✔✛ ➷✈✗✕✘✑✔❝➬✔❡✘❡✔✒ ✓✑ ✓✏❡ ✒✥❡❡✛✙ ✐✏✕✎✏ ✕✒ ✈✗✕✘✑✔❝ ✴✎✑✗✒✓✚✗✓✸✓✏✔✑✈✖✏✑✈✓ ✓✏❡ ❝✑✓✕✑✗✣ ➮✈✥✥✑✒❡ ✚✗ ✑✧➸❡✎✓ ✕✒❝✑✦✕✗✖ ✐✕✓✏✈✗✕✘✑✔❝ ✒✥❡❡✛ ✰ ✕✗ ✚ ✎✕✔✎✜❡ ✑✘ ✔✚✛✕✈✒➉ ✚✒ ✒✏✑✐✗ ✕✗ ➱✕✖✣ ❋✣✵❁✣ ➮✕✗✎❡ ✓✏❡ ✦❡✜✑✎✕✓★ ✑✘ ✓✏❡✑✧➸❡✎✓ ✕✒ ✎✏✚✗✖✕✗✖ ✎✑✗✓✕✗✈✑✈✒✜★ ✕✗ ✛✕✔❡✎✓✕✑✗✙ ✓✏❡✑✧➸❡✎✓ ✈✗✛❡✔✖✑❡✒ ✚✎✎❡✜❡✔✚✓✕✑✗✣ ✃❡✓ ✈✒ ✘✕✗✛ ✓✏❡❝✚✖✗✕✓✈✛❡ ✚✗✛ ✓✏❡ ✛✕✔❡✎✓✕✑✗ ✑✘ ✓✏✕✒ ✚✎✎❡✜❡✔✚✓✕✑✗✣

➥❐❒➹❐➶➴➼➻❒ ➘➼➚ ➚❐❮➼❮➴➘➻➶❐ ❰ ÏÐ➘➴ Ñ➾❐❮➴Ð❐ ➘❮❮➺➪Ò➴➼➾➻ ➚❐➘➹➹Ó ➪❐➘➻Ô

❲✏✕✜❡ ✓✔❡✚✓✕✗✖ ✓✏❡ ✓✑✥✕✎ ✑✘ ✥✔✑➸❡✎✓✕✜❡ ❝✑✓✕✑✗✙✐❡ ✏✚✦❡ ✒✓✚✓❡✛ ✓✏✚✓ ✐❡ ✚✒✒✈❝❡ ✓✏✚✓ ✓✏❡✚✕✔ ✔❡✒✕✒✓✚✗✎❡ ✏✚✒ ✗✑ ❡✘✘❡✎✓ ✑✗ ✓✏❡ ❝✑✓✕✑✗✑✘ ✓✏❡ ✥✔✑➸❡✎✓✕✜❡✣ Õ✑✈❝✈✒✓ ✈✗✛❡✔✒✓✚✗✛✐✏✚✓✓✏❡ ✒✓✚✓❡❝❡✗✓ ✔❡✚✜✜★ ❝❡✚✗✒✣ ➱✔✕✎✓✕✑✗✙ ✘✑✔✎❡✛✈❡ ✓✑ ✦✕✒✎✑✒✕✓★✙ ✚✕✔ ✔❡✒✕✒✓✚✗✎❡ ✚✔❡ ✚✜✜✛✕✒✒✕✥✚✓✕✦❡ ✘✑✔✎❡✒✣ Ö✗ ✓✏❡ ✥✔❡✒❡✗✎❡ ✑✘ ✚✗★ ✑✘✒✈✎✏ ✘✑✔✎❡✒ ✑✥✥✑✒✕✗✖❝✑✓✕✑✗✙ ✚✗★ ✑✧➸❡✎✓ ✐✕✜✜✜✑✒❡ ✒✑❝❡ ✥✚✔✓ ✑✘ ✕✓✒ ✕✗✕✓✕✚✜ ❡✗❡✔✖★ ✚✗✛✎✑✗✒❡✪✈❡✗✓✜★✙ ❝✑❝❡✗✓✈❝ ✓✑✑✣ ✩✏✈✒✙ ✚✥✔✑➸❡✎✓✕✜❡ ✓✏✚✓ ✓✔✚✦❡✔✒❡✒ ✚ ✥✚✔✚✧✑✜✕✎ ✥✚✓✏✐✑✈✜✛ ✎❡✔✓✚✕✗✜★ ✒✏✑✐ ✛❡✦✕✚✓✕✑✗ ✘✔✑❝ ✕✓✒✕✛❡✚✜✕✒❡✛ ✓✔✚➸❡✎✓✑✔★ ✕✗ ✓✏❡ ✥✔❡✒❡✗✎❡ ✑✘ ✚✕✔✔❡✒✕✒✓✚✗✎❡✣ Ö✓ ✐✕✜✜ ✗✑✓ ✏✕✓ ✓✏❡ ✖✔✑✈✗✛ ✐✕✓✏✓✏❡ ✒✚❝❡ ✒✥❡❡✛ ✐✕✓✏ ✐✏✕✎✏ ✕✓ ✐✚✒ ✥✔✑➸❡✎✓❡✛✘✔✑❝ ✕✓✣ Ö✗ ✓✏❡ ✚✧✒❡✗✎❡ ✑✘ ✚✕✔ ✔❡✒✕✒✓✚✗✎❡✙ ✓✏❡❛✲✎✑❝✥✑✗❡✗✓ ✑✘ ✓✏❡ ✦❡✜✑✎✕✓★ ✔❡❝✚✕✗✒✎✑✗✒✓✚✗✓ ✚✗✛ ✕✓ ✕✒ ✑✗✜★ ✓✏❡ ★✲✎✑❝✥✑✗❡✗✓ ✓✏✚✓✈✗✛❡✔✖✑❡✒ ✚ ✎✑✗✓✕✗✈✑✈✒ ✎✏✚✗✖❡✣ ❍✑✐❡✦❡✔✙✕✗ ✓✏❡ ✥✔❡✒❡✗✎❡ ✑✘ ✚✕✔ ✔❡✒✕✒✓✚✗✎❡✙ ✧✑✓✏ ✑✘✓✏❡✒❡ ✐✑✈✜✛ ✖❡✓ ✚✘✘❡✎✓❡✛✣ ✩✏✚✓ ✐✑✈✜✛ ❝❡✚✗✓✏✚✓ ✓✏❡ ✔✚✗✖❡ ✐✑✈✜✛ ✧❡ ✜❡✒✒ ✓✏✚✗ ✓✏❡ ✑✗❡✖✕✦❡✗ ✧★ Ø✪✣ ✴❋✣❋❦✸✣ Ù✚❛✕❝✈❝ ✏❡✕✖✏✓✚✓✓✚✕✗❡✛ ✐✑✈✜✛ ✚✜✒✑ ✧❡ ✜❡✒✒ ✓✏✚✗ ✓✏✚✓✥✔❡✛✕✎✓❡✛ ✧★ Ø✪✣ ✴❋✣❋✷✸✣ ✤✚✗ ★✑✈ ✓✏❡✗✙✚✗✓✕✎✕✥✚✓❡ ✓✏❡ ✎✏✚✗✖❡ ✕✗ ✓✏❡ ✓✕❝❡ ✑✘ ✘✜✕✖✏✓Ú

Ö✗ ✑✔✛❡✔ ✓✑ ✚✦✑✕✛ ✚✕✔ ✔❡✒✕✒✓✚✗✎❡✙ ✐❡ ✐✕✜✜✏✚✦❡ ✓✑ ✥❡✔✘✑✔❝ ✓✏❡ ❡❛✥❡✔✕❝❡✗✓ ✕✗ ✦✚✎✈✈❝✑✔ ✈✗✛❡✔ ✜✑✐ ✥✔❡✒✒✈✔❡✙ ✐✏✕✎✏ ✕✒ ✗✑✓ ❡✚✒★✣❲✏❡✗ ✐❡ ✈✒❡ ✚ ✥✏✔✚✒❡ ✜✕❣❡ Û✗❡✖✜❡✎✓ ✚✕✔✔❡✒✕✒✓✚✗✎❡Ü✙ ✐❡ ✕❝✥✜★ ✓✏✚✓ ✓✏❡ ✎✏✚✗✖❡ ✕✗✥✚✔✚❝❡✓❡✔✒ ✒✈✎✏ ✚✒ ✔✚✗✖❡✙ ✏❡✕✖✏✓ ❡✓✎✣ ✕✒❝✈✎✏ ✒❝✚✜✜❡✔ ✓✏✚✗ ✓✏❡✕✔ ✦✚✜✈❡✒ ✐✕✓✏✑✈✓ ✚✕✔✔❡✒✕✒✓✚✗✎❡✣ ✩✏❡ ✎✚✜✎✈✜✚✓✕✑✗ ✐✕✓✏✑✈✓ ✚✕✔✔❡✒✕✒✓✚✗✎❡ ✕✒ ❝✈✎✏ ✒✕❝✥✜❡✔ ✓✏✚✗ ✓✏✚✓ ✐✕✓✏✚✕✔ ✔❡✒✕✒✓✚✗✎❡✣

Page 84: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✽✆

▲✝✞ r ✥✟✠ r✡ ☛✝ ✞☞✝ ✌✍✎✏✞✏✍✟ ✑✝✒✞✍✓✎ ✥✟✠ ✈ ✥✟✠

✈✡ ✞☞✝ ✑✝t✍✒✏✞✏✝✎ ✍✔ ✞☞✝ ✍☛✕✝✒✞ ✖☞✝✟ ✏✞ ✏✎ ✥✞ ✌✍✏✟✞ ✗

✥✟✠ ✗✡ ✥✎ ✎☞✍✖✟ ✏✟ ✘✏✙✚ ✛✚✜✢✣✥✤✚ ✦✧ ✠✝✔✏✟✏✞✏✍✟★

✑✝t✍✒✏✞✧ ✥✞ ✥ ✌✍✏✟✞ ✏✎ ✥t✍✟✙ ✞☞✝ ✞✥✟✙✝✟✞ ✥✞ ✞☞✥✞

✌✍✏✟✞ ✏✟ ✞☞✝ ✠✏✓✝✒✞✏✍✟ ✍✔ ♣✍✞✏✍✟✚ ✩☞✝ ✑✝t✍✒✏✞✧

✑✝✒✞✍✓✎ ✈ ✥✟✠ ✈✡ ✥✓✝ ✥✎ ✎☞✍✖✟ ✏✟ ✘✏✙✚ ✛✚✜✢✣✥✜✤✚

✪✈ ✏✎ ✍☛✞✥✏✟✝✠ ✏✟ ✘✏✙✚ ✛✚✜✢ ✣✥✫✤ ✬✎✏✟✙ ✞☞✝ ✞✓✏✥✟✙t✝

t✥✖ ✍✔ ✑✝✒✞✍✓ ✥✠✠✏✞✏✍✟✚ ❧✏✟✒✝ ✞☞✝ ✌✥✞☞ ✏✎ ✒✏✓✒✬t✥✓★

✈ ✏✎ ✌✝✓✌✝✟✠✏✒✬t✥✓ ✞✍ r ✥✟✠ ✎✍ ✏✎ ✈✡ ✞✍ r✡ ✚

✩☞✝✓✝✔✍✓✝★ ✪✈ ✏✎ ✌✝✓✌✝✟✠✏✒✬t✥✓ ✞✍ ✪r✚ ❧✏✟✒✝

✥✑✝✓✥✙✝ ✥✒✒✝t✝✓✥✞✏✍✟ ✏✎ ✥t✍✟✙ ✪✈ ❛✭

❂✮

✯✰

✲✳

✴✵✶ ✞☞✝

✥✑✝✓✥✙✝ ✥✒✒✝t✝✓✥✞✏✍✟ ❛ ✏✎ ✌✝✓✌✝✟✠✏✒✬t✥✓ ✞✍ ✴✷✸ ■✔

✖✝ ✌t✥✒✝ ✪✈ ✍✟ ✞☞✝ t✏✟✝ ✞☞✥✞ ☛✏✎✝✒✞✎ ✞☞✝ ✥✟✙t✝

☛✝✞✖✝✝✟ r✥✟✠ r✡ ★✖✝ ✎✝✝ ✞☞✥✞ ✏✞ ✏✎ ✠✏✓✝✒✞✝✠ ✞✍✖✥✓✠✎

✞☞✝ ✒✝✟✞✓✝ ✍✔ ✞☞✝ ✒✏✓✒t✝✚ ✘✏✙✬✓✝ ✛✚✜✢✣☛✤ ✎☞✍✖✎ ✞☞✝

✎✥♣✝ s✬✥✟✞✏✞✏✝✎ ✔✍✓ ✎♣✥tt✝✓ ✞✏♣✝ ✏✟✞✝✓✑✥t✚ ✪✈ ✥✟✠

☞✝✟✒✝ ❛ ✏✎ ✥✙✥✏✟ ✠✏✓✝✒✞✝✠ ✞✍✖✥✓✠✎ ✞☞✝ ✒✝✟✞✓✝✚

■✟ ✘✏✙✚ ✛✚✜✢✣✒✤ ★ ✪✹✺ ✻ ✥✟✠ ✞☞✝ ✥✑✝✓✥✙✝

✥✒✒✝t✝✓✥✞✏✍✟ ☛✝✒✍♣✝✎ ✞☞✝ ✏✟✎✞✥✟✞✥✟✝✍✬✎

✥✒✒✝t✝✓✥✞✏✍✟✚ ■✞ ✏✎ ✠✏✓✝✒✞✝✠ ✞✍✖✥✓✠✎ ✞☞✝ ✒✝✟✞✓✝✼✚

✩☞✬✎★ ✖✝ ✔✏✟✠ ✞☞✥✞ ✞☞✝ ✥✒✒✝t✝✓✥✞✏✍✟ ✍✔ ✥✟ ✍☛✕✝✒✞

✏✟ ✬✟✏✔✍✓♣ ✒✏✓✒✬t✥✓ ♣✍✞✏✍✟ ✏✎ ✥t✖✥✧✎ ✠✏✓✝✒✞✝✠

✞✍✖✥✓✠✎ ✞☞✝ ✒✝✟✞✓✝ ✍✔ ✞☞✝ ✒✏✓✒t✝✚ ▲✝✞ ✬✎ ✟✍✖ ✔✏✟✠

✞☞✝ ♣✥✙✟✏✞✬✠✝ ✍✔ ✞☞✝ ✥✒✒✝t✝✓✥✞✏✍✟✚

✩☞✝ ♣✥✙✟✏✞✬✠✝ ✍✔ ✾ ✏✎★ ☛✧ ✠✝✔✏✟✏✞✏✍✟★ ✙✏✑✝✟ ☛✧

✿❀

❁❃❄

❄❅ ❆ ❇

▲✝✞ ✞☞✝ ✥✟✙t✝ ☛✝✞✖✝✝✟ ✌✍✎✏✞✏✍✟ ✑✝✒✞✍✓✎ r ✥✟✠

r✡ ☛✝ ✪❈✚ ❧✏✟✒✝ ✞☞✝ ✑✝t✍✒✏✞✧ ✑✝✒✞✍✓✎ ✈ ✥✟✠ ✈✡ ✥✓✝

✥t✖✥✧✎ ✌✝✓✌✝✟✠✏✒✬t✥✓ ✞✍ ✞☞✝ ✌✍✎✏✞✏✍✟ ✑✝✒✞✍✓✎★ ✞☞✝

✥✟✙t✝ ☛✝✞✖✝✝✟ ✞☞✝♣ ✏✎ ✥t✎✍ ✪❈ ✚ ✩☞✝✓✝✔✍✓✝★ ✞☞✝

✞✓✏✥✟✙t✝ ❉❊❊✡ ✔✍✓♣✝✠ ☛✧ ✞☞✝ ✌✍✎✏✞✏✍✟ ✑✝✒✞✍✓✎ ✥✟✠

✞☞✝ ✞✓✏✥✟✙t✝ ❋●■ ✔✍✓♣✝✠ ☛✧ ✞☞✝ ✑✝t✍✒✏✞✧ ✑✝✒✞✍✓✎

✈★ ✈✡ ✥✟✠ ✪✈ ✥✓✝ ✎✏♣✏t✥✓ ✣✘✏✙✚ ✛✚✜✢✥✤✚ ✩☞✝✓✝✔✍✓✝★

✞☞✝ ✓✥✞✏✍ ✍✔ ✞☞✝ ☛✥✎✝❍t✝✟✙✞☞ ✞✍ ✎✏✠✝❍t✝✟✙✞☞ ✔✍✓

✍✟✝ ✍✔ ✞☞✝ ✞✓✏✥✟✙t✝✎ ✏✎ ✝s✬✥t ✞✍ ✞☞✥✞ ✍✔ ✞☞✝ ✍✞☞✝✓

✞✓✏✥✟✙t✝✚ ✩☞✥✞ ✏✎ ❏

❑ ❑▼ ◆

v R❖

◗✓★ ❘❘

❙❚

❯ ❱❲

✩☞✝✓✝✔✍✓✝★

❛✭ ✷ ✷

❂❳

❂❳

❂❳✴

✴ ✴

✴ ✴

✴❨ ❩ ❩ ❬ ❬ ❩✵ ✵

✵ ✵

■✔ ✪✞ ✏✎ ✎♣✥tt★ ✪❪ ✖✏tt ✥t✎✍ ☛✝ ✎♣✥tt ✥✟✠ ✞☞✝✟ ✥✓✒

✗✗❫ ✒✥✟ ☛✝ ✥✌✌✓✍❴✏♣✥✞✝t✧ ✞✥❵✝✟ ✞✍ ☛✝❜✪r❜❏

❝ ❝❞ ❡ ❢ ❣

❥❦♠

◗✓★✴

✴✵ ♥ ✵❭

❳❂

✩☞✝✓✝✔✍✓✝★ ✞☞✝ ✒✝✟✞✓✏✌✝✞✥t ✥✒✒✝t✝✓✥✞✏✍✟ ♦q ✏✎ ❏

✉✇①② ③②④⑤ ⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩❶✵❷ ❸❹❺ ❸⑩⑩⑦⑧⑦❻❸✵❶⑨❹ ⑨❼ ❸❹ ⑨❽❾⑦⑩✵ ❶❹ ❿❹❶❼⑨❻➀ ⑩❶❻⑩❿⑧❸❻➀⑨✵❶⑨❹➁ ➂➃⑦ ✵❶➀⑦ ❶❹✵⑦❻❭❸⑧ ✴✵ ❺⑦⑩❻⑦❸➄⑦➄ ❼❻⑨➀

➅❸➆ ✵⑨ ➅⑩➆ ➇➃⑦❻⑦ ❶✵ ❶➄ ➈⑦❻⑨➁ ➂➃⑦ ❸⑩⑩⑦⑧⑦❻❸✵❶⑨❹ ❶➄ ❺❶❻⑦⑩✵⑦❺➉ ❸✵ ⑦❸⑩➃ ➊⑨❶❹✵ ⑨❼ ✵➃⑦ ➊❸✵➃➉ ✵⑨➇❸❻❺➄ ✵➃⑦ ⑩⑦❹✵❻⑦ ⑨❼

✵➃⑦ ⑩❶❻⑩⑧⑦➁

✼ ➋❹ ✵➃⑦ ⑧❶➀❶✵ ✴✵➌♥➉ ✴✷ ❽⑦⑩⑨➀⑦➄ ➊⑦❻➊⑦❹❺❶⑩❿⑧❸❻ ✵⑨ ✷➁ ➋❹ ✵➃❶➄ ⑧❶➀❶✵ ✴✭➍➎ ❸❹❺ ❶➄ ⑩⑨❹➄⑦➏❿⑦❹✵⑧❷ ❸⑧➄⑨ ➊⑦❻➊⑦❹❺❶⑩❿⑧❸❻

✵⑨ ➐➁ ➂➃⑦❻⑦❼⑨❻⑦➉ ✵➃⑦ ❸⑩⑩⑦⑧⑦❻❸✵❶⑨❹ ❶➄ ❺❶❻⑦⑩✵⑦❺ ✵⑨➇❸❻❺➄ ✵➃⑦ ⑩⑦❹✵❻⑦➉ ❸✵ ⑦❸⑩➃ ➊⑨❶❹✵ ⑨❼ ✵➃⑦ ⑩❶❻⑩❿⑧❸❻ ➊❸✵➃➁

⑧❶➀

⑧❶➀⑧❶➀ ⑧❶➀

⑧❶➀

Page 85: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✽✟

❛❝ ✥✈

✌ ✡✎ ☛✍ ☞

✏ ✥ ✏✷✴✑ ✭✒✓✒✒✔

❚✕✖✗✘ ✙✕✚ ✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ✦★ ✛✧ ✦✩✪✚✜✙ ✫✦✬✤✧✮ ✯✤✙✕

✗s✚✚✰ ✏ ✤✧ ✛ ✜✤✣✜✢✚ ✦★ ✣✛✰✤✖✗ ✑ ✕✛✗ ✛ ✫✛✮✧✤✙✖✰✚

✏✷✴✑ ✛✧✰ ✤✗ ✛✢✯✛✱✗ ❞✲✳✵✶✸✵❞ ✸✹✺✻✳❞✼ ✸✾✵ ✶✵✿✸✳✵✓

❚✕✤✗ ✤✗ ✯✕✱ ✙✕✤✗ ✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ✤✗ ✜✛✢✢✚✰ ✶✵✿✸✳✲❀✵✸✻❁✻✶✶✵❁✵✳✻✸✲✹✿ ✭✛ ✙✚✣✫ s✣✦s✦✗✚✰ ✩✱ ❂✚✯✙✦✧✔✓ ❃✙✕✦✣✦✖✮✕ ✛✧✛✢✱✗✤✗ ✦★ ✜✚✧✙✣✤s✚✙✛✢ ✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ✯✛✗★✤✣✗✙ s✖✩✢✤✗✕✚✰ ✤✧ ❢❄❅❆ ✩✱ ✙✕✚ ❇✖✙✜✕ ✗✜✤✚✧✙✤✗✙❈✕✣✤✗✙✤✛✛✧ ❉✖✱✮✚✧✗ ✭❢❄❊❋●❢❄❋❍✔ ✩✖✙ ✤✙ ✯✛✗s✣✦✩✛✩✢✱ ♦✧✦✯✧ ✙✦❂✚✯✙✦✧✛✢✗✦ ✗✦✫✚✱✚✛✣✗ ✚✛✣✢✤✚✣✓➇❈✚✧✙✣✤s✚✙✛✢■✜✦✫✚✗★✣✦✫✛❏✣✚✚♦ ✙✚✣✫✯✕✤✜✕✫✚✛✧✗➅✜✚✧✙✣✚●✗✚✚♦✤✧✮❑✓ ▲✤✧✜✚ ✏ ✛✧✰ ✑ ✛✣✚ ✜✦✧✗✙✛✧✙✘ ✙✕✚✫✛✮✧✤✙✖✰✚ ✦★ ✙✕✚ ✜✚✧✙✣✤s✚✙✛✢ ✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ✤✗ ✛✢✗✦✜✦✧✗✙✛✧✙✓ ❉✦✯✚✬✚✣✘ ✙✕✚ ✰✤✣✚✜✙✤✦✧ ✜✕✛✧✮✚✗ ◆s✦✤✧✙✤✧✮ ✛✢✯✛✱✗ ✙✦✯✛✣✰✗ ✙✕✚ ✜✚✧✙✣✚✓ ❚✕✚✣✚★✦✣✚✘ ✛✜✚✧✙✣✤s✚✙✛✢ ✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ✤✗ ✧✦✙ ✛ ✜✦✧✗✙✛✧✙ ✬✚✜✙✦✣✓

❲✚ ✕✛✬✚ ✛✧✦✙✕✚✣ ✯✛✱ ✦★ ✰✚✗✜✣✤✩✤✧✮ ✙✕✚✬✚✢✦✜✤✙✱ ✛✧✰ ✙✕✚ ✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ✦★ ✛✧ ✦✩✪✚✜✙ ✤✧✖✧✤★✦✣✫ ✜✤✣✜✖✢✛✣ ✫✦✙✤✦✧✓ ❃✗ ✙✕✚ ✦✩✪✚✜✙ ✫✦✬✚✗★✣✦✫ ❖ ✙✦ ❖P ✤✧ ✙✤✫✚ ◗t ✭✥ tP ➊ t✔✘ ✙✕✚ ✢✤✧✚ ❈❖✭❙✤✮✓ ✒✓❢❋✔ ✙✖✣✧✗ ✙✕✣✦✖✮✕ ✛✧ ✛✧✮✢✚ ◗❯ ✛✗ ✗✕✦✯✧✤✧ ✙✕✚ ★✤✮✖✣✚✓ ◗❯ ✤✗ ✜✛✢✢✚✰ ✛✧✮✖✢✛✣ ✰✤✗✙✛✧✜✚✓ ❲✚✰✚★✤✧✚ ✙✕✚ ✛✧✮✖✢✛✣ ✗s✚✚✰ ❱✭❏✣✚✚♦ ✢✚✙✙✚✣ ✦✫✚✮✛✔✛✗ ✙✕✚ ✙✤✫✚ ✣✛✙✚ ✦★ ✜✕✛✧✮✚ ✦★ ✛✧✮✖✢✛✣✰✤✗s✢✛✜✚✫✚✧✙ ❳

❨❩

❬❭

❭❪ ✭✒✓✒❍✔

❂✦✯✘ ✤★ ✙✕✚ ✰✤✗✙✛✧✜✚ ✙✣✛✬✚✢✢✚✰ ✩✱ ✙✕✚ ✦✩✪✚✜✙✰✖✣✤✧✮ ✙✕✚ ✙✤✫✚ ◗t ✤✗ ◗✗✘ ✤✓✚✓ ❫❫❴ ✤✗ ◗❵✘ ✙✕✚✧ ❳

❜❡

❣❤✐

✩✖✙ ◗❵ ✥ ✑ ◗❯✓ ❚✕✚✣✚★✦✣✚ ❳

❥ ❦❪

❬ ❬❭

❩❨❧

✏ ♠ ✑ ❱ ✭✒✓✒❄✔

❲✚ ✜✛✧ ✚♥s✣✚✗✗ ✜✚✧✙✣✤s✚✙✛✢ ✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ❛♣ ✤✧✙✚✣✫✗ ✦★ ✛✧✮✖✢✛✣ ✗s✚✚✰ ❳

qr

✉✉✇ ① ① ①

② ②②③

⑤ ⑥⑦ ⑧ ⑨⑩ ✭✒✓✒❅✔

❚✕✚ ✙✤✫✚ ✙✛♦✚✧✩✱✛✧✦✩✪✚✜✙ ✙✦✫✛♦✚✦✧✚✣✚✬✦✢✖✙✤✦✧✤✗ ♦✧✦✯✧ ✛✗ ✤✙✗ ✙✤✫✚ s✚✣✤✦✰ ❶ ✛✧✰ ✙✕✚ ✧✖✫✩✚✣ ✦★✣✚✬✦✢✖✙✤✦✧ ✫✛✰✚ ✤✧ ✦✧✚ ✗✚✜✦✧✰ ✤✗ ✜✛✢✢✚✰ ✤✙✗★✣✚❷✖✚✧✜✱ ❸ ✭✥❢❹❶ ✔✓ ❉✦✯✚✬✚✣✘ ✰✖✣✤✧✮ ✙✕✤✗ ✙✤✫✚ ✙✕✚✰✤✗✙✛✧✜✚ ✫✦✬✚✰ ✩✱ ✙✕✚ ✦✩✪✚✜✙ ✤✗ ❵ ✥ ❊❺✑✓

❚✕✚✣✚★✦✣✚✘ ✏ ✥ ❊❺✑❹❶ ✥❊❺✑❸ ✭✒✓✒❻✔❼✧ ✙✚✣✫✗ ✦★ ★✣✚❷✖✚✧✜✱ ❸✘ ✯✚ ✕✛✬✚

❱✥ ❊❺❸✏ ✥ ❊❺✑❸

❛♣ ✥ ✒❺❽ ❸❽✑ ✭✒✓✒❋✔

❾❿➀➁➂➃➄ ➆➈➉➋ ❃✧ ✤✧✗✚✜✙ ✙✣✛ss✚✰ ✤✧ ✛✜✤✣✜✖✢✛✣ ✮✣✦✦✬✚ ✦★ ✣✛✰✤✖✗ ❢❊ ✜✫✫✦✬✚✗ ✛✢✦✧✮

✙✕✚ ✮✣✦✦✬✚ ✗✙✚✛✰✤✢✱ ✛✧✰ ✜✦✫s✢✚✙✚✗ ❅✣✚✬✦✢✖✙✤✦✧✗ ✤✧ ❢➌➌ ✗✓ ✭✛✔ ❲✕✛✙ ✤✗ ✙✕✚✛✧✮✖✢✛✣ ✗s✚✚✰✘ ✛✧✰ ✙✕✚ ✢✤✧✚✛✣ ✗s✚✚✰ ✦★ ✙✕✚✫✦✙✤✦✧➍ ✭✩✔ ❼✗ ✙✕✚ ✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ✬✚✜✙✦✣ ✛✜✦✧✗✙✛✧✙ ✬✚✜✙✦✣ ➍ ❲✕✛✙ ✤✗ ✤✙✗ ✫✛✮✧✤✙✖✰✚ ➍

➎➏➐➑➄➒ ❚✕✤✗ ✤✗ ✛✧ ✚♥✛✫s✢✚ ✦★ ✖✧✤★✦✣✫ ✜✤✣✜✖✢✛✣✫✦✙✤✦✧✓ ❉✚✣✚ ✑ ✥ ❢❊ ✜✫✓ ❚✕✚ ✛✧✮✖✢✛✣ ✗s✚✚✰ ➓✤✗✮✤✬✚✧ ✩✱

❱✥ ❊❺❹❶ ✥ ❊❺ × ❅❹❢➌➌ ✥ ➌✓✒✒ ✣✛✰❹✗

❚✕✚ ✢✤✧✚✛✣ ✗s✚✚✰ ✏ ✤✗ ❳

✏ ✥➓✑ ✥ ➌✓✒✒ ✗➔→ × ❢❊ ✜✫ ✥ ❍✓❆ ✜✫ ✗➔→

❚✕✚ ✰✤✣✚✜✙✤✦✧ ✦★ ✬✚✢✦✜✤✙✱ ➣ ✤✗ ✛✢✦✧✮ ✙✕✚ ✙✛✧✮✚✧✙✙✦ ✙✕✚ ✜✤✣✜✢✚ ✛✙ ✚✬✚✣✱ s✦✤✧✙✓ ❚✕✚ ✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ✤✗✰✤✣✚✜✙✚✰ ✙✦✯✛✣✰✗ ✙✕✚ ✜✚✧✙✣✚ ✦★ ✙✕✚ ✜✤✣✜✢✚✓ ▲✤✧✜✚✙✕✤✗ ✰✤✣✚✜✙✤✦✧ ✜✕✛✧✮✚✗ ✜✦✧✙✤✧✖✦✖✗✢✱✘✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ✕✚✣✚ ✤✗ ↔↕t ✛ ✜✦✧✗✙✛✧✙ ✬✚✜✙✦✣✓❉✦✯✚✬✚✣✘ ✙✕✚ ✫✛✮✧✤✙✖✰✚ ✦★ ✛✜✜✚✢✚✣✛✙✤✦✧ ✤✗✜✦✧✗✙✛✧✙❳

❛ ✥ ❱❽ ✑ ✥ ✭➌✓✒✒ ✗➙→✔❽ ✭❢❊ ✜✫✔

✥ ❊✓❆ ✜✫ ✗➔❽ ➛

Page 86: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✽✆

❙✝✞✞✟✠✡

✶☛ ☞✌✍✎✍✏ ✑✒✍✓✔✕✔✕✖✗ ❛✘✙ ✚✛❛✜✢✣✢✣✙✤ ✥✣✢✦ ✧❛★✜✣✢✛✩✙✤ ✪✜✫✬☛ ✭✮❛✧✯✫✙✤ ❛✘✙ ✩✣✤✢❛✜✰✙✱ ✤✯✙✙✩✱

✧❛✤✤ ❛✜✩ ✢✙✧✯✙✘❛✢✛✘✙☛

✷☛ ❱✖✌✔❡✏ ✑✒✍✓✔✕✔✕✖✗ ❛✘✙ ✚✛❛✜✢✣✢✣✙✤ ✥✣✢✦ ✧❛★✜✣✢✛✩✙ ❛✜✩ ✩✣✘✙✰✢✣✪✜ ✲✪✢✦☛ ✭✮❛✧✯✫✙✤ ❛✘✙

✩✣✤✯✫❛✰✙✧✙✜✢✱ ❞✙✫✪✰✣✢✬ ❛✜✩ ❛✰✰✙✫✙✘❛✢✣✪✜☛ ✳✦✙✬ ✪✲✙✬ ✤✯✙✰✣❛✫ ✘✛✫✙✤ ✪✴ ❞✙✰✢✪✘ ❛✫★✙✲✘❛☛

✸☛ ❆ ❞✙✰✢✪✘ ✟ ✧✛✫✢✣✯✫✣✙✩ ✲✬ ❛ ✘✙❛✫ ✜✛✧✲✙✘ ✵ ✣✤ ❛✫✤✪ ❛ ❞✙✰✢✪✘✱ ✥✦✪✤✙ ✧❛★✜✣✢✛✩✙ ✣✤ ✵ ✢✣✧✙✤

✢✦✙ ✧❛★✜✣✢✛✩✙ ✪✴ ✢✦✙ ❞✙✰✢✪✘ ✟ ❛✜✩ ✥✦✪✤✙ ✩✣✘✙✰✢✣✪✜ ✣✤ ✢✦✙ ✤❛✧✙ ✪✘ ✪✯✯✪✤✣✢✙ ✩✙✯✙✜✩✣✜★

✛✯✪✜ ✥✦✙✢✦✙✘ ✵ ✣✤ ✯✪✤✣✢✣❞✙ ✪✘ ✜✙★❛✢✣❞✙☛

✹☛ ✳✥✪ ❞✙✰✢✪✘✤ ✟ ❛✜✩ ❇✧❛✬ ✲✙ ✍✺✺✖✺ ✻✏✍✼✾✕✌✍✎✎✿✛✤✣✜★ ✾✖✍✺❤✔❡❤✔✍✕✎ ❀✖✔✾❡✺ ✪✘ ✼✍✏✍✎✎✖✎❡✻✏✍❀

❀✖✔✾❡✺☛

❁☛ ❂✙✰✢✪✘ ❛✩✩✣✢✣✪✜ ✣✤ ✌❡❀❀✒✔✍✔✕❝✖ ❃

✟ ❄ ❇ ❅ ❇ ❄ ✟

■✢ ❛✫✤✪ ✪✲✙✬✤ ✢✦✙ ✍✗✗❡✌✕✍✔✕❝✖ ✎✍❈ ❃

❉✟ ❄ ❇❊ ❄ ❋ ❅ ✟ ❄ ❉❇ ❄ ❋❊

●☛ ❆ ✓✒✎✎ ✪✘ ③✖✏❡ ❝✖✌✔❡✏ ✣✤ ❛ ❞✙✰✢✪✘ ✥✣✢✦ ✐✙✘✪ ✧❛★✜✣✢✛✩✙☛ ❍✣✜✰✙ ✢✦✙ ✧❛★✜✣✢✛✩✙ ✣✤ ✐✙✘✪✱ ✥✙

✩✪✜❏✢ ✦❛❞✙ ✢✪ ✤✯✙✰✣✴✬ ✣✢✤ ✩✣✘✙✰✢✣✪✜☛ ■✢ ✦❛✤ ✢✦✙ ✯✘✪✯✙✘✢✣✙✤ ❃

✟ ❄ ❑ ❅ ✟

✵❑ ❅ ❑

▲ ✟ ❅ ❑

▼☛ ✳✦✙ ✗✒s✔✏✍✌✔✕❡✓ ✪✴ ❞✙✰✢✪✘ ❇ ✴✘✪✧ ✟ ✣✤ ✩✙✴✣✜✙✩ ❛✤ ✢✦✙ ✤✛✧ ✪✴ ✟ ❛✜✩ ➊❇ ❃

✟ ➊ ❇ ❅ ✟❄ ❉➊❇❊

◆☛ ❆ ❞✙✰✢✪✘ ✟ ✰❛✜ ✲✙ ✏✖✗❡✎❝✖✺ ✣✜✢✪ ✰✪✧✯✪✜✙✜✢ ❛✫✪✜★ ✢✥✪ ★✣❞✙✜ ❞✙✰✢✪✘✤ ❖ ❛✜✩ ❜ ✫✬✣✜★ ✣✜ ✢✦✙

✤❛✧✙ ✯✫❛✜✙ ❃

✟ ❅ ◗ ❖ ❄ ➭ ❜

✥✦✙✘✙ ✵ ❛✜✩ ❘ ❛✘✙ ✘✙❛✫ ✜✛✧✲✙✘✤☛

❚☛ ❆ ✒✓✕✔ ❝✖✌✔❡✏ ❛✤✤✪✰✣❛✢✙✩ ✥✣✢✦ ❛ ❞✙✰✢✪✘ ✟ ✦❛✤ ✧❛★✜✣✢✛✩✙ ✪✜✙ ❛✜✩ ✣✤ ❛✫✪✜★ ✢✦✙ ❞✙✰✢✪✘ ✟❃

❼♥❯

❯❲

✳✦✙ ✛✜✣✢ ❞✙✰✢✪✘✤ ❳❳ ❳❨❩ ❬❩ ❭ ❛✘✙ ❞✙✰✢✪✘✤ ✪✴ ✛✜✣✢ ✧❛★✜✣✢✛✩✙ ❛✜✩ ✯✪✣✜✢ ✣✜ ✢✦✙ ✩✣✘✙✰✢✣✪✜ ✪✴

✢✦✙ ①❤❪ ✿❫✱ ❛✜✩ ③❤❛✮✙✤✱ ✘✙✤✯✙✰✢✣❞✙✫✬ ✣✜ ❛ ✘✣★✦✢❫✦❛✜✩✙✩ ✰✪✪✘✩✣✜❛✢✙ ✤✬✤✢✙✧☛

✶▲☛ ❆ ❞✙✰✢✪✘ ✟ ✰❛✜ ✲✙ ✙✮✯✘✙✤✤✙✩ ❛✤

❴ ❵ ❢ ❥❣ ❦ ❦❧ ♠♦ ♦

✥✦✙✘✙ ♣q✱ ♣② ❛✘✙ ✣✢✤ ✰✪✧✯✪✜✙✜✢✤ ❛✫✪✜★ ①❤✱ ❛✜✩ ✿ ❤❛✮✙✤☛ ■✴ ❞✙✰✢✪✘ ✟ ✧❛r✙✤ ❛✜ ❛✜★✫✙ t

✥✣✢✦ ✢✦✙ ①❫❛✮✣✤✱ ✢✦✙✜ ♣q ❅ ♣ ✰✪✤ t✱ ♣②❅♣ ✤✣✜ t ❛✜✩✉ ✉

✈ ✇④⑤ ⑥ ⑦⑧

⑨ ⑧⑨

⑩⑩ ⑩ ⑩

⑩❶❷ ❷ ❸❹

✶✶☛ ❂✙✰✢✪✘✤ ✰❛✜ ✲✙ ✰✪✜❞✙✜✣✙✜✢✫✬ ❛✩✩✙✩ ✛✤✣✜★ ✍✓✍✎✿✔✕✌✍✎ ❀✖✔✾❡✺☛ ■✴ ✤✛✧ ✪✴ ✢✥✪ ❞✙✰✢✪✘✤ ✟

❛✜✩ ❇✱ ✢✦❛✢ ✫✣✙ ✣✜ ①❤✿ ✯✫❛✜✙✱ ✣✤ ✠✱ ✢✦✙✜ ❃

❺ ❻ ❽❾ ❿➀ ➀➁ ➂➃ ➃✱ ✥✦✙✘✙✱ ➄q ➅ ♣q ➆ ➇q❪ ❛✜✩ ➄② ➅ ♣② ➆ ➇②

✶✷☛ ✳✦✙ ✼❡✗✕✔✕❡✓ ❝✖✌✔❡✏ ✪✴ ❛✜ ✪✲➈✙✰✢ ✣✜ ①❤✿ ✯✫❛✜✙ ✣✤ ★✣❞✙✜ ✲✬ ➉ ➋ ➌ ➍➎ ➏➐ ➐➑ ❛✜✩ ✢✦✙

✺✕✗✼✎✍✌✖❀✖✓✔ ✴✘✪✧ ✯✪✤✣✢✣✪✜ ➒ ✢✪ ✯✪✤✣✢✣✪✜ ➒➓ ✣✤ ★✣❞✙✜ ✲✬

➔➒ ❅ ➒→ ➣➒

↔ ↕ ➙ ➛ ↕ ➙➜ ➝ ➜ ➝➞ ➞ ➟ ➟➠ ➠➡ ➢

❅ ➤ ➥ ➤➦ ➧❳ ❳❨ ❬

✶✸☛ ■✴ ❛✜ ✪✲➈✙✰✢ ✛✜✩✙✘★✪✙✤ ❛ ✩✣✤✯✫❛✰✙✧✙✜✢ ➔➒ ✣✜ ✢✣✧✙ ➔✔✱ ✣✢✤ ✍❝✖✏✍✻✖ ❝✖✎❡✌✕✔✿ ✣✤ ★✣❞✙✜ ✲✬

➨ ❅

✔☛ ✳✦✙ ❝✖✎❡✌✕✔✿ ✪✴ ❛✜ ✪✲➈✙✰✢ ❛✢ ✢✣✧✙ ✔ ✣✤ ✢✦✙ ✫✣✧✣✢✣✜★ ❞❛✫✛✙ ✪✴ ✢✦✙ ❛❞✙✘❛★✙ ❞✙✫✪✰✣✢✬

Page 87: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✽✟

❛✠ ✡t ✥☛☞✌✠ ✥✍ ✎☛✏✍ ✑

✈ ❂✡

✡✒

✥ ✓ ✵

r r

t t

✌✳ ✔✥ ✕❛☞ ✖☛ ✗✏✘✥✥☛☞ ✘☞ ✙☞✘✥ ✚☛✕✥✍✏ ☞✍✥❛✥✘✍☞ ❛✠ ✑

✛ ✜ ❥ ❦✢ ✣ ✣✤ ✤ ✤① ✦ ③✧ ✧ ✧ ✗★☛✏☛

✩✪

✫✩②

✫✩✬

✫ ✭✮✯ ❞❞

✰✱❞❞

✰✱❞❞

❲★☛☞ ✴✍✠✘✥✘✍☞ ✍✶ ❛☞ ✍✖✷☛✕✥ ✘✠ ✴✸✍✥✥☛✌ ✍☞ ❛ ✕✍✍✏✌✘☞❛✥☛ ✠✹✠✥☛✺✻ ✈ ✘✠ ❛✸✗❛✹✠ ✥❛☞✼☛☞✥ ✥✍✥★☛ ✕✙✏✚☛ ✏☛✴✏☛✠☛☞✥✘☞✼ ✥★☛ ✴❛✥★ ✍✶ ✥★☛ ✍✖✷☛✕✥✳

✾✿✳ ✔✶ ✥★☛ ✚☛✸✍✕✘✥✹ ✍✶ ❛☞ ✍✖✷☛✕✥ ✕★❛☞✼☛✠ ✶✏✍✺ ✈ ✥✍ ✈❀ ✘☞ ✥✘✺☛ ✡t✻ ✥★☛☞ ✘✥✠ ❁❃❄❅❁❆❄ ❁❇❇❄❈❄❅❁t❉❊❋

✘✠ ✼✘✚☛☞ ✖✹✑ ●✈ ✈❍ ✈

✒❾

✒✡

✡t t❚★☛ ❁❇❇❄❈❄❅❁t❉❊❋ ● ❛✥ ❛☞✹ ✥✘✺☛ t ✘✠ ✥★☛ ✸✘✺✘✥✘☞✼ ✚❛✸✙☛ ✍✶ ● ❛✠ ✡t ■✵ ✑

●✈ ✈

✒✓

✒✡

✡t t t✵

✔☞ ✕✍✺✴✍☞☛☞✥ ✶✍✏✺✻ ✗☛ ★❛✚☛ ✑ ❏ ✜ ❥ ❦✢ ✣ ✣❑ ❑ ❑① ✦ ③✧ ✧ ✧

✗★☛✏☛✻ ❁▲❃

▲t◆ ❁

▲❃

▲t◆ ❁

▲❃

▲t❖❖

PP

◗◗✒ ✒ ✒

✾❘✳ ✔✶ ❛☞ ✍✖✷☛✕✥ ✘✠ ✺✍✚✘☞✼ ✘☞ ❛ ✴✸❛☞☛ ✗✘✥★ ✕✍☞✠✥❛☞✥ ❛✕✕☛✸☛✏❛✥✘✍☞ ❙ ❙❯ ❱ ❳❨ ❨ ❨❩ ❬❭ ❛☞✌

✘✥✠ ✴✍✠✘✥✘✍☞ ✚☛✕✥✍✏ ❛✥ ✥✘✺☛ t ❂ ✵ ✘✠ r♦✻ ✥★☛☞ ❛✥ ❛☞✹ ✍✥★☛✏ ✥✘✺☛ t✻ ✘✥ ✗✘✸✸ ✖☛ ❛✥ ❛ ✴✍✘☞✥ ✼✘✚☛☞✖✹✑

❙❪

❫❴ ❴❩ ❬ ❬❵ ❵❜ ❜ ❝ ❭

❛☞✌ ✘✥✠ ✚☛✸✍✕✘✥✹ ✘✠ ✼✘✚☛☞ ✖✹ ✑✈ ❂ ✈❡ ❢ ● t

✗★☛✏☛ ✈❡ ✘✠ ✥★☛ ✚☛✸✍✕✘✥✹ ❛✥ ✥✘✺☛ t ❂ ✵✔☞ ✕✍✺✴✍☞☛☞✥ ✶✍✏✺ ✑

❙❪

❫❣ ❣❱ ❱❤ ❤ ✐ ❴ ❨ ❴❩ ❬ ❬

2❪

❫❧ ❧♠ ♠♥ ♥ ✐ ❴ ❨ ❴❩ ❬ ❬

♣ ♣ q s✉ ✇✉ ✉④ ⑤

❃ ❃ ❁ tP ⑥P P✒ ⑦

⑧❊t❉❊❋ ❉❋ ❁ ⑨❈❁❋❄ ❇❁❋ ⑩❄ t❅❄❁t❄▲ ❁❶ ❶❷⑨❄❅⑨❊❶❉t❉❊❋ ❊❸ t❹❊ ❶❄⑨❁❅❁t❄ ❶❉❺❷❈t❁❋❄❊❷❶ ❊❋❄❻▲❉❺❄❋❶❉❊❋❁❈ ❺❊t❉❊❋❶ ❁❈❊❋❆ t❹❊ ⑨❄❅⑨❄❋▲❉❇❷❈❁❅ ▲❉❅❄❇t❉❊❋❶

✾❼✳ ❽☞ ✍✖✷☛✕✥ ✥★❛✥ ✘✠ ✘☞ ✶✸✘✼★✥ ❛✶✥☛✏ ✖☛✘☞✼ ✴✏✍✷☛✕✥☛✌ ✘✠ ✕❛✸✸☛✌ ❛ ⑨❅❊❿❄❇t❉❈❄✳ ✔✶ ❛☞ ✍✖✷☛✕✥ ✘✠✴✏✍✷☛✕✥☛✌ ✗✘✥★ ✘☞✘✥✘❛✸ ✚☛✸✍✕✘✥✹ ✈❡ ✺❛➀✘☞✼ ❛☞ ❛☞✼✸☛ ➁♦ ✗✘✥★ ➂❻❛➃✘✠ ❛☞✌ ✘✶ ✗☛ ❛✠✠✙✺☛ ✘✥✠✘☞✘✥✘❛✸ ✴✍✠✘✥✘✍☞ ✥✍ ✕✍✘☞✕✘✌☛ ✗✘✥★ ✥★☛ ✍✏✘✼✘☞ ✍✶ ✥★☛ ✕✍✍✏✌✘☞❛✥☛ ✠✹✠✥☛✺✻ ✥★☛☞ ✥★☛ ✴✍✠✘✥✘✍☞❛☞✌ ✚☛✸✍✕✘✥✹ ✍✶ ✥★☛ ✴✏✍✷☛✕✥✘✸☛ ❛✥ ✥✘✺☛ t ❛✏☛ ✼✘✚☛☞ ✖✹ ✑

➂ ❂ ➄❃➅ ✕✍✠ ➁♦➆ t

➇ ❂ ➄❃➅ ✠✘☞ ➁♦➆ t ❾➄✾➈➉➆ ❆ t➊

❃➋ ❂ ❃➅➋ ❂ ❃➅ ✕✍✠ ➁♦❃➌ ❂ ❃➅ ✠✘☞ ➁♦ ❾❆ t

❚★☛ ✴❛✥★ ✍✶ ❛ ✴✏✍✷☛✕✥✘✸☛ ✘✠ ⑨❁❅❁⑩❊❈❉❇ ❛☞✌ ✘✠ ✼✘✚☛☞ ✖✹ ✑

➍ ➎➍ ➎

➏ ❙➐➑➒➓➔→❣ ❣

➣❤♥ ❤ ↔

↕ ✐➙

➙❩

❚★☛ ❺❁➂❉❺❷❺ ➛❄❉❆➛t ✥★❛✥ ❛ ✴✏✍✷☛✕✥✘✸☛ ❛✥✥❛✘☞✠ ✘✠ ✑

❈❉❺

✸✘✺

Page 88: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✽✆

( )✷

✥✝✞♦ ♦♠

✈❤

✟✠

q=

❚✡☛ t☞✌✍ ✎✏✑☛✞ ✎✒ ✓☛✏✔✡ ✎✡✝✥ ✡☛✝✕✡✎ ✝✥ ✖

✈t ✗✗✘

✙sin ❂

❚✡☛ ✡✒✓✝✚✒✞✎✏✛ ✜✝✥✎✏✞✔☛ ✎✓✏✢☛✛✛☛✜ ✣✤ ✏ ✦✓✒✧☛✔✎✝✛☛ ★✓✒✩ ✝✎✥ ✝✞✝✎✝✏✛ ✦✒✥✝✎✝✒✞ ✎✒ ✎✡☛ ✦✒✥✝✎✝✒✞

✝✎ ✦✏✥✥☛✥ ② ✪ ✫ ✜✬✓✝✞✕ ✝✎✥ ★✏✛✛ ✝✥ ✔✏✛✛☛✜ ✎✡☛ r✭✮✠✍✱ ❘ ✒★ ✎✡☛ ✦✓✒✧☛✔✎✝✛☛✯ ✰✎ ✝✥ ✖

✥✝✞✳✴

✴✈

❘✠

✙❂

✶✼✯ ❲✡☛✞ ✏✞ ✒✣✧☛✔✎ ★✒✛✛✒✵✥ ✏ ✔✝✓✔✬✛✏✓ ✦✏✎✡ ✏✎ ✔✒✞✥✎✏✞✎ ✥✦☛☛✜✱ ✎✡☛ ✩✒✎✝✒✞ ✒★ ✎✡☛ ✒✣✧☛✔✎ ✝✥

✔✏✛✛☛✜ ✉✮☞✸✹r✌ ✺☞r✺✉✻✭r ✌✹t☞✹✮✯ ❚✡☛ ✩✏✕✞✝✎✬✜☛ ✒★ ✝✎✥ ✏✔✔☛✛☛✓✏✎✝✒✞ ✝✥ ✭❝ ✪ ✈✾ ✿❘✯ ❚✡☛

✜✝✓☛✔✎✝✒✞ ✒★ ✭❝ ✝✥ ✏✛✵✏✤✥ ✎✒✵✏✓✜✥ ✎✡☛ ✔☛✞✎✓☛ ✒★ ✎✡☛ ✔✝✓✔✛☛✯

❚✡☛ ✏✞✕✬✛✏✓ ✥✦☛☛✜ ❀✱ ✝✥ ✎✡☛ ✓✏✎☛ ✒★ ✔✡✏✞✕☛ ✒★ ✏✞✕✬✛✏✓ ✜✝✥✎✏✞✔☛✯ ✰✎ ✝✥ ✓☛✛✏✎☛✜ ✎✒ ✢☛✛✒✔✝✎✤

✈ ✣✤ ✈ ✪ ❀❘✯ ❚✡☛ ✏✔✔☛✛☛✓✏✎✝✒✞ ✝✥ ✭❝ ✪ ❀❁❘✯

✰★ ❃ ✝✥ ✎✡☛ ✎✝✩☛ ✦☛✓✝✒✜ ✒★ ✓☛✢✒✛✬✎✝✒✞ ✒★ ✎✡☛ ✒✣✧☛✔✎ ✝✞ ✔✝✓✔✬✛✏✓ ✩✒✎✝✒✞ ✏✞✜ ❄ ✝✥ ✝✎✥

★✓☛❢✬☛✞✔✤✱ ✵☛ ✡✏✢☛ ❀✪ ✳❅ ❄ ❆ ✈ ✪ ✳❅❄❇✱ ✭❝ ✪ ❈❅❁❄❁❘

Page 89: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✽✟

P✠✡☛☞✌ ☞✠ P✠☛✍✎✏

✶✳ ❚✑✒ ✓✔✕✑ ✖✒✗✘✕✑ ✕✙✔✚✒✙✛✒✜ ✢✣ ✔✗ ✤✢✥✒✦✕ ✢✒✕✧✒✒✗ ✕✧✤ ✓✤★✗✕✛ ★✛✩ ★✗ ✘✒✗✒✙✔✖✩ ✗✤✕ ✕✑✒ ✛✔✪✒ ✔✛

✕✑✒ ✪✔✘✗★✕t✜✒ ✤✫ ✜★✛✓✖✔✦✒✪✒✗✕✳ ❚✑✒ ✜★✛✓✖✔✦✒✪✒✗✕ ✜✒✓✒✗✜✛ ✤✗✖✣ ✤✗ ✕✑✒ ✒✗✜ ✓✤★✗✕✛✬ ✕✑✒

✓✔✕✑ ✖✒✗✘✕✑ ♣✔✛ ✕✑✒ ✗✔✪✒ ★✪✓✖★✒✛✭ ✜✒✓✒✗✜✛ ✤✗ ✕✑✒ ✔✦✕t✔✖ ✓✔✕✑✳ ❚✑✒ ✕✧✤ ✮t✔✗✕★✕★✒✛ ✔✙✒

✒✮t✔✖ ✤✗✖✣ ★✫ ✕✑✒ ✤✢✥✒✦✕ ✜✤✒✛ ✗✤✕ ✦✑✔✗✘✒ ★✕✛ ✜★✙✒✦✕★✤✗ ✜t✙★✗✘ ✕✑✒ ✦✤t✙✛✒ ✤✫ ✪✤✕★✤✗✳ ❡✗ ✔✖✖

✤✕✑✒✙ ✦✔✛✒✛✩ ✕✑✒ ✓✔✕✑ ✖✒✗✘✕✑ ★✛ ✘✙✒✔✕✒✙ ✕✑✔✗ ✕✑✒ ✪✔✘✗★✕t✜✒ ✤✫ ✜★✛✓✖✔✦✒✪✒✗✕✳

✷✳ ❡✗ ✚★✒✧ ✤✫ ✓✤★✗✕ ✶ ✔✢✤✚✒✩ ✕✑✒ ✔✚✒✙✔✘✒ ✛✓✒✒✜ ✤✫ ✔✗ ✤✢✥✒✦✕ ★✛ ✘✙✒✔✕✒✙ ✕✑✔✗ ✤✙ ✒✮t✔✖ ✕✤ ✕✑✒

✪✔✘✗★✕t✜✒ ✤✫ ✕✑✒ ✔✚✒✙✔✘✒ ✚✒✖✤✦★✕✣ ✤✚✒✙ ✔ ✘★✚✒✗ ✕★✪✒ ★✗✕✒✙✚✔✖✳ ❚✑✒ ✕✧✤ ✔✙✒ ✒✮t✔✖ ✤✗✖✣ ★✫ ✕✑✒

✓✔✕✑ ✖✒✗✘✕✑ ★✛ ✒✮t✔✖ ✕✤ ✕✑✒ ✪✔✘✗★✕t✜✒ ✤✫ ✜★✛✓✖✔✦✒✪✒✗✕✳

✸✳ ❚✑✒ ✚✒✦✕✤✙ ✒✮t✔✕★✤✗✛ ♣✯✳✸✸✔✭ ✔✗✜ ♣✯✳✸✯✔✭ ✜✤ ✗✤✕ ★✗✚✤✖✚✒ ✔✗✣ ✦✑✤★✦✒ ✤✫ ✔✰✒✛✳ ✱✫ ✦✤t✙✛✒✩

✣✤t ✦✔✗ ✔✖✧✔✣✛ ✙✒✛✤✖✚✒ ✕✑✒✪ ✔✖✤✗✘ ✔✗✣ ✕✧✤ ★✗✜✒✓✒✗✜✒✗✕ ✔✰✒✛✳

✯✳ ❚✑✒ ✹★✗✒✪✔✕★✦ ✒✮t✔✕★✤✗✛ ✫✤✙ t✗★✫✤✙✪ ✔✦✦✒✖✒✙✔✕★✤✗ ✜✤ ✗✤✕ ✔✓✓✖✣ ✕✤ ✕✑✒ ✦✔✛✒ ✤✫ t✗★✫✤✙✪

✦★✙✦t✖✔✙ ✪✤✕★✤✗ ✛★✗✦✒ ★✗ ✕✑★✛ ✦✔✛✒ ✕✑✒ ✪✔✘✗★✕t✜✒ ✤✫ ✔✦✦✒✖✒✙✔✕★✤✗ ★✛ ✦✤✗✛✕✔✗✕ ✢t✕ ★✕✛

✜★✙✒✦✕★✤✗ ★✛ ✦✑✔✗✘★✗✘✳

✺✳ ✲✗ ✤✢✥✒✦✕ ✛t✢✥✒✦✕✒✜ ✕✤ ✕✧✤ ✚✒✖✤✦★✕★✒✛ ✈✴ ✔✗✜ ✈✵ ✑✔✛ ✔ ✙✒✛t✖✕✔✗✕ ✚✒✖✤✦★✕✣ ✈ ❂ ✈✴ ✻ ✈✵✳ ❚✔✹✒

✦✔✙✒ ✕✤ ✜★✛✕★✗✘t★✛✑ ★✕ ✫✙✤✪ ✚✒✖✤✦★✕✣ ✤✫ ✤✢✥✒✦✕ ✶ ✙✒✖✔✕★✚✒ ✕✤ ✚✒✖✤✦★✕✣ ✤✫ ✤✢✥✒✦✕ ✷ ❝ ✈✴✵❂ ✈✴✼ ✈✵✳

❍✒✙✒ ✈✴ ✔✗✜ ✈✵ ✔✙✒ ✚✒✖✤✦★✕★✒✛ ✧★✕✑ ✙✒✫✒✙✒✗✦✒ ✕✤ ✛✤✪✒ ✦✤✪✪✤✗ ✙✒✫✒✙✒✗✦✒ ✫✙✔✪✒✳

✾✳ ❚✑✒ ✙✒✛t✖✕✔✗✕ ✔✦✦✒✖✒✙✔✕★✤✗ ✤✫ ✔✗ ✤✢✥✒✦✕ ★✗ ✦★✙✦t✖✔✙ ✪✤✕★✤✗ ★✛ ✕✤✧✔✙✜✛ ✕✑✒ ✦✒✗✕✙✒ ✤✗✖✣ ★✫

✕✑✒ ✛✓✒✒✜ ★✛ ✦✤✗✛✕✔✗✕✳

✿✳ ❚✑✒ ✛✑✔✓✒ ✤✫ ✕✑✒ ✕✙✔✥✒✦✕✤✙✣ ✤✫ ✕✑✒ ✪✤✕★✤✗ ✤✫ ✔✗ ✤✢✥✒✦✕ ★✛ ✗✤✕ ✜✒✕✒✙✪★✗✒✜ ✢✣ ✕✑✒ ✔✦✦✒✖✒✙✔✕★✤✗

✔✖✤✗✒ ✢t✕ ✔✖✛✤ ✜✒✓✒✗✜✛ ✤✗ ✕✑✒ ★✗★✕★✔✖ ✦✤✗✜★✕★✤✗✛ ✤✫ ✪✤✕★✤✗ ♣ ★✗★✕★✔✖ ✓✤✛★✕★✤✗ ✔✗✜ ★✗★✕★✔✖

✚✒✖✤✦★✕✣✭✳ ❀✤✙ ✒✰✔✪✓✖✒✩ ✕✑✒ ✕✙✔✥✒✦✕✤✙✣ ✤✫ ✔✗ ✤✢✥✒✦✕ ✪✤✚★✗✘ t✗✜✒✙ ✕✑✒ ✛✔✪✒ ✔✦✦✒✖✒✙✔✕★✤✗

✜t✒ ✕✤ ✘✙✔✚★✕✣ ✦✔✗ ✢✒ ✔ ✛✕✙✔★✘✑✕ ✖★✗✒ ✤✙ ✔ ✓✔✙✔✢✤✖✔ ✜✒✓✒✗✜★✗✘ ✤✗ ✕✑✒ ★✗★✕★✔✖ ✦✤✗✜★✕★✤✗✛✳

✎❊✎✏❁✡✌✎✌

❃❄❅ ❙✕✔✕✒✩ ✫✤✙ ✒✔✦✑ ✤✫ ✕✑✒ ✫✤✖✖✤✧★✗✘ ✓✑✣✛★✦✔✖ ✮t✔✗✕★✕★✒✛✩ ★✫ ★✕ ★✛ ✔ ✛✦✔✖✔✙ ✤✙ ✔ ✚✒✦✕✤✙ ❝

✚✤✖t✪✒✩ ✪✔✛✛✩ ✛✓✒✒✜✩ ✔✦✦✒✖✒✙✔✕★✤✗✩ ✜✒✗✛★✕✣✩ ✗t✪✢✒✙ ✤✫ ✪✤✖✒✛✩ ✚✒✖✤✦★✕✣✩ ✔✗✘t✖✔✙

✫✙✒✮t✒✗✦✣✩ ✜★✛✓✖✔✦✒✪✒✗✕✩ ✔✗✘t✖✔✙ ✚✒✖✤✦★✕✣✳

❃❄❆ ❇★✦✹ ✤t✕ ✕✑✒ ✕✧✤ ✛✦✔✖✔✙ ✮t✔✗✕★✕★✒✛ ★✗ ✕✑✒ ✫✤✖✖✤✧★✗✘ ✖★✛✕ ❝

✫✤✙✦✒✩ ✔✗✘t✖✔✙ ✪✤✪✒✗✕t✪✩ ✧✤✙✹✩ ✦t✙✙✒✗✕✩ ✖★✗✒✔✙ ✪✤✪✒✗✕t✪✩ ✒✖✒✦✕✙★✦ ✫★✒✖✜✩ ✔✚✒✙✔✘✒

✚✒✖✤✦★✕✣✩ ✪✔✘✗✒✕★✦ ✪✤✪✒✗✕✩ ✙✒✖✔✕★✚✒ ✚✒✖✤✦★✕✣✳

❃❄❈ ❇★✦✹ ✤t✕ ✕✑✒ ✤✗✖✣ ✚✒✦✕✤✙ ✮t✔✗✕★✕✣ ★✗ ✕✑✒ ✫✤✖✖✤✧★✗✘ ✖★✛✕ ❝

❚✒✪✓✒✙✔✕t✙✒✩ ✓✙✒✛✛t✙✒✩ ★✪✓t✖✛✒✩ ✕★✪✒✩ ✓✤✧✒✙✩ ✕✤✕✔✖ ✓✔✕✑ ✖✒✗✘✕✑✩ ✒✗✒✙✘✣✩ ✘✙✔✚★✕✔✕★✤✗✔✖

✓✤✕✒✗✕★✔✖✩ ✦✤✒✫✫★✦★✒✗✕ ✤✫ ✫✙★✦✕★✤✗✩ ✦✑✔✙✘✒✳

❃❄❃ ❙✕✔✕✒ ✧★✕✑ ✙✒✔✛✤✗✛✩ ✧✑✒✕✑✒✙ ✕✑✒ ✫✤✖✖✤✧★✗✘ ✔✖✘✒✢✙✔★✦ ✤✓✒✙✔✕★✤✗✛ ✧★✕✑ ✛✦✔✖✔✙ ✔✗✜ ✚✒✦✕✤✙

✓✑✣✛★✦✔✖ ✮t✔✗✕★✕★✒✛ ✔✙✒ ✪✒✔✗★✗✘✫t✖ ❝

♣✔✭ ✔✜✜★✗✘ ✔✗✣ ✕✧✤ ✛✦✔✖✔✙✛✩ ♣✢✭ ✔✜✜★✗✘ ✔ ✛✦✔✖✔✙ ✕✤ ✔ ✚✒✦✕✤✙ ✤✫ ✕✑✒ ✛✔✪✒ ✜★✪✒✗✛★✤✗✛ ✩

♣✦✭ ✪t✖✕★✓✖✣★✗✘ ✔✗✣ ✚✒✦✕✤✙ ✢✣ ✔✗✣ ✛✦✔✖✔✙✩ ♣✜✭ ✪t✖✕★✓✖✣★✗✘ ✔✗✣ ✕✧✤ ✛✦✔✖✔✙✛✩ ♣✒✭ ✔✜✜★✗✘ ✔✗✣

✕✧✤ ✚✒✦✕✤✙✛✩ ♣✫✭ ✔✜✜★✗✘ ✔ ✦✤✪✓✤✗✒✗✕ ✤✫ ✔ ✚✒✦✕✤✙ ✕✤ ✕✑✒ ✛✔✪✒ ✚✒✦✕✤✙✳

❃❄❉ ❘✒✔✜ ✒✔✦✑ ✛✕✔✕✒✪✒✗✕ ✢✒✖✤✧ ✦✔✙✒✫t✖✖✣ ✔✗✜ ✛✕✔✕✒ ✧★✕✑ ✙✒✔✛✤✗✛✩ ★✫ ★✕ ★✛ ✕✙t✒ ✤✙ ✫✔✖✛✒ ❝

♣✔✭ ❚✑✒ ✪✔✘✗★✕t✜✒ ✤✫ ✔ ✚✒✦✕✤✙ ★✛ ✔✖✧✔✣✛ ✔ ✛✦✔✖✔✙✩ ♣✢✭ ✒✔✦✑ ✦✤✪✓✤✗✒✗✕ ✤✫ ✔ ✚✒✦✕✤✙ ★✛

✔✖✧✔✣✛ ✔ ✛✦✔✖✔✙✩ ♣✦✭ ✕✑✒ ✕✤✕✔✖ ✓✔✕✑ ✖✒✗✘✕✑ ★✛ ✔✖✧✔✣✛ ✒✮t✔✖ ✕✤ ✕✑✒ ✪✔✘✗★✕t✜✒ ✤✫ ✕✑✒

✜★✛✓✖✔✦✒✪✒✗✕ ✚✒✦✕✤✙ ✤✫ ✔ ✓✔✙✕★✦✖✒✳ ♣✜✭ ✕✑✒ ✔✚✒✙✔✘✒ ✛✓✒✒✜ ✤✫ ✔ ✓✔✙✕★✦✖✒ ♣✜✒✫★✗✒✜ ✔✛ ✕✤✕✔✖

✓✔✕✑ ✖✒✗✘✕✑ ✜★✚★✜✒✜ ✢✣ ✕✑✒ ✕★✪✒ ✕✔✹✒✗ ✕✤ ✦✤✚✒✙ ✕✑✒ ✓✔✕✑✭ ★✛ ✒★✕✑✒✙ ✘✙✒✔✕✒✙ ✤✙ ✒✮t✔✖ ✕✤

✕✑✒ ✪✔✘✗★✕t✜✒ ✤✫ ✔✚✒✙✔✘✒ ✚✒✖✤✦★✕✣ ✤✫ ✕✑✒ ✓✔✙✕★✦✖✒ ✤✚✒✙ ✕✑✒ ✛✔✪✒ ★✗✕✒✙✚✔✖ ✤✫ ✕★✪✒✩ ♣✒✭

❚✑✙✒✒ ✚✒✦✕✤✙✛ ✗✤✕ ✖✣★✗✘ ★✗ ✔ ✓✖✔✗✒ ✦✔✗ ✗✒✚✒✙ ✔✜✜ t✓ ✕✤ ✘★✚✒ ✔ ✗t✖✖ ✚✒✦✕✤✙✳

❃❄❋ ●✛✕✔✢✖★✛✑ ✕✑✒ ✫✤✖✖✤✧★✗✘ ✚✒✦✕✤✙ ★✗✒✮t✔✖★✕★✒✛ ✘✒✤✪✒✕✙★✦✔✖✖✣ ✤✙ ✤✕✑✒✙✧★✛✒ ❝

♣✔✭ ⑤❛✻❜⑤ ■ ⑤❛⑤ ✻ ⑤❜⑤

♣✢✭ ⑤❛✻❜⑤ ❏ ⑤⑤❛⑤ ✼⑤❜⑤⑤

Page 90: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✽✆

❋✝✞✟ ✠✟✡☛

✭☞✌ ⑤❛❾❾❜⑤ ❁ ⑤❛⑤ ✍ ⑤❜⑤

✭✎✌ ⑤❛❾❾❜⑤ ❃ ⑤⑤❛⑤ ❾❾⑤❜⑤⑤

❲✏✑✒ ✎✓✑✔ ✕✏✑ ✑✖✗✘✙✚✕✛ ✔✚✜✒ ✘✢✓✣✑ ✘✤✤✙✛✥

✹✦✧ ●✚✣✑✒ ❛ ✍ ❜ ✍ ❝ ✍ ❞ ❂ ✵✱ ★✏✚☞✏ ✓✩ ✕✏✑ ✩✓✙✙✓★✚✒✜ ✔✕✘✕✑✪✑✒✕✔

✘✫✑ ☞✓✫✫✑☞✕ ✬

✭✘✌ ❛✱ ❜✱ ❝✱ ✘✒✎ ❞ ✪✗✔✕ ✑✘☞✏ ✢✑ ✘ ✒✗✙✙ ✣✑☞✕✓✫✱

✭✢✌ ❚✏✑ ✪✘✜✒✚✕✗✎✑ ✓✩ ✭❛ ✍ ❝✌ ✑✖✗✘✙✔ ✕✏✑ ✪✘✜✒✚✕✗✎✑ ✓✩

✭ ❜ ✍ ❞✌✱

✭☞✌ ❚✏✑ ✪✘✜✒✚✕✗✎✑ ✓✩ ❛ ☞✘✒ ✒✑✣✑✫ ✢✑ ✜✫✑✘✕✑✫ ✕✏✘✒ ✕✏✑

✔✗✪ ✓✩ ✕✏✑ ✪✘✜✒✚✕✗✎✑✔ ✓✩ ❜✱ ❝✱ ✘✒✎ ❞✱

✭✎✌ ❜ ✍ ❝ ✪✗✔✕ ✙✚✑ ✚✒ ✕✏✑ ✤✙✘✒✑ ✓✩ ❛ ✘✒✎ ❞ ✚✩ ❛ ✘✒✎ ❞ ✘✫✑

✒✓✕ ☞✓✙✙✚✒✑✘✫✱ ✘✒✎ ✚✒ ✕✏✑ ✙✚✒✑ ✓✩ ❛ ✘✒✎ ❞✱ ✚✩ ✕✏✑✛ ✘✫✑

☞✓✙✙✚✒✑✘✫ ✥

✹✦✮ ❚✏✫✑✑ ✜✚✫✙✔ ✔✯✘✕✚✒✜ ✓✒ ✘ ☞✚✫☞✗✙✘✫ ✚☞✑ ✜✫✓✗✒✎ ✓✩ ✫✘✎✚✗✔

✷✰✰ ✪ ✔✕✘✫✕ ✩✫✓✪ ✘ ✤✓✚✒✕ ✲ ✓✒ ✕✏✑ ✑✎✜✑ ✓✩ ✕✏✑ ✜✫✓✗✒✎

✘✒✎ ✫✑✘☞✏ ✘ ✤✓✚✒✕ Q ✎✚✘✪✑✕✫✚☞✘✙✙✛ ✓✤✤✓✔✚✕✑ ✕✓ ✲ ✩✓✙✙✓★✚✒✜

✎✚✩✩✑✫✑✒✕ ✤✘✕✏✔ ✘✔ ✔✏✓★✒ ✚✒ ✳✚✜✴ ✶✴✷✰✴ ❲✏✘✕ ✚✔ ✕✏✑

✪✘✜✒✚✕✗✎✑ ✓✩ ✕✏✑ ✎✚✔✤✙✘☞✑✪✑✒✕ ✣✑☞✕✓✫ ✩✓✫ ✑✘☞✏ ✥ ✳✓✫

★✏✚☞✏ ✜✚✫✙ ✚✔ ✕✏✚✔ ✑✖✗✘✙ ✕✓ ✕✏✑ ✘☞✕✗✘✙ ✙✑✒✜✕✏ ✓✩

✤✘✕✏ ✔✯✘✕✑ ✥

✹✦✸ ❆ ☞✛☞✙✚✔✕ ✔✕✘✫✕✔ ✩✫✓✪ ✕✏✑ ☞✑✒✕✫✑ ❖ ✓✩ ✘ ☞✚✫☞✗✙✘✫ ✤✘✫✯ ✓✩ ✫✘✎✚✗✔ ♦ ✯✪✱ ✫✑✘☞✏✑✔ ✕✏✑ ✑✎✜✑ ✲

✓✩ ✕✏✑ ✤✘✫✯✱ ✕✏✑✒ ☞✛☞✙✑✔ ✘✙✓✒✜ ✕✏✑ ☞✚✫☞✗✪✩✑✫✑✒☞✑✱ ✘✒✎ ✫✑✕✗✫✒✔ ✕✓ ✕✏✑ ☞✑✒✕✫✑ ✘✙✓✒✜ QO✘✔ ✔✏✓★✒ ✚✒ ✳✚✜✴ ✶✴✷♦✴ ✺✩ ✕✏✑ ✫✓✗✒✎ ✕✫✚✤ ✕✘✯✑✔ ♦✰✪✚✒✱ ★✏✘✕ ✚✔ ✕✏✑ ✭✘✌ ✒✑✕ ✎✚✔✤✙✘☞✑✪✑✒✕✱

✭✢✌ ✘✣✑✫✘✜✑ ✣✑✙✓☞✚✕✛✱ ✘✒✎ ✭☞✌ ✘✣✑✫✘✜✑ ✔✤✑✑✎ ✓✩ ✕✏✑ ☞✛☞✙✚✔✕ ✥

❋✝✞✟ ✠✟✡✻

✹✦✼✵ ✾✒ ✘✒ ✓✤✑✒ ✜✫✓✗✒✎✱ ✘ ✪✓✕✓✫✚✔✕ ✩✓✙✙✓★✔ ✘ ✕✫✘☞✯ ✕✏✘✕ ✕✗✫✒✔ ✕✓ ✏✚✔ ✙✑✩✕ ✢✛ ✘✒ ✘✒✜✙✑ ✓✩ ✿✰❀

✘✩✕✑✫ ✑✣✑✫✛ ❄✰✰ ✪✴ ❅✕✘✫✕✚✒✜ ✩✫✓✪ ✘ ✜✚✣✑✒ ✕✗✫✒✱ ✔✤✑☞✚✩✛ ✕✏✑ ✎✚✔✤✙✘☞✑✪✑✒✕ ✓✩ ✕✏✑✪✓✕✓✫✚✔✕

✘✕ ✕✏✑ ✕✏✚✫✎✱ ✔✚❇✕✏ ✘✒✎ ✑✚✜✏✕✏ ✕✗✫✒✴ ❈✓✪✤✘✫✑ ✕✏✑ ✪✘✜✒✚✕✗✎✑ ✓✩ ✕✏✑ ✎✚✔✤✙✘☞✑✪✑✒✕ ★✚✕✏

✕✏✑ ✕✓✕✘✙ ✤✘✕✏ ✙✑✒✜✕✏ ☞✓✣✑✫✑✎ ✢✛ ✕✏✑ ✪✓✕✓✫✚✔✕ ✚✒ ✑✘☞✏ ☞✘✔✑✴

✹✦✼✼ ❆ ✤✘✔✔✑✒✜✑✫ ✘✫✫✚✣✚✒✜ ✚✒ ✘ ✒✑★ ✕✓★✒ ★✚✔✏✑✔ ✕✓ ✜✓ ✩✫✓✪ ✕✏✑ ✔✕✘✕✚✓✒ ✕✓ ✘ ✏✓✕✑✙ ✙✓☞✘✕✑✎

♦✰ ✯✪ ✘★✘✛ ✓✒ ✘ ✔✕✫✘✚✜✏✕ ✫✓✘✎ ✩✫✓✪ ✕✏✑ ✔✕✘✕✚✓✒✴ ❆ ✎✚✔✏✓✒✑✔✕ ☞✘✢✪✘✒ ✕✘✯✑✔ ✏✚✪ ✘✙✓✒✜

✘ ☞✚✫☞✗✚✕✓✗✔ ✤✘✕✏ ✷❉ ✯✪ ✙✓✒✜ ✘✒✎ ✫✑✘☞✏✑✔ ✕✏✑ ✏✓✕✑✙ ✚✒ ✷❊ ✪✚✒✴ ❲✏✘✕ ✚✔ ✭✘✌ ✕✏✑ ✘✣✑✫✘✜✑

✔✤✑✑✎ ✓✩ ✕✏✑ ✕✘❇✚✱ ✭✢✌ ✕✏✑ ✪✘✜✒✚✕✗✎✑ ✓✩ ✘✣✑✫✘✜✑ ✣✑✙✓☞✚✕✛ ✥ ❆✫✑ ✕✏✑ ✕★✓ ✑✖✗✘✙ ✥

✹✦✼❍ ❘✘✚✒ ✚✔ ✩✘✙✙✚✒✜ ✣✑✫✕✚☞✘✙✙✛ ★✚✕✏ ✘ ✔✤✑✑✎ ✓✩ ❉✰ ✪ ✔■❏✴ ❆ ★✓✪✘✒ ✫✚✎✑✔ ✘ ✢✚☞✛☞✙✑ ★✚✕✏ ✘ ✔✤✑✑✎

✓✩ ♦✰ ✪ ✔■❏ ✚✒ ✕✏✑ ✒✓✫✕✏ ✕✓ ✔✓✗✕✏ ✎✚✫✑☞✕✚✓✒✴ ❲✏✘✕ ✚✔ ✕✏✑ ✎✚✫✑☞✕✚✓✒ ✚✒ ★✏✚☞✏ ✔✏✑ ✔✏✓✗✙✎

✏✓✙✎ ✏✑✫ ✗✪✢✫✑✙✙✘ ✥

✹✦✼❑ ❆ ✪✘✒ ☞✘✒ ✔★✚✪ ★✚✕✏ ✘ ✔✤✑✑✎ ✓✩ ✶✴✰ ✯✪▲✏ ✚✒ ✔✕✚✙✙ ★✘✕✑✫✴ ▼✓★ ✙✓✒✜ ✎✓✑✔ ✏✑ ✕✘✯✑ ✕✓

☞✫✓✔✔ ✘ ✫✚✣✑✫ ♦✴✰ ✯✪ ★✚✎✑ ✚✩ ✕✏✑ ✫✚✣✑✫ ✩✙✓★✔ ✔✕✑✘✎✚✙✛ ✘✕ ❉✴✰ ✯✪▲✏ ✘✒✎ ✏✑ ✪✘✯✑✔ ✏✚✔

Page 91: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▼�✁✂�✄ ✂✄ ☎ ✆✝☎✄✞ ✽✟

s✠✡☛☞✌s ✍☛✡✎✏✑ ✠☛ ✠✒✌ ✡✓✔✌✡ ✕✖✡✡✌✍✠✗ ✘☛✙ ✚✏✡ ✛☛✙✍ ✠✒✌ ✡✓✔✌✡ ✛☛✌s ✒✌ ✜☛ ✙✒✌✍ ✒✌✡✌✏✕✒✌s ✠✒✌ ☛✠✒✌✡ r✏✍☞ ✗

✹✢✣✹ ■✍ ✏ ✒✏✡r☛✖✡✱ ✙✓✍✛ ✓s r✑☛✙✓✍✜ ✏✠ ✠✒✌ s✤✌✌✛ ☛✚ ✥✦ ☞✎✧✒ ✏✍✛ ✠✒✌ ✚✑✏✜ ☛✍ ✠✒✌ ✎✏s✠ ☛✚ ✏ r☛✏✠✏✍✕✒☛✡✌✛ ✓✍ ✠✒✌ ✒✏✡r☛✖✡ ✚✑✖✠✠✌✡s ✏✑☛✍✜ ✠✒✌ ❛★✩ ✛✓✡✌✕✠✓☛✍✪ ■✚ ✠✒✌ r☛✏✠ s✠✏✡✠s ✎☛✔✓✍✜ ✏✠ ✏s✤✌✌✛ ☛✚ ✫✬ ☞✎✧✒ ✠☛ ✠✒✌ ✍☛✡✠✒✱ ✙✒✏✠ ✓s ✠✒✌ ✛✓✡✌✕✠✓☛✍ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✚✑✏✜ ☛✍ ✠✒✌ ✎✏s✠ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ r☛✏✠ ✗

✹✢✣✭ ❚✒✌ ✕✌✓✑✓✍✜ ☛✚ ✏ ✑☛✍✜ ✒✏✑✑ ✓s ✦✫ ✎ ✒✓✜✒✪ ✮✒✏✠ ✓s ✠✒✌ ✎✏✯✓✎✖✎ ✒☛✡✓✰☛✍✠✏✑ ✛✓s✠✏✍✕✌ ✠✒✏✠✏ r✏✑✑ ✠✒✡☛✙✍ ✙✓✠✒ ✏ s✤✌✌✛ ☛✚ ✲✳ ✎ s✴✵ ✕✏✍ ✜☛ ✙✓✠✒☛✖✠ ✒✓✠✠✓✍✜ ✠✒✌ ✕✌✓✑✓✍✜ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✒✏✑✑ ✗

✹✢✣✶ ❆ ✕✡✓✕☞✌✠✌✡ ✕✏✍ ✠✒✡☛✙ ✏ r✏✑✑ ✠☛ ✏ ✎✏✯✓✎✖✎ ✒☛✡✓✰☛✍✠✏✑ ✛✓s✠✏✍✕✌ ☛✚ ✬✳✳ ✎✪ ✘☛✙ ✎✖✕✒✒✓✜✒ ✏r☛✔✌ ✠✒✌ ✜✡☛✖✍✛ ✕✏✍ ✠✒✌ ✕✡✓✕☞✌✠✌✡ ✠✒✡☛✙ ✠✒✌ s✏✎✌ r✏✑✑ ✗

✹✢✣✷ ❆ s✠☛✍✌ ✠✓✌✛ ✠☛ ✠✒✌ ✌✍✛ ☛✚ ✏ s✠✡✓✍✜ ✸✳ ✕✎ ✑☛✍✜ ✓s ✙✒✓✡✑✌✛ ✓✍ ✏ ✒☛✡✓✰☛✍✠✏✑ ✕✓✡✕✑✌ ✙✓✠✒ ✏✕☛✍s✠✏✍✠ s✤✌✌✛✪ ■✚ ✠✒✌ s✠☛✍✌ ✎✏☞✌s ✬✲ ✡✌✔☛✑✖✠✓☛✍s ✓✍ ✦✫ s✱ ✙✒✏✠ ✓s ✠✒✌ ✎✏✜✍✓✠✖✛✌ ✏✍✛✛✓✡✌✕✠✓☛✍ ☛✚ ✏✕✕✌✑✌✡✏✠✓☛✍ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ s✠☛✍✌ ✗

✹✢✣✺ ❆✍ ✏✓✡✕✡✏✚✠ ✌✯✌✕✖✠✌s ✏ ✒☛✡✓✰☛✍✠✏✑ ✑☛☛✤ ☛✚ ✡✏✛✓✖s ✬✪✳✳ ☞✎ ✙✓✠✒ ✏ s✠✌✏✛✻ s✤✌✌✛ ☛✚ ✼✳✳☞✎✧✒✪ ❦☛✎✤✏✡✌ ✓✠s ✕✌✍✠✡✓✤✌✠✏✑ ✏✕✕✌✑✌✡✏✠✓☛✍ ✙✓✠✒ ✠✒✌ ✏✕✕✌✑✌✡✏✠✓☛✍ ✛✖✌ ✠☛ ✜✡✏✔✓✠✻✪

✹✢✣✾ ❘✌✏✛ ✌✏✕✒ s✠✏✠✌✎✌✍✠ r✌✑☛✙ ✕✏✡✌✚✖✑✑✻ ✏✍✛ s✠✏✠✌✱ ✙✓✠✒ ✡✌✏s☛✍s✱ ✓✚ ✓✠ ✓s ✠✡✖✌ ☛✡ ✚✏✑s✌ ✿❀✏❁ ❚✒✌ ✍✌✠ ✏✕✕✌✑✌✡✏✠✓☛✍ ☛✚ ✏ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌ ✓✍ ✕✓✡✕✖✑✏✡ ✎☛✠✓☛✍ ✓s ❂❃❄❂❅❇ ✏✑☛✍✜ ✠✒✌ ✡✏✛✓✖s ☛✚

✠✒✌ ✕✓✡✕✑✌ ✠☛✙✏✡✛s ✠✒✌ ✕✌✍✠✡✌❀r❁ ❚✒✌ ✔✌✑☛✕✓✠✻ ✔✌✕✠☛✡ ☛✚ ✏ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌ ✏✠ ✏ ✤☛✓✍✠ ✓s ❂❃❄❂❅❇ ✏✑☛✍✜ ✠✒✌ ✠✏✍✜✌✍✠ ✠☛ ✠✒✌ ✤✏✠✒

☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌ ✏✠ ✠✒✏✠ ✤☛✓✍✠❀✕❁ ❚✒✌ ✏✕✕✌✑✌✡✏✠✓☛✍ ✔✌✕✠☛✡ ☛✚ ✏ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌ ✓✍ ✉❈❉❊❋●❍ ✕✓✡✕✖✑✏✡ ✎☛✠✓☛✍ ✏✔✌✡✏✜✌✛ ☛✔✌✡ ☛✍✌

✕✻✕✑✌ ✓s ✏ ✍✖✑✑ ✔✌✕✠☛✡

✹✢❏❑ ❚✒✌ ✤☛s✓✠✓☛✍ ☛✚ ✏ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌ ✓s ✜✓✔✌✍ r✻▲❼ ❼ ❼◆❖P ◗❖P ❙❖P ❯t t❱ ❲ ❳❨ ❩ ❥ ❬

✙✒✌✡✌ ❭ ✓s ✓✍ s✌✕☛✍✛s ✏✍✛ ✠✒✌ ✕☛✌✚✚✓✕✓✌✍✠s ✒✏✔✌ ✠✒✌ ✤✡☛✤✌✡ ✖✍✓✠s ✚☛✡ ❪ ✠☛ r✌ ✓✍ ✎✌✠✡✌s✪❀✏❁ ❫✓✍✛ ✠✒✌ ✈ ✏✍✛ ❴ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌✗ ❀r❁ ✮✒✏✠ ✓s ✠✒✌ ✎✏✜✍✓✠✖✛✌ ✏✍✛ ✛✓✡✌✕✠✓☛✍ ☛✚

✔✌✑☛✕✓✠✻ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌ ✏✠ ❭ ❵ ✦✪✳ s ✗

✹✢❏✣ ❆ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌ s✠✏✡✠s ✚✡☛✎ ✠✒✌ ☛✡✓✜✓✍ ✏✠ ❭ ❵ ✳ s ✙✓✠✒ ✏ ✔✌✑☛✕✓✠✻ ☛✚ ✬✳✪✳ ❜❝✎✧s ✏✍✛ ✎☛✔✌s ✓✍

✠✒✌ ①❞❅ ✤✑✏✍✌ ✙✓✠✒ ✏ ✕☛✍s✠✏✍✠ ✏✕✕✌✑✌✡✏✠✓☛✍ ☛✚ ❡ ❢✸✪✳ ✦✪✳❣ ❣✐ ❤❧ ✎ s♠♥✪ ❀✏❁ ❆✠ ✙✒✏✠ ✠✓✎✌ ✓s

✠✒✌ ①★ ✕☛☛✡✛✓✍✏✠✌ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌ ✬♦ ✎✗ ✮✒✏✠ ✓s ✠✒✌ ❅★✕☛☛✡✛✓✍✏✠✌ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌ ✏✠✠✒✏✠ ✠✓✎✌✗ ❀r❁ ✮✒✏✠ ✓s ✠✒✌ s✤✌✌✛ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✤✏✡✠✓✕✑✌ ✏✠ ✠✒✌ ✠✓✎✌ ✗

✹✢❏❏ ❣✐ ✏✍✛ ❝❜ ✏✡✌ ✖✍✓✠ ✔✌✕✠☛✡s ✏✑☛✍✜ ①★ ✏✍✛ ❅★ ✏✯✓s ✡✌s✤✌✕✠✓✔✌✑✻✪ ✮✒✏✠ ✓s ✠✒✌ ✎✏✜✍✓✠✖✛✌

✏✍✛ ✛✓✡✌✕✠✓☛✍ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✔✌✕✠☛✡s ♣ ♣q ✇② ✱ ✏✍✛ ♣ ♣q ✇❾ ✗ ✮✒✏✠ ✏✡✌ ✠✒✌ ✕☛✎✤☛✍✌✍✠s ☛✚ ✏ ✔✌✕✠☛✡

③❵ ④ ❝ ❝⑤ ❜⑥ ⑦ ✏✑☛✍✜ ✠✒✌ ✛✓✡✌✕✠✓☛✍s ☛✚ ♣ ♣q ✇② ✏✍✛ ♣ ♣q ✇❾ ✗ ⑧⑨☛✖ ✎✏✻ ✖s✌ ✜✡✏✤✒✓✕✏✑ ✎✌✠✒☛✛⑩✹✢❏❶ ❫☛✡ ✏✍✻ ✏✡r✓✠✡✏✡✻ ✎☛✠✓☛✍ ✓✍ s✤✏✕✌✱ ✙✒✓✕✒ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✚☛✑✑☛✙✓✍✜ ✡✌✑✏✠✓☛✍s ✏✡✌ ✠✡✖✌ ✿

❀✏❁ ✈❷❸❹❺❷❻❹ ❵ ❀✬✧✦❁ ❀✈ ❀❭❽❁ ❿ ✈ ❀❭♥❁❁❀r❁ ✈ ❷❸❹❺❷❻❹ ❵ ⑧❪❀❭♥❁ ★ ❪❀❭❽❁ ⑩ ✧❀❭♥ ➀ ❭❽❁❀✕❁ ✈ ❀❭❁ ❵ ✈ ❀✳❁ ❿ ❴ ❭❀✛❁ ❪ ❀❭❁ ❵ ❪ ❀✳❁ ❿ ✈ ❀✳❁ ❭ ❿ ❀✬✧✦❁ ❴ ❭♥❀✌❁ ❴ ❷❸❹❺❷❻❹ ❵⑧ ✈ ❀❭♥❁ ★ ✈ ❀❭❽ ❁⑩ ✧❀ ❭♥ ➀ ❭❽❁❀❚✒✌ ➁✏✔✌✡✏✜✌➂ s✠✏✍✛s ✚☛✡ ✏✔✌✡✏✜✌ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ➃✖✏✍✠✓✠✻ ☛✔✌✡ ✠✒✌ ✠✓✎✌ ✓✍✠✌✡✔✏✑ ❭❽ ✠☛ ❭♥❁

✹✢❏✹ ❘✌✏✛ ✌✏✕✒ s✠✏✠✌✎✌✍✠ r✌✑☛✙ ✕✏✡✌✚✖✑✑✻ ✏✍✛ s✠✏✠✌✱ ✙✓✠✒ ✡✌✏s☛✍s ✏✍✛ ✌✯✏✎✤✑✌s✱ ✓✚ ✓✠ ✓s✠✡✖✌ ☛✡ ✚✏✑s✌ ✿❆ s✕✏✑✏✡ ➃✖✏✍✠✓✠✻ ✓s ☛✍✌ ✠✒✏✠❀✏❁ ✓s ✕☛✍s✌✡✔✌✛ ✓✍ ✏ ✤✡☛✕✌ss❀r❁ ✕✏✍ ✍✌✔✌✡ ✠✏☞✌ ✍✌✜✏✠✓✔✌ ✔✏✑✖✌s❀✕❁ ✎✖s✠ r✌ ✛✓✎✌✍s✓☛✍✑✌ss❀✛❁ ✛☛✌s ✍☛✠ ✔✏✡✻ ✚✡☛✎ ☛✍✌ ✤☛✓✍✠ ✠☛ ✏✍☛✠✒✌✡ ✓✍ s✤✏✕✌❀✌❁ ✒✏s ✠✒✌ s✏✎✌ ✔✏✑✖✌ ✚☛✡ ☛rs✌✡✔✌✡s ✙✓✠✒ ✛✓✚✚✌✡✌✍✠ ☛✡✓✌✍✠✏✠✓☛✍s ☛✚ ✏✯✌s✪

✹✢❏✭ ❆✍ ✏✓✡✕✡✏✚✠ ✓s ✚✑✻✓✍✜ ✏✠ ✏ ✒✌✓✜✒✠ ☛✚ ➄✲✳✳ ✎ ✏r☛✔✌ ✠✒✌ ✜✡☛✖✍✛✪ ■✚ ✠✒✌ ✏✍✜✑✌ s✖r✠✌✍✛✌✛ ✏✠✏ ✜✡☛✖✍✛ ☛rs✌✡✔✏✠✓☛✍ ✤☛✓✍✠ r✻ ✠✒✌ ✏✓✡✕✡✏✚✠ ✤☛s✓✠✓☛✍s ✬✳✪✳ s ✏✤✏✡✠ ✓s ➄✳➅✱ ✙✒✏✠ ✓s ✠✒✌s✤✌✌✛ ☛✚ ✠✒✌ ✏✓✡✕✡✏✚✠ ✗

Page 92: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✽✽

❆✆✆✝✞✝✟✠✡☛ ☞✌✍✎✏✝✑✍✑

✹✒✓✔ ✕ ✖✗✘✙✚✛ ✜✢✣ ✤✢✥✦✧✙★✩✗ ✢✦✩ ✩✧✛✗✘✙✧✚✦✪ ✫✚✗✣ ✧✙ ✜✢✖✗ ✢ ✬✚✘✢✙✧✚✦ ✧✦ ✣✭✢✘✗ ✮ ✯✢✦ ✧✙ ✖✢✛✰✇✧✙✜ ✙✧✤✗ ✮ ✱✧✬✬ ✙✇✚ ✗✲★✢✬ ✖✗✘✙✚✛✣ ✡ ✢✦✩ ❜ ✢✙ ✩✧✳✳✗✛✗✦✙ ✬✚✘✢✙✧✚✦✣ ✧✦ ✣✭✢✘✗ ✦✗✘✗✣✣✢✛✧✬✰

✜✢✖✗ ✧✩✗✦✙✧✘✢✬ ✭✜✰✣✧✘✢✬ ✗✳✳✗✘✙✣ ✮ ❢✧✖✗ ✗✴✢✤✭✬✗✣ ✧✦ ✣★✭✭✚✛✙ ✚✳ ✰✚★✛ ✢✦✣✇✗✛✪

✹✒✓✵ ✕ ✖✗✘✙✚✛ ✜✢✣ ✶✚✙✜ ✤✢✥✦✧✙★✩✗ ✢✦✩ ✩✧✛✗✘✙✧✚✦✪ ✫✚✗✣ ✧✙ ✤✗✢✦ ✙✜✢✙ ✢✦✰✙✜✧✦✥ ✙✜✢✙ ✜✢✣✤✢✥✦✧✙★✩✗ ✢✦✩ ✩✧✛✗✘✙✧✚✦ ✧✣ ✦✗✘✗✣✣✢✛✧✬✰ ✢ ✖✗✘✙✚✛ ✮ ♠✜✗ ✛✚✙✢✙✧✚✦ ✚✳ ✢ ✶✚✩✰ ✘✢✦ ✶✗ ✣✭✗✘✧✳✧✗✩✶✰ ✙✜✗ ✩✧✛✗✘✙✧✚✦ ✚✳ ✙✜✗ ✢✴✧✣ ✚✳ ✛✚✙✢✙✧✚✦✷ ✢✦✩ ✙✜✗ ✢✦✥✬✗ ✚✳ ✛✚✙✢✙✧✚✦ ✢✶✚★✙ ✙✜✗ ✢✴✧✣✪ ✫✚✗✣✙✜✢✙ ✤✢t✗ ✢✦✰ ✛✚✙✢✙✧✚✦ ✢ ✖✗✘✙✚✛ ✮

✹✒✓✸ ✯✢✦ ✰✚★ ✢✣✣✚✘✧✢✙✗ ✖✗✘✙✚✛✣ ✇✧✙✜ ❈✢✺ ✙✜✗ ✬✗✦✥✙✜ ✚✳ ✢ ✇✧✛✗ ✶✗✦✙ ✧✦✙✚ ✢ ✬✚✚✭✷ ❈✶✺ ✢ ✭✬✢✦✗✢✛✗✢✷ ❈✘✺ ✢ ✣✭✜✗✛✗ ✮ ❛✴✭✬✢✧✦✪

✹✒✓✻ ✕ ✶★✬✬✗✙ ✳✧✛✗✩ ✢✙ ✢✦ ✢✦✥✬✗ ✚✳ ✼✾✿ ✇✧✙✜ ✙✜✗ ✜✚✛✧❀✚✦✙✢✬ ✜✧✙✣ ✙✜✗ ✥✛✚★✦✩ ✼✪✾ t✤ ✢✇✢✰✪ ❁✰✢✩❂★✣✙✧✦✥ ✧✙✣ ✢✦✥✬✗ ✚✳ ✭✛✚❂✗✘✙✧✚✦✷ ✘✢✦ ✚✦✗ ✜✚✭✗ ✙✚ ✜✧✙ ✢ ✙✢✛✥✗✙ ❃✪✾ t✤ ✢✇✢✰ ✮ ✕✣✣★✤✗✙✜✗ ❄❅❇❇❉❊ ✣✭✗✗✩ ✙✚ ✙✜✗ ✳✧✴✗✩✷ ✢✦✩ ✦✗✥✬✗✘✙ ✢✧✛ ✛✗✣✧✣✙✢✦✘✗✪

✹✒❋● ✕ ✳✧✥✜✙✗✛ ✭✬✢✦✗ ✳✬✰✧✦✥ ✜✚✛✧❀✚✦✙✢✬✬✰ ✢✙ ✢✦ ✢✬✙✧✙★✩✗ ✚✳ ❍✪❃ t✤ ✇✧✙✜ ✣✭✗✗✩ ■❏✾ t✤❑✜ ✭✢✣✣✗✣

✩✧✛✗✘✙✬✰ ✚✖✗✛✜✗✢✩ ✢✦ ✢✦✙✧❞✢✧✛✘✛✢✳✙ ✥★✦✪ ✕✙ ✇✜✢✙ ✢✦✥✬✗ ✳✛✚✤ ✙✜✗ ✖✗✛✙✧✘✢✬ ✣✜✚★✬✩ ✙✜✗ ✥★✦✶✗ ✳✧✛✗✩ ✳✚✛ ✙✜✗ ✣✜✗✬✬ ✇✧✙✜ ✤★❀❀✬✗ ✣✭✗✗✩ ▲✾✾ ✤ ✣▼◆ ✙✚ ✜✧✙ ✙✜✗ ✭✬✢✦✗ ✮ ✕✙ ✇✜✢✙ ✤✧✦✧✤★✤✢✬✙✧✙★✩✗ ✣✜✚★✬✩ ✙✜✗ ✭✧✬✚✙ ✳✬✰ ✙✜✗ ✭✬✢✦✗ ✙✚ ✢✖✚✧✩ ✶✗✧✦✥ ✜✧✙ ✮ ❈♠✢t✗ ❣ ❖ ❍✾ ✤ ✣▼◗ ✺✪

✹✒❋❘ ✕ ✘✰✘✬✧✣✙ ✧✣ ✛✧✩✧✦✥ ✇✧✙✜ ✢ ✣✭✗✗✩ ✚✳ ❏■ t✤❑✜✪ ✕✣ ✜✗ ✢✭✭✛✚✢✘✜✗✣ ✢ ✘✧✛✘★✬✢✛ ✙★✛✦ ✚✦ ✙✜✗

✛✚✢✩ ✚✳ ✛✢✩✧★✣ ❙✾ ✤✷ ✜✗ ✢✭✭✬✧✗✣ ✶✛✢t✗✣ ✢✦✩ ✛✗✩★✘✗✣ ✜✧✣ ✣✭✗✗✩ ✢✙ ✙✜✗ ✘✚✦✣✙✢✦✙ ✛✢✙✗ ✚✳✾✪❃✾ ✤❑✣ ✗✖✗✛✰ ✣✗✘✚✦✩✪ ✱✜✢✙ ✧✣ ✙✜✗ ✤✢✥✦✧✙★✩✗ ✢✦✩ ✩✧✛✗✘✙✧✚✦ ✚✳ ✙✜✗ ✦✗✙ ✢✘✘✗✬✗✛✢✙✧✚✦ ✚✳✙✜✗ ✘✰✘✬✧✣✙ ✚✦ ✙✜✗ ✘✧✛✘★✬✢✛ ✙★✛✦ ✮

✹✒❋✓ ❈✢✺ ❚✜✚✇ ✙✜✢✙ ✳✚✛ ✢ ✭✛✚❂✗✘✙✧✬✗ ✙✜✗ ✢✦✥✬✗ ✶✗✙✇✗✗✦ ✙✜✗ ✖✗✬✚✘✧✙✰ ✢✦✩ ✙✜✗ ①❞✢✴✧✣ ✢✣ ✢ ✳★✦✘✙✧✚✦

✚✳ ✙✧✤✗ ✧✣ ✥✧✖✗✦ ✶✰

❯ ❱ ❲❲❳

❨❩❩❬

❭ ❾

♦❪

❫❴

❵❝✈❡ ❤✐❥❦❧t♥

❈✶✺ ❚✜✚✇✣ ✙✜✢✙ ✙✜✗ ✭✛✚❂✗✘✙✧✚✦ ✢✦✥✬✗ ♣q ✳✚✛ ✢ ✭✛✚❂✗✘✙✧✬✗ ✬✢★✦✘✜✗✩ ✳✛✚✤ ✙✜✗ ✚✛✧✥✧✦ ✧✣✥✧✖✗✦ ✶✰

rs

✉②③

④⑤

⑦⑧⑨ ⑩❶❷❸❹❺❻

✇✜✗✛✗ ✙✜✗ ✣✰✤✶✚✬✣ ✜✢✖✗ ✙✜✗✧✛ ★✣★✢✬ ✤✗✢✦✧✦✥✪

Page 93: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❈❍�✁✂✄☎ ✥■✆✄

▲❆✝✞ ❖✟ ✠❖✡☛❖☞

✺✌✍ ✎✏✑✒✓✔✕✖✑✎✓✏

✗✘ ✙✚✛ ✜✢✛❡✛✣✤✘✦ ✧✚★✜✙✛✢✱ ✩✪✢ ❡✩✘❡✛✢✘ ♥★✫ ✙✩ ✣✛✫❡✢✤✬✛ ✙✚✛♠✩✙✤✩✘ ✩✭ ★ ✜★✢✙✤❡✮✛ ✤✘ ✫✜★❡✛ ✯✪★✘✙✤✙★✙✤✰✛✮✲✳ ✴✛ ✫★♥ ✙✚★✙✪✘✤✭✩✢♠ ♠✩✙✤✩✘ ✘✛✛✣✫ ✙✚✛ ❡✩✘❡✛✜✙ ✩✭ ✰✛✮✩❡✤✙✲ ★✮✩✘✛ ♥✚✛✢✛★✫✘✩✘✵✪✘✤✭✩✢♠ ♠✩✙✤✩✘ ✢✛✯✪✤✢✛✫ ✙✚✛ ❡✩✘❡✛✜✙ ✩✭ ★❡❡✛✮✛✢★✙✤✩✘ ✤✘★✣✣✤✙✤✩✘✳ ❛✩ ✭★✢✱ ♥✛ ✚★✰✛ ✘✩✙ ★✫✶✛✣ ✙✚✛ ✯✪✛✫✙✤✩✘ ★✫ ✙✩ ♥✚★✙✦✩✰✛✢✘✫ ✙✚✛ ♠✩✙✤✩✘ ✩✭ ✬✩✣✤✛✫✳ ✗✘ ✙✚✤✫ ❡✚★✜✙✛✢✱ ♥✛ ✙✪✢✘ ✙✩ ✙✚✤✫✬★✫✤❡ ✯✪✛✫✙✤✩✘✳✷✛✙ ✪✫ ✭✤✢✫✙ ✦✪✛✫✫ ✙✚✛ ★✘✫♥✛✢ ✬★✫✛✣ ✩✘ ✩✪✢ ❡✩♠♠✩✘

✛✸✜✛✢✤✛✘❡✛✳ ✹✩ ♠✩✰✛ ★ ✭✩✩✙✬★✮✮ ★✙ ✢✛✫✙✱ ✫✩♠✛✩✘✛ ♠✪✫✙ ✶✤❡✶ ✤✙✳✹✩ ✙✚✢✩♥ ★ ✫✙✩✘✛ ✪✜♥★✢✣✫✱ ✩✘✛ ✚★✫ ✙✩ ✦✤✰✛ ✤✙ ★✘ ✪✜♥★✢✣✜✪✫✚✳ ♣ ✬✢✛✛✻✛ ❡★✪✫✛✫ ✙✚✛ ✬✢★✘❡✚✛✫ ✩✭ ★ ✙✢✛✛ ✙✩ ✫♥✤✘✦✼ ★✫✙✢✩✘✦ ♥✤✘✣ ❡★✘ ✛✰✛✘ ♠✩✰✛ ✚✛★✰✲ ✩✬s✛❡✙✫✳ ♣ ✬✩★✙ ♠✩✰✛✫ ✤✘ ★✭✮✩♥✤✘✦ ✢✤✰✛✢ ♥✤✙✚✩✪✙ ★✘✲✩✘✛ ✢✩♥✤✘✦ ✤✙✳ ✧✮✛★✢✮✲✱ ✫✩♠✛ ✛✸✙✛✢✘★✮★✦✛✘❡✲ ✤✫ ✘✛✛✣✛✣ ✙✩ ✜✢✩✰✤✣✛ ✭✩✢❡✛ ✙✩ ♠✩✰✛ ★ ✬✩✣✲ ✭✢✩♠ ✢✛✫✙✳✷✤✶✛♥✤✫✛✱ ★✘ ✛✸✙✛✢✘★✮ ✭✩✢❡✛ ✤✫ ✘✛✛✣✛✣ ★✮✫✩ ✙✩ ✢✛✙★✢✣ ✩✢ ✫✙✩✜♠✩✙✤✩✘✳ ✽✩✪ ❡★✘ ✫✙✩✜ ★ ✬★✮✮ ✢✩✮✮✤✘✦ ✣✩♥✘ ★✘ ✤✘❡✮✤✘✛✣ ✜✮★✘✛ ✬✲★✜✜✮✲✤✘✦ ★ ✭✩✢❡✛ ★✦★✤✘✫✙ ✙✚✛ ✣✤✢✛❡✙✤✩✘ ✩✭ ✤✙✫ ♠✩✙✤✩✘✳✗✘ ✙✚✛✫✛ ✛✸★♠✜✮✛✫✱ ✙✚✛ ✛✸✙✛✢✘★✮ ★✦✛✘❡✲ ✩✭ ✭✩✢❡✛ ✾✚★✘✣✫✱

♥✤✘✣✱ ✫✙✢✛★♠✱ ✛✙❡✇ ✤✫ ✤✘ ❡✩✘✙★❡✙ ♥✤✙✚ ✙✚✛ ✩✬s✛❡✙✳ ✹✚✤✫ ✤✫ ✘✩✙★✮♥★✲✫ ✘✛❡✛✫✫★✢✲✳ ♣ ✫✙✩✘✛ ✢✛✮✛★✫✛✣ ✭✢✩♠ ✙✚✛ ✙✩✜ ✩✭ ★ ✬✪✤✮✣✤✘✦★❡❡✛✮✛✢★✙✛✫ ✣✩♥✘♥★✢✣ ✣✪✛ ✙✩ ✙✚✛ ✦✢★✰✤✙★✙✤✩✘★✮ ✜✪✮✮ ✩✭ ✙✚✛✛★✢✙✚✳ ♣ ✬★✢ ♠★✦✘✛✙ ❡★✘ ★✙✙✢★❡✙ ★✘ ✤✢✩✘ ✘★✤✮ ✭✢✩♠ ★ ✣✤✫✙★✘❡✛✳✑❚✿❀ ❀❚❁❂❀ ❃❚❄❃ ❅❇❃❅❉❊❄❋ ❄●❅❊❏✿❅❀ ❑❅✌●✌ ●❉❄▼✿❃❄❃✿❁❊❄❋ ❄❊◆P❄●❊❅❃✿❏ ◗❁❉❏❅❀ ❘ ❏❄❊ ❅❇❅❉❃ ◗❁❉❏❅ ❁❊ ❄ ❙❁◆❯ ❅▼❅❊ ◗❉❁P ❄◆✿❀❃❄❊❏❅✌✗✘ ✫✚✩✢✙✱ ★ ✭✩✢❡✛ ✤✫ ✢✛✯✪✤✢✛✣ ✙✩ ✜✪✙ ★ ✫✙★✙✤✩✘★✢✲ ✬✩✣✲ ✤✘

♠✩✙✤✩✘ ✩✢ ✫✙✩✜ ★ ♠✩✰✤✘✦ ✬✩✣✲✱ ★✘✣ ✫✩♠✛ ✛✸✙✛✢✘★✮ ★✦✛✘❡✲ ✤✫✘✛✛✣✛✣ ✙✩ ✜✢✩✰✤✣✛ ✙✚✤✫ ✭✩✢❡✛✳ ✹✚✛ ✛✸✙✛✢✘★✮ ★✦✛✘❡✲ ♠★✲ ✩✢ ♠★✲✘✩✙ ✬✛ ✤✘ ❡✩✘✙★❡✙ ♥✤✙✚ ✙✚✛ ✬✩✣✲✳❛✩ ✭★✢ ✫✩ ✦✩✩✣✳ ❱✪✙ ♥✚★✙ ✤✭ ★ ✬✩✣✲ ✤✫ ♠✩✰✤✘✦ ✪✘✤✭✩✢♠✮✲ ✾✛✳✦✳

★ ✫✶★✙✛✢ ♠✩✰✤✘✦ ✫✙✢★✤✦✚✙ ♥✤✙✚ ❡✩✘✫✙★✘✙ ✫✜✛✛✣ ✩✘ ★ ✚✩✢✤✻✩✘✙★✮✤❡✛ ✫✮★✬✇ ✐ ✎❀ ❄❊ ❅❇❃❅❉❊❄❋ ◗❁❉❏❅ ❉❅❲❳✿❉❅◆ ❃❁ ❨❅❅❩ ❄ ❙❁◆❯ ✿❊❳❊✿◗❁❉PP❁❃✿❁❊✉

✺✌✍ ❬❭❪❫❴❵❜❝❪❞❴❭✺✌❢ ❣❫❞❤❪❴❪❥❦❧❤ ♦q❥❥q❝r✺✌t ✈①❦ ❥q② ❴♦ ❞❭❦❫❪❞q✺✌③ ④❦②❪❴❭❧❤ ♦❞❫❤❪ ❥q② ❴♦ ⑤❴❪❞❴❭✺✌✺ ④❦②❪❴❭❧❤ ❤❦❝❴❭❵ ❥q② ❴♦

⑤❴❪❞❴❭✺✌⑥ ④❦②❪❴❭❧❤ ❪①❞❫❵ ❥q② ❴♦ ⑤❴❪❞❴❭✺✌⑦ ⑧❴❭❤❦❫⑨q❪❞❴❭ ❴♦ ⑤❴⑤❦❭❪❜⑤✺✌⑩ ❶❷❜❞❥❞❸❫❞❜⑤ ❴♦ q ❹q❫❪❞❝❥❦✺✌❺ ⑧❴⑤⑤❴❭ ♦❴❫❝❦❤ ❞❭ ⑤❦❝①q❭❞❝❤✺✌✍❻ ⑧❞❫❝❜❥q❫ ⑤❴❪❞❴❭✺✌✍✍ ❼❴❥⑨❞❭❽ ❹❫❴❸❥❦⑤❤ ❞❭

⑤❦❝①q❭❞❝❤❼❜⑤⑤q❫r❾❴❞❭❪❤ ❪❴ ❹❴❭❵❦❫❶❿❦❫❝❞❤❦❤❣❵❵❞❪❞❴❭q❥ ❦❿❦❫❝❞❤❦❤

Page 94: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✾✆

✺✝✞ ❆✟✠✡☛☞☛✌✍✎✡ ✏❆✌✌❆✑✒

❚✓✔ ✕✖✔✗✘✙✚✛ ✜✚✗✔✢ ✣✤✚✥✔ ✣✜✜✔✣✦✗ ✘✚ ✤✔ ✗✙✧✜★✔✩

❍✚✪✔✥✔✦✱ ✙✘ ✘✚✚✫ ✣✬✔✗ ✘✚ ✣✛✗✪✔✦ ✙✘✩ ✭✛✢✔✔✢✱ ✘✓✔

❝✚✦✦✔❝✘ ✣✛✗✪✔✦ ✘✚ ✘✓✙✗ ✕✖✔✗✘✙✚✛ ✬✙✥✔✛ ✤✮ ✯✣★✙★✔✚

✙✛ ✘✓✔ ✗✔✥✔✛✘✔✔✛✘✓ ❝✔✛✘✖✦✮ ✪✣✗ ✘✓✔ ✐✚✖✛✢✣✘✙✚✛

✚✐ ♦✔✪✘✚✛✙✣✛ ✧✔❝✓✣✛✙❝✗✱ ✪✓✙❝✓ ✗✙✬✛✣★★✔✢ ✘✓✔

✤✙✦✘✓ ✚✐ ✧✚✢✔✦✛ ✗❝✙✔✛❝✔✩

❚✓✔ ✯✦✔✔✫ ✘✓✙✛✫✔✦✱ ✰✦✙✗✘✚✘★✔ ✲✳✴✵ ✶✩✷✸ ✳✹✹

✶✩✷✩❇✱ ✓✔★✢ ✘✓✔ ✥✙✔✪ ✘✓✣✘ ✙✐ ✣ ✤✚✢✮ ✙✗ ✧✚✥✙✛✬✱

✗✚✧✔✘✓✙✛✬ ✔s✘✔✦✛✣★ ✙✗ ✦✔✕✖✙✦✔✢ ✘✚ ✫✔✔✜ ✙✘ ✧✚✥✙✛✬✩

✰❝❝✚✦✢✙✛✬ ✘✚ ✘✓✙✗ ✥✙✔✪✱ ✐✚✦ ✔s✣✧✜★✔✱ ✣✛ ✣✦✦✚✪

✗✓✚✘ ✐✦✚✧ ✣✤✚✪ ✫✔✔✜✗ ✐★✮✙✛✬ ✗✙✛❝✔ ✘✓✔ ✣✙✦ ✤✔✓✙✛✢

✘✓✔ ✣✦✦✚✪ ✫✔✔✜✗ ✜✖✗✓✙✛✬ ✙✘✩ ❚✓✔ ✥✙✔✪ ✪✣✗ ✜✣✦✘ ✚✐

✣✛ ✔★✣✤✚✦✣✘✔ ✐✦✣✧✔✪✚✦✫ ✚✐ ✙✢✔✣✗ ✢✔✥✔★✚✜✔✢ ✤✮

✰✦✙✗✘✚✘★✔ ✚✛ ✘✓✔ ✧✚✘✙✚✛ ✚✐ ✤✚✢✙✔✗ ✙✛ ✘✓✔ ✖✛✙✥✔✦✗✔✩

▼✚✗✘ ✚✐ ✘✓✔ ✰✦✙✗✘✚✘✔★✙✣✛ ✙✢✔✣✗ ✚✛ ✧✚✘✙✚✛ ✣✦✔ ✛✚✪

✫✛✚✪✛ ✘✚ ✤✔ ✪✦✚✛✬ ✣✛✢ ✛✔✔✢ ✛✚✘ ❝✚✛❝✔✦✛ ✖✗✩

❋✚✦ ✚✖✦ ✜✖✦✜✚✗✔ ✓✔✦✔✱ ✘✓✔ ✰✦✙✗✘✚✘✔★✙✣✛ ★✣✪ ✚✐

✧✚✘✙✚✛ ✧✣✮ ✤✔ ✜✓✦✣✗✔✢ ✘✓✖✗♠ ❆✻ ✼✽✿✼❀✻❁❂ ❃❄❀❅✼

❈❉ ❀✼❊●❈❀✼■ ✿❄ ❏✼✼❑ ❁ ▲❄■◆ ❈✻ ❖❄✿❈❄✻✩

✰✦✙✗✘✚✘✔★✙✣✛ ★✣✪ ✚✐✧✚✘✙✚✛ ✙✗ ✐★✣✪✔✢✱ ✣✗✪✔ ✗✓✣★★

✗✔✔✩ ❍✚✪✔✥✔✦✱ ✙✘ ✙✗ ✣ ✛✣✘✖✦✣★ ✥✙✔✪ ✘✓✣✘ ✣✛✮✚✛✔

✪✚✖★✢ ✓✚★✢ ✐✦✚✧ ❝✚✧✧✚✛ ✔s✜✔✦✙✔✛❝✔✩ ✇✥✔✛ ✣

✗✧✣★★ ❝✓✙★✢ ✜★✣✮✙✛✬ ✪✙✘✓ ✣ ✗✙✧✜★✔ ✲✛✚✛◗✔★✔❝✘✦✙❝❇

✘✚✮◗❝✣✦ ✚✛ ✣ ✐★✚✚✦ ✫✛✚✪✗ ✙✛✘✖✙✘✙✥✔★✮ ✘✓✣✘ ✙✘ ✛✔✔✢✗

✘✚ ❝✚✛✗✘✣✛✘★✮ ✢✦✣✬ ✘✓✔ ✗✘✦✙✛✬ ✣✘✘✣❝✓✔✢ ✘✚ ✘✓✔ ✘✚✮◗

❝✣✦ ✪✙✘✓ ✗✚✧✔ ✐✚✦❝✔ ✘✚ ✫✔✔✜ ✙✘ ✬✚✙✛✬✩ ✭✐ ✙✘ ✦✔★✔✣✗✔✗

✘✓✔ ✗✘✦✙✛✬✱ ✙✘ ❝✚✧✔✗ ✘✚ ✦✔✗✘✩ ❚✓✙✗ ✔s✜✔✦✙✔✛❝✔ ✙✗

❝✚✧✧✚✛ ✘✚ ✧✚✗✘ ✘✔✦✦✔✗✘✦✙✣★ ✧✚✘✙✚✛✩ ✇s✘✔✦✛✣★

✐✚✦❝✔✗ ✗✔✔✧ ✘✚ ✤✔ ✛✔✔✢✔✢ ✘✚ ✫✔✔✜ ✤✚✢✙✔✗ ✙✛

✧✚✘✙✚✛✩ ❘✔✐✘ ✘✚ ✘✓✔✧✗✔★✥✔✗✱ ✣★★ ✤✚✢✙✔✗ ✔✥✔✛✘✖✣★★✮

❝✚✧✔ ✘✚ ✦✔✗✘✩

❲✓✣✘ ✙✗ ✘✓✔ ✐★✣✪ ✙✛ ✰✦✙✗✘✚✘★✔❙✗ ✣✦✬✖✧✔✛✘❯ ❚✓✔

✣✛✗✪✔✦ ✙✗♠ ✣✧✚✥✙✛✬ ✘✚✮ ❝✣✦ ❝✚✧✔✗ ✘✚ ✦✔✗✘✤✔❝✣✖✗✔

✘✓✔ ✔s✘✔✦✛✣★ ✐✚✦❝✔ ✚✐ ✐✦✙❝✘✙✚✛✚✛ ✘✓✔ ❝✣✦✤✮ ✘✓✔ ✐★✚✚✦

✚✜✜✚✗✔✗ ✙✘✗✧✚✘✙✚✛✩❚✚❝✚✖✛✘✔✦ ✘✓✙✗ ✐✚✦❝✔✱ ✘✓✔ ❝✓✙★✢

✓✣✗ ✘✚ ✣✜✜★✮ ✣✛ ✔s✘✔✦✛✣★ ✐✚✦❝✔ ✚✛ ✘✓✔ ❝✣✦ ✙✛ ✘✓✔

✢✙✦✔❝✘✙✚✛ ✚✐ ✧✚✘✙✚✛✩ ❲✓✔✛ ✘✓✔ ❝✣✦ ✙✗ ✙✛ ✖✛✙✐✚✦✧

✧✚✘✙✚✛✱ ✘✓✔✦✔ ✙✗ ✛✚✛✔✘ ✔s✘✔✦✛✣★ ✐✚✦❝✔ ✣❝✘✙✛✬ ✚✛ ✙✘♠

✘✓✔ ✐✚✦❝✔ ✤✮ ✘✓✔ ❝✓✙★✢ ❝✣✛❝✔★✗ ✘✓✔ ✐✚✦❝✔ ✲ ✐✦✙❝✘✙✚✛❇

✤✮ ✘✓✔ ✐★✚✚✦✩ ❚✓✔❝✚✦✚★★✣✦✮ ✙✗♠ ✙✐ ✘✓✔✦✔✪✔✦✔✛✚ ✐✦✙❝✘✙✚✛✱

✘✓✔ ❝✓✙★✢ ✪✚✖★✢✛✚✘✤✔ ✦✔✕✖✙✦✔✢ ✘✚ ✣✜✜★✮ ✣✛✮ ✐✚✦❝✔

✘✚ ✫✔✔✜ ✘✓✔ ✘✚✮ ❝✣✦ ✙✛✖✛✙✐✚✦✧✧✚✘✙✚✛✩

❚✓✔ ✚✜✜✚✗✙✛✬ ✐✚✦❝✔✗ ✗✖❝✓ ✣✗ ✐✦✙❝✘✙✚✛ ✲✗✚★✙✢✗❇

✣✛✢ ✥✙✗❝✚✖✗ ✐✚✦❝✔✗ ✲✐✚✦ ✐★✖✙✢✗❇ ✣✦✔ ✣★✪✣✮✗ ✜✦✔✗✔✛✘

✙✛ ✘✓✔ ✛✣✘✖✦✣★ ✪✚✦★✢✩ ❚✓✙✗ ✔s✜★✣✙✛✗ ✪✓✮ ✐✚✦❝✔✗

✤✮ ✔s✘✔✦✛✣★ ✣✬✔✛❝✙✔✗ ✣✦✔ ✛✔❝✔✗✗✣✦✮ ✘✚ ✚✥✔✦❝✚✧✔

✘✓✔ ✐✦✙❝✘✙✚✛✣★ ✐✚✦❝✔✗ ✘✚ ✫✔✔✜ ✤✚✢✙✔✗ ✙✛ ✖✛✙✐✚✦✧

✧✚✘✙✚✛✩ ♦✚✪ ✪✔ ✖✛✢✔✦✗✘✣✛✢ ✪✓✔✦✔ ✰✦✙✗✘✚✘★✔

✪✔✛✘ ✪✦✚✛✬✩ ❍✔ ❝✚✢✔✢ ✘✓✙✗ ✜✦✣❝✘✙❝✣★ ✔s✜✔✦✙✔✛❝✔

✙✛ ✘✓✔ ✐✚✦✧ ✚✐ ✣ ✤✣✗✙❝ ✣✦✬✖✧✔✛✘✩ ❚✚ ✬✔✘ ✣✘ ✘✓✔

✘✦✖✔ ★✣✪ ✚✐ ✛✣✘✖✦✔ ✐✚✦ ✐✚✦❝✔✗ ✣✛✢ ✧✚✘✙✚✛✱ ✚✛✔ ✓✣✗

✘✚ ✙✧✣✬✙✛✔ ✣ ✪✚✦★✢ ✙✛ ✪✓✙❝✓ ✖✛✙✐✚✦✧ ✧✚✘✙✚✛ ✙✗

✜✚✗✗✙✤★✔ ✪✙✘✓ ✛✚ ✐✦✙❝✘✙✚✛✣★ ✐✚✦❝✔✗ ✚✜✜✚✗✙✛✬✩ ❚✓✙✗

✙✗ ✪✓✣✘ ✯✣★✙★✔✚ ✢✙✢✩

✺✝❱ ☛❳✍ ✌❆❨☞✏ ✠❩✍✟☛✠❆

✯✣★✙★✔✚ ✗✘✖✢✙✔✢ ✧✚✘✙✚✛ ✚✐ ✚✤❬✔❝✘✗ ✚✛ ✣✛ ✙✛❝★✙✛✔✢

✜★✣✛✔✩ ♣✤❬✔❝✘✗ ✲✙❇ ✧✚✥✙✛✬ ✢✚✪✛ ✣✛ ✙✛❝★✙✛✔✢ ✜★✣✛✔

✣❝❝✔★✔✦✣✘✔✱ ✪✓✙★✔ ✘✓✚✗✔ ✲✙✙❇ ✧✚✥✙✛✬ ✖✜ ✦✔✘✣✦✢✩

✲✙✙✙❇ ▼✚✘✙✚✛ ✚✛ ✣ ✓✚✦✙❤✚✛✘✣★ ✜★✣✛✔ ✙✗ ✣✛

✙✛✘✔✦✧✔✢✙✣✘✔ ✗✙✘✖✣✘✙✚✛✩ ✯✣★✙★✔✚ ❝✚✛❝★✖✢✔✢ ✘✓✣✘

✣✛ ✚✤❬✔❝✘ ✧✚✥✙✛✬ ✚✛ ✣ ✐✦✙❝✘✙✚✛★✔✗✗ ✓✚✦✙❤✚✛✘✣★

✜★✣✛✔ ✧✖✗✘ ✛✔✙✘✓✔✦ ✓✣✥✔ ✣❝❝✔★✔✦✣✘✙✚✛ ✛✚✦

✦✔✘✣✦✢✣✘✙✚✛✱ ✙✩✔✩ ✙✘ ✗✓✚✖★✢ ✧✚✥✔ ✪✙✘✓ ❝✚✛✗✘✣✛✘

✥✔★✚❝✙✘✮ ✲❋✙✬✩ ✈✩❭✲✣❇❇✩

✲✙❇ ✲✙✙❇ ✲✙✙✙❇

❪❫❴❵ ❛❵❜❞❡❢

✰✛✚✘✓✔✦ ✔s✜✔✦✙✧✔✛✘ ✤✮ ✯✣★✙★✔✚ ★✔✣✢✙✛✬ ✘✚ ✘✓✔

✗✣✧✔ ❝✚✛❝★✖✗✙✚✛ ✙✛✥✚★✥✔✗ ✣✢✚✖✤★✔ ✙✛❝★✙✛✔✢ ✜★✣✛✔✩

✰ ✤✣★★ ✦✔★✔✣✗✔✢ ✐✦✚✧ ✦✔✗✘ ✚✛ ✚✛✔ ✚✐ ✘✓✔ ✜★✣✛✔✗ ✦✚★★✗

✢✚✪✛ ✣✛✢ ❝★✙✧✤✗ ✖✜ ✘✓✔ ✚✘✓✔✦✩ ✭✐ ✘✓✔ ✜★✣✛✔✗ ✣✦✔

✗✧✚✚✘✓✱ ✘✓✔ ✐✙✛✣★ ✓✔✙✬✓✘ ✚✐ ✘✓✔ ✤✣★★ ✙✗ ✛✔✣✦★✮ ✘✓✔

✗✣✧✔ ✣✗ ✘✓✔ ✙✛✙✘✙✣★ ✓✔✙✬✓✘ ✲✣ ★✙✘✘★✔ ★✔✗✗ ✤✖✘ ✛✔✥✔✦

✬✦✔✣✘✔✦❇✩ ✭✛ ✘✓✔ ✙✢✔✣★ ✗✙✘✖✣✘✙✚✛✱ ✪✓✔✛ ✐✦✙❝✘✙✚✛ ✙✗

✣✤✗✔✛✘✱ ✘✓✔ ✐✙✛✣★ ✓✔✙✬✓✘ ✚✐ ✘✓✔ ✤✣★★ ✙✗ ✘✓✔ ✗✣✧✔

✣✗ ✙✘✗ ✙✛✙✘✙✣★ ✓✔✙✬✓✘✩

✭✐ ✘✓✔ ✗★✚✜✔ ✚✐ ✘✓✔ ✗✔❝✚✛✢ ✜★✣✛✔ ✙✗ ✢✔❝✦✔✣✗✔✢

✣✛✢ ✘✓✔ ✔s✜✔✦✙✧✔✛✘ ✦✔✜✔✣✘✔✢✱ ✘✓✔ ✤✣★★ ✪✙★★ ✗✘✙★★

✦✔✣❝✓ ✘✓✔ ✗✣✧✔ ✓✔✙✬✓✘✱ ✤✖✘ ✙✛ ✢✚✙✛✬ ✗✚✱ ✙✘ ✪✙★★

✘✦✣✥✔★ ✣ ★✚✛✬✔✦✢✙✗✘✣✛❝✔✩ ✭✛ ✘✓✔ ★✙✧✙✘✙✛✬ ❝✣✗✔✱✪✓✔✛

✘✓✔ ✗★✚✜✔ ✚✐ ✘✓✔ ✗✔❝✚✛✢ ✜★✣✛✔ ✙✗ ❤✔✦✚ ✲✙✩✔✩ ✙✗ ✣

✓✚✦✙❤✚✛✘✣★❇ ✘✓✔ ✤✣★★ ✘✦✣✥✔★✗ ✣✛ ✙✛✐✙✛✙✘✔ ✢✙✗✘✣✛❝✔✩

✭✛ ✚✘✓✔✦ ✪✚✦✢✗✱ ✙✘✗ ✧✚✘✙✚✛ ✛✔✥✔✦ ❝✔✣✗✔✗✩ ❚✓✙✗ ✙✗✱

✚✐ ❝✚✖✦✗✔✱ ✣✛ ✙✢✔✣★✙✗✔✢ ✗✙✘✖✣✘✙✚✛ ✲❋✙✬✩ ✈✩❭✲✤❇❇✩

❪❫❴❵ ❛❵❜❞❣❢ ❥❦❧ ♥qr t✉ ①②❧③④①q rq⑤ ①②✉❧③③❧⑥ ⑦⑧ ⑨q♥①♥❧t

✉③t⑩ t⑦⑤❧③❶q④①t②⑤ t✉ ⑩t④①t② t✉ q ⑦q♥♥ t② q

⑥t❷⑦♥❧ ①②❸♥①②❧⑥ ❹♥q②❧❺

Page 95: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✾✠

■✡ ☛☞✌✍✎✏✍✑✒ ✎✓✑ ✔✌✕✕ ✖✗✑✘ ✍✗✙✑ ✎✗ ✌ ✘✎✗☛ ✌✚✎✑☞

✙✗♠✏✡✛ ✌ ✚✏✡✏✎✑ ✖✏✘✎✌✡✍✑ ✗✡ ✎✓✑ ✓✗☞✏❢✗✡✎✌✕ ☛✕✌✡✑✒

✔✑✍✌❜✘✑ ✗✚ ✎✓✑ ✗☛☛✗✘✏✡✛ ✚✗☞✍✑ ✗✚ ✚☞✏✍✎✏✗✡ ✜✓✏✍✓

✍✌✡ ✡✑♠✑☞ ✔✑ ✎✗✎✌✕✕t ✑✕✏✙✏✡✌✎✑✖❡ ✢✗✜✑♠✑☞✒ ✏✚ ✎✓✑☞✑

✜✑☞✑ ✡✗ ✚☞✏✍✎✏✗✡✒ ✎✓✑ ✔✌✕✕ ✜✗❜✕✖ ✍✗✡✎✏✡❜✑ ✎✗✙✗♠✑

✜✏✎✓ ✌ ✍✗✡✘✎✌✡✎ ♠✑✕✗✍✏✎t ✗✡ ✎✓✑ ✓✗☞✏❢✗✡✎✌✕ ☛✕✌✡✑❡

●✌✕✏✕✑✗ ✎✓❜✘✒ ✌☞☞✏♠✑✖ ✌✎ ✌ ✡✑✜ ✏✡✘✏✛✓✎ ✗✡

✙✗✎✏✗✡ ✎✓✌✎ ✓✌✖ ✑✕❜✖✑✖ ✣☞✏✘✎✗✎✕✑ ✌✡✖ ✎✓✗✘✑ ✜✓✗

✚✗✕✕✗✜✑✖ ✓✏✙❡ ✤✓✑ ✘✎✌✎✑ ✗✚ ☞✑✘✎ ✌✡✖ ✎✓✑ ✘✎✌✎✑ ✗✚

❜✡✏✚✗☞✙ ✕✏✡✑✌☞ ✙✗✎✏✗✡ ✉✙✗✎✏✗✡ ✜✏✎✓ ✍✗✡✘✎✌✡✎

♠✑✕✗✍✏✎t✈ ✌☞✑ ✑✥❜✏♠✌✕✑✡✎❡ ■✡ ✔✗✎✓ ✍✌✘✑✘✒ ✎✓✑☞✑ ✏✘

✡✗ ✡✑✎ ✚✗☞✍✑ ✌✍✎✏✡✛ ✗✡ ✎✓✑ ✔✗✖t❡ ■✎ ✏✘ ✏✡✍✗☞☞✑✍✎ ✎✗

✌✘✘❜✙✑ ✎✓✌✎ ✌ ✡✑✎ ✚✗☞✍✑ ✏✘ ✡✑✑✖✑✖ ✎✗ ❛✑✑☛ ✌ ✔✗✖t

✏✡ ❜✡✏✚✗☞✙ ✙✗✎✏✗✡❡ ✤✗ ✙✌✏✡✎✌✏✡ ✌ ✔✗✖t ✏✡

❜✡✏✚✗☞✙ ✙✗✎✏✗✡✒ ✜✑ ✡✑✑✖ ✎✗ ✌☛☛✕t ✌✡ ✑✦✎✑☞✡✌✕

✚✗☞✍✑ ✎✗ ✑✍✗❜✡✎✑☞ ✎✓✑ ✚☞✏✍✎✏✗✡✌✕ ✚✗☞✍✑✒ ✘✗ ✎✓✌✎

✎✓✑ ✎✜✗ ✚✗☞✍✑✘ ✘❜✙ ❜☛ ✎✗ ❢✑☞✗ ✡✑✎ ✑✦✎✑☞✡✌✕

✚✗☞✍✑❡

✤✗ ✘❜✙✙✌☞✏✘✑✒ ✏✚ ✎✓✑ ✡✑✎ ✑✦✎✑☞✡✌✕ ✚✗☞✍✑ ✏✘ ❢✑☞✗✒

✌ ✔✗✖t ✌✎ ☞✑✘✎ ✍✗✡✎✏✡❜✑✘ ✎✗ ☞✑✙✌✏✡ ✌✎ ☞✑✘✎ ✌✡✖ ✌

✔✗✖t ✏✡✙✗✎✏✗✡ ✍✗✡✎✏✡❜✑✘ ✎✗✙✗♠✑ ✜✏✎✓ ✌ ❜✡✏✚✗☞✙

♠✑✕✗✍✏✎t❡ ✤✓✏✘ ☛☞✗☛✑☞✎t ✗✚ ✎✓✑ ✔✗✖t ✏✘ ✍✌✕✕✑✖

✏✡✑☞✎✏✌❡ ■✡✑☞✎✏✌ ✙✑✌✡✘ ➅✧★✩✪✩✫✬✭✮★ ✫✯ ✮✰✬✭✱★✲❡

✣ ✔✗✖t ✖✗✑✘ ✡✗✎ ✍✓✌✡✛✑ ✏✎✘ ✘✎✌✎✑ ✗✚ ☞✑✘✎ ✗☞

❜✡✏✚✗☞✙ ✙✗✎✏✗✡✒ ❜✡✕✑✘✘ ✌✡ ✑✦✎✑☞✡✌✕ ✚✗☞✍✑

✍✗✙☛✑✕✘ ✏✎ ✎✗ ✍✓✌✡✛✑ ✎✓✌✎ ✘✎✌✎✑❡

✺✳✴ ◆✵✶✷✸◆✲✹ ✻✼✽✹✷ ✿❀✶✸✻❁✸✷✼✸◆

●✌✕✏✕✑✗❂✘ ✘✏✙☛✕✑✒ ✔❜✎ ☞✑♠✗✕❜✎✏✗✡✌☞t ✏✖✑✌✘

✖✑✎✓☞✗✡✑✖ ✣☞✏✘✎✗✎✑✕✏✌✡ ✙✑✍✓✌✡✏✍✘❡ ✣ ✡✑✜

✙✑✍✓✌✡✏✍✘ ✓✌✖ ✎✗ ✔✑ ✖✑♠✑✕✗☛✑✖❡ ✤✓✏✘ ✎✌✘❛ ✜✌✘

❃❄❅❆❇ ❈❉ ❊❈❋❍❈❉ ❍❉ ❏❉❑❍❅❉❋ ❃❉❄❍❆❉ ▼❑❍❅❉❑❅

❖P◗❘❙P❚ ❯P❱❘❲P ❚❳❘P❨❙❩❬ ❳❲❱ ❲❩❩❘❭❙❱ ❲❚ ❲P ❙❪❲❫❴❩❲❚❙ ❬❵❬❚❙❝ ❴❞ ❘❱❙❲❬ ❴P ❝❴❚❘❴P❣ ❤❴❩◗❙✐ ❚❳❙ ◗❲❥❬❙ ❴❞

❝❴❚❘❴P✐ ❦❲❬ ❚❳❴❥❧❳❚ ❚❴ ❫❙ ❴❞ ❱❘❞❞❙❩❙P❚ ❨❘P❱❬ ♥ ❞❴❩◗❙ ❱❥❙ ❚❴ ◗❴P❚❘P❥❴❥❬ ♦❩❙❬❬❥❩❙ ♣P❴❱❲Pq✐ ❲❬ ❚❳❙ ❞❴❩◗❙

❴❞ ❦❘P❱ ❴P ❲ ❬❲❘❪❘P❧ ❭❙❬❬❙❪r ❘❝♦❲◗❚ ♣❲❫❳❘❧❳❲❚q✐ ❲❬ ❦❳❙P ❲ ♦❴❚❚❙❩s❬ ❩❴❱ ❬❚❩❘❨❙❬ ❚❳❙ ❦❳❙❙❪r ♦❙❩❬❘❬❚❙P❚

❚❙P❱❙P◗❵ ♣❬❲P❬❨❲❩❲q ❚❴ ❝❴❭❙ ❘P ❲ ❬❚❩❲❘❧❳❚ ❪❘P❙♣❭❙❧❲q ❴❩ ❩❙❬❚❴❩❲❚❘❴P ❴❞ ❬❳❲♦❙ ❘P ❲P ❙❪❲❬❚❘◗ ❫❴❱❵r

❚❩❲P❬❝❘❚❚❙❱ ❞❴❩◗❙ ❫❵ ❲ ❬❚❩❘P❧✐ ❩❴❱✐ ❙❚◗❣ ✇❳❙ P❴❚❘❴P ❴❞ ♣❭❙❧❲q ❘P ❚❳❙ ①❲❘❬❙❬❘❨❲ ❚❳❙❴❩❵ ❴❞ ❝❴❚❘❴P ♦❙❩❳❲♦❬

◗❴❝❙❬ ◗❪❴❬❙❬❚ ❚❴ ❚❳❙ ◗❴P◗❙♦❚ ❴❞ ❘P❙❩❚❘❲❣ ①❙❧❲✐ ❚❳❙ ❚❙P❱❙P◗❵ ❚❴ ❝❴❭❙ ❘P ❲ ❬❚❩❲❘❧❳❚ ❪❘P❙✐ ❦❲❬ ❚❳❴❥❧❳❚ ❚❴

❫❙ ❴♦♦❴❬❙❱ ❫❵ ◗❴P❚❲◗❚ ❦❘❚❳ ❴❫②❙◗❚❬ ❘P◗❪❥❱❘P❧ ❲❚❝❴❬♦❳❙❩❙✐ ❲ ♦❲❩❲❪❪❙❪ ❚❴ ❚❳❙ ❘❱❙❲❬ ❴❞ ❞❩❘◗❚❘❴P ❲P❱ ❲❘❩

❩❙❬❘❬❚❲P◗❙❣ ❯❚ ❦❲❬ ◗❴❩❩❙◗❚❪❵ ❬❥❝❝❲❩❘❬❙❱ ❚❳❲❚ ❚❳❙ ❱❘❞❞❙❩❙P❚ ❨❘P❱❬ ❴❞ ❝❴❚❘❴P ♣❚❩❲P❬❪❲❚❘❴P❲❪✐ ❩❴❚❲❚❘❴P❲❪

❲P❱ ❭❘❫❩❲❚❘❴P❲❪q ❴❞ ❲P ❙③❚❙P❱❙❱ ❫❴❱❵ ❲❩❘❬❙ ❞❩❴❝ ❴P❪❵ ❚❳❙ ❚❩❲P❬❪❲❚❘❴P❲❪ ❝❴❚❘❴P ❴❞ ❘❚❬ ◗❴P❬❚❘❚❥❙P❚

♦❲❩❚❘◗❪❙❬❣ ❖ ❞❲❪❪❘P❧ ❪❙❲❞ ❘P ❚❳❙ ❦❘P❱ ❝❲❵ ❳❲❭❙ ❱❴❦P❦❲❩❱ ❝❴❚❘❴P ❲❬ ❲ ❦❳❴❪❙ ♣♦❲❚❲Pq ❲P❱ ❲❪❬❴ ❩❴❚❲❚❘❴P❲❪

❲P❱ ❭❘❫❩❲❚❘❴P❲❪ ❝❴❚❘❴P ♣❫❳❩❲❝❲P✐ ❬♦❲P❱❲Pq✐ ❫❥❚ ❙❲◗❳ ♦❲❩❚❘◗❪❙ ❴❞ ❚❳❙ ❪❙❲❞ ❲❚ ❲P ❘P❬❚❲P❚ ❴P❪❵ ❳❲❬ ❲

❱❙❞❘P❘❚❙ ♣❬❝❲❪❪q ❱❘❬♦❪❲◗❙❝❙P❚❣ ✇❳❙❩❙ ❦❲❬ ◗❴P❬❘❱❙❩❲❫❪❙ ❞❴◗❥❬ ❘P ❯P❱❘❲P ❚❳❴❥❧❳❚ ❴P ❝❙❲❬❥❩❙❝❙P❚ ❴❞

❝❴❚❘❴P ❲P❱ ❥P❘❚❬ ❴❞ ❪❙P❧❚❳ ❲P❱ ❚❘❝❙❣ ❯❚ ❦❲❬ ❨P❴❦P ❚❳❲❚ ❚❳❙ ♦❴❬❘❚❘❴P ❴❞ ❲ ♦❲❩❚❘◗❪❙ ❘P ❬♦❲◗❙ ◗❲P ❫❙

❘P❱❘◗❲❚❙❱ ❫❵ ❱❘❬❚❲P◗❙ ❝❙❲❬❥❩❙❱ ❲❪❴P❧ ❚❳❩❙❙ ❲③❙❬❣ ④❳❲❬❨❲❩❲ ♣⑤⑤⑥⑦ ❖❣⑧❣q ❳❲❱ ❘P❚❩❴❱❥◗❙❱ ❚❳❙ ◗❴P◗❙♦❚

❴❞ ⑨❘P❬❚❲P❚❲P❙❴❥❬ ❝❴❚❘❴Ps ♣⑩❶⑩❷❶❸❹❷❹ ❺❶⑩❹q✐ ❦❳❘◗❳ ❲P❚❘◗❘♦❲❚❙❱ ❚❳❙ ❝❴❱❙❩P P❴❚❘❴P ❴❞ ❘P❬❚❲P❚❲P❙❴❥❬

❭❙❪❴◗❘❚❵ ❥❬❘P❧ ⑧❘❞❞❙❩❙P❚❘❲❪ ❻❲❪◗❥❪❥❬❣ ✇❳❙ ❱❘❞❞❙❩❙P◗❙ ❫❙❚❦❙❙P ❲ ❦❲❭❙ ❲P❱ ❲ ◗❥❩❩❙P❚ ♣❴❞ ❦❲❚❙❩q ❦❲❬ ◗❪❙❲❩❪❵

❥P❱❙❩❬❚❴❴❱r ❲ ◗❥❩❩❙P❚ ❘❬ ❲ ❝❴❚❘❴P ❴❞ ♦❲❩❚❘◗❪❙❬ ❴❞ ❦❲❚❙❩ ❥P❱❙❩ ❧❩❲❭❘❚❵ ❲P❱ ❞❪❥❘❱❘❚❵ ❦❳❘❪❙ ❲ ❦❲❭❙ ❩❙❬❥❪❚❬

❞❩❴❝ ❚❳❙ ❚❩❲P❬❝❘❬❬❘❴P ❴❞ ❭❘❫❩❲❚❘❴P❬ ❴❞ ❦❲❚❙❩ ♦❲❩❚❘◗❪❙❬❣

✌✍✍✗✙☛✕✏✘✓✑✖ ✌✕✙✗✘✎ ✘✏✡✛✕✑❼✓✌✡✖✑✖✕t ✔t ■✘✌✌✍

❽✑✜✎✗✡✒ ✗✡✑ ✗✚ ✎✓✑ ✛☞✑✌✎✑✘✎ ✘✍✏✑✡✎✏✘✎✘ ✗✚ ✌✕✕ ✎✏✙✑✘❡

❽✑✜✎✗✡ ✔❜✏✕✎ ✗✡ ●✌✕✏✕✑✗❂✘ ✏✖✑✌✘ ✌✡✖ ✕✌✏✖ ✎✓✑

✚✗❜✡✖✌✎✏✗✡ ✗✚ ✙✑✍✓✌✡✏✍✘ ✏✡ ✎✑☞✙✘ ✗✚ ✎✓☞✑✑ ✕✌✜✘

✗✚ ✙✗✎✏✗✡ ✎✓✌✎ ✛✗ ✔t ✓✏✘ ✡✌✙✑❡ ●✌✕✏✕✑✗❂✘ ✕✌✜ ✗✚

✏✡✑☞✎✏✌ ✜✌✘ ✓✏✘ ✘✎✌☞✎✏✡✛ ☛✗✏✡✎ ✜✓✏✍✓ ✓✑

✚✗☞✙❜✕✌✎✑✖ ✌✘ ✎✓✑ ✻✪✧✩✫ ✿✬❾ ✯❿ ➀✯✫✪✯✭➁

✵➂★✧➃ ➄✯➆➃ ✮✯✭✫✪✭➇★✩ ✫✯ ➄★ ✪✭ ✪✫✩ ✩✫✬✫★

✯❿ ✧★✩✫ ✯✧ ✯❿ ➇✭✪❿✯✧➀➀✯✫✪✯✭ ✪✭ ✬ ✩✫✧✬✪✱✰✫

➈✪✭★ ➇✭➈★✩✩ ✮✯➀➉★➈➈★➆ ➄➃ ✩✯➀★ ★➊✫★✧✭✬➈

❿✯✧✮★ ✫✯ ✬✮✫ ✯✫✰★✧❾✪✩★✳

✤✓✑ ✘✎✌✎✑ ✗✚ ☞✑✘✎ ✗☞ ❜✡✏✚✗☞✙ ✕✏✡✑✌☞ ✙✗✎✏✗✡ ✔✗✎✓

✏✙☛✕t❢✑☞✗✌✍✍✑✕✑☞✌✎✏✗✡❡✤✓✑✚✏☞✘✎ ✕✌✜✗✚✙✗✎✏✗✡ ✍✌✡✒

✎✓✑☞✑✚✗☞✑✒ ✔✑ ✘✏✙☛✕t✑✦☛☞✑✘✘✑✖✌✘➋

✼❿ ✫✰★ ✭★✫ ★➊✫★✧✭✬➈ ❿✯✧✮★ ✯✭ ✬ ➄✯➆➃ ✪✩ ➌★✧✯➍ ✪✫✩

✬✮✮★➈★✧✬✫✪✯✭ ✪✩ ➌★✧✯✳ ❀✮✮★➈★✧✬✫✪✯✭ ✮✬✭ ➄★ ✭✯✭

➌★✧✯ ✯✭➈➃ ✪❿ ✫✰★✧★ ✪✩ ✬ ✭★✫ ★➊✫★✧✭✬➈ ❿✯✧✮★ ✯✭

✫✰★ ➄✯➆➃✳

✤✜✗ ❛✏✡✖✘ ✗✚ ✘✏✎❜✌✎✏✗✡✘ ✌☞✑ ✑✡✍✗❜✡✎✑☞✑✖ ✏✡ ✎✓✑

✌☛☛✕✏✍✌✎✏✗✡ ✗✚ ✎✓✏✘ ✕✌✜ ✏✡ ☛☞✌✍✎✏✍✑❡ ■✡ ✘✗✙✑

✑✦✌✙☛✕✑✘✒ ✜✑ ❛✡✗✜ ✎✓✌✎ ✎✓✑ ✡✑✎ ✑✦✎✑☞✡✌✕ ✚✗☞✍✑

✗✡ ✎✓✑ ✗✔➎✑✍✎ ✏✘ ❢✑☞✗❡ ■✡ ✎✓✌✎ ✍✌✘✑ ✜✑ ✍✌✡

✍✗✡✍✕❜✖✑ ✎✓✌✎ ✎✓✑ ✌✍✍✑✕✑☞✌✎✏✗✡ ✗✚ ✎✓✑ ✗✔➎✑✍✎ ✏✘

❢✑☞✗❡ ➏✗☞ ✑✦✌✙☛✕✑✒ ✌ ✘☛✌✍✑✘✓✏☛ ✗❜✎ ✏✡

✏✡✎✑☞✘✎✑✕✕✌☞ ✘☛✌✍✑✒ ✚✌☞ ✚☞✗✙ ✌✕✕ ✗✎✓✑☞ ✗✔➎✑✍✎✘ ✌✡✖

✜✏✎✓ ✌✕✕ ✏✎✘ ☞✗✍❛✑✎✘ ✎❜☞✡✑✖ ✗✚✚✒ ✓✌✘ ✡✗ ✡✑✎

✑✦✎✑☞✡✌✕ ✚✗☞✍✑ ✌✍✎✏✡✛ ✗✡ ✏✎❡ ■✎✘ ✌✍✍✑✕✑☞✌✎✏✗✡✒

✌✍✍✗☞✖✏✡✛ ✎✗ ✎✓✑ ➏✏☞✘✎ ➐✌✜✒ ✙❜✘✎ ✔✑ ❢✑☞✗❡ ■✚ ✏✎

✏✘ ✏✡ ✙✗✎✏✗✡✒ ✏✎ ✙❜✘✎ ✍✗✡✎✏✡❜✑ ✎✗ ✙✗♠✑ ✜✏✎✓ ✌

❜✡✏✚✗☞✙ ♠✑✕✗✍✏✎t❡

Page 96: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✾✆

▼✝✞❡ ✝✟✠❡✡☛ ☞✝✌❡✍❡✞☛ ✌❡ ✱✝ ✡✝✠ ✎✡✝✌ ✏✑✑ ✠☞❡

✟✝✞❢❡✒ ✠✝ ✓❡✔✕✡ ✌✕✠☞✖ ✗✡ ✠☞✏✠ ❢✏✒❡☛ ✕✟ ✌❡ ✎✡✝✌

✠☞✏✠ ✏✡ ✝✓t❡❢✠ ✕✒ ✘✡✏❢❢❡✑❡✞✏✠❡✱ ✙✕✖❡✖ ✕✠ ✕✒ ❡✕✠☞❡✞

✏✠ ✞❡✒✠ ✝✞ ✕✡ ✘✡✕✟✝✞❛ ✑✕✡❡✏✞ ❛✝✠✕✝✡✚☛ ✌❡ ❢✏✡ ✕✡✟❡✞

✟✞✝❛ ✠☞❡ ✟✕✞✒✠ ✑✏✌ ✠☞✏✠ ✠☞❡ ✡❡✠ ❡✛✠❡✞✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡ ✝✡

✠☞❡ ✝✓t❡❢✠ ❛✘✒✠ ✓❡ ✜❡✞✝✖ ✢✞✏✍✕✠✣ ✕✒ ❡✍❡✞✣✌☞❡✞❡✖

❋✝✞ ✠❡✞✞❡✒✠✞✕✏✑ ✤☞❡✡✝❛❡✡✏☛ ✕✡ ✤✏✞✠✕❢✘✑✏✞☛ ❡✍❡✞✣

✝✓t❡❢✠ ❡✛✤❡✞✕❡✡❢❡✒ ✔✞✏✍✕✠✏✠✕✝✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡ ✱✘❡ ✠✝ ✠☞❡

❡✏✞✠☞✖ ✥✑✒✝ ✝✓t❡❢✠✒ ✕✡❛✝✠✕✝✡ ✔❡✡❡✞✏✑✑✣ ❡✛✤❡✞✕❡✡❢❡

✟✞✕❢✠✕✝✡☛ ✍✕✒❢✝✘✒ ✱✞✏✔☛ ❡✠❢✖ ✗✟ ✠☞❡✡☛ ✝✡ ❡✏✞✠☞☛ ✏✡

✝✓t❡❢✠ ✕✒ ✏✠ ✞❡✒✠ ✝✞ ✕✡ ✘✡✕✟✝✞❛ ✑✕✡❡✏✞❛✝✠✕✝✡☛ ✕✠ ✕✒

✡✝✠ ✓❡❢✏✘✒❡ ✠☞❡✞❡ ✏✞❡ ✡✝ ✟✝✞❢❡✒ ✏❢✠✕✡✔ ✝✡ ✕✠☛ ✓✘✠

✓❡❢✏✘✒❡ ✠☞❡ ✍✏✞✕✝✘✒ ❡✛✠❡✞✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡✒ ❢✏✡❢❡✑ ✝✘✠

✕✖❡✖ ✏✱✱ ✘✤ ✠✝ ✜❡✞✝ ✡❡✠ ❡✛✠❡✞✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡✖

❈✝✡✒✕✱❡✞ ✏ ✓✝✝✎ ✏✠ ✞❡✒✠ ✝✡ ✏ ☞✝✞✕✜✝✡✠✏✑ ✒✘✞✟✏❢❡

❋✕✔✖ ✙✦✖✧✙✏✚✚✖ ✗✠ ✕✒ ✒✘✓t❡❢✠ ✠✝ ✠✌✝ ❡✛✠❡✞✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡✒ ★

✠☞❡ ✟✝✞❢❡ ✱✘❡ ✠✝ ✔✞✏✍✕✠✣ ✙✕✖❡✖ ✕✠✒ ✌❡✕✔☞✠ ❲✚ ✏❢✠✕✡✔

✱✝✌✡✌✏✞✱ ✏✡✱ ✠☞❡ ✘✤✌✏✞✱ ✟✝✞❢❡ ✝✡ ✠☞❡ ✓✝✝✎ ✓✣

✠☞❡ ✠✏✓✑❡☛ ✠☞❡ ✡✝✞❛✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡ ❘ ✖ ❘ ✕✒ ✏ ✒❡✑✟✩✏✱t✘✒✠✕✡✔

✟✝✞❢❡✖ ✪☞✕✒ ✕✒ ✏✡ ❡✛✏❛✤✑❡ ✝✟ ✠☞❡ ✎✕✡✱ ✝✟ ✒✕✠✘✏✠✕✝✡

❛❡✡✠✕✝✡❡✱ ✏✓✝✍❡✖ ✪☞❡ ✟✝✞❢❡✒ ✏✞❡ ✡✝✠ ♠✘✕✠❡ ✎✡✝✌✡

✟✘✑✑✣ ✓✘✠ ✠☞❡ ✒✠✏✠❡ ✝✟❛✝✠✕✝✡ ✕✒ ✎✡✝✌✡✖✫❡ ✝✓✒❡✞✍❡

✠☞❡ ✓✝✝✎ ✠✝ ✓❡ ✏✠ ✞❡✒✠✖ ✪☞❡✞❡✟✝✞❡☛ ✌❡ ❢✝✡❢✑✘✱❡

✟✞✝❛ ✠☞❡ ✟✕✞✒✠ ✑✏✌ ✠☞✏✠ ✠☞❡ ❛✏✔✡✕✠✘✱❡ ✝✟ ❘ ❡♠✘✏✑✒

✠☞✏✠ ✝✟ ❲✖ ✥ ✒✠✏✠❡❛❡✡✠ ✝✟✠❡✡ ❡✡❢✝✘✡✠❡✞❡✱ ✕✒ ★

➇✬✕✡❢❡❲✭❘☛ ✟✝✞❢❡✒ ❢✏✡❢❡✑✏✡✱☛ ✠☞❡✞❡✟✝✞❡☛ ✠☞❡ ✓✝✝✎

✕✒ ✏✠ ✞❡✒✠✐✖ ✪☞✕✒ ✕✒ ✕✡❢✝✞✞❡❢✠ ✞❡✏✒✝✡✕✡✔✖ ✪☞❡ ❢✝✞✞❡❢✠

✒✠✏✠❡❛❡✡✠ ✕✒ ★ ➇✬✕✡❢❡ ✠☞❡ ✓✝✝✎ ✕✒ ✝✓✒❡✞✍❡✱ ✠✝ ✓❡ ✏✠

✞❡✒✠☛ ✠☞❡ ✡❡✠ ❡✛✠❡✞✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡ ✝✡ ✕✠ ❛✘✒✠ ✓❡ ✜❡✞✝☛

✏❢❢✝✞✱✕✡✔ ✠✝ ✠☞❡ ✟✕✞✒✠ ✑✏✌✖ ✪☞✕✒ ✕❛✤✑✕❡✒ ✠☞✏✠ ✠☞❡

●✮✯✰✯✲✳ ●✮✯✰✯✲✰✴ ✵✳✶✷ ✰✷ ✸✰✹✮✴ ✺✻✮✯✼ ✰✷ ✽✿❀❁ ❂✮✹ ✮ ❃✲✼ ❄✰❅❆✶✲ ✰✷ ✻❇✲ ✹❉✰✲✷✻✰❄✰❉ ✶✲❊✳✯❆✻✰✳✷

✰✷ ❍❆✶✳■✲ ✮✵✳❆✻ ❄✳❆✶ ❉✲✷✻❆✶✰✲✹ ✮❅✳❏ ●✮✯✰✯✲✳ ■✶✳■✳✹✲❑ ✻❇✲ ❉✳✷❉✲■✻ ✳❄ ✮❉❉✲✯✲✶✮✻✰✳✷❏

▲✶✳◆ ✲❖■✲✶✰◆✲✷✻✹ ✳✷ ◆✳✻✰✳✷ ✳❄ ✵✳❑✰✲✹ ✳✷ ✰✷❉✯✰✷✲❑ ■✯✮✷✲✹ ✳✶ ❄✮✯✯✰✷❅ ❄✶✲✲✯✼✴ ❇✲

❉✳✷✻✶✮❑✰❉✻✲❑ ✻❇✲ ❝✶✰✹✻✳✻✲✯✰✮✷ ✷✳✻✰✳✷ ✻❇✮✻ ✮ ❄✳✶❉✲ ❂✮✹ ✶✲◗❆✰✶✲❑ ✻✳ ❃✲✲■ ✮ ✵✳❑✼ ✰✷

◆✳✻✰✳✷✴ ✮✷❑ ✻❇✮✻ ❇✲✮❊✰✲✶ ✵✳❑✰✲✹ ❄✮✯✯ ❄✮✹✻✲✶ ✻❇✮✷ ✯✰❅❇✻✲✶ ✵✳❑✰✲✹ ❆✷❑✲✶ ❅✶✮❊✰✻✼❏ ❙✲

✻❇❆✹ ✮✶✶✰❊✲❑ ✮✻ ✻❇✲ ✯✮❂ ✳❄ ✰✷✲✶✻✰✮ ✻❇✮✻ ❂✮✹ ✻❇✲ ✹✻✮✶✻✰✷❅ ■✳✰✷✻ ✳❄ ✻❇✲ ✹❆✵✹✲◗❆✲✷✻

✲■✳❉❇✮✯ ❂✳✶❃ ✳❄ ✺✹✮✮❉ ❚✲❂✻✳✷❏

●✮✯✰✯✲✳❯✹ ❑✰✹❉✳❊✲✶✰✲✹ ✰✷ ✮✹✻✶✳✷✳◆✼❂✲✶✲ ✲◗❆✮✯✯✼ ✶✲❊✳✯❆✻✰✳✷✮✶✼❏ ✺✷ ✽❀❱❳✴ ❇✲ ❑✲✹✰❅✷✲❑

❇✰✹ ✳❂✷ ✻✲✯✲✹❉✳■✲ ❤✰✷❊✲✷✻✲❑ ✲✮✶✯✰✲✶ ✰✷ ❙✳✯✯✮✷❑❨ ✮✷❑ ❆✹✲❑ ✰✻ ✻✳ ◆✮❃✲ ✮ ✷❆◆✵✲✶ ✳❄

✹✻✮✶✻✯✰✷❅ ✳✵✹✲✶❊✮✻✰✳✷✹ s ◆✳❆✷✻✮✰✷✹ ✮✷❑ ❑✲■✶✲✹✹✰✳✷✹ ✳✷ ✻❇✲ ✹❆✶❄✮❉✲ ✳❄ ✻❇✲ ◆✳✳✷❩

❑✮✶❃ ✹■✳✻✹ ✳✷ ✻❇✲ ✹❆✷❩ ✻❇✲ ◆✳✳✷✹ ✳❄ ❞❆■✰✻✲✶ ✮✷❑ ✻❇✲ ■❇✮✹✲✹ ✳❄ ❬✲✷❆✹❏ ❙✲ ❉✳✷❉✯❆❑✲❑

✻❇✮✻ ✻❇✲ ❭✰✯❃✼ ❪✮✼ ❑✲✶✰❊✲❑ ✰✻✹ ✯❆◆✰✷✳✹✰✻✼ ✵✲❉✮❆✹✲ ✳❄ ✮ ✯✮✶❅✲ ✷❆◆✵✲✶ ✳❄ ✹✻✮✶✹ ✷✳✻ ❊✰✹✰✵✯✲ ✻✳ ✻❇✲ ✷✮❃✲❑ ✲✼✲❏

✺✷ ❇✰✹ ◆✮✹✻✲✶■✰✲❉✲ ✳❄ ✹❉✰✲✷✻✰❄✰❉ ✶✲✮✹✳✷✰✷❅ s ❫✰✮✯✳❅❆✲ ✳✷ ✻❇✲ ❴❂✳ ❵❇✰✲❄ ❪✳✶✯❑ ♦✼✹✻✲◆✹✴ ●✮✯✰✯✲✳ ✮❑❊✳❉✮✻✲❑

✻❇✲ ❇✲✯✰✳❉✲✷✻✶✰❉ ✻❇✲✳✶✼ ✳❄ ✻❇✲ ✹✳✯✮✶ ✹✼✹✻✲◆ ■✶✳■✳✹✲❑ ✵✼ ❵✳■✲✶✷✰❉❆✹✴ ❂❇✰❉❇ ✲❊✲✷✻❆✮✯✯✼ ❅✳✻ ❆✷✰❊✲✶✹✮✯

✮❉❉✲■✻✮✷❉✲❏

❪✰✻❇ ●✮✯✰✯✲✳ ❉✮◆✲ ✮ ✻❆✶✷✰✷❅ ■✳✰✷✻ ✰✷ ✻❇✲ ❊✲✶✼ ◆✲✻❇✳❑ ✳❄ ✹❉✰✲✷✻✰❄✰❉ ✰✷◗❆✰✶✼❏ ♦❉✰✲✷❉✲ ❂✮✹ ✷✳ ✯✳✷❅✲✶

◆✲✶✲✯✼ ✳✵✹✲✶❊✮✻✰✳✷✹ ✳❄ ✷✮✻❆✶✲ ✮✷❑ ✰✷❄✲✶✲✷❉✲✹ ❄✶✳◆ ✻❇✲◆❏ ♦❉✰✲✷❉✲ ◆✲✮✷✻ ❑✲❊✰✹✰✷❅ ✮✷❑ ❑✳✰✷❅ ✲❖■✲✶✰◆✲✷✻✹

✻✳ ❊✲✶✰❄✼ ✳✶ ✶✲❄❆✻✲ ✻❇✲✳✶✰✲✹❏ ♦❉✰✲✷❉✲ ◆✲✮✷✻ ◆✲✮✹❆✶✲◆✲✷✻ ✳❄ ◗❆✮✷✻✰✻✰✲✹ ✮✷❑ ✮ ✹✲✮✶❉❇ ❄✳✶ ◆✮✻❇✲◆✮✻✰❉✮✯

✶✲✯✮✻✰✳✷✹ ✵✲✻❂✲✲✷ ✻❇✲◆❏ ❚✳✻ ❆✷❑✲✹✲✶❊✲❑✯✼✴ ◆✮✷✼ ✶✲❅✮✶❑ ●✮✯✰✯✲✳ ✮✹ ✻❇✲ ❄✮✻❇✲✶ ✳❄ ◆✳❑✲✶✷ ✹❉✰✲✷❉✲❏

✡✝✞❛✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡ ❘ ❛✘✒✠ ✓❡ ❡♠✘✏✑ ✏✡✱ ✝✤✤✝✒✕✠❡ ✠✝ ✠☞❡

✌❡✕✔☞✠❲ ❜✖

❣❥❦❧ ♥❧♣ ❤✮❨ q r✉✉✈ q✇ ①②③✇ ✉④ ✇⑤② ✇qr⑥②⑦ q④⑧ ❤✵❨ q ⑨q①

⑩✉❶❷④❸ ❹❷✇⑤ ❺④❷❻✉①⑩ ❶②⑥✉⑨❷✇❼❽ ❾⑤② ④②✇ ❻✉①⑨②

❷③ ❿②①✉ ❷④ ②q⑨⑤ ⑨q③②❽

❈✝✡✒✕✱❡✞ ✠☞❡ ❛✝✠✕✝✡ ✝✟ ✏ ❢✏✞ ✒✠✏✞✠✕✡✔ ✟✞✝❛

✞❡✒✠☛ ✤✕❢✎✕✡✔ ✘✤ ✒✤❡❡✱ ✏✡✱ ✠☞❡✡ ❛✝✍✕✡✔ ✝✡ ✏

✒❛✝✝✠☞ ✒✠✞✏✕✔☞✠ ✞✝✏✱ ✌✕✠☞ ✘✡✕✟✝✞❛ ✒✤❡❡✱ ✙❋✕✔✖

✙✦✖✧✙✓✚✚✖ ✫☞❡✡ ✠☞❡ ❢✏✞ ✕✒ ✒✠✏✠✕✝✡✏✞✣☛ ✠☞❡✞❡ ✕✒ ✡✝

✡❡✠ ✟✝✞❢❡ ✏❢✠✕✡✔ ✝✡ ✕✠✖ ➀✘✞✕✡✔ ✤✕❢✎✩✘✤☛ ✕✠

✏❢❢❡✑❡✞✏✠❡✒✖ ✪☞✕✒ ❛✘✒✠ ☞✏✤✤❡✡ ✱✘❡ ✠✝ ✏ ✡❡✠

❡✛✠❡✞✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡✖ ➁✝✠❡☛ ✕✠ ☞✏✒ ✠✝ ✓❡ ✏✡❡✛✠❡✞✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡✖

✪☞❡ ✏❢❢❡✑❡✞✏✠✕✝✡ ✝✟ ✠☞❡ ❢✏✞ ❢✏✡✡✝✠ ✓❡ ✏❢❢✝✘✡✠❡✱

✟✝✞ ✓✣ ✏✡✣ ✕✡✠❡✞✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡✖ ✪☞✕✒ ❛✕✔☞✠ ✒✝✘✡✱

✒✘✞✤✞✕✒✕✡✔☛ ✓✘✠ ✕✠ ✕✒ ✠✞✘❡✖ ✪☞❡ ✝✡✑✣ ❢✝✡❢❡✕✍✏✓✑❡

❡✛✠❡✞✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡ ✏✑✝✡✔ ✠☞❡ ✞✝✏✱ ✕✒ ✠☞❡ ✟✝✞❢❡ ✝✟

✟✞✕❢✠✕✝✡✖ ✗✠ ✕✒ ✠☞❡ ✟✞✕❢✠✕✝✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡ ✠☞✏✠ ✏❢❢❡✑❡✞✏✠❡✒

✠☞❡ ❢✏✞ ✏✒ ✏ ✌☞✝✑❡✖ ✙➂✝✘ ✌✕✑✑ ✑❡✏✞✡ ✏✓✝✘✠ ✟✞✕❢✠✕✝✡

✕✡ ✒❡❢✠✕✝✡ ✦✖➃✚✖ ✫☞❡✡ ✠☞❡ ❢✏✞ ❛✝✍❡✒ ✌✕✠☞

❢✝✡✒✠✏✡✠ ✍❡✑✝❢✕✠✣☛ ✠☞❡✞❡ ✕✒ ✡✝ ✡❡✠ ❡✛✠❡✞✡✏✑ ✟✝✞❢❡✖

➄➅➆❥➆➈➉ ➄➅➆❥➆➈❥ ➊➋♥➌➍ ➎ ➋➌➍♣➏

Page 97: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✾✠

■☛ ☞✌✍✎☛✌✏ ☛✑✌ ✒✌☛ ✌✓☛✌☞✒✎✍ ✔✕☞✖✌ ☛✕ ☛✑✌

✎✖✖✌✍✌☞✎☛❛✕✒ ✕✔ ☛✑✌ ✗✕✘✙✚

▼✛✜✢✣✤✥✜

✦✕✧✌✒☛★✧✩ P ✕✔ ✎ ✗✕✘✙ ❛✏ ✘✌✔❛✒✌✘ ☛✕ ✗✌ ☛✑✌

♣☞✕✘★✖☛ ✕✔ ❛☛✏ ✧✎✏✏ ♠ ✎✒✘ ✪✌✍✕✖❛☛✙ ✈✩ ✎✒✘ ❛✏

✘✌✒✕☛✌✘ ✗✙ ✫✿

✫ ❂ ♠ ✈ ✭✬✚✮✯

✦✕✧✌✒☛★✧ ❛✏ ✖✍✌✎☞✍✙ ✎ ✪✌✖☛✕☞ ✰★✎✒☛❛☛✙✚ ✱✑✌

✔✕✍✍✕❢❛✒✲ ✖✕✧✧✕✒ ✌✓♣✌☞❛✌✒✖✌✏ ❛✒✘❛✖✎☛✌ ☛✑✌

❛✧♣✕☞☛✎✒✖✌ ✕✔ ☛✑❛✏ ✰★✎✒☛❛☛✙ ✔✕☞ ✖✕✒✏❛✘✌☞❛✒✲ ☛✑✌

✌✔✔✌✖☛ ✕✔ ✔✕☞✖✌ ✕✒ ✧✕☛❛✕✒✚

• ❙★♣♣✕✏✌ ✎ ✍❛✲✑☛✳❢✌❛✲✑☛ ✪✌✑❛✖✍✌ ✭✏✎✙ ✎ ✏✧✎✍✍

✖✎☞✯ ✎✒✘ ✎ ✑✌✎✪✙ ❢✌❛✲✑☛ ✪✌✑❛✖✍✌ ✭✏✎✙ ✎ ✍✕✎✘✌✘

☛☞★✖t✯ ✎☞✌ ♣✎☞t✌✘ ✕✒ ✎ ✑✕☞❛✴✕✒☛✎✍ ☞✕✎✘✚ ♦✌ ✎✍✍

t✒✕❢ ☛✑✎☛ ✎ ✧★✖✑ ✲☞✌✎☛✌☞ ✔✕☞✖✌ ❛✏ ✒✌✌✘✌✘ ☛✕

♣★✏✑ ☛✑✌ ☛☞★✖t ☛✑✎✒ ☛✑✌ ✖✎☞ ☛✕ ✗☞❛✒✲ ☛✑✌✧ ☛✕

☛✑✌ ✏✎✧✌ ✏♣✌✌✘ ❛✒ ✏✎✧✌ ☛❛✧✌✚ ❙❛✧❛✍✎☞✍✙✩ ✎

✲☞✌✎☛✌☞ ✕♣♣✕✏❛✒✲ ✔✕☞✖✌ ❛✏ ✒✌✌✘✌✘ ☛✕ ✏☛✕♣ ✎

✑✌✎✪✙ ✗✕✘✙ ☛✑✎✒ ✎ ✍❛✲✑☛ ✗✕✘✙ ❛✒ ☛✑✌ ✏✎✧✌ ☛❛✧✌✩

❛✔ ☛✑✌✙ ✎☞✌ ✧✕✪❛✒✲ ❢❛☛✑ ☛✑✌ ✏✎✧✌ ✏♣✌✌✘✚

• ■✔ ☛❢✕ ✏☛✕✒✌✏✩ ✕✒✌ ✍❛✲✑☛ ✎✒✘ ☛✑✌ ✕☛✑✌☞ ✑✌✎✪✙✩

✎☞✌ ✘☞✕♣♣✌✘ ✔☞✕✧ ☛✑✌ ☛✕♣ ✕✔ ✎ ✗★❛✍✘❛✒✲✩ ✎

♣✌☞✏✕✒ ✕✒ ☛✑✌ ✲☞✕★✒✘❢❛✍✍ ✔❛✒✘ ❛☛ ✌✎✏❛✌☞ ☛✕ ✖✎☛✖✑

☛✑✌ ✍❛✲✑☛ ✏☛✕✒✌ ☛✑✎✒ ☛✑✌ ✑✌✎✪✙ ✏☛✕✒✌✚ ✱✑✌

✧✎✏✏ ✕✔ ✎ ✗✕✘✙ ❛✏ ☛✑★✏ ✎✒ ❛✧♣✕☞☛✎✒☛

♣✎☞✎✧✌☛✌☞ ☛✑✎☛ ✘✌☛✌☞✧❛✒✌✏ ☛✑✌ ✌✔✔✌✖☛ ✕✔ ✔✕☞✖✌

✕✒ ❛☛✏ ✧✕☛❛✕✒✚

• ❙♣✌✌✘ ❛✏ ✎✒✕☛✑✌☞ ❛✧♣✕☞☛✎✒☛ ♣✎☞✎✧✌☛✌☞ ☛✕

✖✕✒✏❛✘✌☞✚ ✵ ✗★✍✍✌☛ ✔❛☞✌✘ ✗✙ ✎ ✲★✒ ✖✎✒ ✌✎✏❛✍✙

♣❛✌☞✖✌ ✑★✧✎✒ ☛❛✏✏★✌ ✗✌✔✕☞✌ ❛☛ ✏☛✕♣✏✩ ☞✌✏★✍☛❛✒✲

❛✒ ✖✎✏★✎✍☛✙✚ ✱✑✌ ✏✎✧✌ ✗★✍✍✌☛ ✔❛☞✌✘ ❢❛☛✑

✧✕✘✌☞✎☛✌ ✏♣✌✌✘❢❛✍✍ ✒✕☛ ✖✎★✏✌ ✧★✖✑ ✘✎✧✎✲✌✚

✱✑★✏ ✔✕☞ ✎ ✲❛✪✌✒ ✧✎✏✏✩ ☛✑✌ ✲☞✌✎☛✌☞ ☛✑✌ ✏♣✌✌✘✩

☛✑✌ ✲☞✌✎☛✌☞ ❛✏ ☛✑✌ ✕♣♣✕✏❛✒✲ ✔✕☞✖✌ ✒✌✌✘✌✘ ☛✕ ✏☛✕♣

☛✑✌ ✗✕✘✙ ❛✒ ✎ ✖✌☞☛✎❛✒ ☛❛✧✌✚ ✱✎t✌✒ ☛✕✲✌☛✑✌☞✩

☛✑✌ ♣☞✕✘★✖☛ ✕✔ ✧✎✏✏ ✎✒✘ ✪✌✍✕✖❛☛✙✩ ☛✑✎☛ ❛✏

✧✕✧✌✒☛★✧✩ ❛✏ ✌✪❛✘✌✒☛✍✙ ✎ ☞✌✍✌✪✎✒☛ ✪✎☞❛✎✗✍✌

✕✔ ✧✕☛❛✕✒✚ ✱✑✌ ✲☞✌✎☛✌☞ ☛✑✌ ✖✑✎✒✲✌ ❛✒ ☛✑✌

✧✕✧✌✒☛★✧ ❛✒ ✎ ✲❛✪✌✒ ☛❛✧✌✩ ☛✑✌ ✲☞✌✎☛✌☞ ❛✏ ☛✑✌

✔✕☞✖✌ ☛✑✎☛ ✒✌✌✘✏ ☛✕ ✗✌ ✎♣♣✍❛✌✘✚

• ✵ ✏✌✎✏✕✒✌✘ ✖☞❛✖t✌☛✌☞ ✖✎☛✖✑✌✏ ✎ ✖☞❛✖t✌☛ ✗✎✍✍

✖✕✧❛✒✲ ❛✒ ❢❛☛✑ ✲☞✌✎☛ ✏♣✌✌✘ ✔✎☞ ✧✕☞✌ ✌✎✏❛✍✙

☛✑✎✒ ✎ ✒✕✪❛✖✌✩ ❢✑✕ ✖✎✒ ✑★☞☛ ✑❛✏ ✑✎✒✘✏ ❛✒ ☛✑✌

✎✖☛✚ ✶✒✌ ☞✌✎✏✕✒ ❛✏ ☛✑✎☛ ☛✑✌ ✖☞❛✖t✌☛✌☞ ✎✍✍✕❢✏ ✎

✍✕✒✲✌☞ ☛❛✧✌ ✔✕☞ ✑❛✏ ✑✎✒✘✏ ☛✕ ✏☛✕♣ ☛✑✌ ✗✎✍✍✚ ✵✏

✙✕★ ✧✎✙ ✑✎✪✌ ✒✕☛❛✖✌✘✩ ✑✌ ✘☞✎❢✏ ❛✒ ☛✑✌ ✑✎✒✘✏

✗✎✖t❢✎☞✘ ❛✒ ☛✑✌ ✎✖☛ ✕✔ ✖✎☛✖✑❛✒✲ ☛✑✌ ✗✎✍✍ ✭❜❛✲✚

✬✚✺✯✚ ✱✑✌ ✒✕✪❛✖✌✩ ✕✒ ☛✑✌ ✕☛✑✌☞ ✑✎✒✘✩ t✌✌♣✏

✑❛✏ ✑✎✒✘✏ ✔❛✓✌✘ ✎✒✘ ☛☞❛✌✏ ☛✕ ✖✎☛✖✑ ☛✑✌ ✗✎✍✍

✎✍✧✕✏☛ ❛✒✏☛✎✒☛✍✙✚ ✷✌ ✒✌✌✘✏ ☛✕ ♣☞✕✪❛✘✌ ✎ ✧★✖✑

✲☞✌✎☛✌☞ ✔✕☞✖✌ ☛✕ ✏☛✕♣ ☛✑✌ ✗✎✍✍ ❛✒✏☛✎✒☛✍✙✩ ✎✒✘

✱✑✌ ♣☞✕♣✌☞☛✙ ✕✔ ❛✒✌☞☛❛✎ ✖✕✒☛✎❛✒✌✘ ❛✒ ☛✑✌ ❜❛☞✏☛

✍✎❢ ❛✏ ✌✪❛✘✌✒☛ ❛✒ ✧✎✒✙ ✏❛☛★✎☛❛✕✒✏✚ ❙★♣♣✕✏✌ ❢✌

✎☞✌ ✏☛✎✒✘❛✒✲ ❛✒ ✎ ✏☛✎☛❛✕✒✎☞✙ ✗★✏ ✎✒✘ ☛✑✌ ✘☞❛✪✌☞

✏☛✎☞☛✏ ☛✑✌ ✗★✏ ✏★✘✘✌✒✍✙✚ ♦✌ ✲✌☛ ☛✑☞✕❢✒

✗✎✖t❢✎☞✘❢❛☛✑ ✎ ✸✌☞t✚♦✑✙ ✹ ✶★☞ ✔✌✌☛ ✎☞✌ ❛✒ ☛✕★✖✑

❢❛☛✑ ☛✑✌ ✔✍✕✕☞✚ ■✔ ☛✑✌☞✌ ❢✌☞✌ ✒✕ ✔☞❛✖☛❛✕✒✩ ❢✌ ❢✕★✍✘

☞✌✧✎❛✒ ❢✑✌☞✌ ❢✌ ❢✌☞✌✩ ❢✑❛✍✌ ☛✑✌ ✔✍✕✕☞ ✕✔ ☛✑✌ ✗★✏

❢✕★✍✘ ✏❛✧♣✍✙ ✏✍❛♣ ✔✕☞❢✎☞✘ ★✒✘✌☞ ✕★☞ ✔✌✌☛ ✎✒✘ ☛✑✌

✗✎✖t ✕✔ ☛✑✌ ✗★✏ ❢✕★✍✘ ✑❛☛ ★✏✚ ✷✕❢✌✪✌☞✩

✔✕☞☛★✒✎☛✌✍✙✩ ☛✑✌☞✌ ❛✏ ✏✕✧✌ ✔☞❛✖☛❛✕✒ ✗✌☛❢✌✌✒ ☛✑✌

✔✌✌☛ ✎✒✘ ☛✑✌ ✔✍✕✕☞✚ ■✔ ☛✑✌ ✏☛✎☞☛ ❛✏ ✒✕☛ ☛✕✕ ✏★✘✘✌✒✩

❛✚✌✚ ❛✔ ☛✑✌ ✎✖✖✌✍✌☞✎☛❛✕✒ ❛✏ ✧✕✘✌☞✎☛✌✩ ☛✑✌ ✔☞❛✖☛❛✕✒✎✍

✔✕☞✖✌ ❢✕★✍✘ ✗✌ ✌✒✕★✲✑ ☛✕ ✎✖✖✌✍✌☞✎☛✌ ✕★☞ ✔✌✌☛

✎✍✕✒✲ ❢❛☛✑ ☛✑✌ ✗★✏✚ ✻★☛ ✕★☞ ✗✕✘✙ ❛✏ ✒✕☛ ✏☛☞❛✖☛✍✙

✎ ☞❛✲❛✘ ✗✕✘✙✚ ■☛ ❛✏ ✘✌✔✕☞✧✎✗✍✌✩ ❛✚✌✚ ❛☛ ✎✍✍✕❢✏ ✏✕✧✌

☞✌✍✎☛❛✪✌ ✘❛✏♣✍✎✖✌✧✌✒☛ ✗✌☛❢✌✌✒ ✘❛✔✔✌☞✌✒☛ ♣✎☞☛✏✚

♦✑✎☛ ☛✑❛✏ ✧✌✎✒✏ ❛✏ ☛✑✎☛ ❢✑❛✍✌ ✕★☞ ✔✌✌☛ ✲✕ ❢❛☛✑

☛✑✌ ✗★✏✩ ☛✑✌ ☞✌✏☛ ✕✔ ☛✑✌ ✗✕✘✙ ☞✌✧✎❛✒✏ ❢✑✌☞✌ ❛☛ ❛✏

✘★✌ ☛✕ ❛✒✌☞☛❛✎✚ ❞✌✍✎☛❛✪✌ ☛✕ ☛✑✌ ✗★✏✩ ☛✑✌☞✌✔✕☞✌✩ ❢✌

✎☞✌ ☛✑☞✕❢✒ ✗✎✖t❢✎☞✘✚ ✵✏ ✏✕✕✒ ✎✏ ☛✑✎☛ ✑✎♣♣✌✒✏✩

✑✕❢✌✪✌☞✩ ☛✑✌ ✧★✏✖★✍✎☞ ✔✕☞✖✌✏ ✕✒ ☛✑✌ ☞✌✏☛ ✕✔ ☛✑✌

✗✕✘✙ ✭✗✙ ☛✑✌ ✔✌✌☛✯ ✖✕✧✌ ❛✒☛✕ ♣✍✎✙ ☛✕ ✧✕✪✌ ☛✑✌ ✗✕✘✙

✎✍✕✒✲ ❢❛☛✑ ☛✑✌ ✗★✏✚ ✵ ✏❛✧❛✍✎☞ ☛✑❛✒✲ ✑✎♣♣✌✒✏

❢✑✌✒ ☛✑✌ ✗★✏ ✏★✘✘✌✒✍✙ ✏☛✕♣✏✚ ✶★☞ ✔✌✌☛ ✏☛✕♣ ✘★✌

☛✕ ☛✑✌ ✔☞❛✖☛❛✕✒ ❢✑❛✖✑ ✘✕✌✏ ✒✕☛ ✎✍✍✕❢ ☞✌✍✎☛❛✪✌

✧✕☛❛✕✒ ✗✌☛❢✌✌✒ ☛✑✌ ✔✌✌☛ ✎✒✘ ☛✑✌ ✔✍✕✕☞ ✕✔ ☛✑✌ ✗★✏✚

✻★☛ ☛✑✌ ☞✌✏☛ ✕✔ ☛✑✌ ✗✕✘✙ ✖✕✒☛❛✒★✌✏ ☛✕ ✧✕✪✌

✔✕☞❢✎☞✘ ✘★✌ ☛✕ ❛✒✌☞☛❛✎✚ ♦✌ ✎☞✌ ☛✑☞✕❢✒ ✔✕☞❢✎☞✘✚

✱✑✌ ☞✌✏☛✕☞❛✒✲ ✧★✏✖★✍✎☞ ✔✕☞✖✌✏ ✎✲✎❛✒ ✖✕✧✌ ❛✒☛✕

♣✍✎✙ ✎✒✘ ✗☞❛✒✲ ☛✑✌ ✗✕✘✙ ☛✕ ☞✌✏☛✚

❊✼✽✜❀❁✢ ❃❄❅ ✵✒ ✎✏☛☞✕✒✎★☛ ✎✖✖❛✘✌✒☛✎✍✍✙

✲✌☛✏ ✏✌♣✎☞✎☛✌✘ ✕★☛ ✕✔ ✑❛✏ ✏✧✎✍✍ ✏♣✎✖✌✏✑❛♣

✎✖✖✌✍✌☞✎☛❛✒✲ ❛✒ ❛✒☛✌☞ ✏☛✌✍✍✎☞ ✏♣✎✖✌ ✎☛ ✎

✖✕✒✏☛✎✒☛ ☞✎☛✌ ✕✔ ✮❝❝ ✧ ✏❆❇✚ ♦✑✎☛ ❛✏ ☛✑✌

✎✖✖✌✍✌☞✎☛❛✕✒ ✕✔ ☛✑✌ ✎✏☛☞✕✒✎★☛ ☛✑✌ ❛✒✏☛✎✒☛ ✎✔☛✌☞

✑✌ ❛✏ ✕★☛✏❛✘✌ ☛✑✌ ✏♣✎✖✌✏✑❛♣ ✹ ✭✵✏✏★✧✌ ☛✑✎☛

☛✑✌☞✌ ✎☞✌ ✒✕ ✒✌✎☞✗✙ ✏☛✎☞✏ ☛✕ ✌✓✌☞☛

✲☞✎✪❛☛✎☛❛✕✒✎✍ ✔✕☞✖✌ ✕✒ ✑❛✧✚✯

❈✣❉❋✢● ❙❛✒✖✌ ☛✑✌☞✌ ✎☞✌ ✒✕ ✒✌✎☞✗✙ ✏☛✎☞✏ ☛✕ ✌✓✌☞☛

✲☞✎✪❛☛✎☛❛✕✒✎✍ ✔✕☞✖✌ ✕✒ ✑❛✧ ✎✒✘ ☛✑✌ ✏✧✎✍✍

✏♣✎✖✌✏✑❛♣ ✌✓✌☞☛✏ ✒✌✲✍❛✲❛✗✍✌ ✲☞✎✪❛☛✎☛❛✕✒✎✍

✎☛☛☞✎✖☛❛✕✒ ✕✒ ✑❛✧✩ ☛✑✌ ✒✌☛ ✔✕☞✖✌ ✎✖☛❛✒✲ ✕✒ ☛✑✌

✎✏☛☞✕✒✎★☛✩ ✕✒✖✌ ✑✌ ❛✏ ✕★☛ ✕✔ ☛✑✌ ✏♣✎✖✌✏✑❛♣✩ ❛✏

✴✌☞✕✚ ✻✙ ☛✑✌ ✔❛☞✏☛ ✍✎❢ ✕✔ ✧✕☛❛✕✒ ☛✑✌ ✎✖✖✌✍✌☞✎☛❛✕✒

✕✔ ☛✑✌ ✎✏☛☞✕✒✎★☛ ❛✏ ✴✌☞✕✚ ❍

❏❑❏ ◆❖◗❘❚◆❯❱ ❱❖❲❚◆❳ ❨❩◗ ❚❬❭❚❘❪❚◆

✱✑✌ ✔❛☞✏☛ ✍✎❢ ☞✌✔✌☞✏ ☛✕ ☛✑✌ ✏❛✧♣✍✌ ✖✎✏✌ ❢✑✌✒ ☛✑✌

✒✌☛ ✌✓☛✌☞✒✎✍ ✔✕☞✖✌ ✕✒ ✎ ✗✕✘✙ ❛✏ ✴✌☞✕✚ ✱✑✌ ✏✌✖✕✒✘

✍✎❢ ✕✔ ✧✕☛❛✕✒ ☞✌✔✌☞✏ ☛✕ ☛✑✌ ✲✌✒✌☞✎✍ ✏❛☛★✎☛❛✕✒❢✑✌✒

☛✑✌☞✌ ❛✏ ✎ ✒✌☛ ✌✓☛✌☞✒✎✍ ✔✕☞✖✌ ✎✖☛❛✒✲ ✕✒ ☛✑✌ ✗✕✘✙✚

Page 98: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✾✆

t✝✞✟ ✝✠✡t✟☛✥✝☞ ✌✍✎✌✏✠✟✞✍✎ ✞✟ ✌✏☞✑✡✒ ✓✍✡✌☞ ✎✍t

✍✎✏♦ ✔☞✕☞✎✔✟ ✍✎ t✝☞ ✌✝✑✎✖☞ ✞✎ ✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗✘

❜✠t ✑✏✟✍ ✍✎ ✝✍✙ ✓✑✟t t✝☞ ✌✝✑✎✖☞ ✞✟ ❜✡✍✠✖✝t

✑❜✍✠t☛ ✥✝☞ ✟✑✗☞ ✌✝✑✎✖☞ ✞✎ ✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗

❜✡✍✠✖✝t ✑❜✍✠t ✞✎ ✑ ✟✝✍✡t☞✡ t✞✗☞ ✎☞☞✔✟ ✑

✖✡☞✑t☞✡ ✑✕✕✏✞☞✔ ✓✍✡✌☞☛ ❣✎ ✟✝✍✡t✘ t✝☞ ✖✡☞✑t☞✡ t✝☞

✡✑t☞ ✍✓ ✌✝✑✎✖☞ ✍✓ ✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗✘ t✝☞ ✖✡☞✑t☞✡ ✞✟

t✝☞ ✓✍✡✌☞☛

❋✚✛✜ ✢✜✣ ✤✦✧★✩ ✪✦✫ ✦✪✬✭ ✮✩✯✩✪✮✰ ✦✪ ✫✱✩ ★✱✲✪✳✩ ✴✪

♠✦♠✩✪✫✵♠ ✶✵✫ ✲✬✰✦ ✦✪ ✱✦✷ ✸✲✰✫ ✫✱✩ ★✱✲✪✳✩

✴✰✶✧✦✵✳✱✫ ✲✶✦✵✫✐✹ ✰✩✲✰✦✪✩✮ ★✧✴★✺✩✫✩✧ ✮✧✲✷✰

✴✪ ✱✴✰ ✱✲✪✮✰✮✵✧✴✪✳ ✲★✲✫★✱✻ ✲✬✬✦✷✴✪✳ ✳✧✩✲✫✩✧

✫✴♠✩ ✸✦✧ ✫✱✩ ✶✲✬✬ ✫✦ ✰✫✦✯ ✲✪✮ ✱✩✪★✩ ✧✩r✵✴✧✩✰ ✲

✰♠✲✬✬✩✧ ✸✦✧★✩✐

•••• ❖❜✟☞✡✼✑t✞✍✎✟ ✌✍✎✓✞✡✗ t✝✑t t✝☞ ✕✡✍✔✠✌t ✍✓

✗✑✟✟ ✑✎✔ ✼☞✏✍✌✞t♦ ✽✞☛☞☛ ✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗✿ ✞✟ ❜✑✟✞✌ t✍

t✝☞ ☞✓✓☞✌t ✍✓ ✓✍✡✌☞ ✍✎ ✗✍t✞✍✎☛ ❀✠✕✕✍✟☞ ✑ ✓✞❁☞✔

✓✍✡✌☞ ✞✟ ✑✕✕✏✞☞✔ ✓✍✡ ✑ ✌☞✡t✑✞✎ ✞✎t☞✡✼✑✏ ✍✓ t✞✗☞

✍✎ t✙✍ ❜✍✔✞☞✟ ✍✓ ✔✞✓✓☞✡☞✎t ✗✑✟✟☞✟✘ ✞✎✞t✞✑✏✏♦ ✑t

✡☞✟t✘ t✝☞ ✏✞✖✝t☞✡ ❜✍✔♦ ✕✞✌❂✟ ✠✕ ✑ ✖✡☞✑t☞✡ ✟✕☞☞✔

t✝✑✎ t✝☞ ✝☞✑✼✞☞✡ ❜✍✔♦☛ ❃✍✙☞✼☞✡✘ ✑t t✝☞ ☞✎✔ ✍✓

t✝☞ t✞✗☞ ✞✎t☞✡✼✑✏✘ ✍❜✟☞✡✼✑t✞✍✎✟ ✟✝✍✙ t✝✑t ☞✑✌✝

❜✍✔♦ ✑✌❄✠✞✡☞✟ t✝☞ ✟✑✗☞ ✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗☛ ❚❅❆❇

❈❅❉ ❇❊●❉ ❍■❏❑❉ ❍■❏ ❈❅❉ ❇❊●❉ ❈▲●❉ ❑❊❆❇❉❇

❈❅❉ ❇❊●❉ ❑❅❊▼◆❉ ▲▼ ●■●❉▼❈❆● ❍■❏

❞▲❍❍❉❏❉▼❈ ◗■❞▲❉❇☛ ✥✝✞✟ ✞✟ ✑ ✌✡✠✌✞✑✏ ✌✏✠☞ t✍ t✝☞

✟☞✌✍✎✔ ✏✑✙ ✍✓ ✗✍t✞✍✎☛

•• ❣✎ t✝☞ ✕✡☞✌☞✔✞✎✖ ✍❜✟☞✡✼✑t✞✍✎✟✘ t✝☞ ✼☞✌t✍✡

✌✝✑✡✑✌t☞✡ ✍✓✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗ ✝✑✟ ✎✍t ❜☞☞✎ ☞✼✞✔☞✎t☛

❣✎ t✝☞ ☞❁✑✗✕✏☞✟ ✟✍ ✓✑✡✘✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗ ✑✎✔ ✌✝✑✎✖☞

✞✎ ✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗ ❜✍t✝ ✝✑✼☞ t✝☞ ✟✑✗☞ ✔✞✡☞✌t✞✍✎☛

❘✠t t✝✞✟ ✞✟ ✎✍t ✑✏✙✑♦✟ t✝☞ ✌✑✟☞☛ ❀✠✕✕✍✟☞ ✑

✟t✍✎☞ ✞✟ ✡✍t✑t☞✔ ✙✞t✝ ✠✎✞✓✍✡✗ ✟✕☞☞✔ ✞✎ ✑

✝✍✡✞❤✍✎t✑✏ ✕✏✑✎☞ ❜♦ ✗☞✑✎✟ ✍✓ ✑ ✟t✡✞✎✖✘ t✝☞

✗✑✖✎✞t✠✔☞ ✍✓ ✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗ ✞✟ ✓✞❁☞✔✘ ❜✠t ✞t✟

✔✞✡☞✌t✞✍✎ ✌✝✑✎✖☞✟ ✽❙✞✖☛ ❯☛❱✿☛ ❲ ✓✍✡✌☞ ✞✟ ✎☞☞✔☞✔

t✍ ✌✑✠✟☞ t✝✞✟ ✌✝✑✎✖☞ ✞✎ ✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗ ✼☞✌t✍✡☛

✥✝✞✟ ✓✍✡✌☞ ✞✟ ✕✡✍✼✞✔☞✔ ❜♦ ✍✠✡ ✝✑✎✔ t✝✡✍✠✖✝

t✝☞ ✟t✡✞✎✖☛ ❳❁✕☞✡✞☞✎✌☞ ✟✠✖✖☞✟t✟ t✝✑t ✍✠✡ ✝✑✎✔

✎☞☞✔✟ t✍ ☞❁☞✡t ✑ ✖✡☞✑t☞✡ ✓✍✡✌☞ ✞✓ t✝☞ ✟t✍✎☞ ✞✟

✡✍t✑t☞✔ ✑t ✖✡☞✑t☞✡ ✟✕☞☞✔ ✍✡ ✞✎ ✑ ✌✞✡✌✏☞ ✍✓

✟✗✑✏✏☞✡ ✡✑✔✞✠✟✘ ✍✡ ❜✍t✝☛ ✥✝✞✟ ✌✍✡✡☞✟✕✍✎✔✟ t✍

✖✡☞✑t☞✡ ✑✌✌☞✏☞✡✑t✞✍✎ ✍✡ ☞❄✠✞✼✑✏☞✎t✏♦ ✑ ✖✡☞✑t☞✡

✡✑t☞ ✍✓ ✌✝✑✎✖☞ ✞✎ ✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗ ✼☞✌t✍✡☛ ✥✝✞✟

✟✠✖✖☞✟t✟ t✝✑t t✝☞ ✖✡☞✑t☞✡ t✝☞ ✡✑t☞ ✍✓ ✌✝✑✎✖☞

✞✎ ✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗ ✼☞✌t✍✡ t✝☞ ✖✡☞✑t☞✡ ✞✟ t✝☞ ✓✍✡✌☞

✑✕✕✏✞☞✔☛

❋✚✛✜ ✢✜❨ ✤✦✧★✩ ✴✰ ✪✩★✩✰✰✲✧✭ ✸✦✧ ★✱✲✪✳✴✪✳ ✫✱✩✮✴✧✩★✫✴✦✪

✦✸ ♠✦♠✩✪✫✵♠✻ ✩❩✩✪ ✴✸ ✴✫✰ ♠✲✳✪✴✫✵✮✩ ✴✰

★✦✪✰✫✲✪✫✐ ❝✩ ★✲✪ ✸✩✩✬ ✫✱✴✰ ✷✱✴✬✩ ✧✦✫✲✫✴✪✳ ✲

✰✫✦✪✩ ✴✪ ✲✱✦✧✴❛✦✪✫✲✬ ★✴✧★✬✩✷✴✫✱✵✪✴✸✦✧♠ ✰✯✩✩✮

✶✭ ♠✩✲✪✰ ✦✸ ✲ ✰✫✧✴✪✳✐

✥✝☞✟☞ ❄✠✑✏✞t✑t✞✼☞ ✍❜✟☞✡✼✑t✞✍✎✟ ✏☞✑✔ t✍ t✝☞

❬❉❑■▼❞ ❭❊❪ ■❍ ●■❈▲■▼ ☞❁✕✡☞✟✟☞✔ ❜♦ ❫☞✙t✍✎ ✑✟

✓✍✏✏✍✙✟✒

❚❅❉ ❏❊❈❉ ■❍ ❑❅❊▼◆❉ ■❍ ●■●❉▼❈❆● ■❍ ❊ ◗■❞❴ ▲❇

❞▲❏❉❑❈❵❴ ❡❏■❡■❏❈▲■▼❊❵ ❈■ ❈❅❉ ❊❡❡❵▲❉❞ ❍■❏❑❉ ❊▼❞

❈❊❢❉❇ ❡❵❊❑❉ ▲▼ ❈❅❉ ❞▲❏❉❑❈▲■▼ ▲▼ ❪❅▲❑❅ ❈❅❉ ❍■❏❑❉

❊❑❈❇☛

✥✝✠✟✘ ✞✓ ✠✎✔☞✡ t✝☞ ✑✌t✞✍✎ ✍✓ ✑ ✓✍✡✌☞ ❥ ✓✍✡ t✞✗☞

✞✎t☞✡✼✑✏ ❦❧✘ t✝☞ ✼☞✏✍✌✞t♦ ✍✓ ✑ ❜✍✔♦ ✍✓ ✗✑✟✟ ♥

✌✝✑✎✖☞✟ ✓✡✍✗ ✈ t✍ ✈ ♣ ❦✈ ✞☛☞☛ ✞t✟ ✞✎✞t✞✑✏✗✍✗☞✎t✠✗

q s ♥ ✈ ✌✝✑✎✖☞✟ ❜♦ ✉✇ ① ✇② ③ ☛ ❲✌✌✍✡✔✞✎✖ t✍ t✝☞

❀☞✌✍✎✔ ④✑✙✘

⑤⑥ ⑦⑧ ⑧

⑨ ⑨⑩ ❶⑨ ⑨

❷ ❷❸ ❸

✙✝☞✡☞ ❹ ✞✟ ✑ ✌✍✎✟t✑✎t ✍✓ ✕✡✍✕✍✡t✞✍✎✑✏✞t♦☛ ✥✑❂✞✎✖

t✝☞ ✏✞✗✞t ❦❧ ❺❻✘ t✝☞ t☞✡✗⑧⑨

⑨❷❜☞✌✍✗☞✟ t✝☞

✔☞✡✞✼✑t✞✼☞ ✍✡ ✔✞✓✓☞✡☞✎t✞✑✏ ✌✍❼☞✓✓✞✌✞☞✎t ✍✓ ❡ ✙✞t✝

✡☞✟✕☞✌t t✍ ❧✘ ✔☞✎✍t☞✔ ❜♦❽

❽⑧

❷☛ ✥✝✠✟

Page 99: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✾✠

❞❦

t❂

♣❋ ✭☛☞✌✍

✎✏✑ ✒ ✓✏✔✕ ✏✖ ✖✗✘✙✔ ✚✒✛✛ ♠✱

✜ ✮❞ ❞ ❞

❞ ❞ ❞✢ ✢ ✢

t t t❂ ❂ ❂

♣ ✣✣ ✈ ✭☛☞✥✍

✗☞✙ ✐✤✙ ✦✙✧✏★✔ ✩✒✪ ✧✒★ ✒✫✛✏ ✓✙ ✪✑✗✐✐✙★ ✒✛

✬ ✯ ✰ ♠ ❛ ✭☛☞✲✍

✪✤✗✧✤ ✛✤✏✪✛ ✐✤✒✐ ✖✏✑✧✙ ✗✛ ✇✑✏✇✏✑✐✗✏★✒✫ ✐✏ ✐✤✙

✇✑✏✔✳✧✐ ✏✖ ✚✒✛✛ ♠ ✒★✔ ✒✧✧✙✫✙✑✒✐✗✏★ ❛☞

❚✤✙ ✳★✗✐ ✏✖ ✖✏✑✧✙ ✤✒✛ ★✏✐ ✓✙✙★ ✔✙✖✗★✙✔ ✛✏ ✖✒✑☞

■★ ✖✒✧✐✱ ✪✙ ✳✛✙ ✴✵☞ ✭☛☞✲✍ ✐✏ ✔✙✖✗★✙ ✐✤✙ ✳★✗✐ ✏✖ ✖✏✑✧✙☞

❲✙✱ ✐✤✙✑✙✖✏✑✙✱ ✤✒❡✙ ✐✤✙ ✫✗✓✙✑✐✕ ✐✏ ✧✤✏✏✛✙ ✒★✕

✧✏★✛✐✒★✐ ❡✒✫✳✙ ✖✏✑ ✰☞ ✎✏✑ ✛✗✚✇✫✗✧✗✐✕✱ ✪✙ ✧✤✏✏✛✙

✰ ✶ ✷☞ ❚✤✙ ✦✙✧✏★✔ ✩✒✪ ✐✤✙★ ✗✛

✸✹

✺ ✻✼✽

✽✿✿ ✭☛☞☛✍

■★ ✦■ ✳★✗✐ ✖✏✑✧✙ ✗✛ ✏★✙ ✐✤✒✐ ✧✒✳✛✙✛ ✒★ ✒✧✧✙✫✙✑✒✐✗✏★

✏✖ ✷✚ ✛❀❁ ✐✏ ✒✚✒✛✛ ✏✖ ✷ ❃❄☞ ❚✤✗✛ ✳★✗✐ ✗✛ ❃★✏✪★ ✒✛

♥❅❆❇❈♥ ❉ ✷ ◆ ✯ ✷ ❃❄ ✚ ✛❀❁☞

✩✙✐ ✳✛ ★✏✐✙ ✒✐ ✐✤✗✛ ✛✐✒❄✙ ✛✏✚✙ ✗✚✇✏✑✐✒★✐ ✇✏✗★✐✛

✒✓✏✳✐ ✐✤✙ ✛✙✧✏★✔ ✫✒✪ ❉

✷☞ ■★ ✐✤✙ ✛✙✧✏★✔ ✫✒✪✱ ✬ ✯ ❊ ✗✚✇✫✗✙✛ ❛ ✯ ❊☞ ❚✤✙

✛✙✧✏★✔ ✩✒✪ ✗✛ ✏✓❡✗✏✳✛✫✕ ✧✏★✛✗✛✐✙★✐ ✪✗✐✤ ✐✤✙

✖✗✑✛✐ ✫✒✪☞

✌☞ ❚✤✙ ✛✙✧✏★✔ ✫✒✪ ✏✖ ✚✏✐✗✏★ ✗✛ ✒ ❡✙✧✐✏✑ ✫✒✪☞ ■✐ ✗✛

✙✵✳✗❡✒✫✙★✐ ✐✏ ✐✤✑✙✙ ✙✵✳✒✐✗✏★✛✱ ✏★✙ ✖✏✑ ✙✒✧✤

✧✏✚✇✏★✙★✐ ✏✖ ✐✤✙ ❡✙✧✐✏✑✛ ❉

●❍

t✢❏①

①①❂ ❂

❑▼

❖P◗②

②②❘ ❘

③③

③ ❏✢t

❍● ❂❂

❞✭☛☞❯✍

❚✤✗✛ ✚✙✒★✛ ✐✤✒✐ ✗✖ ✒ ✖✏✑✧✙ ✗✛ ★✏✐ ✇✒✑✒✫✫✙✫ ✐✏

✐✤✙ ❡✙✫✏✧✗✐✕ ✏✖ ✐✤✙ ✓✏✔✕✱ ✓✳✐✚✒❃✙✛ ✛✏✚✙ ✒★❄✫✙

✪✗✐✤ ✗✐✱ ✗✐ ✧✤✒★❄✙✛ ✏★✫✕ ✐✤✙ ✧✏✚✇✏★✙★✐ ✏✖

❡✙✫✏✧✗✐✕ ✒✫✏★❄ ✐✤✙ ✔✗✑✙✧✐✗✏★ ✏✖ ✖✏✑✧✙☞ ❚✤✙

✧✏✚✇✏★✙★✐ ✏✖ ❡✙✫✏✧✗✐✕ ★✏✑✚✒✫ ✐✏ ✐✤✙ ✖✏✑✧✙

✑✙✚✒✗★✛ ✳★✧✤✒★❄✙✔☞ ✎✏✑ ✙✘✒✚✇✫✙✱ ✗★ ✐✤✙

✚✏✐✗✏★ ✏✖ ✒ ✇✑✏❱✙✧✐✗✫✙ ✳★✔✙✑ ✐✤✙ ❡✙✑✐✗✧✒✫

❄✑✒❡✗✐✒✐✗✏★✒✫ ✖✏✑✧✙✱ ✐✤✙ ✤✏✑✗❣✏★✐✒✫ ✧✏✚✇✏★✙★✐

✏✖ ❡✙✫✏✧✗✐✕ ✑✙✚✒✗★✛ ✳★✧✤✒★❄✙✔ ✭✎✗❄☞ ☛☞☛✍☞

✥☞ ❚✤✙ ✛✙✧✏★✔ ✫✒✪ ✏✖✚✏✐✗✏★ ❄✗❡✙★ ✓✕ ✴✵☞ ✭☛☞☛✍ ✗✛

✒✇✇✫✗✧✒✓✫✙ ✐✏ ✒ ✛✗★❄✫✙ ✇✏✗★✐ ✇✒✑✐✗✧✫✙☞ ❚✤✙ ✖✏✑✧✙

✬ ✗★ ✐✤✙ ✫✒✪ ✛✐✒★✔✛ ✖✏✑ ✐✤✙ ★✙✐ ✙✘✐✙✑★✒✫ ✖✏✑✧✙

✏★ ✐✤✙ ✇✒✑✐✗✧✫✙ ✒★✔ ❛ ✛✐✒★✔✛ ✖✏✑ ✒✧✧✙✫✙✑✒✐✗✏★

✏✖ ✐✤✙ ✇✒✑✐✗✧✫✙☞ ■✐ ✐✳✑★✛ ✏✳✐✱ ✤✏✪✙❡✙✑✱ ✐✤✒✐ ✐✤✙

✫✒✪ ✗★ ✐✤✙ ✛✒✚✙ ✖✏✑✚ ✒✇✇✫✗✙✛ ✐✏ ✒ ✑✗❄✗✔ ✓✏✔✕

✏✑✱ ✙❡✙★ ✚✏✑✙ ❄✙★✙✑✒✫✫✕✱ ✐✏ ✒ ✛✕✛✐✙✚ ✏✖

✇✒✑✐✗✧✫✙✛☞ ■★ ✐✤✒✐ ✧✒✛✙✱ ✬ ✑✙✖✙✑✛ ✐✏ ✐✤✙ ✐✏✐✒✫

✙✘✐✙✑★✒✫ ✖✏✑✧✙ ✏★ ✐✤✙ ✛✕✛✐✙✚ ✒★✔ ❛ ✑✙✖✙✑✛ ✐✏

✐✤✙ ✒✧✧✙✫✙✑✒✐✗✏★ ✏✖ ✐✤✙ ✛✕✛✐✙✚ ✒✛ ✒✪✤✏✫✙☞ ❳✏✑✙

✇✑✙✧✗✛✙✫✕✱ ❛ ✗✛ ✐✤✙ ✒✧✧✙✫✙✑✒✐✗✏★ ✏✖ ✐✤✙ ✧✙★✐✑✙

✏✖✚✒✛✛ ✏✖ ✐✤✙ ✛✕✛✐✙✚☞ ❨♥❩ ❬♥❇❅❭♥❛❪ ❫❈❭❴❅❵ ❬♥

❇❜❅ ❵❩❵❇❅❝ ❛❭❅ ♥❈❇ ❇❈ ❢❅ ❬♥❴❪❤❥❅❥ ❬♥ ✬❧

♦qrs ✉s✉ ④⑤⑤⑥⑦⑥⑧⑨⑩❶❷❸ ⑨⑩ ⑨❸ ❶❸❹⑩⑨❸⑩ ❶❹ ❺⑥⑩⑥⑧❻❶❸⑥❺ ❼❽

⑩❾⑥ ❿❷⑧⑤⑥ ⑨⑩ ⑩❾⑨⑩ ❶❸❹⑩⑨❸⑩➀ ➁❾⑥ ❻❷❻⑥❸⑩ ⑨❿⑩⑥⑧ ⑨❹⑩❷❸⑥ ❶❹ ❺⑧❷➂➂⑥❺ ❷➃⑩ ❷❿ ⑨❸ ⑨⑤⑤⑥⑦⑥⑧⑨⑩⑥❺ ⑩⑧⑨❶❸➄❶⑩ ❾⑨❹ ❸❷ ❾❷⑧❶➅❷❸⑩⑨⑦ ⑨⑤⑤⑥⑦⑥⑧⑨⑩❶❷❸ ❷⑧ ❿❷⑧⑤⑥➄ ❶❿

⑨❶⑧ ⑧⑥❹❶❹⑩⑨❸⑤⑥ ❶❹ ❸⑥➆⑦⑥⑤⑩⑥❺➀ ➁❾⑥ ❹⑩❷❸⑥ ⑤⑨⑧⑧❶⑥❹❸❷ ❻⑥❻❷⑧❽ ❷❿ ❶⑩❹ ⑨⑤⑤⑥⑦⑥⑧⑨⑩❶❷❸ ➇❶⑩❾ ⑩❾⑥ ⑩⑧⑨❶❸⑨ ❻❷❻⑥❸⑩ ⑨➆❷➀

✲☞ ❚✤✙ ✛✙✧✏★✔ ✫✒✪ ✏✖ ✚✏✐✗✏★ ✗✛ ✒ ✫✏✧✒✫ ✑✙✫✒✐✗✏★

✪✤✗✧✤ ✚✙✒★✛ ✐✤✒✐ ✖✏✑✧✙ ✬ ✒✐ ✒ ✇✏✗★✐ ✗★ ✛✇✒✧✙

✭✫✏✧✒✐✗✏★ ✏✖ ✐✤✙ ✇✒✑✐✗✧✫✙✍ ✒✐ ✒ ✧✙✑✐✒✗★ ✗★✛✐✒★✐

✏✖ ✐✗✚✙ ✗✛ ✑✙✫✒✐✙✔ ✐✏ ❛ ✒✐ ✐✤✒✐ ✇✏✗★✐ ✒✐ ✐✤✒✐

✗★✛✐✒★✐☞ ➈✧✧✙✫✙✑✒✐✗✏★ ✤✙✑✙ ✒★✔ ★✏✪ ✗✛

✔✙✐✙✑✚✗★✙✔ ✓✕ ✐✤✙ ✖✏✑✧✙ ✤✙✑✙ ✒★✔ ★✏✪✱ ♥❈❇ ❢❩

❛♥❩ ❜❬❵❇❈❭❩ ❈❫ ❇❜❅ ❝❈❇❬❈♥ ❈❫ ❇❜❅ ➉❛❭❇❬❴❪❅

➊➋❅❅ ✬❬➌➍ ➎➍➎➏☞

➐➑➒➓➔→➣ ↔↕➙ ➈ ✓✳✫✫✙✐ ✏✖ ✚✒✛✛ ❊☞❊✲ ❃❄

✚✏❡✗★❄ ✪✗✐✤ ✒ ✛✇✙✙✔ ✏✖ ➛❊ ✚ ✛❀➜ ✙★✐✙✑✛ ✒

✤✙✒❡✕ ✪✏✏✔✙★ ✓✫✏✧❃ ✒★✔ ✗✛ ✛✐✏✇✇✙✔ ✒✖✐✙✑ ✒

✔✗✛✐✒★✧✙ ✏✖ ❯❊ ✧✚☞ ❲✤✒✐ ✗✛ ✐✤✙ ✒❡✙✑✒❄✙

✑✙✛✗✛✐✗❡✙ ✖✏✑✧✙ ✙✘✙✑✐✙✔ ✓✕ ✐✤✙ ✓✫✏✧❃ ✏★ ✐✤✙

✓✳✫✫✙✐➝

➞➟➠➡➣➢ ❚✤✙ ✑✙✐✒✑✔✒✐✗✏★ ➤➥➦ ✏✖ ✐✤✙ ✓✳✫✫✙✐

✭✒✛✛✳✚✙✔ ✧✏★✛✐✒★✐✍ ✗✛ ❄✗❡✙★ ✓✕

➧➨

➫◗

➭❘ ✯

➯ ➯➲ ➳➵ ➳➵➸ ➺ ➲ ➻➼➽➵ ➸ ➺

➾ ➵➚➻

➪ ➪×❂

×

Page 100: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✾✆

❚✞✟ ✠✟✡☛✠☞✌✍✎ ✏✑✠✒✟✓ ✔✕ ✡✞✟ ✖✟✒✑✍☞ ✗☛✘ ✑✏

♠✑✡✌✑✍✓ ✌✙

❂ ✚✛✚✜ ✢✎ ✣ ✤✥✦✚ ♠ ✙✲✧ ❂ ★✥✚ ✩

❚✞✟ ☛✒✡✪☛✫ ✠✟✙✌✙✡✌✬✟ ✏✑✠✒✟✓ ☛✍☞ ✡✞✟✠✟✏✑✠✟✓

✠✟✡☛✠☞☛✡✌✑✍ ✑✏ ✡✞✟ ✔✪✫✫✟✡ ♠☛✕ ✍✑✡ ✔✟✪✍✌✏✑✠♠✛ ❚✞✟

☛✍✙✘✟✠ ✡✞✟✠✟✏✑✠✟✓ ✑✍✫✕ ✌✍☞✌✒☛✡✟✙ ✡✞✟ ☛✬✟✠☛✎✟

✠✟✙✌✙✡✌✬✟ ✏✑✠✒✟✛ ✭

❊✮✯✰✱✳✴ ✵✶✷ ❚✞✟ ♠✑✡✌✑✍ ✑✏ ☛ ✸☛✠✡✌✒✫✟ ✑✏

♠☛✙✙♠ ✌✙ ☞✟✙✒✠✌✔✟☞ ✔✕ ✕ ❂ ✉✹ ❣✹✺✻

✽✛ ✿✌✍☞

✡✞✟ ✏✑✠✒✟ ☛✒✡✌✍✎ ✑✍ ✡✞✟ ✸☛✠✡✌✒✫✟✛

❆❀❁❃✴❄ ❲✟ ✢✍✑✘

❅❇

❈② ❉❋ ●❋❍ ■

✩✑✘✓

❏✈ ❑ ▲t

t▼ ▼ ◆

☛✒✒✟✫✟✠☛✡✌✑✍✓❞

✈❛ ▲

t▼ ▼

❚✞✟✍ ✡✞✟ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✌✙ ✎✌✬✟✍ ✔✕ ❖◗✛ ❘✦✛✦❙

✿ ❂ ♠☛ ❂ ♠✎ ✭

❚✞✪✙ ✡✞✟ ✎✌✬✟✍ ✟◗✪☛✡✌✑✍ ☞✟✙✒✠✌✔✟✙ ✡✞✟ ♠✑✡✌✑✍

✑✏ ☛ ✸☛✠✡✌✒✫✟ ✪✍☞✟✠ ☛✒✒✟✫✟✠☛✡✌✑✍ ☞✪✟ ✡✑ ✎✠☛✬✌✡✕

☛✍☞ ✕ ✌✙ ✡✞✟ ✸✑✙✌✡✌✑✍ ✒✑✑✠☞✌✍☛✡✟ ✌✍ ✡✞✟ ☞✌✠✟✒✡✌✑✍

✑✏ ✎✛

❯✰✱❱✳❁✴

❲✟ ✙✑♠✟✡✌♠✟✙ ✟✍✒✑✪✍✡✟✠ ✟✣☛♠✸✫✟✙✘✞✟✠✟ ☛ ✫☛✠✎✟

✏✑✠✒✟ ☛✒✡✙ ✏✑✠ ☛ ✬✟✠✕ ✙✞✑✠✡ ☞✪✠☛✡✌✑✍ ✸✠✑☞✪✒✌✍✎ ☛

✏✌✍✌✡✟ ✒✞☛✍✎✟ ✌✍ ♠✑♠✟✍✡✪♠ ✑✏ ✡✞✟ ✔✑☞✕✛ ✿✑✠

✟✣☛♠✸✫✟✓ ✘✞✟✍ ☛ ✔☛✫✫ ✞✌✡✙ ☛ ✘☛✫✫ ☛✍☞ ✔✑✪✍✒✟✙

✔☛✒✢✓ ✡✞✟ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✑✍ ✡✞✟ ✔☛✫✫ ✔✕ ✡✞✟ ✘☛✫✫ ☛✒✡✙ ✏✑✠ ☛

✬✟✠✕ ✙✞✑✠✡ ✡✌♠✟ ✘✞✟✍ ✡✞✟ ✡✘✑ ☛✠✟ ✌✍ ✒✑✍✡☛✒✡✓ ✕✟✡

✡✞✟ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✌✙ ✫☛✠✎✟ ✟✍✑✪✎✞ ✡✑ ✠✟✬✟✠✙✟ ✡✞✟♠✑♠✟✍✡✪♠

✑✏ ✡✞✟ ✔☛✫✫✛ ♦✏✡✟✍✓ ✌✍ ✡✞✟✙✟ ✙✌✡✪☛✡✌✑✍✙✓ ✡✞✟ ✏✑✠✒✟

☛✍☞ ✡✞✟ ✡✌♠✟ ☞✪✠☛✡✌✑✍ ☛✠✟ ☞✌✏✏✌✒✪✫✡ ✡✑ ☛✙✒✟✠✡☛✌✍

✙✟✸☛✠☛✡✟✫✕✛ ❳✑✘✟✬✟✠✓ ✡✞✟✸✠✑☞✪✒✡ ✑✏ ✏✑✠✒✟ ☛✍☞ ✡✌♠✟✓

✘✞✌✒✞ ✌✙ ✡✞✟ ✒✞☛✍✎✟ ✌✍ ♠✑♠✟✍✡✪♠ ✑✏ ✡✞✟ ✔✑☞✕

✠✟♠☛✌✍✙ ☛ ♠✟☛✙✪✠☛✔✫✟ ◗✪☛✍✡✌✡✕✛ ❚✞✌✙ ✸✠✑☞✪✒✡ ✌✙

✒☛✫✫✟☞ ✌♠✸✪✫✙✟❨

❩♠✸✪✫✙✟ ❂ ✿✑✠✒✟ ❬ ✡✌♠✟ ☞✪✠☛✡✌✑✍

❂ ❭✞☛✍✎✟ ✌✍ ♠✑♠✟✍✡✪♠ ❘✦✛✥❙

❪ ✫☛✠✎✟ ✏✑✠✒✟ ☛✒✡✌✍✎ ✏✑✠ ☛ ✙✞✑✠✡ ✡✌♠✟ ✡✑ ✸✠✑☞✪✒✟ ☛

✏✌✍✌✡✟ ✒✞☛✍✎✟ ✌✍ ♠✑♠✟✍✡✪♠ ✌✙ ✒☛✫✫✟☞ ☛✍ ✐❫❴❵❜❝✐❡❢

❤❥❦❧❢✛ ❩✍ ✡✞✟ ✞✌✙✡✑✠✕ ✑✏ ✙✒✌✟✍✒✟✓ ✌♠✸✪✫✙✌✬✟ ✏✑✠✒✟✙

✘✟✠✟✸✪✡ ✌✍ ☛✒✑✍✒✟✸✡✪☛✫✫✕ ☞✌✏✏✟✠✟✍✡ ✒☛✡✟✎✑✠✕ ✏✠✑♠

✑✠☞✌✍☛✠✕ ✏✑✠✒✟✙✛ ✩✟✘✡✑✍✌☛✍ ♠✟✒✞☛✍✌✒✙ ✞☛✙ ✍✑

✙✪✒✞☞✌✙✡✌✍✒✡✌✑✍✛ ❩♠✸✪✫✙✌✬✟ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✌✙ ✫✌✢✟ ☛✍✕ ✑✡✞✟✠

✏✑✠✒✟ ♥ ✟✣✒✟✸✡ ✡✞☛✡ ✌✡ ✌✙ ✫☛✠✎✟ ☛✍☞ ☛✒✡✙ ✏✑✠ ☛ ✙✞✑✠✡

✡✌♠✟✛

❊✮✯✰✱✳✴ ✵✶♣ ❪ ✔☛✡✙♠☛✍ ✞✌✡✙ ✔☛✒✢ ☛ ✔☛✫✫

✙✡✠☛✌✎✞✡ ✌✍ ✡✞✟☞✌✠✟✒✡✌✑✍ ✑✏ ✡✞✟✔✑✘✫✟✠✘✌✡✞✑✪✡

✒✞☛✍✎✌✍✎ ✌✡✙ ✌✍✌✡✌☛✫ ✙✸✟✟☞ ✑✏ q★ ♠ ✙➊r✛

❩✏ ✡✞✟ ♠☛✙✙ ✑✏ ✡✞✟ ✔☛✫✫ ✌✙ ✚✛q✦ ✢✎✓ ☞✟✡✟✠♠✌✍✟

✡✞✟ ✌♠✸✪✫✙✟ ✌♠✸☛✠✡✟☞ ✡✑ ✡✞✟ ✔☛✫✫✛ ❘❪✙✙✪♠✟

✫✌✍✟☛✠ ♠✑✡✌✑✍ ✑✏ ✡✞✟ ✔☛✫✫❙

❆❀❁❃✴❄ ❭✞☛✍✎✟ ✌✍ ♠✑♠✟✍✡✪♠

❂ ✚✛q✦ ❬ q★♥❘♥✚✛q✦❬q★❙

❂ s✛✤ ✩ ✙✓

❩♠✸✪✫✙✟ ❂ s✛✤ ✩ ✙✓

✌✍ ✡✞✟ ☞✌✠✟✒✡✌✑✍ ✏✠✑♠ ✡✞✟ ✔☛✡✙♠☛✍ ✡✑ ✡✞✟ ✔✑✘✫✟✠✛

❚✞✌✙ ✌✙ ☛✍ ✟✣☛♠✸✫✟ ✘✞✟✠✟ ✡✞✟ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✑✍ ✡✞✟ ✔☛✫✫

✔✕ ✡✞✟ ✔☛✡✙♠☛✍ ☛✍☞ ✡✞✟ ✡✌♠✟ ✑✏ ✒✑✍✡☛✒✡ ✑✏ ✡✞✟

✔☛✫✫ ☛✍☞ ✡✞✟ ✔☛✡ ☛✠✟ ☞✌✏✏✌✒✪✫✡ ✡✑ ✢✍✑✘✓ ✔✪✡ ✡✞✟

✌♠✸✪✫✙✟ ✌✙ ✠✟☛☞✌✫✕ ✒☛✫✒✪✫☛✡✟☞✛ ✭

✇①③ ④⑤⑥⑦⑧④⑨⑩ ⑦❶❷❸❹ ❺❻⑥⑧❼❽⑧⑦❷⑧④

❚✞✟ ✙✟✒✑✍☞ ✫☛✘ ✠✟✫☛✡✟✙ ✡✞✟ ✟✣✡✟✠✍☛✫ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✑✍ ☛

✔✑☞✕ ✡✑ ✌✡✙ ☛✒✒✟✫✟✠☛✡✌✑✍✛ ❲✞☛✡ ✌✙ ✡✞✟ ✑✠✌✎✌✍ ✑✏ ✡✞✟

✟✣✡✟✠✍☛✫ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✑✍ ✡✞✟ ✔✑☞✕ ❾ ❲✞☛✡ ☛✎✟✍✒✕

✸✠✑✬✌☞✟✙ ✡✞✟ ✟✣✡✟✠✍☛✫ ✏✑✠✒✟ ❾ ❚✞✟ ✙✌♠✸✫✟ ☛✍✙✘✟✠

✌✍ ✩✟✘✡✑✍✌☛✍ ♠✟✒✞☛✍✌✒✙ ✌✙ ✡✞☛✡ ✡✞✟ ✟✣✡✟✠✍☛✫

✏✑✠✒✟ ✑✍ ☛ ✔✑☞✕ ☛✫✘☛✕✙ ☛✠✌✙✟✙ ☞✪✟ ✡✑ ✙✑♠✟ ✑✡✞✟✠

✔✑☞✕✛ ❭✑✍✙✌☞✟✠ ☛ ✸☛✌✠ ✑✏ ✔✑☞✌✟✙ ❿ ☛✍☞ ➀✛ ➀ ✎✌✬✟✙

✠✌✙✟ ✡✑ ☛✍ ✟✣✡✟✠✍☛✫ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✑✍ ❿✛ ❪ ✍☛✡✪✠☛✫ ◗✪✟✙✡✌✑✍

✌✙❨ ➁✑✟✙ ❿ ✌✍ ✡✪✠✍ ✎✌✬✟ ✠✌✙✟ ✡✑ ☛✍ ✟✣✡✟✠✍☛✫ ✏✑✠✒✟

✑✍ ➀ ❾ ❩✍ ✙✑♠✟ ✟✣☛♠✸✫✟✙✓ ✡✞✟ ☛✍✙✘✟✠ ✙✟✟♠✙

✒✫✟☛✠✛ ❩✏ ✕✑✪ ✸✠✟✙✙ ☛ ✒✑✌✫✟☞ ✙✸✠✌✍✎✓ ✡✞✟ ✙✸✠✌✍✎ ✌✙

✒✑♠✸✠✟✙✙✟☞ ✔✕ ✡✞✟ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✑✏ ✕✑✪✠ ✞☛✍☞✛ ❚✞✟

✒✑♠✸✠✟✙✙✟☞ ✙✸✠✌✍✎ ✌✍ ✡✪✠✍ ✟✣✟✠✡✙ ☛ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✑✍ ✕✑✪✠

✞☛✍☞ ☛✍☞ ✕✑✪ ✒☛✍ ✏✟✟✫ ✌✡✛ ➂✪✡ ✘✞☛✡ ✌✏ ✡✞✟ ✔✑☞✌✟✙

☛✠✟ ✍✑✡ ✌✍ ✒✑✍✡☛✒✡ ❾ ❚✞✟ ✟☛✠✡✞ ✸✪✫✫✙ ☛ ✙✡✑✍✟

☞✑✘✍✘☛✠☞✙ ☞✪✟ ✡✑ ✎✠☛✬✌✡✕✛ ➁✑✟✙ ✡✞✟ ✙✡✑✍✟ ✟✣✟✠✡

☛ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✑✍ ✡✞✟ ✟☛✠✡✞ ❾ ❚✞✟ ☛✍✙✘✟✠ ✌✙ ✍✑✡ ✑✔✬✌✑✪✙

✙✌✍✒✟✘✟ ✞☛✠☞✫✕ ✙✟✟ ✡✞✟ ✟✏✏✟✒✡ ✑✏ ✡✞✟ ✙✡✑✍✟ ✑✍ ✡✞✟

✟☛✠✡✞✛ ❚✞✟ ☛✍✙✘✟✠ ☛✒✒✑✠☞✌✍✎ ✡✑ ✩✟✘✡✑✍ ✌✙❨ ➃✟✙✓

✡✞✟ ✙✡✑✍✟ ☞✑✟✙ ✟✣✟✠✡ ☛✍ ✟◗✪☛✫ ☛✍☞ ✑✸✸✑✙✌✡✟ ✏✑✠✒✟

✑✍ ✡✞✟ ✟☛✠✡✞✛ ❲✟ ☞✑ ✍✑✡ ✍✑✡✌✒✟ ✌✡ ✙✌✍✒✟ ✡✞✟ ✟☛✠✡✞

✌✙ ✬✟✠✕ ♠☛✙✙✌✬✟ ☛✍☞ ✡✞✟ ✟✏✏✟✒✡ ✑✏ ☛ ✙♠☛✫✫ ✏✑✠✒✟ ✑✍

✌✡✙ ♠✑✡✌✑✍ ✌✙ ✍✟✎✫✌✎✌✔✫✟✛

❚✞✪✙✓ ☛✒✒✑✠☞✌✍✎ ✡✑ ✩✟✘✡✑✍✌☛✍ ♠✟✒✞☛✍✌✒✙✓

✏✑✠✒✟ ✍✟✬✟✠ ✑✒✒✪✠✙ ✙✌✍✎✫✕ ✌✍ ✍☛✡✪✠✟✛ ✿✑✠✒✟ ✌✙ ✡✞✟

♠✪✡✪☛✫ ✌✍✡✟✠☛✒✡✌✑✍ ✔✟✡✘✟✟✍ ✡✘✑ ✔✑☞✌✟✙✛ ✿✑✠✒✟✙

Page 101: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✾✠

❛✡☛❛☞✌ ✍✎✎✏✑ ✒✓ ✔❛✒✑✌✕ ✖✏✑✗✘✙✑✱ ✗✘✙ ✚✏✗✏❛✡ ✛✍✑✎✙✌

❜✙✗☛✙✙✓ ✗☛✍ ❜✍✜✒✙✌ ❛✑✙ ❛✡☛❛☞✌ ✙✢✏❛✡ ❛✓✜

✍✔✔✍✌✒✗✙✕ ♦✘✒✌ ✒✜✙❛ ☛❛✌ ✙✣✔✑✙✌✌✙✜ ❜☞ ✤✙☛✗✍✓ ✒✓

✗✘✙ ✛✍✑✚ ✍✛ ✗✘✙ t✥✦✧★ ✩✪✫ ✬✭ ✮✬t✦✬✯✕

❚✬ ✰✲✰✧✳ ✪✴t✦✬✯✵ t✥✰✧✰ ✦✶ ✪✩✫✪✳✶ ✪✯ ✰✷✸✪✩ ✪✯★

✬✹✹✬✶✦t✰ ✧✰✪✴t✦✬✯✺

✤✙☛✗✍✓◆✌ ☛✍✑✜✒✓✻ ✍✛ ✗✘✙ ✗✘✒✑✜ ✡❛☛ ✒✌ ✌✍ ✎✑✒✌✔ ❛✓✜

❜✙❛✏✗✒✛✏✡ ✗✘❛✗ ✒✗ ✘❛✌ ❜✙✎✍✚✙ ❛ ✔❛✑✗ ✍✛ ✎✍✚✚✍✓

✡❛✓✻✏❛✻✙✕ ✖✍✑ ✗✘✙ ✌❛✚✙ ✑✙❛✌✍✓ ✔✙✑✘❛✔✌✱

✚✒✌✎✍✓✎✙✔✗✒✍✓✌ ❛❜✍✏✗ ✗✘✙ ✗✘✒✑✜ ✡❛☛ ❛❜✍✏✓✜✕ ♠✙✗

✏✌ ✓✍✗✙ ✌✍✚✙ ✒✚✔✍✑✗❛✓✗ ✔✍✒✓✗✌ ❛❜✍✏✗ ✗✘✙ ✗✘✒✑✜

✡❛☛✱ ✔❛✑✗✒✎✏✡❛✑✡☞ ✒✓ ✑✙✻❛✑✜ ✗✍ ✗✘✙ ✏✌❛✻✙ ✍✛ ✗✘✙

✗✙✑✚✌ ✼ ❛✎✗✒✍✓ ❛✓✜ ✑✙❛✎✗✒✍✓✺

✽✕ ♦✘✙ ✗✙✑✚✌ ❛✎✗✒✍✓ ❛✓✜ ✑✙❛✎✗✒✍✓ ✒✓ ✗✘✙ ✗✘✒✑✜ ✡❛☛

✚✙❛✓ ✓✍✗✘✒✓✻ ✙✡✌✙ ❜✏✗ ✿✛✍✑✎✙◆✕ ❀✌✒✓✻ ✜✒✛✛✙✑✙✓✗

✗✙✑✚✌ ✛✍✑ ✗✘✙ ✌❛✚✙ ✔✘☞✌✒✎❛✡ ✎✍✓✎✙✔✗

✎❛✓ ✌✍✚✙✗✒✚✙✌ ❜✙ ✎✍✓✛✏✌✒✓✻✕ ❝ ✌✒✚✔✡✙

❛✓✜ ✎✡✙❛✑ ☛❛☞ ✍✛ ✌✗❛✗✒✓✻ ✗✘✙ ✗✘✒✑✜ ✡❛☛ ✒✌ ❛✌

✛✍✡✡✍☛✌ ✼

❋✬✧✴✰✶ ✪✩✫✪✳✶ ✬✴✴✸✧ ✦✯ ✹✪✦✧✶❁ ❋✬✧✴✰ ✬✯ ✪

❂✬★✳ ❃ ❂✳ ❄ ✦✶ ✰✷✸✪✩ ✪✯★ ✬✹✹✬✶✦t✰ t✬ t✥✰

✭✬✧✴✰ ✬✯ t✥✰ ❂✬★✳ ❄ ❂✳ ❃❁

❅✕ ♦✘✙ ✗✙✑✚✌ ❛✎✗✒✍✓ ❛✓✜ ✑✙❛✎✗✒✍✓ ✒✓ ✗✘✙ ✗✘✒✑✜ ✡❛☛

✚❛☞ ✻✒❆✙ ❛ ☛✑✍✓✻ ✒✚✔✑✙✌✌✒✍✓ ✗✘❛✗ ❛✎✗✒✍✓

✎✍✚✙✌ ❜✙✛✍✑✙ ✑✙❛✎✗✒✍✓ ✒✕✙ ❛✎✗✒✍✓ ✒✌ ✗✘✙ ✎❛✏✌✙

❛✓✜ ✑✙❛✎✗✒✍✓ ✗✘✙ ✙✛✛✙✎✗✕ ❚✥✰✧✰ ✦✶ ✯✬ ✴✪✸✶✰❇

✰✭✭✰✴t ✧✰✩✪t✦✬✯ ✦✮✹✩✦✰★ ✦✯ t✥✰ t✥✦✧★ ✩✪✫❁ ❚✥✰

✭✬✧✴✰ ✬✯ ❈ ❂✳ ❉ ✪✯★ t✥✰ ✭✬✧✴✰ ✬✯ ❉ ❂✳ ❈ ✪✴t

✪t t✥✰ ✶✪✮✰ ✦✯✶t✪✯t❁ ❊☞ ✗✘✙ ✌❛✚✙ ✑✙❛✌✍✓✒✓✻✱

❛✓☞ ✍✓✙ ✍✛ ✗✘✙✚ ✚❛☞ ❜✙ ✎❛✡✡✙✜ ❛✎✗✒✍✓ ❛✓✜ ✗✘✙

✍✗✘✙✑ ✑✙❛✎✗✒✍✓✕

●✕ ❝✎✗✒✍✓ ❛✓✜ ✑✙❛✎✗✒✍✓ ✛✍✑✎✙✌ ❛✎✗ ✍✓ ✜✒✛✛✙✑✙✓✗

❜✍✜✒✙✌✱ ✓✍✗ ✍✓ ✗✘✙ ✌❛✚✙ ❜✍✜☞✕ ❍✍✓✌✒✜✙✑ ❛ ✔❛✒✑

✍✛ ❜✍✜✒✙✌ ■ ❛✓✜ ❏✕ ❝✎✎✍✑✜✒✓✻ ✗✍ ✗✘✙ ✗✘✒✑✜ ✡❛☛✱

❋❑▼ ❖ P ❋▼❑ ◗❘✕❙❯

◗✛✍✑✎✙ ✍✓ ■ ❜☞ ❏❯ ❱ ❲ ◗✛✍✑✎✙ ✍✓ ❏ ❜☞ ■❯

♦✘✏✌ ✒✛ ☛✙ ❛✑✙ ✎✍✓✌✒✜✙✑✒✓✻ ✗✘✙ ✚✍✗✒✍✓ ✍✛ ❛✓☞

✍✓✙ ❜✍✜☞ ◗■ ✍✑ ❏❯✱ ✍✓✡☞ ✍✓✙ ✍✛ ✗✘✙ ✗☛✍ ✛✍✑✎✙✌ ✒✌

✑✙✡✙❆❛✓✗✕ r✗ ✒✌ ❛✓ ✙✑✑✍✑ ✗✍ ❛✜✜✏✔ ✗✘✙ ✗☛✍ ✛✍✑✎✙✌

❛✓✜ ✎✡❛✒✚ ✗✘❛✗ ✗✘✙ ✓✙✗ ✛✍✑✎✙ ✒✌ ❳✙✑✍✕

❨✍☛✙❆✙✑✱ ✒✛ ☞✍✏ ❛✑✙ ✎✍✓✌✒✜✙✑✒✓✻ ✗✘✙ ✌☞✌✗✙✚

✍✛ ✗☛✍ ❜✍✜✒✙✌ ❛✌ ❛ ☛✘✍✡✙✱ ❋❑▼ ❛✓✜ ❋▼❑ ❛✑✙

✒✓✗✙✑✓❛✡ ✛✍✑✎✙✌ ✍✛ ✗✘✙ ✌☞✌✗✙✚ ◗■ ❩ ❏❯✕ ♦✘✙☞ ❛✜✜

✏✔ ✗✍ ✻✒❆✙ ❛ ✓✏✡✡ ✛✍✑✎✙✕ r✓✗✙✑✓❛✡ ✛✍✑✎✙✌ ✒✓ ❛

❜✍✜☞ ✍✑ ❛ ✌☞✌✗✙✚ ✍✛ ✔❛✑✗✒✎✡✙✌ ✗✘✏✌ ✎❛✓✎✙✡ ❛☛❛☞

✒✓ ✔❛✒✑✌✕ ♦✘✒✌ ✒✌ ❛✓ ✒✚✔✍✑✗❛✓✗ ✛❛✎✗ ✗✘❛✗

✙✓❛❜✡✙✌ ✗✘✙ ✌✙✎✍✓✜ ✡❛☛ ✗✍ ❜✙ ❛✔✔✡✒✎❛❜✡✙ ✗✍ ❛

❜✍✜☞ ✍✑ ❛ ✌☞✌✗✙✚ ✍✛ ✔❛✑✗✒✎✡✙✌ ◗❬✙✙ ❍✘❛✔✗✙✑ ❭❯✕

❪❫❴❴❵ ❞❡❢❣❤✐ ❥❦❧♥♣ q ❦s♣s✉

✈✇①①② ③④⑤⑥⑦⑧ ⑤①✇ ⑨⑦⑩⑧ ❶⑧ ❷⑦⑦❸✇⑥❹⑦⑩❺④❻ ❼⑧❽❸①⑧❾ ❶⑧ ❿➀➁➂❻ ⑥❹④ ➃④①⑩ ➄①❸❶❸④⑦ ❾❶④❾➅

➆❶✇ ④➇⑥⑩①⑦⑩❾❶⑧①⑩➃ ➈①⑥❹④➈①⑥❶②①❸ ①⑨❶❸❶⑥➃ ①⑧❾➈④②❹①⑧❶②①❸ ①❺⑥❶⑥➉❾④ ⑩④➈①❶⑧④❾ ❹❶❾❾④⑧

➊⑩⑦➈ ⑦⑥❹④⑩✇ ❶⑧ ❹❶✇ ✇②❹⑦⑦❸ ❸❶➊④➅ ✈⑧ ❿➀➀➂❻ ❹④ ⑤④⑧⑥ ⑥⑦ ➋①➈⑨⑩❶❾❽④ ➊⑦⑩ ➉⑧❾④⑩❽⑩①❾➉①⑥④

✇⑥➉❾❶④✇➅ ➌ ❺❸①❽➉④ ④❺❶❾④➈❶② ❶⑧ ❿➀➀➍ ➊⑦⑩②④❾ ⑥❹④ ➉⑧❶➎④⑩✇❶⑥➃ ⑥⑦⑤⑧ ⑥⑦ ②❸⑦✇④ ①⑧❾ ③④⑤⑥⑦⑧

❹①❾ ⑥⑦ ⑩④⑥➉⑩⑧ ⑥⑦ ❹❶✇ ➈⑦⑥❹④⑩➏✇ ➊①⑩➈➅ ➐❹④⑩④ ❶⑧ ⑥⑤⑦ ➃④①⑩✇ ⑦➊ ✇⑦❸❶⑥➉❾④❻ ❹❶✇ ❾⑦⑩➈①⑧⑥

②⑩④①⑥❶➎❶⑥➃ ⑨❸⑦✇✇⑦➈④❾ ❶⑧ ① ❾④❸➉❽④ ⑦➊ ➊➉⑧❾①➈④⑧⑥①❸ ❾❶✇②⑦➎④⑩❶④✇ ❶⑧ ➈①⑥❹④➈①⑥❶②✇ ①⑧❾

❺❹➃✇❶②✇ ➑ ⑨❶⑧⑦➈❶①❸ ⑥❹④⑦⑩④➈ ➊⑦⑩ ⑧④❽①⑥❶➎④ ①⑧❾ ➊⑩①②⑥❶⑦⑧①❸ ④➇❺⑦⑧④⑧⑥✇❻ ⑥❹④ ⑨④❽❶⑧⑧❶⑧❽ ⑦➊

②①❸②➉❸➉✇❻ ⑥❹④ ❶⑧➎④⑩✇④ ✇➒➉①⑩④ ❸①⑤ ⑦➊ ❽⑩①➎❶⑥①⑥❶⑦⑧❻ ⑥❹④ ✇❺④②⑥⑩➉➈ ⑦➊ ⑤❹❶⑥④ ❸❶❽❹⑥❻ ①⑧❾ ✇⑦

⑦⑧➅ ➓④⑥➉⑩⑧❶⑧❽ ⑥⑦ ➋①➈⑨⑩❶❾❽④❻ ❹④ ❺➉⑩✇➉④❾ ❹❶✇ ❶⑧➎④✇⑥❶❽①⑥❶⑦⑧✇ ❶⑧ ⑦❺⑥❶②✇ ①⑧❾ ❾④➎❶✇④❾ ①

⑩④➊❸④②⑥❶⑧❽ ⑥④❸④✇②⑦❺④➅

✈⑧ ❿➀➔➁❻ ④⑧②⑦➉⑩①❽④❾ ⑨➃ ❹❶✇ ➊⑩❶④⑧❾ ❼❾➈➉⑧❾ ➆①❸❸④➃❻ ③④⑤⑥⑦⑧ ④➈⑨①⑩→④❾ ⑦⑧ ⑤⑩❶⑥❶⑧❽ ⑤❹①⑥ ⑤①✇ ⑥⑦ ⑨④ ⑦⑧④ ⑦➊

⑥❹④ ❽⑩④①⑥④✇⑥ ✇②❶④⑧⑥❶➊❶② ⑤⑦⑩→✇ ④➎④⑩ ❺➉⑨❸❶✇❹④❾ ➑ ➐❹④ ➣⑩❶⑧②❶❺❶① ↔①⑥❹④➈①⑥❶②①➅ ✈⑧ ❶⑥❻ ❹④ ④⑧➉⑧②❶①⑥④❾ ⑥❹④ ⑥❹⑩④④

❸①⑤✇ ⑦➊ ➈⑦⑥❶⑦⑧ ①⑧❾ ⑥❹④ ➉⑧❶➎④⑩✇①❸ ❸①⑤ ⑦➊ ❽⑩①➎❶⑥①⑥❶⑦⑧❻ ⑤❹❶②❹ ④➇❺❸①❶⑧④❾ ①❸❸ ⑥❹④ ⑥❹⑩④④ ↕④❺❸④⑩➏✇ ❸①⑤✇ ⑦➊

❺❸①⑧④⑥①⑩➃ ➈⑦⑥❶⑦⑧➅ ➐❹④ ⑨⑦⑦→ ⑤①✇ ❺①②→④❾ ⑤❶⑥❹ ① ❹⑦✇⑥ ⑦➊ ❺①⑥❹➙⑨⑩④①→❶⑧❽ ①②❹❶④➎④➈④⑧⑥✇ ➑ ⑨①✇❶② ❺⑩❶⑧②❶❺❸④✇ ⑦➊

➊❸➉❶❾ ➈④②❹①⑧❶②✇❻ ➈①⑥❹④➈①⑥❶②✇ ⑦➊ ⑤①➎④ ➈⑦⑥❶⑦⑧❻ ②①❸②➉❸①⑥❶⑦⑧ ⑦➊ ➈①✇✇④✇ ⑦➊ ⑥❹④ ④①⑩⑥❹❻ ⑥❹④ ✇➉⑧ ①⑧❾ ⑦⑥❹④⑩

❺❸①⑧④⑥✇❻ ④➇❺❸①⑧①⑥❶⑦⑧ ⑦➊ ⑥❹④ ❺⑩④②④✇✇❶⑦⑧ ⑦➊ ④➒➉❶⑧⑦➇④✇❻ ⑥❹④⑦⑩➃ ⑦➊ ⑥❶❾④✇❻ ④⑥②➅ ✈⑧ ❿➛➜➁❻ ③④⑤⑥⑦⑧ ⑨⑩⑦➉❽❹⑥ ⑦➉⑥

①⑧⑦⑥❹④⑩ ➈①✇⑥④⑩❺❶④②④ ➝❺⑥❶②→✇ ⑥❹①⑥ ✇➉➈➈①⑩❶➞④❾ ❹❶✇ ⑤⑦⑩→ ⑦⑧ ❸❶❽❹⑥ ①⑧❾ ②⑦❸⑦➉⑩➅

➐❹④ ✇②❶④⑧⑥❶➊❶② ⑩④➎⑦❸➉⑥❶⑦⑧ ⑥⑩❶❽❽④⑩④❾ ⑨➃ ➋⑦❺④⑩⑧❶②➉✇ ①⑧❾ ✇⑥④④⑩④❾ ➎❶❽⑦⑩⑦➉✇❸➃ ①❹④①❾ ⑨➃ ↕④❺❸④⑩ ①⑧❾ ➄①❸❶❸④⑦

⑤①✇ ⑨⑩⑦➉❽❹⑥ ⑥⑦ ① ❽⑩①⑧❾ ②⑦➈❺❸④⑥❶⑦⑧ ⑨➃ ③④⑤⑥⑦⑧➅ ③④⑤⑥⑦⑧❶①⑧ ➈④②❹①⑧❶②✇ ➉⑧❶➊❶④❾ ⑥④⑩⑩④✇⑥⑩❶①❸ ①⑧❾ ②④❸④✇⑥❶①❸

❺❹④⑧⑦➈④⑧①➅ ➐❹④ ✇①➈④ ➈①⑥❹④➈①⑥❶②①❸ ④➒➉①⑥❶⑦⑧ ❽⑦➎④⑩⑧④❾ ⑥❹④ ➊①❸❸ ⑦➊ ①⑧ ①❺❺❸④ ⑥⑦ ⑥❹④ ❽⑩⑦➉⑧❾ ①⑧❾ ⑥❹④

➈⑦⑥❶⑦⑧ ⑦➊ ⑥❹④ ➈⑦⑦⑧ ①⑩⑦➉⑧❾ ⑥❹④ ④①⑩⑥❹➅ ➐❹④ ①❽④ ⑦➊ ⑩④①✇⑦⑧ ❹①❾ ❾①⑤⑧④❾➅

Page 102: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✾✆

✝❊✞✟✠✡☛☞ ✌✍✌ ❚✇✎ ✏✑✒✓✔✏✕✖✗ ✘✏✗✗✏✖✙✑ ✘✖✗✗✚✚✔✙✏s✒ ✖ ✙✏✛✏✑ ✇✖✗✗ ✇✏✔✜ ✔✜✒ ✚✖✢✒ ✚✣✒✒✑ ✘✤✔✖✔ ✑✏❛❛✒✙✒✓✔✖✓✛✗✒✚✥ ✖✓✑ ✛✒✔ ✙✒❛✗✒✕✔✒✑ ✇✏✔✜✎✤✔✖✓✦ ✕✜✖✓✛✒ ✏✓ ✚✣✒✒✑✥ ✖✚ ✚✜✎✇✓ ✏✓ ✧✏✛❣ ✺❣★❣❲✜✖✔ ✏✚ ✩✏✪ ✔✜✒ ✑✏✙✒✕✔✏✎✓ ✎❛ ✔✜✒ ❛✎✙✕✒ ✎✓ ✔✜✒✇✖✗✗ ✑✤✒ ✔✎ ✒✖✕✜ ✘✖✗✗✫ ✩✏✏✪ ✔✜✒ ✙✖✔✏✎ ✎❛ ✔✜✒✢✖✛✓✏✔✤✑✒✚ ✎❛ ✏✢✣✤✗✚✒✚ ✏✢✣✖✙✔✒✑ ✔✎ ✔✜✒✘✖✗✗✚ ✘✦ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✫

❋✬✭✮ ✯✮✰

❆✱✲✳☞✴ ✵✓ ✏✓✚✔✏✓✕✔✏✶✒ ✖✓✚✇✒✙ ✔✎ ✩✏✪ ✢✏✛✜✔ ✘✒✔✜✖✔ ✔✜✒ ❛✎✙✕✒ ✎✓ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✏✓ ✕✖✚✒ ✩✖✪ ✏✚ ✓✎✙✢✖✗ ✔✎✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗✥ ✇✜✏✗✒ ✔✜✖✔ ✏✓ ✕✖✚✒ ✩✘✪ ✏✚ ✏✓✕✗✏✓✒✑ ✖✔ t✷✸✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✓✎✙✢✖✗❣ ❚✜✏✚ ✖✓✚✇✒✙ ✏✚ ✇✙✎✓✛❣ ❚✜✒ ❛✎✙✕✒✎✓ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✏✚ ✓✎✙✢✖✗ ✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✏✓ ✘✎✔✜ ✕✖✚✒✚❣

❍✎✇ ✔✎ ❛✏✓✑ ✔✜✒ ❛✎✙✕✒ ✎✓ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗✫ ❚✜✒ ✔✙✏✕s ✏✚✔✎ ✕✎✓✚✏✑✒✙ ✔✜✒ ❛✎✙✕✒ ✩✎✙ ✏✢✣✤✗✚✒✪ ✎✓ ✔✜✒ ✘✖✗✗✑✤✒ ✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✤✚✏✓✛ ✔✜✒ ✚✒✕✎✓✑ ✗✖✇✥ ✖✓✑ ✔✜✒✓✤✚✒ ✔✜✒ ✔✜✏✙✑ ✗✖✇ ✔✎ ✖✓✚✇✒✙ ✩✏✪❣ ✉✒✔ ✹ ✘✒ ✔✜✒ ✚✣✒✒✑✎❛ ✒✖✕✜ ✘✖✗✗ ✘✒❛✎✙✒ ✖✓✑ ✖❛✔✒✙ ✕✎✗✗✏✚✏✎✓ ✇✏✔✜ ✔✜✒✇✖✗✗✥ ✖✓✑ ✢ ✔✜✒ ✢✖✚✚ ✎❛ ✒✖✕✜ ✘✖✗✗❣ ✻✜✎✎✚✒ ✔✜✒ ✼✖✓✑ ✦ ✖✼✒✚ ✖✚ ✚✜✎✇✓ ✏✓ ✔✜✒ ❛✏✛✤✙✒✥ ✖✓✑ ✕✎✓✚✏✑✒✙✔✜✒ ✕✜✖✓✛✒ ✏✓ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢ ✎❛ ✔✜✒ ✘✖✗✗ ✏✓ ✒✖✕✜✕✖✚✒ ❝

✻✖✚✒ ✩✖✪

✽ ✿ ❀ ❁✐❂✐❃✐❄❧ ✐❂✐❃✐❄❧ ❅① ❇♣ ♠❈ ♣❉ ❉

● ■ ❏ ❑❢▲▼◆❖❢▲▼◆❖ ◗❘ ❙❯ ❱❳ ❯❨ ❩ ❨

❬✢✣✤✗✚✒ ✏✚ ✔✜✒ ✕✜✖✓✛✒ ✏✓ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢ ✶✒✕✔✎✙❣❚✜✒✙✒❛✎✙✒✥

❭❪✕✎✢✣✎✓✒✓✔ ✎❛ ✏✢✣✤✗✚✒ ❫ ❴ ❵ ❜ ✹②❪✕✎✢✣✎✓✒✓✔ ✎❛ ✏✢✣✤✗✚✒ ❫ ✷

❬✢✣✤✗✚✒ ✖✓✑ ❛✎✙✕✒ ✖✙✒ ✏✓ ✔✜✒ ✚✖✢✒ ✑✏✙✒✕✔✏✎✓❣✻✗✒✖✙✗✦✥ ❛✙✎✢ ✖✘✎✶✒✥ ✔✜✒ ❛✎✙✕✒ ✎✓ ✔✜✒ ✘✖✗✗ ✑✤✒ ✔✎✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✏✚ ✓✎✙✢✖✗ ✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗✥ ✖✗✎✓✛ ✔✜✒ ✓✒✛✖✔✏✶✒✼❪✑✏✙✒✕✔✏✎✓❣ ❞✚✏✓✛ ❡✒✇✔✎✓❤✚ ✔✜✏✙✑ ✗✖✇ ✎❛ ✢✎✔✏✎✓✥✔✜✒ ❛✎✙✕✒ ✎✓ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✑✤✒ ✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✘✖✗✗ ✏✚ ✓✎✙✢✖✗ ✔✎✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✖✗✎✓✛ ✔✜✒ ✣✎✚✏✔✏✶✒ ✼❪✑✏✙✒✕✔✏✎✓❣ ❚✜✒

✢✖✛✓✏✔✤✑✒ ✎❛ ❛✎✙✕✒ ✕✖✓✓✎✔ ✘✒ ✖✚✕✒✙✔✖✏✓✒✑ ✚✏✓✕✒✔✜✒ ✚✢✖✗✗ ✔✏✢✒ ✔✖s✒✓ ❛✎✙ ✔✜✒ ✕✎✗✗✏✚✏✎✓ ✜✖✚ ✓✎✔✘✒✒✓ ✚✣✒✕✏❛✏✒✑ ✏✓ ✔✜✒ ✣✙✎✘✗✒✢❣

✻✖✚✒ ✩✘✪

❥ ❦ ♥♦q r✈③④③⑤③⑥⑦⑧⑨ ⑩ ❶❷ o ❸ ❹ ❺ ❻❼❽ ❾❿➀➁➀➂➀➃➄➅➆ ➇ ➈➉ ➊ o

➋ ➌ ➍ ♥♦q r✈➎③④⑥⑦⑧⑨ ⑩ ❶❷ o ❸ ➏ ➐ ➑➒➓ ➔→➣↔↕➙➛➜➝ ➞ ➟➠ ➡ o

❡✎✔✒✥ ✇✜✏✗✒ ➢➤ ✕✜✖✓✛✒✚ ✚✏✛✓ ✖❛✔✒✙ ✕✎✗✗✏✚✏✎✓✥ ➢➥✑✎✒✚ ✓✎✔❣ ❚✜✒✙✒❛✎✙✒✥

❭❪✕✎✢✣✎✓✒✓✔ ✎❛ ✏✢✣✤✗✚✒ ❫ ❴❵ ❜ ✹ ✕✎✚ t✷✸②❪✕✎✢✣✎✓✒✓✔ ✎❛ ✏✢✣✤✗✚✒ ❫ ✷

❚✜✒ ✑✏✙✒✕✔✏✎✓ ✎❛ ✏✢✣✤✗✚✒ ✩✖✓✑ ❛✎✙✕✒✪ ✏✚ ✔✜✒ ✚✖✢✒✖✚ ✏✓ ✩✖✪ ✖✓✑ ✏✚ ✓✎✙✢✖✗ ✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✖✗✎✓✛ ✔✜✒✓✒✛✖✔✏✶✒ ✼ ✑✏✙✒✕✔✏✎✓❣ ✵✚ ✘✒❛✎✙✒✥ ✤✚✏✓✛ ❡✒✇✔✎✓❤✚✔✜✏✙✑ ✗✖✇✥ ✔✜✒ ❛✎✙✕✒ ✎✓ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✑✤✒ ✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✘✖✗✗ ✏✚✓✎✙✢✖✗ ✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✇✖✗✗ ✖✗✎✓✛ ✔✜✒ ✣✎✚✏✔✏✶✒ ✼ ✑✏✙✒✕✔✏✎✓❣

❚✜✒ ✙✖✔✏✎ ✎❛ ✔✜✒ ✢✖✛✓✏✔✤✑✒✚ ✎❛ ✔✜✒ ✏✢✣✤✗✚✒✚✏✢✣✖✙✔✒✑ ✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✘✖✗✗✚ ✏✓ ✩✖✪ ✖✓✑ ✩✘✪ ✏✚

➦ ➧➨

➨ ➩ ➨ ➫➭➯➲➳ ➵➸➨➲

➺ ➻ ➺ ➻ ➼ ➽o ➾

➚➪➶ ➹➘➴➷➬➮➱✃❐❒➘➴ ➘❮ ❰➘❰➬➴❐Ï❰

❚✜✒ ✚✒✕✎✓✑ ✖✓✑ ✔✜✒ ✔✜✏✙✑ ✗✖✇✚ ✎❛ ✢✎✔✏✎✓ ✗✒✖✑ ✔✎✖✓ ✏✢✣✎✙✔✖✓✔ ✕✎✓✚✒Ð✤✒✓✕✒❝ ✔✜✒ ✗✖✇ ✎❛✕✎✓✚✒✙✶✖✔✏✎✓ ✎❛ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢❣ ❚✖s✒ ✖ ❛✖✢✏✗✏✖✙✒✼✖✢✣✗✒❣ ✵ ✘✤✗✗✒✔ ✏✚ ❛✏✙✒✑ ❛✙✎✢ ✖ ✛✤✓❣ ❬❛ ✔✜✒ ❛✎✙✕✒✎✓ ✔✜✒ ✘✤✗✗✒✔ ✘✦ ✔✜✒ ✛✤✓ ✏✚ ❮✥ ✔✜✒ ❛✎✙✕✒ ✎✓ ✔✜✒ ✛✤✓✘✦ ✔✜✒ ✘✤✗✗✒✔ ✏✚ Ñ ❮✥ ✖✕✕✎✙✑✏✓✛ ✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✔✜✏✙✑ ✗✖✇❣❚✜✒ ✔✇✎ ❛✎✙✕✒✚ ✖✕✔ ❛✎✙ ✖ ✕✎✢✢✎✓ ✏✓✔✒✙✶✖✗ ✎❛ ✔✏✢✒ÒÓ❣ ✵✕✕✎✙✑✏✓✛ ✔✎ ✔✜✒ ✚✒✕✎✓✑ ✗✖✇✥ ❮ ÒÓ ✏✚ ✔✜✒✕✜✖✓✛✒ ✏✓ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢ ✎❛ ✔✜✒ ✘✤✗✗✒✔ ✖✓✑ Ñ ❮ ÒÓ ✏✚✔✜✒ ✕✜✖✓✛✒ ✏✓ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢ ✎❛ ✔✜✒ ✛✤✓❣ Ô✏✓✕✒✏✓✏✔✏✖✗✗✦✥ ✘✎✔✜ ✖✙✒ ✖✔ ✙✒✚✔✥ ✔✜✒ ✕✜✖✓✛✒ ✏✓✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢ ✒Ð✤✖✗✚ ✔✜✒ ❛✏✓✖✗ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢ ❛✎✙ ✒✖✕✜❣❚✜✤✚ ✏❛ ÕÖ ✏✚ ✔✜✒ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢ ✎❛ ✔✜✒ ✘✤✗✗✒✔ ✖❛✔✒✙❛✏✙✏✓✛ ✖✓✑ Õ× ✏✚ ✔✜✒ ✙✒✕✎✏✗ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢ ✎❛ ✔✜✒ ✛✤✓✥Õ× Ø Ñ ÕÖ ÙÚÛÚ ÕÖ Ü Õ× Ø ✷❣ ❚✜✖✔ ✏✚✥ ✔✜✒ ✔✎✔✖✗✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢ ✎❛ ✔✜✒ ✩✘✤✗✗✒✔ Ý ✛✤✓✪ ✚✦✚✔✒✢ ✏✚✕✎✓✚✒✙✶✒✑❣

❚✜✤✚ ✏✓ ✖✓ ✏✚✎✗✖✔✒✑ ✚✦✚✔✒✢ ✩✏❣✒❣ ✖ ✚✦✚✔✒✢ ✇✏✔✜✓✎ ✒✼✔✒✙✓✖✗ ❛✎✙✕✒✪✥ ✢✤✔✤✖✗ ❛✎✙✕✒✚ ✘✒✔✇✒✒✓ ✣✖✏✙✚✎❛ ✣✖✙✔✏✕✗✒✚ ✏✓ ✔✜✒ ✚✦✚✔✒✢ ✕✖✓ ✕✖✤✚✒ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢✕✜✖✓✛✒ ✏✓ ✏✓✑✏✶✏✑✤✖✗ ✣✖✙✔✏✕✗✒✚✥ ✘✤✔ ✚✏✓✕✒ ✔✜✒✢✤✔✤✖✗ ❛✎✙✕✒✚ ❛✎✙ ✒✖✕✜ ✣✖✏✙ ✖✙✒ ✒Ð✤✖✗ ✖✓✑✎✣✣✎✚✏✔✒✥ ✔✜✒ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢✕✜✖✓✛✒✚ ✕✖✓✕✒✗ ✏✓ ✣✖✏✙✚✖✓✑ ✔✜✒ ✔✎✔✖✗ ✢✎✢✒✓✔✤✢ ✙✒✢✖✏✓✚ ✤✓✕✜✖✓✛✒✑❣❚✜✏✚ ❛✖✕✔ ✏✚ s✓✎✇✓ ✖✚ ✔✜✒ Þßà áâ ãáäåæçèßéêáäáâ ëáëæäéìë ❝

Page 103: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✾✾

❚✡☛ ☞✌☞✍✎ ✏✌✏☛✑☞✒✏ ✌✓ ✍✑ ✔✕✌✎✍☞☛✖ ✕✗✕☞☛✏✌✓ ✔✑☞☛♦✍✘☞✔✑✙ ✚✍♦☞✔✘✎☛✕ ✔✕ ✘✌✑✕☛♦✛☛✖✜

❆✢ ✣✤✥✦✧★✩✢★ ✪✫✩✤✥✬✪ ✦✭ ★✮✪ ✩✥✥✬✣✯✩★✣✦✢ ✦✭ ★✮✪✬✩❧ ✦✭ ✯✦✢✰✪✧✱✩★✣✦✢ ✦✭ ✤✦✤✪✢★✲✤ ✣✰ ★✮✪ ✯✦✬✬✣✰✣✦✢✦✭ ★❧✦ ✳✦✴✣✪✰✵ ✶✦✢✰✣✴✪✧ ★❧✦ ✳✦✴✣✪✰ ❆ ✩✢✴✷✸ ❧✣★✮✣✢✣★✣✩✬ ✤✦✤✪✢★✩ ✚✹ ✩✢✴ ✚❇✵ ✺✮✪ ✳✦✴✣✪✰ ✯✦✬✬✣✴✪✸❣✪★ ✩✥✩✧★✸ ❧✣★✮ ✭✣✢✩✬ ✤✦✤✪✢★✩ ✚✻ ✹ ✩✢✴ ✚✻ ❇✧✪✰✥✪✯★✣✱✪✬r✵ ✷r ★✮✪ ✼✪✯✦✢✴ ✽✩❧

❋ ✿ ✿❀❁ ❀ ❀t❂ ❃ ❄ ❾ ✩✢✴

❋ ✿ ✿❁❀ ❁ ❁t❂ ❃ ❄ ❾

❅❧✮✪✧✪ ❧✪ ✮✩✱✪ ★✩❈✪✢ ✩ ✯✦✤✤✦✢ ✣✢★✪✧✱✩✬ ✦✭ ★✣✤✪✭✦✧ ✳✦★✮ ✭✦✧✯✪✰ ✣✵✪✵ ★✮✪ ★✣✤✪ ✭✦✧ ❧✮✣✯✮ ★✮✪ ★❧✦✳✦✴✣✪✰ ✩✧✪ ✣✢ ✯✦✢★✩✯★✵❜

✼✣✢✯✪ ❉ ❉❊● ●❊❍ ■ ✳r ★✮✪ ★✮✣✧✴ ✬✩❧✸

❏ ❑▼ ◆ ❖ ◆ ▼ ◆♣ ♣ ♣ ♣P P ◗ ◗

✣✵✪✵ ❘ ❙ ❘ ❍ ❙❯ ❯ ❯ ❯❊ ● ❊ ● ❅❱✵❲❜

❧✮✣✯✮ ✰✮✦❧✰ ★✮✩★ ★✮✪ ★✦★✩✬ ✭✣✢✩✬ ✤✦✤✪✢★✲✤ ✦✭★✮✪ ✣✰✦✬✩★✪✴ ✰r✰★✪✤ ✪❳✲✩✬✰ ✣★✰ ✣✢✣★✣✩✬✤✦✤✪✢★✲✤✵❨✦★✣✯✪ ★✮✩★ ★✮✣✰ ✣✰ ★✧✲✪ ❧✮✪★✮✪✧ ★✮✪ ✯✦✬✬✣✰✣✦✢ ✣✰✪✬✩✰★✣✯ ✦✧ ✣✢✪✬✩✰★✣✯✵ ❡✢ ✪✬✩✰★✣✯ ✯✦✬✬✣✰✣✦✢✰✸ ★✮✪✧✪ ✣✰✩ ✰✪✯✦✢✴ ✯✦✢✴✣★✣✦✢ ★✮✩★ ★✮✪ ★✦★✩✬ ✣✢✣★✣✩✬ ❈✣✢✪★✣✯✪✢✪✧❣r ✦✭ ★✮✪ ✰r✰★✪✤ ✪❳✲✩✬✰ ★✮✪ ★✦★✩✬ ✭✣✢✩✬ ❈✣✢✪★✣✯✪✢✪✧❣r ❅✼✪✪ ✶✮✩✥★✪✧ ❩❜✵

❬✜❭ ❪❫❴❵❛❵❝❞❵❴❢❤✐❥ ❦❥❞❚❵♠❛❪

♥❳✲✣✬✣✳✧✣✲✤ ✦✭ ✩ ✥✩✧★✣✯✬✪ ✣✢ ✤✪✯✮✩✢✣✯✰ ✧✪✭✪✧✰ ★✦★✮✪ ✰✣★✲✩★✣✦✢ ❧✮✪✢ ★✮✪ ✢✪★ ✪✫★✪✧✢✩✬ ✭✦✧✯✪ ✦✢ ★✮✪✥✩✧★✣✯✬✪ ✣✰ q✪✧✦✵s ❆✯✯✦✧✴✣✢❣ ★✦ ★✮✪ ✭✣✧✰★ ✬✩❧✸ ★✮✣✰✤✪✩✢✰ ★✮✩★✸ ★✮✪ ✥✩✧★✣✯✬✪ ✣✰ ✪✣★✮✪✧ ✩★ ✧✪✰★ ✦✧ ✣✢✲✢✣✭✦✧✤✤✦★✣✦✢✵❡✭ ★❧✦ ✭✦✧✯✪✰ ✐✉ ✩✢✴ ✐✈✸ ✩✯★ ✦✢ ✩ ✥✩✧★✣✯✬✪✸

✪❳✲✣✬✣✳✧✣✲✤ ✧✪❳✲✣✧✪✰

✐✉ ✇ ①✐✈ ❅❱✵②③❜

✣✵✪✵ ★✮✪ ★❧✦ ✭✦✧✯✪✰ ✦✢ ★✮✪ ✥✩✧★✣✯✬✪ ✤✲✰★ ✳✪ ✪❳✲✩✬✩✢✴ ✦✥✥✦✰✣★✪✵ ♥❳✲✣✬✣✳✧✣✲✤ ✲✢✴✪✧ ★✮✧✪✪✯✦✢✯✲✧✧✪✢★ ✭✦✧✯✪✰ ✐✉✸ ✐✈ ✩✢✴ ✐④ ✧✪❳✲✣✧✪✰ ★✮✩★★✮✪ ✱✪✯★✦✧ ✰✲✤ ✦✭ ★✮✪ ★✮✧✪✪ ✭✦✧✯✪✰ ✣✰ q✪✧✦✵

✐✉ ⑤ ✐✈ ⑤ ✐④ ✇ ③ ❅❱✵②②❜

⑥ ⑦⑧⑨⑩❶⑩❷❸⑩⑨❹ ❺❻ ❼ ❷❺❽❿ ❸➀⑧⑨⑩❸➀➁ ➂❺➃ ❺➂❶❿ ➃❸❼➂➁❶❼➃⑩❺➂❼❶ ➀⑧⑨⑩❶⑩❷❸⑩⑨❹ ➄➅➀❸❺ ➂➀➃ ➀➆➃➀❸➂❼❶ ❻❺❸➇➀➈ ❷⑨➃ ❼❶➁❺ ❸❺➃❼➃⑩❺➂❼❶➀⑧⑨⑩❶⑩❷❸⑩⑨❹ ➄➅➀❸❺ ➂➀➃ ➀➆➃➀❸➂❼❶ ➃❺❸⑧⑨➀➈➉ ❼➁➊➀ ➁➋❼❶❶ ➁➀➀ ⑩➂ ➌➋❼➍➃➀❸ ➎➏

➐➑➒➓ ➔➓→ ⑦⑧⑨⑩❶⑩❷❸⑩⑨❹ ⑨➂❽➀❸ ➇❺➂➇⑨❸❸➀➂➃ ❻❺❸➇➀➁➏

❡✢ ✦★✮✪✧ ❧✦✧✴✰✸ ★✮✪ ✧✪✰✲✬★✩✢★ ✦✭ ✩✢r ★❧✦ ✭✦✧✯✪✰✰✩r ✐✉ ✩✢✴ ✐✈✸ ✦✳★✩✣✢✪✴ ✳r ★✮✪ ✥✩✧✩✬✬✪✬✦❣✧✩✤✬✩❧ ✦✭ ✭✦✧✯✪✰ ✤✲✰★ ✳✪ ✪❳✲✩✬ ✩✢✴ ✦✥✥✦✰✣★✪ ★✦ ★✮✪★✮✣✧✴ ✭✦✧✯✪✸ ✐④✵ ❆✰ ✰✪✪✢ ✣✢ ➣✣❣✵ ❱✵↔✸ ★✮✪ ★✮✧✪✪✭✦✧✯✪✰ ✣✢ ✪❳✲✣✬✣✳✧✣✲✤ ✯✩✢ ✳✪ ✧✪✥✧✪✰✪✢★✪✴ ✳r ★✮✪✰✣✴✪✰ ✦✭ ✩ ★✧✣✩✢❣✬✪ ❧✣★✮ ★✮✪ ✱✪✯★✦✧ ✩✧✧✦❧✰ ★✩❈✪✢✣✢ ★✮✪ ✰✩✤✪ ✰✪✢✰✪✵ ✺✮✪ ✧✪✰✲✬★ ✯✩✢ ✳✪❣✪✢✪✧✩✬✣✰✪✴ ★✦ ✩✢r ✢✲✤✳✪✧ ✦✭ ✭✦✧✯✪✰✵ ❆ ✥✩✧★✣✯✬✪✣✰ ✣✢ ✪❳✲✣✬✣✳✧✣✲✤ ✲✢✴✪✧ ★✮✪ ✩✯★✣✦✢ ✦✭ ✭✦✧✯✪✰ ✐✉✸✐✈✸✵✵✵ ✐↕ ✣✭ ★✮✪r ✯✩✢ ✳✪ ✧✪✥✧✪✰✪✢★✪✴ ✳r ★✮✪ ✰✣✴✪✰✦✭ ✩ ✯✬✦✰✪✴ ✢➙✰✣✴✪✴ ✥✦✬r❣✦✢❧✣★✮ ✩✧✧✦❧✰ ✴✣✧✪✯★✪✴✣✢ ★✮✪ ✰✩✤✪ ✰✪✢✰✪✵

♥❳✲✩★✣✦✢ ❅❱✵②②❜ ✣✤✥✬✣✪✰ ★✮✩★

➛➜➝ ➞ ➛➟➝ ➞ ➛➠➝ ➡ ③

➛➜➢ ➞ ➛➟➢ ➞ ➛➠➢ ➡ ③

➛➜➤ ➞ ➛➟➤ ➞ ➛➠➤ ➡ ③ ❅❱✵②➥❜

❧✮✪✧✪ ➛✉➦✸ ➛✉➧ ✩✢✴ ➛✉➨ ✩✧✪ ★✮✪ ✯✦✤✥✦✢✪✢★✰ ✦✭ ➛✉✩✬✦✢❣ ➩✸ ➫ ✩✢✴ ➭ ✴✣✧✪✯★✣✦✢✰ ✧✪✰✥✪✯★✣✱✪✬r✵

➯➲➳➵➸➺➻ ➼➽➾ ✼✪✪ ➣✣❣✵ ❱✵➚ ❆ ✤✩✰✰ ✦✭ ❩ ❈❣✣✰ ✰✲✰✥✪✢✴✪✴ ✳r ✩ ✧✦✥✪ ✦✭ ✬✪✢❣★✮ ➥ ✤✭✧✦✤ ★✮✪ ✯✪✣✬✣✢❣✵ ❆ ✭✦✧✯✪ ✦✭ ❱③ ❨ ✣✢ ★✮✪✮✦✧✣q✦✢★✩✬ ✴✣✧✪✯★✣✦✢ ✣✰ ✩✥✥✬✣✪✴ ✩★ ★✮✪✤✣✴➙✥✦✣✢★ ➪ ✦✭ ★✮✪ ✧✦✥✪✸ ✩✰ ✰✮✦❧✢✵ ➶✮✩★ ✣✰ ★✮✪✩✢❣✬✪ ★✮✪ ✧✦✥✪ ✤✩❈✪✰ ❧✣★✮ ★✮✪ ✱✪✧★✣✯✩✬ ✣✢✪❳✲✣✬✣✳✧✣✲✤ ➹ ❅✺✩❈✪ ➘ ✇ ②③ ✤ ✰➴✈❜✵ ❨✪❣✬✪✯★★✮✪ ✤✩✰✰ ✦✭ ★✮✪ ✧✦✥✪✵

➷➬➮ ➷➱➮ ➷✃➮➐➑➒➓ ➔➓❐

Page 104: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✆

❆✝✞✟✠✡ ✥☛☞✌✍✎✏ ✑✒✓✔✕✖ ✗✘✙ ✑✒✓✔✚✖ ✗✍✎ ✛✘✜✢✘ ✗✏❢✍✎✎✣✕✜✙✤ ✙☛✗☞✍✗✦✏✒ ✥☛☞✌✍✎ ✑✒✓✔✕✖ ☛✏ ✧★✎ ❢✍✎✎✣✕✜✙✤✙☛✗☞✍✗✦ ✜❢ ❞ ✗✘✙ ✥☛☞✒ ✑✒✓✔✚✖ ☛✏ ✧★✎ ❢✍✎✎✣✕✜✙✤✙☛✗☞✍✗✦ ✜❢ ✩✜☛✘✧ ✪✒

❈✜✘✏☛✙✎✍ ✧★✎ ✎✫✌☛✬☛✕✍☛✌✦ ✜❢ ✧★✎ ✢✎☛☞★✧ ❞✒❈✬✎✗✍✬✤✭❚✷ ✮ ✯ ✰ ✱✲ ✮ ✯✲ ✳✒

❈✜✘✏☛✙✎✍ ✧★✎ ✎✫✌☛✬☛✕✍☛✌✦ ✜❢ ✧★✎ ✩✜☛✘✧ ✪ ✌✘✙✎✍✧★✎ ✗✚✧☛✜✘ ✜❢ ✧★✍✎✎ ❢✜✍✚✎✏ ✣ ✧★✎ ✧✎✘✏☛✜✘✏ ❚✴ ✗✘✙❚✷✭ ✗✘✙ ✧★✎ ★✜✍☛✵✜✘✧✗✬ ❢✜✍✚✎ ✑✲ ✳✒ ✸★✎ ★✜✍☛✵✜✘✧✗✬✗✘✙ ❛✎✍✧☛✚✗✬ ✚✜✦✩✜✘✎✘✧✏ ✜❢ ✧★✎ ✍✎✏✌✬✧✗✘✧ ❢✜✍✚✎✦✌✏✧ ❛✗✘☛✏★ ✏✎✩✗✍✗✧✎✬✤ ♠

❚✴ ✚✜✏ ✹ ✮ ❚✷ ✮ ✯✲ ✳

❚✴ ✏☛✘ ✹ ✮ ✑✲ ✳✢★☛✚★ ☞☛❛✎✏ ✧★✗✧

✺✻ ✻t✼♥ ♦r t✼♥ ✽✾

✿ ✿

❾ ❀ ❁❂ ❂ ❂❃ ❄❅ ❇

o❉ ❉

✳✜✧✎ ✧★✎ ✗✘✏✢✎✍ ✙✜✎✏ ✘✜✧ ✙✎✩✎✘✙ ✜✘ ✧★✎ ✬✎✘☞✧★✜❢ ✧★✎ ✍✜✩✎ ✔✗✏✏✌✦✎✙ ✦✗✏✏✬✎✏✏✖ ✘✜✍ ✜✘ ✧★✎ ✩✜☛✘✧✗✧ ✢★☛✚★ ✧★✎ ★✜✍☛✵✜✘✧✗✬ ❢✜✍✚✎ ☛✏ ✗✩✩✬☛✎✙✒ ❊

❋●❍ ■❏❑❑❏▲ ▼❏◆■❖◗ ❘▲❑❖■❙❯▲❘■◗

❱✘ ✦✎✚★✗✘☛✚✏✭ ✢✎ ✎✘✚✜✌✘✧✎✍ ✏✎❛✎✍✗✬ ✛☛✘✙✏ ✜❢❢✜✍✚✎✏✒ ✸★✎ ☞✍✗❛☛✧✗✧☛✜✘✗✬ ❢✜✍✚✎ ☛✏✭ ✜❢ ✚✜✌✍✏✎✭ ✗✬✬✩✎✍❛✗✏☛❛✎✒ ♣❛✎✍✤ ✜✕❲✎✚✧ ✜✘ ✧★✎ ✎✗✍✧★ ✎❳✩✎✍☛✎✘✚✎✏✧★✎ ❢✜✍✚✎ ✜❢ ☞✍✗❛☛✧✤ ✙✌✎ ✧✜ ✧★✎ ✎✗✍✧★✒ ❨✍✗❛☛✧✤ ✗✬✏✜☞✜❛✎✍✘✏ ✧★✎ ✦✜✧☛✜✘ ✜❢ ✚✎✬✎✏✧☛✗✬ ✕✜✙☛✎✏✒ ✸★✎☞✍✗❛☛✧✗✧☛✜✘✗✬ ❢✜✍✚✎ ✚✗✘ ✗✚✧ ✗✧ ✗ ✙☛✏✧✗✘✚✎ ✢☛✧★✜✌✧✧★✎ ✘✎✎✙ ✜❢ ✗✘✤ ☛✘✧✎✍❛✎✘☛✘☞ ✦✎✙☛✌✦✒❩✬✬ ✧★✎ ✜✧★✎✍ ❢✜✍✚✎✏ ✚✜✦✦✜✘ ☛✘ ✦✎✚★✗✘☛✚✏ ✗✍✎

✚✜✘✧✗✚✧ ❢✜✍✚✎✏✒❬ ❩✏ ✧★✎ ✘✗✦✎ ✏✌☞☞✎✏✧✏✭ ✗ ✚✜✘✧✗✚✧❢✜✍✚✎ ✜✘ ✗✘ ✜✕❲✎✚✧ ✗✍☛✏✎✏✙✌✎ ✧✜ ✚✜✘✧✗✚✧✢☛✧★ ✏✜✦✎✜✧★✎✍ ✜✕❲✎✚✧♠ ✏✜✬☛✙ ✜✍ ❢✬✌☛✙✒ ❞★✎✘ ✕✜✙☛✎✏ ✗✍✎ ☛✘✚✜✘✧✗✚✧ ✔✎✒☞✒ ✗ ✕✜✜✛ ✍✎✏✧☛✘☞ ✜✘ ✗ ✧✗✕✬✎✭ ✗ ✏✤✏✧✎✦✜❢ ✍☛☞☛✙ ✕✜✙☛✎✏ ✚✜✘✘✎✚✧✎✙ ✕✤ ✍✜✙✏✭ ★☛✘☞✎✏ ✗✘✙

✜✧★✎✍ ✧✤✩✎✏ ✜❢ ✏✌✩✩✜✍✧✏✖✭ ✧★✎✍✎ ✗✍✎ ✦✌✧✌✗✬✚✜✘✧✗✚✧ ❢✜✍✚✎✏ ✔❢✜✍ ✎✗✚★ ✩✗☛✍ ✜❢ ✕✜✙☛✎✏✖ ✏✗✧☛✏❢✤☛✘☞✧★✎ ✧★☛✍✙ ✬✗✢✒ ✸★✎ ✚✜✦✩✜✘✎✘✧ ✜❢ ✚✜✘✧✗✚✧ ❢✜✍✚✎✘✜✍✦✗✬ ✧✜ ✧★✎ ✏✌✍❢✗✚✎✏ ☛✘ ✚✜✘✧✗✚✧ ☛✏ ✚✗✬✬✎✙✘✜✍✦✗✬ ✍✎✗✚✧☛✜✘✒ ✸★✎ ✚✜✦✩✜✘✎✘✧ ✩✗✍✗✬✬✎✬ ✧✜ ✧★✎✏✌✍❢✗✚✎✏ ☛✘ ✚✜✘✧✗✚✧ ☛✏ ✚✗✬✬✎✙ ❢✍☛✚✧☛✜✘✒ ❈✜✘✧✗✚✧❢✜✍✚✎✏ ✗✍☛✏✎ ✗✬✏✜ ✢★✎✘ ✏✜✬☛✙✏ ✗✍✎ ☛✘ ✚✜✘✧✗✚✧ ✢☛✧★❢✬✌☛✙✏✒ ✥✜✍ ✎❳✗✦✩✬✎✭ ❢✜✍ ✗ ✏✜✬☛✙ ☛✦✦✎✍✏✎✙ ☛✘ ✗❢✬✌☛✙✭ ✧★✎✍✎ ☛✏ ✗✘ ✌✩✢✗✍✙ ✕✜✌✤✗✘✧ ❢✜✍✚✎ ✎✫✌✗✬ ✧✜✧★✎ ✢✎☛☞★✧ ✜❢ ✧★✎ ❢✬✌☛✙ ✙☛✏✩✬✗✚✎✙✒ ✸★✎ ❛☛✏✚✜✌✏❢✜✍✚✎✭ ✗☛✍ ✍✎✏☛✏✧✗✘✚✎✭ ✎✧✚ ✗✍✎ ✗✬✏✜ ✎❳✗✦✩✬✎✏ ✜❢✚✜✘✧✗✚✧ ❢✜✍✚✎✏ ✔✥☛☞✒ ✑✒❝✖✒

✸✢✜ ✜✧★✎✍ ✚✜✦✦✜✘ ❢✜✍✚✎✏ ✗✍✎ ✧✎✘✏☛✜✘ ☛✘ ✗

✏✧✍☛✘☞ ✗✘✙ ✧★✎ ❢✜✍✚✎ ✙✌✎ ✧✜ ✏✩✍☛✘☞✒ ❞★✎✘ ✗ ✏✩✍☛✘☞☛✏ ✚✜✦✩✍✎✏✏✎✙ ✜✍ ✎❳✧✎✘✙✎✙ ✕✤ ✗✘ ✎❳✧✎✍✘✗✬ ❢✜✍✚✎✭✗ ✍✎✏✧✜✍☛✘☞ ❢✜✍✚✎ ☛✏ ☞✎✘✎✍✗✧✎✙✒ ✸★☛✏ ❢✜✍✚✎ ☛✏✌✏✌✗✬✬✤ ✩✍✜✩✜✍✧☛✜✘✗✬ ✧✜ ✧★✎ ✚✜✦✩✍✎✏✏☛✜✘ ✜✍✎✬✜✘☞✗✧☛✜✘ ✔❢✜✍ ✏✦✗✬✬ ✙☛✏✩✬✗✚✎✦✎✘✧✏✖✒ ✸★✎ ✏✩✍☛✘☞❢✜✍✚✎ ❭ ☛✏ ✢✍☛✧✧✎✘ ✗✏ ❭ ❪ ❫ ❴ ❵ ✢★✎✍✎ ❵ ☛✏ ✧★✎✙☛✏✩✬✗✚✎✦✎✘✧ ✗✘✙ ❴ ☛✏ ✧★✎ ❢✜✍✚✎ ✚✜✘✏✧✗✘✧✒ ✸★✎✘✎☞✗✧☛❛✎ ✏☛☞✘ ✙✎✘✜✧✎✏ ✧★✗✧ ✧★✎ ❢✜✍✚✎ ☛✏ ✜✩✩✜✏☛✧✎✧✜ ✧★✎ ✙☛✏✩✬✗✚✎✦✎✘✧ ❢✍✜✦ ✧★✎ ✌✘✏✧✍✎✧✚★✎✙ ✏✧✗✧✎✒✥✜✍ ✗✘ ☛✘✎❳✧✎✘✏☛✕✬✎ ✏✧✍☛✘☞✭ ✧★✎ ❢✜✍✚✎ ✚✜✘✏✧✗✘✧ ☛✏❛✎✍✤ ★☛☞★✒ ✸★✎ ✍✎✏✧✜✍☛✘☞ ❢✜✍✚✎ ☛✘ ✗ ✏✧✍☛✘☞ ☛✏ ✚✗✬✬✎✙✧✎✘✏☛✜✘✒ ❱✧ ☛✏ ✚✌✏✧✜✦✗✍✤ ✧✜ ✌✏✎ ✗ ✚✜✘✏✧✗✘✧ ✧✎✘✏☛✜✘❚ ✧★✍✜✌☞★✜✌✧ ✧★✎ ✏✧✍☛✘☞✒ ✸★☛✏ ✗✏✏✌✦✩✧☛✜✘ ☛✏ ✧✍✌✎❢✜✍ ✗ ✏✧✍☛✘☞ ✜❢ ✘✎☞✬☛☞☛✕✬✎ ✦✗✏✏✒❱✘ ❈★✗✩✧✎✍ ✱✭ ✢✎ ✬✎✗✍✘✧ ✧★✗✧ ✧★✎✍✎ ✗✍✎ ❢✜✌✍

❢✌✘✙✗✦✎✘✧✗✬ ❢✜✍✚✎✏ ☛✘ ✘✗✧✌✍✎✒ ❜❢ ✧★✎✏✎✭ ✧★✎✢✎✗✛✗✘✙ ✏✧✍✜✘☞ ❢✜✍✚✎✏ ✗✩✩✎✗✍ ☛✘ ✙✜✦✗☛✘✏ ✧★✗✧ ✙✜ ✘✜✧✚✜✘✚✎✍✘ ✌✏ ★✎✍✎✒ ❜✘✬✤ ✧★✎ ☞✍✗❛☛✧✗✧☛✜✘✗✬ ✗✘✙✎✬✎✚✧✍☛✚✗✬ ❢✜✍✚✎✏ ✗✍✎ ✍✎✬✎❛✗✘✧ ☛✘ ✧★✎ ✚✜✘✧✎❳✧ ✜❢✦✎✚★✗✘☛✚✏✒ ✸★✎ ✙☛❢❢✎✍✎✘✧ ✚✜✘✧✗✚✧ ❢✜✍✚✎✏ ✜❢✦✎✚★✗✘☛✚✏ ✦✎✘✧☛✜✘✎✙ ✗✕✜❛✎ ❢✌✘✙✗✦✎✘✧✗✬✬✤ ✗✍☛✏✎❢✍✜✦✎✬✎✚✧✍☛✚✗✬ ❢✜✍✚✎✏✒ ✸★☛✏ ✦✗✤ ✏✎✎✦ ✏✌✍✩✍☛✏☛✘☞

❬ ❡❣ ❤✐❣ ❥❦❧ q❦❥s✉✈❣✐✉❥✇① ②❦✐ s✉③④⑤✉q✉❧⑥① q⑦❤✐✇❣✈ ❤❥✈ ③❤✇❥❣❧✉q ⑧❦✈✉❣s⑨ ⑩❦✐ ❧⑦❣s❣① ⑧❣s✉✈❣s ✇✐❤❶✉❧⑥① ❧⑦❣✐❣ ❤✐❣❣⑤❣q❧✐✉q❤⑤ ❤❥✈③❤✇❥❣❧✉q ❥❦❥❷q❦❥❧❤q❧ ②❦✐q❣s⑨

❸❹❺❻ ❼❻❽ ❿❦③❣ ❣➀❤③④⑤❣s ❦② q❦❥❧❤q❧ ②❦✐q❣s ✉❥ ③❣q⑦❤❥✉qs⑨

Page 105: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✶✠✶

s✡☛☞✌ ✍✌ ✎✏✌ ✑✎✒✓✡☛✔ ✕✖ ✗☛☞✘✎✏✔✌✙ ✎☛✙ ☛✕☛✚♠✎✔☛✌✑✡☞ ✛✕✙✡✌s ✡☛♠✌☞✘✎☛✡☞s✜ ✢✑ ✑✘✌♠✡☞✏✕s☞✕t✡☞✒✌❧✌✒✣ ✎✒✒ ✛✕✙✡✌s ✎✏✌♠✎✙✌ ✕✖ ☞✘✎✏✔✌✙ ☞✕☛s✑✡✑✗✌☛✑s✭☛✗☞✒✌✡ ✎☛✙ ✌✒✌☞✑✏✕☛s✤ ✎☛✙ ✑✘✌ ❧✎✏✡✕✗s ☞✕☛✑✎☞✑✖✕✏☞✌s ✎✏✡s✡☛✔ ✙✗✌✑✕ ✌✒✎s✑✡☞✡✑❢ ✕✖ ✛✕✙✡✌s✣ ♠✕✒✌☞✗✒✎✏☞✕✒✒✡s✡✕☛s ✎☛✙ ✡♠t✎☞✑s✣ ✌✑☞✜ ☞✎☛ ✗✒✑✡♠✎✑✌✒❢ ✛✌✑✏✎☞✌✙ ✑✕ ✑✘✌ ✌✒✌☞✑✏✡☞✎✒ ✖✕✏☞✌s✛✌✑✍✌✌☛ ✑✘✌ ☞✘✎✏✔✌✙☞✕☛s✑✡✑✗✌☛✑s ✕✖ ✙✡✖✖✌✏✌☛✑ ✛✕✙✡✌s✜ ❝✘✌ ✙✌✑✎✡✒✌✙♠✡☞✏✕s☞✕t✡☞ ✕✏✡✔✡☛ ✕✖ ✑✘✌s✌ ✖✕✏☞✌s ✡s✣ ✘✕✍✌❧✌✏✣☞✕♠t✒✌✥ ✎☛✙ ☛✕✑ ✗s✌✖✗✒ ✖✕✏ ✘✎☛✙✒✡☛✔ t✏✕✛✒✌♠s ✡☛♠✌☞✘✎☛✡☞s ✎✑ ✑✘✌♠✎☞✏✕s☞✕t✡☞ s☞✎✒✌✜ ❝✘✡s ✡s ✍✘❢✑✘✌❢ ✎✏✌ ✑✏✌✎✑✌✙ ✎s ✙✡✖✖✌✏✌☛✑ ✑❢t✌s ✕✖ ✖✕✏☞✌s ✍✡✑✘✑✘✌✡✏ ☞✘✎✏✎☞✑✌✏✡s✑✡☞ t✏✕t✌✏✑✡✌s ✙✌✑✌✏♠✡☛✌✙✌♠t✡✏✡☞✎✒✒❢✜

✺✦✧✦★ ✩✪✫✬✮✫✯✰

✱✌✑ ✗s ✏✌✑✗✏☛ ✑✕ ✑✘✌ ✌✥✎♠t✒✌ ✕✖ ✎ ✛✕✙❢ ✕✖ ♠✎ss♠✎✑ ✏✌s✑ ✕☛ ✎ ✘✕✏✡❛✕☛✑✎✒ ✑✎✛✒✌✜ ❝✘✌ ✖✕✏☞✌ ✕✖ ✔✏✎❧✡✑❢✭✲✳✤ ✡s ☞✎☛☞✌✒✒✌✙ ✛❢ ✑✘✌ ☛✕✏♠✎✒ ✏✌✎☞✑✡✕☛ ✖✕✏☞✌✭✴✤ ✕✖ ✑✘✌ ✑✎✛✒✌✜ ✴✕✍ s✗tt✕s✌ ✎ ✖✕✏☞✌ ❋ ✡s ✎tt✒✡✌✙✘✕✏✡❛✕☛✑✎✒✒❢ ✑✕ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢✜ ❤✌ ✓☛✕✍ ✖✏✕♠✌✥t✌✏✡✌☛☞✌ ✑✘✎✑ ✎ s♠✎✒✒ ✎tt✒✡✌✙ ✖✕✏☞✌ ♠✎❢ ☛✕✑✛✌ ✌☛✕✗✔✘ ✑✕ ♠✕❧✌ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢✜ ❜✗✑ ✡✖ ✑✘✌ ✎tt✒✡✌✙✖✕✏☞✌ ❋ ✍✌✏✌ ✑✘✌ ✕☛✒❢ ✌✥✑✌✏☛✎✒ ✖✕✏☞✌ ✕☛ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢✣✡✑ ♠✗s✑ ♠✕❧✌ ✍✡✑✘ ✎☞☞✌✒✌✏✎✑✡✕☛ ❋✵✲✣ ✘✕✍✌❧✌✏s♠✎✒✒✜ ✷✒✌✎✏✒❢✣ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢ ✏✌♠✎✡☛s ✎✑ ✏✌s✑ ✛✌☞✎✗s✌s✕♠✌ ✕✑✘✌✏ ✖✕✏☞✌ ☞✕♠✌s ✡☛✑✕ t✒✎❢ ✡☛ ✑✘✌✘✕✏✡❛✕☛✑✎✒ ✙✡✏✌☞✑✡✕☛ ✎☛✙ ✕tt✕s✌s ✑✘✌ ✎tt✒✡✌✙✖✕✏☞✌ ❋✣ ✏✌s✗✒✑✡☛✔ ✡☛ ❛✌✏✕ ☛✌✑ ✖✕✏☞✌ ✕☛ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢✜❝✘✡s ✖✕✏☞✌ ✸✹ t✎✏✎✒✒✌✒ ✑✕ ✑✘✌ s✗✏✖✎☞✌ ✕✖ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢ ✡☛☞✕☛✑✎☞✑ ✍✡✑✘ ✑✘✌ ✑✎✛✒✌ ✡s ✓☛✕✍☛ ✎s ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛✎✒✖✕✏☞✌✣ ✕✏ s✡♠t✒❢ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛ ✭✻✡✔✜ ✼✜✽✾✭✎✤✤✜ ❝✘✌s✗✛s☞✏✡t✑ s✑✎☛✙s ✖✕✏ s✑✎✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛ ✑✕ ✙✡s✑✡☛✔✗✡s✘✡✑ ✖✏✕♠ ✓✡☛✌✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛ ✸❦ ✑✘✎✑ ✍✌ ☞✕☛s✡✙✌✏ ✒✎✑✌✏✭✻✡✔✜ ✼✜✽✾✭✛✤✤✜ ✴✕✑✌ ✑✘✎✑ s✑✎✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛ ✙✕✌s ☛✕✑

✿❀❁❂ ❃❂❄❅ ❙❆❇❆❈❉ ❇❊● ❍■❈●❈❊❏ ❑▼❈❉❆❈◆❊❖ P❇◗ ❘❚❯❱❊●❈❊❏❚◆❆❈◆❊ ◆❑ ❆❲❱ ❳◆●❨ ❈❍ ◆❯❯◆❍❱● ❳❨ ❍❆❇❆❈❉❑▼❈❉❆❈◆❊❩ ❬❲❱❊ ❱❭❆❱▼❊❇■ ❑◆▼❉❱ ❱❭❉❱❱●❍ ❆❲❱❚❇❭❈❚❪❚ ■❈❚❈❆ ◆❑ ❍❆❇❆❈❉ ❑▼❈❉❆❈◆❊❫ ❆❲❱ ❳◆●❨❳❱❏❈❊❍ ❆◆ ❚◆❴❱❩ P❳◗ ❵❊❉❱ ❆❲❱ ❳◆●❨ ❈❍ ❈❊❚◆❆❈◆❊❫ ❈❆ ❈❍ ❍❪❳❞❱❉❆ ❆◆❍■❈●❈❊❏ ◆▼❡❈❊❱❆❈❉ ❑▼❈❉❆❈◆❊✇❲❈❉❲ ◆❯❯◆❍❱❍ ▼❱■❇❆❈❴❱ ❚◆❆❈◆❊ ❳❱❆✇❱❱❊ ❆❲❱❆✇◆ ❍❪▼❑❇❉❱❍ ❈❊ ❉◆❊❆❇❉❆❩ ❣❈❊❱❆❈❉ ❑▼❈❉❆❈◆❊ ❈❍❪❍❪❇■■❨ ■❱❍❍ ❆❲❇❊ ❆❲❱❚❇❭❈❚❪❚❴❇■❪❱ ◆❑❍❆❇❆❈❉❑▼❈❉❆❈◆❊❩

✌✥✡s✑ ✛❢ ✡✑s✌✒✖✜ ❤✘✌☛ ✑✘✌✏✌ ✡s ☛✕ ✎tt✒✡✌✙ ✖✕✏☞✌✣✑✘✌✏✌ ✡s ☛✕ s✑✎✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛✜ ✐✑ ☞✕♠✌s ✡☛✑✕ t✒✎❢ ✑✘✌♠✕♠✌☛✑ ✑✘✌✏✌ ✡s ✎☛ ✎tt✒✡✌✙ ✖✕✏☞✌✜ ✢s ✑✘✌ ✎tt✒✡✌✙✖✕✏☞✌ ❋ ✡☛☞✏✌✎s✌s✣ ✸✹ ✎✒s✕ ✡☛☞✏✌✎s✌s✣ ✏✌♠✎✡☛✡☛✔✌❥✗✎✒ ✎☛✙ ✕tt✕s✡✑✌ ✑✕ ✑✘✌ ✎tt✒✡✌✙ ✖✕✏☞✌ ✭✗t ✑✕ ✎☞✌✏✑✎✡☛ ✒✡♠✡✑✤✣ ✓✌✌t✡☛✔ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢ ✎✑ ✏✌s✑✜ ♥✌☛☞✌✣ ✡✑✡s ☞✎✒✒✌✙ ♦✮♣✮✫✬ q✪✫✬✮✫✯✰✜ r✑✎✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛ ✕tt✕s✌s✫✉✈①✰②✫✰③✉✯✮✫✯✰✜ ❝✘✌ ✑✌✏♠ ✡♠t✌☛✙✡☛✔♠✕✑✡✕☛♠✌✎☛s ♠✕✑✡✕☛ ✑✘✎✑ ✍✕✗✒✙ ✑✎✓✌ t✒✎☞✌ ✭✛✗✑ ✙✕✌s☛✕✑ ✎☞✑✗✎✒✒❢ ✑✎✓✌ t✒✎☞✌✤ ✗☛✙✌✏ ✑✘✌ ✎tt✒✡✌✙ ✖✕✏☞✌✣✡✖ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛ ✍✌✏✌ ✎✛s✌☛✑✜

❤✌ ✓☛✕✍ ✖✏✕♠ ✌✥t✌✏✡✌☛☞✌ ✑✘✎✑ ✎s ✑✘✌ ✎tt✒✡✌✙✖✕✏☞✌ ✌✥☞✌✌✙s ✎ ☞✌✏✑✎✡☛ ✒✡♠✡✑✣ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢ ✛✌✔✡☛s ✑✕♠✕❧✌✜ ✐✑ ✡s ✖✕✗☛✙ ✌✥t✌✏✡♠✌☛✑✎✒✒❢ ✑✘✎✑ ✑✘✌ ✒✡♠✡✑✡☛✔

❧✎✒✗✌ ✕✖ s✑✎✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛ ④ ⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩ ✡s ✡☛✙✌t✌☛✙✌☛✑ ✕✖

✑✘✌ ✎✏✌✎ ✕✖ ☞✕☛✑✎☞✑ ✎☛✙ ❧✎✏✡✌s ✍✡✑✘ ✑✘✌ ☛✕✏♠✎✒✖✕✏☞✌❶❷❸ ✎tt✏✕✥✡♠✎✑✌✒❢ ✎s ❹

❺ ❻❼❽❾ ❿➀ ➀➁ ➭➂ ✭✼✜✽➃✤

✍✘✌✏✌ ➄➅ ✡s ✎ ☞✕☛s✑✎☛✑ ✕✖ t✏✕t✕✏✑✡✕☛✎✒✡✑❢✙✌t✌☛✙✡☛✔ ✕☛✒❢ ✕☛ ✑✘✌ ☛✎✑✗✏✌ ✕✖ ✑✘✌ s✗✏✖✎☞✌s ✡☛☞✕☛✑✎☞✑✜ ❝✘✌ ☞✕☛s✑✎☛✑ ➄➅ ✡s ☞✎✒✒✌✙ ✑✘✌ ☞✕✌✖✖✡☞✡✌☛✑✕✖ s✑✎✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛✜ ❝✘✌ ✒✎✍ ✕✖ s✑✎✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛ ♠✎❢✑✘✗s ✛✌ ✍✏✡✑✑✌☛ ✎s

✸➅ ➆ ➄➅ ✴ ✭✼✜✽➇✤

✐✖ ✑✘✌ ✎tt✒✡✌✙ ✖✕✏☞✌ ❋ ✌✥☞✌✌✙s ④ ⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢

✛✌✔✡☛s ✑✕ s✒✡✙✌ ✕☛ ✑✘✌ s✗✏✖✎☞✌✜ ✐✑ ✡s ✖✕✗☛✙✌✥t✌✏✡♠✌☛✑✎✒✒❢ ✑✘✎✑ ✍✘✌☛ ✏✌✒✎✑✡❧✌ ♠✕✑✡✕☛ ✘✎ss✑✎✏✑✌✙✣ ✑✘✌ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛✎✒ ✖✕✏☞✌ ✙✌☞✏✌✎s✌s ✖✏✕♠ ✑✘✌

s✑✎✑✡☞ ♠✎✥✡♠✗♠ ❧✎✒✗✌ ➈ ➉➊➋➌➍➎ ✜ ✻✏✡☞✑✡✕☛✎✒ ✖✕✏☞✌✑✘✎✑ ✕tt✕s✌s ✏✌✒✎✑✡❧✌ ♠✕✑✡✕☛ ✛✌✑✍✌✌☛ s✗✏✖✎☞✌s✡☛ ☞✕☛✑✎☞✑ ✡s ☞✎✒✒✌✙ ✓✡☛✌✑✡☞ ✕✏ s✒✡✙✡☛✔ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛ ✎☛✙✡s ✙✌☛✕✑✌✙ ✛❢ ✸➏ ✜ ➐✡☛✌✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛✣ ✒✡✓✌ s✑✎✑✡☞✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛✣ ✡s ✖✕✗☛✙ ✑✕ ✛✌ ✡☛✙✌t✌☛✙✌☛✑ ✕✖ ✑✘✌ ✎✏✌✎✕✖ ☞✕☛✑✎☞✑✜ ✻✗✏✑✘✌✏✣ ✡✑ ✡s ☛✌✎✏✒❢ ✡☛✙✌t✌☛✙✌☛✑ ✕✖✑✘✌ ❧✌✒✕☞✡✑❢✜ ✐✑ s✎✑✡s✖✡✌s ✎ ✒✎✍ s✡♠✡✒✎✏ ✑✕ ✑✘✎✑ ✖✕✏s✑✎✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛❹

➑ ➑➒ ➓➔ → ✭✼✜✽✼✤

✍✘✌✏✌ ➄➣↔ ✑✘✌ ☞✕✌✖✖✡☞✡✌☛✑ ✕✖ ✓✡☛✌✑✡☞ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛✣✙✌t✌☛✙s ✕☛✒❢ ✕☛ ✑✘✌ s✗✏✖✎☞✌s ✡☛ ☞✕☛✑✎☞✑✜ ✢s♠✌☛✑✡✕☛✌✙ ✎✛✕❧✌✣ ✌✥t✌✏✡♠✌☛✑s s✘✕✍ ✑✘✎✑ ➄➣ ✡s✒✌ss ✑✘✎☛ ➄↕✜ ❤✘✌☛ ✏✌✒✎✑✡❧✌ ♠✕✑✡✕☛ ✘✎s ✛✌✔✗☛✣✑✘✌ ✎☞☞✌✒✌✏✎✑✡✕☛ ✕✖ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢ ✎☞☞✕✏✙✡☛✔ ✑✕ ✑✘✌r✌☞✕☛✙ ✱✎✍ ✡s ❶ ❋ ➙ ✸➣ ❸✵✲➛ ✻✕✏ ✎ ✛✕✙❢ ♠✕❧✡☛✔✍✡✑✘ ☞✕☛s✑✎☛✑ ❧✌✒✕☞✡✑❢✣ ❋ ➜ ✸➣✜ ✐✖ ✑✘✌ ✎tt✒✡✌✙ ✖✕✏☞✌✕☛ ✑✘✌ ✛✕✙❢ ✡s ✏✌♠✕❧✌✙✣ ✡✑s ✎☞☞✌✒✌✏✎✑✡✕☛ ✡s ➙ ✸➣ ✵✲ ✎☛✙ ✡✑ ✌❧✌☛✑✗✎✒✒❢ ☞✕♠✌s ✑✕ ✎ s✑✕t✜

❝✘✌ ✒✎✍s ✕✖ ✖✏✡☞✑✡✕☛ ✔✡❧✌☛ ✎✛✕❧✌ ✙✕ ☛✕✑ ✘✎❧✌✑✘✌ s✑✎✑✗s ✕✖ ✖✗☛✙✎♠✌☛✑✎✒ ✒✎✍s ✒✡✓✌ ✑✘✕s✌ ✖✕✏✔✏✎❧✡✑✎✑✡✕☛✎✒✣ ✌✒✌☞✑✏✡☞ ✎☛✙♠✎✔☛✌✑✡☞ ✖✕✏☞✌s✜ ❝✘✌❢✎✏✌ ✌♠t✡✏✡☞✎✒ ✏✌✒✎✑✡✕☛s ✑✘✎✑ ✎✏✌ ✕☛✒❢

Page 106: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

❛✟✟✠♦✡☛☞❛✌✍✎✏ ✌✠✑✍✒ ✓✍✌ ✌❡✍✏ ❛✠✍ ✔✍✠✏ ✑✕✍✖✑✎ ☛✗✟✠❛♣✌☛♣❛✎ ♣❛✎♣✑✎❛✌☛♦✗✕ ☛✗ ☞✍♣❡❛✗☛♣✕✒

❚❡✑✕✘ ✙❡✍✗ ✌✙♦ ✚♦✛☛✍✕ ❛✠✍ ☛✗ ♣♦✗✌❛♣✌✘ ✍❛♣❡✍✡✟✍✠☛✍✗♣✍✕ ❛ ♣♦✗✌❛♣✌ ✖♦✠♣✍ ✚✏ ✌❡✍ ♦✌❡✍✠✒ ✳✠☛♣✌☛♦✗✘✚✏ ✛✍✖☛✗☛✌☛♦✗✘ ☛✕ ✌❡✍ ♣♦☞✟♦✗✍✗✌ ♦✖ ✌❡✍ ♣♦✗✌❛♣✌ ✖♦✠♣✍✟❛✠❛✎✎✍✎ ✌♦ ✌❡✍ ✕✑✠✖❛♣✍✕ ☛✗♣♦✗✌❛♣✌✘✙❡☛♣❡ ♦✟✟♦✕✍✕☛☞✟✍✗✛☛✗✐ ♦✠ ❛♣✌✑❛✎ ✠✍✎❛✌☛✔✍ ☞♦✌☛♦✗ ✚✍✌✙✍✍✗ ✌❡✍✌✙♦ ✕✑✠✖❛♣✍✕✒ t♦✌✍ ✌❡❛✌ ☛✌ ☛✕ ✗♦✌ ☞♦✌☛♦✗✘ ✚✑✌r✜✢✣✤✥✦✜ ✧★✤✥★✩ ✌❡❛✌ ✌❡✍ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗❛✎ ✖♦✠♣✍ ♦✟✟♦✕✍✕✒❈♦✗✕☛✛✍✠ ❛ ✚♦✡ ✎✏☛✗✐ ☛✗ ✌❡✍ ♣♦☞✟❛✠✌☞✍✗✌ ♦✖ ❛ ✌✠❛☛✗✌❡❛✌ ☛✕ ❛♣♣✍✎✍✠❛✌☛✗✐✒ ✪✖ ✌❡✍ ✚♦✡ ☛✕ ✕✌❛✌☛♦✗❛✠✏✠✍✎❛✌☛✔✍ ✌♦ ✌❡✍ ✌✠❛☛✗✘ ☛✌ ☛✕ ☛✗ ✖❛♣✌ ❛♣♣✍✎✍✠❛✌☛✗✐ ❛✎♦✗✐✙☛✌❡ ✌❡✍ ✌✠❛☛✗✒✇❡❛✌ ✖♦✠♣✍✕ ♣❛✑✕✍ ✌❡✍ ❛♣♣✍✎✍✠❛✌☛♦✗♦✖ ✌❡✍ ✚♦✡✫ ❈✎✍❛✠✎✏✘ ✌❡✍ ♦✗✎✏ ♣♦✗♣✍☛✔❛✚✎✍ ✖♦✠♣✍ ☛✗✌❡✍ ❡♦✠☛✬♦✗✌❛✎ ✛☛✠✍♣✌☛♦✗ ☛✕ ✌❡✍ ✖♦✠♣✍ ♦✖ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗✒ ✪✖✌❡✍✠✍ ✙✍✠✍ ✗♦ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗✘ ✌❡✍ ✖✎♦♦✠ ♦✖ ✌❡✍ ✌✠❛☛✗ ✙♦✑✎✛✕✎☛✟ ✚✏ ❛✗✛ ✌❡✍ ✚♦✡ ✙♦✑✎✛ ✠✍☞❛☛✗ ❛✌ ☛✌✕ ☛✗☛✌☛❛✎✟♦✕☛✌☛♦✗ ✛✑✍ ✌♦ ☛✗✍✠✌☛❛ ✭❛✗✛ ❡☛✌ ✌❡✍ ✚❛♣✮ ✕☛✛✍ ♦✖✌❡✍ ✌✠❛☛✗✯✒ ❚❡☛✕ ☛☞✟✍✗✛☛✗✐ ✠✍✎❛✌☛✔✍ ☞♦✌☛♦✗ ☛✕♦✟✟♦✕✍✛ ✚✏ ✌❡✍ ✕✌❛✌☛♣ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗ ❢s✒ ✰✌❛✌☛♣ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗✟✠♦✔☛✛✍✕ ✌❡✍ ✕❛☞✍ ❛♣♣✍✎✍✠❛✌☛♦✗ ✌♦ ✌❡✍ ✚♦✡ ❛✕ ✌❡❛✌♦✖ ✌❡✍ ✌✠❛☛✗✘ ✮✍✍✟☛✗✐ ☛✌ ✕✌❛✌☛♦✗❛✠✏ ✠✍✎❛✌☛✔✍ ✌♦ ✌❡✍✌✠❛☛✗✒

❊✱✲✴✵✷✸ ✹✺✻ ❉✍✌✍✠☞☛✗✍ ✌❡✍ ☞❛✡☛☞✑☞❛♣♣✍✎✍✠❛✌☛♦✗ ♦✖ ✌❡✍ ✌✠❛☛✗ ☛✗ ✙❡☛♣❡ ❛ ✚♦✡✎✏☛✗✐ ♦✗ ☛✌✕ ✖✎♦♦✠ ✙☛✎✎ ✠✍☞❛☛✗ ✕✌❛✌☛♦✗❛✠✏✘✐☛✔✍✗ ✌❡❛✌ ✌❡✍ ♣♦❣✍✖✖☛♣☛✍✗✌ ♦✖ ✕✌❛✌☛♣ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗✚✍✌✙✍✍✗ ✌❡✍ ✚♦✡ ❛✗✛ ✌❡✍ ✌✠❛☛✗❜✕ ✖✎♦♦✠ ☛✕✼✒✽✾✒

❆✿❀❁✸❂ ✰☛✗♣✍ ✌❡✍ ❛♣♣✍✎✍✠❛✌☛♦✗ ♦✖ ✌❡✍ ✚♦✡ ☛✕ ✛✑✍✌♦ ✌❡✍ ✕✌❛✌☛♣ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗✘

♠❃ ❄ ❢s ❅➭s ❇ ❄ ➭s ♠ ❋●❍■❍ ❃ ❅ ➭s ❋❏❃❑▲▼ ❄ ➭s ❋ ❄ ✼✒✽✾ ✡ ✽✼ ☞ ✕➊◆

❖ ✽✒✾ ☞ ✕➊◆ ◗

❊✱✲✴✵✷✸ ✹✺❘ ✰✍✍ ✳☛✐✒ ✾✒✽✽✒ ❙ ☞❛✕✕ ♦✖ ❯✮✐✠✍✕✌✕ ♦✗ ❛ ❡♦✠☛✬♦✗✌❛✎ ✟✎❛✗✍✒ ❚❡✍ ✟✎❛✗✍ ☛✕✐✠❛✛✑❛✎✎✏ ☛✗♣✎☛✗✍✛ ✑✗✌☛✎ ❛✌ ❛✗ ❛✗✐✎✍ ❱ ❖ ✽✾❲✙☛✌❡ ✌❡✍ ❡♦✠☛✬♦✗✌❛✎✘ ✌❡✍ ☞❛✕✕ ❳✑✕✌ ✚✍✐☛✗✕ ✌♦✕✎☛✛✍✒ ✇❡❛✌ ☛✕ ✌❡✍ ♣♦✍✖✖☛♣☛✍✗✌ ♦✖ ✕✌❛✌☛♣ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗✚✍✌✙✍✍✗ ✌❡✍ ✚✎♦♣✮ ❛✗✛ ✌❡✍ ✕✑✠✖❛♣✍ ✫

❨❩❬❭ ❪❭❫❫

❆✿❀❁✸❂ ❚❡✍ ✖♦✠♣✍✕ ❛♣✌☛✗✐ ♦✗ ❛ ✚✎♦♣✮ ♦✖ ☞❛✕✕ ♠❛✌ ✠✍✕✌ ♦✗ ❛✗ ☛✗♣✎☛✗✍✛ ✟✎❛✗✍ ❛✠✍ ✭☛✯ ✌❡✍ ✙✍☛✐❡✌☞✐ ❛♣✌☛✗✐ ✔✍✠✌☛♣❛✎✎✏ ✛♦✙✗✙❛✠✛✕ ✭☛☛✯ ✌❡✍ ✗♦✠☞❛✎✖♦✠♣✍ ❇ ♦✖ ✌❡✍ ✟✎❛✗✍ ♦✗ ✌❡✍ ✚✎♦♣✮✘ ❛✗✛ ✭☛☛☛✯ ✌❡✍✕✌❛✌☛♣ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗❛✎ ✖♦✠♣✍ ❢s ♦✟✟♦✕☛✗✐ ✌❡✍ ☛☞✟✍✗✛☛✗✐☞♦✌☛♦✗✒ ✪✗ ✍❴✑☛✎☛✚✠☛✑☞✘ ✌❡✍ ✠✍✕✑✎✌❛✗✌ ♦✖ ✌❡✍✕✍✖♦✠♣✍✕ ☞✑✕✌ ✚✍ ✬✍✠♦✒ ❵✍✕♦✎✔☛✗✐ ✌❡✍ ✙✍☛✐❡✌ ♠❋❛✎♦✗✐ ✌❡✍ ✌✙♦ ✛☛✠✍♣✌☛♦✗✕ ✕❡♦✙✗✘ ✙✍ ❡❛✔✍

♠ ❋ ✕☛✗ ❱ ❄ ❢s ❝ ♠ ❋ ♣♦✕ ❱ ❄ ❇

❙✕ ❱ ☛✗♣✠✍❛✕✍✕✘ ✌❡✍ ✕✍✎✖❣❛✛❳✑✕✌☛✗✐ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗❛✎ ✖♦✠♣✍❢s ☛✗♣✠✍❛✕✍✕ ✑✗✌☛✎ ❛✌ ❱ ❄ ❱❑▲▼✘ ❢s ❛♣❡☛✍✔✍✕ ☛✌✕

☞❛✡☛☞✑☞ ✔❛✎✑✍✘ ❞ ❤❥❦❧♥q ❖ ➭s ❇✒

❚❡✍✠✍✖♦✠✍✘

✌❛✗ ❱❑▲▼ ❄ ➭s ✉✈ ❱❑▲▼ ❄ ✌❛✗➊① ➭s✇❡✍✗ ❱ ✚✍♣♦☞✍✕ ❳✑✕✌ ❛ ✎☛✌✌✎✍ ☞♦✠✍ ✌❡❛✗ ❱❑▲▼ ✘✌❡✍✠✍ ☛✕ ❛ ✕☞❛✎✎ ✗✍✌ ✖♦✠♣✍ ♦✗ ✌❡✍ ✚✎♦♣✮ ❛✗✛ ☛✌✚✍✐☛✗✕ ✌♦ ✕✎☛✛✍✒ t♦✌✍ ✌❡❛✌ ❱❑▲▼ ✛✍✟✍✗✛✕ ♦✗✎✏ ♦✗②s ❛✗✛ ☛✕ ☛✗✛✍✟✍✗✛✍✗✌ ♦✖ ✌❡✍ ☞❛✕✕ ♦✖ ✌❡✍ ✚✎♦♣✮✒

✳♦✠ ❱❑▲▼ ❄ ✽✾❲❝➭s ❄ ✌❛✗ ✽✾❲

❖ ✼✒③④ ◗

❊✱✲✴✵✷✸ ✹✺⑤ ✇❡❛✌ ☛✕ ✌❡✍ ❛♣♣✍✎✍✠❛✌☛♦✗ ♦✖✌❡✍ ✚✎♦♣✮ ❛✗✛ ✌✠♦✎✎✍✏ ✕✏✕✌✍☞ ✕❡♦✙✗ ☛✗ ❛✳☛✐✒ ✾✒✽③✭❛✯✘ ☛✖ ✌❡✍ ♣♦✍✖✖☛♣☛✍✗✌ ♦✖ ✮☛✗✍✌☛♣ ✖✠☛♣✌☛♦✗✚✍✌✙✍✍✗ ✌❡✍ ✌✠♦✎✎✍✏ ❛✗✛ ✌❡✍ ✕✑✠✖❛♣✍ ☛✕ ✼✒✼❯✫✇❡❛✌ ☛✕ ✌❡✍ ✌✍✗✕☛♦✗ ☛✗ ✌❡✍ ✕✌✠☛✗✐✫ ✭❚❛✮✍ ✐ ❖✽✼ ☞ ✕⑥◆✯✒ t✍✐✎✍♣✌ ✌❡✍ ☞❛✕✕ ♦✖ ✌❡✍ ✕✌✠☛✗✐✒

✭❛✯

✭✚✯ ✭♣✯

❨❩❬❭ ❪❭❫⑦

Page 107: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✶✠✡

✐☛ ☞✌✍ ✎✍✏☛✑✒ ✓✌✔ ✕✐☛✖✑✗✍✎✔ ✑✘ ☞✌✍ ✓✌✍✍✙ ✌✏☛

❜✍✍✒ ✏ ✚✏✛✑✎ ✚✐✙✍☛☞✑✒✍ ✐✒ ✌✜✚✏✒ ✌✐☛☞✑✎✔✢

❘✑✙✙✐✒✣ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒ ✏✣✏✐✒ ✌✏☛ ✏ ✖✑✚✤✙✍✥ ✑✎✐✣✐✒✦

☞✌✑✜✣✌ ☛✑✚✍✓✌✏☞ ✕✐✘✘✍✎✍✒☞ ✘✎✑✚ ☞✌✏☞ ✑✘ ☛☞✏☞✐✖

✏✒✕ ☛✙✐✕✐✒✣ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒✢ ❛✜✎✐✒✣ ✎✑✙✙✐✒✣✦ ☞✌✍ ☛✜✎✘✏✖✍☛

✐✒ ✖✑✒☞✏✖☞ ✣✍☞✚✑✚✍✒☞✏✎✐✙✔ ✕✍✘✑✎✚✍✕ ✏ ✙✐☞☞✙✍✦ ✏✒✕

☞✌✐☛ ✎✍☛✜✙☞☛ ✐✒ ✏ ✘✐✒✐☞✍ ✏✎✍✏ t✒✑☞ ✏ ✤✑✐✒☞✧ ✑✘ ☞✌✍

❜✑✕✔ ❜✍✐✒✣ ✐✒ ✖✑✒☞✏✖☞ ✓✐☞✌ ☞✌✍ ☛✜✎✘✏✖✍✢ ★✌✍ ✒✍☞

✍✘✘✍✖☞ ✐☛ ☞✌✏☞ ☞✌✍ ✖✑✚✤✑✒✍✒☞ ✑✘ ☞✌✍ ✖✑✒☞✏✖☞ ✘✑✎✖✍

✤✏✎✏✙✙✍✙ ☞✑ ☞✌✍ ☛✜✎✘✏✖✍ ✑✤✤✑☛✍☛ ✚✑☞✐✑✒✢

❲✍ ✑✘☞✍✒ ✎✍✣✏✎✕ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒ ✏☛ ☛✑✚✍☞✌✐✒✣

✜✒✕✍☛✐✎✏❜✙✍✢ ✉✒ ✚✏✒✔ ☛✐☞✜✏☞✐✑✒☛✦ ✙✐✩✍ ✐✒ ✏

✚✏✖✌✐✒✍ ✓✐☞✌ ✕✐✘✘✍✎✍✒☞ ✚✑✗✐✒✣ ✤✏✎☞☛✦ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒

✕✑✍☛ ✌✏✗✍ ✏ ✒✍✣✏☞✐✗✍ ✎✑✙✍✢ ✉☞ ✑✤✤✑☛✍☛ ✎✍✙✏☞✐✗✍

✚✑☞✐✑✒ ✏✒✕ ☞✌✍✎✍❜✔ ✕✐☛☛✐✤✏☞✍☛ ✤✑✓✍✎ ✐✒ ☞✌✍ ✘✑✎✚

✑✘ ✌✍✏☞✦ ✍☞✖✢ ♦✜❜✎✐✖✏✒☞☛ ✏✎✍ ✏ ✓✏✔ ✑✘ ✎✍✕✜✖✐✒✣

✩✐✒✍☞✐✖ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒ ✐✒ ✏ ✚✏✖✌✐✒✍✢ ❦✒✑☞✌✍✎ ✓✏✔ ✐☛ ☞✑

✜☛✍ ❜✏✙✙ ❜✍✏✎✐✒✣☛ ❜✍☞✓✍✍✒ ☞✓✑✚✑✗✐✒✣ ✤✏✎☞☛ ✑✘ ✏

✚✏✖✌✐✒✍✢ t♠✐✣✢ ✪✢✫✬t✏✧✧ ✭✐✒✖✍ ☞✌✍ ✎✑✙✙✐✒✣ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒

❜✍☞✓✍✍✒ ❜✏✙✙ ❜✍✏✎✐✒✣☛ ✏✒✕ ☞✌✍ ☛✜✎✘✏✖✍☛ ✐✒

✖✑✒☞✏✖☞ ✐☛ ✗✍✎✔ ☛✚✏✙✙✦ ✤✑✓✍✎ ✕✐☛☛✐✤✏☞✐✑✒ ✐☛

✎✍✕✜✖✍✕✢ ❦ ☞✌✐✒ ✖✜☛✌✐✑✒ ✑✘ ✏✐✎ ✚✏✐✒☞✏✐✒✍✕

❜✍☞✓✍✍✒ ☛✑✙✐✕ ☛✜✎✘✏✖✍☛ ✐✒ ✎✍✙✏☞✐✗✍ ✚✑☞✐✑✒ ✐☛

✏✒✑☞✌✍✎ ✍✘✘✍✖☞✐✗✍ ✓✏✔ ✑✘ ✎✍✕✜✖✐✒✣ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒ t♠✐✣✢

✪✢✫✬t✏✧✧✢

✉✒✚✏✒✔ ✤✎✏✖☞✐✖✏✙ ☛✐☞✜✏☞✐✑✒☛✦ ✌✑✓✍✗✍✎✦ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒

✐☛ ✖✎✐☞ ✐✖✏✙✙✔ ✒✍✍✕✍✕✢ ✮✐✒✍☞✐✖ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒ ☞✌✏☞

✕✐☛☛✐✤✏☞✍☛ ✤✑✓✍✎ ✐☛ ✒✍✗✍✎☞✌✍✙✍☛☛ ✐✚✤✑✎☞✏✒☞ ✘✑✎

q✜✐✖✩✙✔ ☛☞✑✤✤✐✒✣ ✎✍✙✏☞✐✗✍ ✚✑☞✐✑✒✢ ✉☞ ✐☛ ✚✏✕✍ ✜☛✍

✑✘ ❜✔ ❜✎✏✩✍☛ ✐✒ ✚✏✖✌✐✒✍☛ ✏✒✕ ✏✜☞✑✚✑❜✐✙✍☛✢

✭✐✚✐✙✏✎✙✔✦ ☛☞✏☞✐✖ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒ ✐☛ ✐✚✤✑✎☞✏✒☞ ✐✒ ✕✏✐✙✔

✙✐✘✍✢ ❲✍ ✏✎✍ ✏❜✙✍ ☞✑ ✓✏✙✩ ❜✍✖✏✜☛✍ ✑✘ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒✢ ✉☞

✐☛ ✐✚✤✑☛☛✐❜✙✍ ✘✑✎ ✏ ✖✏✎ ☞✑✚✑✗✍ ✑✒ ✏ ✗✍✎✔ ☛✙✐✤✤✍✎✔

✎✑✏✕✢ r✒ ✏✒ ✑✎✕✐✒✏✎✔ ✎✑✏✕✦ ☞✌✍ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒ ❜✍☞✓✍✍✒

☞✌✍ ☞✔✎✍☛ ✏✒✕ ☞✌✍ ✎✑✏✕ ✤✎✑✗✐✕✍☛ ☞✌✍ ✒✍✖✍☛☛✏✎✔

✍✥☞✍✎✒✏✙ ✘✑✎✖✍ ☞✑ ✏✖✖✍✙✍✎✏☞✍ ☞✌✍ ✖✏✎✢

❆✯✰✱✲✳ ❦☛ ☞✌✍ ☛☞✎✐✒✣ ✐☛ ✐✒✍✥☞✍✒☛✐❜✙✍✦ ✏✒✕ ☞✌✍

✤✜✙✙✔ ✐☛ ☛✚✑✑☞✌✦ ☞✌✍ ✬ ✩✣ ❜✙✑✖✩ ✏✒✕ ☞✌✍ ♣✴ ✩✣

☞✎✑✙✙✍✔ ❜✑☞✌ ✌✏✗✍ ☛✏✚✍ ✚✏✣✒✐☞✜✕✍ ✑✘

✏✖✖✍✙✍✎✏☞✐✑✒✢ ❦✤✤✙✔✐✒✣ ☛✍✖✑✒✕ ✙✏✓ ☞✑ ✚✑☞✐✑✒ ✑✘

☞✌✍ ❜✙✑✖✩ t♠✐✣✢ ✪✢✫♣t❜✧✧✦

✬✴ ✸ ❚ ✵ ✬✷

❦✤✤✙✔ ☞✌✍ ☛✍✖✑✒✕ ✙✏✓ ☞✑✚✑☞✐✑✒ ✑✘ ☞✌✍ ☞✎✑✙✙✍✔ t♠✐✣✢

✪✢✫♣t✖✧✧✦

❚ ✸ ❢✹ ✵ ♣✴ ✷✢

◆✑✓ ❢✺ ❂ ➭✺ ✻✦

❍✍✎✍ ✼✺ ✵ ✴✢✴✽✦

✻ ✵ ♣✴ ✥ ✫✴

✵ ♣✴✴ ◆✢

★✌✜☛ ☞✌✍ ✍q✜✏☞✐✑✒ ✘✑✎ ☞✌✍ ✚✑☞✐✑✒ ✑✘ ☞✌✍ ☞✎✑✙✙✍✔ ✐☛

❚ ✸ ✴✢✴✽ ✥ ♣✴✴ ✵ ♣✴ ✷ r✎ ❚ ✸ ➊ ✵ ♣✴✷✢

★✌✍☛✍ ✍q✜✏☞✐✑✒☛ ✣✐✗✍ ✷ ❂✾✾

✾✿✚ ☛ ❀❁ ✵ ✴✢❃❄ ✚ ☛❅❁

✏✒✕ ❚ ✵ ♣❇✢✫ ◆✢ ❈

❉❊❋❋●✯■ ❏✳●❑▼●❊✯

❦ ❜✑✕✔ ✙✐✩✍ ✏ ✎✐✒✣ ✑✎ ✏ ☛✤✌✍✎✍ ✎✑✙✙✐✒✣ ✓✐☞✌✑✜☞

☛✙✐✤✤✐✒✣ ✑✗✍✎ ✏ ✌✑✎✐s✑✒☞✏✙ ✤✙✏✒✍ ✓✐✙✙ ☛✜✘✘✍✎ ✒✑

✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒✦ ✐✒ ✤✎✐✒✖✐✤✙✍✢ ❦☞ ✍✗✍✎✔ ✐✒☛☞✏✒☞✦ ☞✌✍✎✍ ✐☛

✛✜☛☞ ✑✒✍ ✤✑✐✒☞ ✑✘ ✖✑✒☞✏✖☞ ❜✍☞✓✍✍✒ ☞✌✍ ❜✑✕✔ ✏✒✕

☞✌✍ ✤✙✏✒✍ ✏✒✕ ☞✌✐☛ ✤✑✐✒☞ ✌✏☛ ✒✑ ✚✑☞✐✑✒ ✎✍✙✏☞✐✗✍

☞✑ ☞✌✍ ✤✙✏✒✍✢ ✉✒ ☞✌✐☛ ✐✕✍✏✙ ☛✐☞✜✏☞✐✑✒✦ ✩✐✒✍☞✐✖ ✑✎

☛☞✏☞✐✖ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒ ✐☛ s✍✎✑ ✏✒✕ ☞✌✍ ❜✑✕✔ ☛✌✑✜✙✕

✖✑✒☞✐✒✜✍ ☞✑ ✎✑✙✙ ✓✐☞✌ ✖✑✒☛☞✏✒☞ ✗✍✙✑✖✐☞✔✢ ❲✍ ✩✒✑✓✦

✐✒ ✤✎✏✖☞✐✖✍✦ ☞✌✐☛ ✓✐✙✙ ✒✑☞ ✌✏✤✤✍✒ ✏✒✕ ☛✑✚✍

✎✍☛✐☛☞✏✒✖✍ ☞✑✚✑☞✐✑✒ t✎✑✙✙✐✒✣ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒✧ ✕✑✍☛ ✑✖✖✜✎✦

✐✢✍✢ ☞✑ ✩✍✍✤ ☞✌✍ ❜✑✕✔ ✎✑✙✙✐✒✣✦ ☛✑✚✍ ✏✤✤✙✐✍✕ ✘✑✎✖✍

✐☛ ✒✍✍✕✍✕✢ ♠✑✎ ☞✌✍ ☛✏✚✍ ✓✍✐✣✌☞✦ ✎✑✙✙✐✒✣ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒

✐☛ ✚✜✖✌ ☛✚✏✙✙✍✎ t✍✗✍✒ ❜✔ ♣ ✑✎ ✬ ✑✎✕✍✎☛ ✑✘

✚✏✣✒✐☞✜✕✍✧ ☞✌✏✒ ☛☞✏☞✐✖ ✑✎ ☛✙✐✕✐✒✣ ✘✎✐✖☞✐✑✒✢ ★✌✐☛

❖P◗❙ ❯❙❱❳ ❨❩❬❭ ❪❫❴❵ ❩❝ ❞❭❡❣❤❥❧♥ ❝❞❥❤✈❥❩❧✇ ①❫② ③❫④④ ⑤❭❫❞❥❧♥❵ ⑥④❫❤❭❡ ⑤❭✈❪❭❭❧ ❬❩⑦❥❧♥ ⑥❫❞✈❵ ❩❝ ❫ ❬❫❤⑧❥❧❭✇

①⑤② ⑨❩❬⑥❞❭❵❵❭❡ ❤❣❵⑧❥❩❧ ❩❝ ❫❥❞ ⑤❭✈❪❭❭❧ ❵❣❞❝❫❤❭❵ ❥❧ ❞❭④❫✈❥⑦❭ ❬❩✈❥❩❧✇

Page 108: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

✺✞✟✠ ❈✡☛❈☞✌✍☛✎✏✑✡✏✒

❲❡ ✓✔✕❡ ✖❡❡✗ ✘✗ ✙✓✔✚✛❡✜ ✢ ✛✓✔✛ ✔✣✣❡✤❡✜✔✛✘✥✗ ✥✦

✔ ❛✥✧★✩✥✕✘✗✪ ✘✗ ✔ ✣✘✜✣✤❡ ✥✦ ✜✔✧✘✫✖❘ ✬✘✛✓✫✗✘✦✥✜✩

✖✚❡❡✧ ✈ ✘✖ ✈✷✴❘ ✧✘✜❡✣✛❡✧ ✛✥✬✔✜✧✖ ✛✓❡ ✣❡✗✛✜❡✭

❆✣✣✥✜✧✘✗✪ ✛✥ ✛✓❡ ✖❡✣✥✗✧ ✤✔✬✮ ✛✓❡ ✦✥✜✣❡ ❢ ✚✜✥✕✘✧✘✗✪

✛✓✘✖ ✔✣✣❡✤❡✜✔✛✘✥✗ ✘✖ t

✯ ✰♠✱

✵✸✭✹✻✼

✬✓❡✜❡ ✽ ✘✖ ✛✓❡ ✩✔✖✖ ✥✦ ✛✓❡ ❛✥✧★✭ ✾✓✘✖ ✦✥✜✣❡

✧✘✜❡✣✛❡✧ ✦✥✜✬✔✜✧✖ ✛✓❡ ✣❡✗✛✜❡ ✘✖ ✣✔✤✤❡✧ ✛✓❡

✣❡✗✛✜✘✚❡✛✔✤ ✦✥✜✣❡✭ ❝✥✜ ✔ ✖✛✥✗❡ ✜✥✛✔✛❡✧ ✘✗ ✔ ✣✘✜✣✤❡

❛★ ✔ ✖✛✜✘✗✪✮ ✛✓❡ ✣❡✗✛✜✘✚❡✛✔✤ ✦✥✜✣❡ ✘✖ ✚✜✥✕✘✧❡✧ ❛★

✛✓❡ ✛❡✗✖✘✥✗ ✘✗ ✛✓❡ ✖✛✜✘✗✪✭ ✾✓❡ ✣❡✗✛✜✘✚❡✛✔✤ ✦✥✜✣❡

✦✥✜ ✩✥✛✘✥✗ ✥✦ ✔ ✚✤✔✗❡✛ ✔✜✥✫✗✧ ✛✓❡ ✖✫✗ ✘✖ ✛✓❡

✘✖ ✛✓❡ ✖✛✔✛✘✣ ✦✜✘✣✛✘✥✗ ✛✓✔✛ ✚✜✥✕✘✧❡✖ ✛✓❡ ✣❡✗✛✜✘✚❡✛✔✤

✔✣✣❡✤❡✜✔✛✘✥✗✭ ✿✛✔✛✘✣ ✦✜✘✣✛✘✥✗ ✥✚✚✥✖❡✖ ✛✓❡

✘✩✚❡✗✧✘✗✪ ✩✥✛✘✥✗ ✥✦ ✛✓❡ ✣✔✜ ✩✥✕✘✗✪ ✔✬✔★ ✦✜✥✩

✛✓❡ ✣✘✜✣✤❡✭ ❀✖✘✗✪ ❡❁✫✔✛✘✥✗ ✵✸✭✹✢✼ ❂ ✵✸✭✹✻✼ ✬❡ ✪❡✛

✛✓❡ ✜❡✖✫✤✛

s❄❅

❇ ❉❊

➭❋ ●

❍ ■■

❏❑▲ ❏❣

◆◆❖ ◗ ❬Q❙ ❚ ✽❯❪

✬✓✘✣✓ ✘✖ ✘✗✧❡✚❡✗✧❡✗✛ ✥✦ ✛✓❡ ✩✔✖✖ ✥✦ ✛✓❡ ✣✔✜✭

✾✓✘✖ ✖✓✥✬✖ ✛✓✔✛ ✦✥✜ ✔ ✪✘✕❡✗ ✕✔✤✫❡ ✥✦ ❱❳ ✔✗✧

❨✮

✛✓❡✜❡ ✘✖ ✔ ✩✔❩✘✩✫✩ ✖✚❡❡✧ ✥✦ ✣✘✜✣✫✤✔✜ ✩✥✛✘✥✗ ✥✦

✛✓❡ ✣✔✜ ✚✥✖✖✘❛✤❡✮ ✗✔✩❡✤★

❭❫❴ ❵❜ ❞❤✐❥ ✵✸✭✹❦✼

❧♥♦ ❧♣♦

qr✉✇ ①✇②③ ④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩⑥ ❶❷❸⑤❷❹ ❷❺ ⑩ ⑦⑩⑥ ❷❹ ❻⑩❼ ⑩ ⑨❽❾❽⑨ ⑥❷⑩❿➀ ❻➁❼ ⑩ ➁⑩❹➂❽❿ ⑥❷⑩❿➃

✪✜✔✕✘✛✔✛✘✥✗✔✤ ✦✥✜✣❡ ✥✗ ✛✓❡ ✚✤✔✗❡✛ ✧✫❡ ✛✥ ✛✓❡ ✖✫✗✭

❝✥✜ ✔ ✣✔✜ ✛✔➄✘✗✪ ✔ ✣✘✜✣✫✤✔✜ ✛✫✜✗ ✥✗ ✔ ✓✥✜✘➅✥✗✛✔✤

✜✥✔✧✮ ✛✓❡ ✣❡✗✛✜✘✚❡✛✔✤ ✦✥✜✣❡ ✘✖ ✛✓❡ ✦✥✜✣❡ ✥✦ ✦✜✘✣✛✘✥✗✭

✾✓❡ ✣✘✜✣✫✤✔✜ ✩✥✛✘✥✗ ✥✦ ✔ ✣✔✜ ✥✗ ✔ ✦✤✔✛ ✔✗✧

❛✔✗➄❡✧ ✜✥✔✧ ✪✘✕❡ ✘✗✛❡✜❡✖✛✘✗✪ ✔✚✚✤✘✣✔✛✘✥✗ ✥✦ ✛✓❡

✤✔✬✖ ✥✦ ✩✥✛✘✥✗✭

✎➆➇➈➆➉ ➆➊ ➋ ➌➋➍ ➆➉ ➋ ➎➏➐➏➎ ➍➆➋➑

✾✓✜❡❡ ✦✥✜✣❡✖ ✔✣✛ ✥✗ ✛✓❡ ✣✔✜✭ ✵❝✘✪✭ ✸✭✹✢✵✔✼

✵✘✼ ✾✓❡ ✬❡✘✪✓✛ ✥✦ ✛✓❡ ✣✔✜✮ ✽❯

✵✘✘✼ ➒✥✜✩✔✤ ✜❡✔✣✛✘✥✗✮ ❙

✵✘✘✘✼ ❝✜✘✣✛✘✥✗✔✤ ✦✥✜✣❡✮ ❢

❆✖ ✛✓❡✜❡ ✘✖ ✗✥ ✔✣✣❡✤❡✜✔✛✘✥✗ ✘✗ ✛✓❡ ✕❡✜✛✘✣✔✤

✧✘✜❡✣✛✘✥✗

❙➓✽❯ ❚ ➔

❙ ❚ ✽❯ ✵✸✭✹→✼

✾✓❡ ✣❡✗✛✜✘✚❡✛✔✤ ✦✥✜✣❡ ✜❡❁✫✘✜❡✧ ✦✥✜ ✣✘✜✣✫✤✔✜ ✩✥✛✘✥✗

✘✖ ✔✤✥✗✪ ✛✓❡ ✖✫✜✦✔✣❡ ✥✦ ✛✓❡ ✜✥✔✧✮ ✔✗✧ ✘✖ ✚✜✥✕✘✧❡✧

❛★ ✛✓❡ ✣✥✩✚✥✗❡✗✛ ✥✦ ✛✓❡ ✣✥✗✛✔✣✛ ✦✥✜✣❡ ❛❡✛✬❡❡✗

✜✥✔✧ ✔✗✧ ✛✓❡ ✣✔✜ ✛★✜❡✖ ✔✤✥✗✪ ✛✓❡ ✖✫✜✦✔✣❡✭ ✾✓✘✖

❛★ ✧❡✦✘✗✘✛✘✥✗ ✘✖ ✛✓❡ ✦✜✘✣✛✘✥✗✔✤ ✦✥✜✣❡✭ ➒✥✛❡ ✛✓✔✛ ✘✛

✎➆➇➈➆➉ ➆➊ ➋ ➌➋➍ ➆➉ ➋ ➣➋➉↔➏➑ ➍➆➋➑

❲❡ ✣✔✗ ✜❡✧✫✣❡ ✛✓❡ ✣✥✗✛✜✘❛✫✛✘✥✗ ✥✦ ✦✜✘✣✛✘✥✗ ✛✥ ✛✓❡

✣✘✜✣✫✤✔✜ ✩✥✛✘✥✗ ✥✦ ✛✓❡ ✣✔✜ ✘✦ ✛✓❡ ✜✥✔✧ ✘✖ ❛✔✗➄❡✧

✵❝✘✪✭ ✸✭✹✢✵❛✼✼✭ ✿✘✗✣❡ ✛✓❡✜❡ ✘✖ ✗✥ ✔✣✣❡✤❡✜✔✛✘✥✗ ✔✤✥✗✪

✛✓❡ ✕❡✜✛✘✣✔✤ ✧✘✜❡✣✛✘✥✗✮ ✛✓❡ ✗❡✛ ✦✥✜✣❡ ✔✤✥✗✪ ✛✓✘✖

✧✘✜❡✣✛✘✥✗ ✩✫✖✛ ❛❡ ➅❡✜✥✭ ↕❡✗✣❡✮

❙ ✣✥✖ ➙ ❚ ✽❯ ➛ ❢ ✖✘✗ ➙ ✵✸✭✹➜✔✼

✾✓❡ ✣❡✗✛✜✘✚❡✛✔✤ ✦✥✜✣❡ ✘✖ ✚✜✥✕✘✧❡✧ ❛★ ✛✓❡ ✓✥✜✘➅✥✗✛✔✤

✣✥✩✚✥✗❡✗✛✖ ✥✦ ❙ ✔✗✧ ❢✭

❙ ✖✘✗ ➙ ➛ ❢ ✣✥✖ ➙ ❚

❍▼▲

❏✵✸✭➝➔✔✼

➞✫✛ ❢ ❵➟✐➠

✾✓✫✖ ✛✥ ✥❛✛✔✘✗ ✈➡➢➤

✬❡ ✚✫✛

❵➥ ➟✐❥ ✭

✾✓❡✗ ➦❁✖✭ ✵✸✭✹➜✼ ❂ ✵✸✭➝➔✼ ❛❡✣✥✩❡

❙ ✣✥✖ ➙ ❚ ✽❯ ➛ ❵➟✐ ✖✘✗ ➙ ✵✸✭✹➜❛✼

Page 109: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✶✠✡

◆ ✥✌✍ ✎ ✏ s✑➭ ❝✒✥ ✎ ✓ ♠✔✷✴❘ ✕✖✗✘✙✚✛

❲❡ ✒✚✜✢✌✍

➊ ✣

✤✦✧

★✩✪ ✪✫✬✭ ✮ ✭❂

❙✯✚✥✜✌✜✯✜✌✍✰ ✱✢✲✯❡ ✒✳ ✵ ✌✍ ✸✹✗ ✕✖✗✘✙✚✛✺ ✻❡ ✰❡✜

✼ ✽ ✾✿❀❁❃

❅❣ ❆❇♥ ❈♦❆ ❅❉

❈♦❆ ❆❇♥ ❊

❋ ● ❋

❋ ● ❋❍

✒■

❏❑

▼❖P◗ ❚

s

s

t❯❱✈ ❳❨

t❯❱

➭ ✎

➭ ✎

❩ ❬❭❪ ❫ ❴❵ ❛

✕✖✗✘❜✛

❞✒❢❤✢■✌✍✰ ✜✐✌✥ ✻✌✜✐ ✸✹✗ ✕✖✗❜❥✛ ✻❡ ✥❡❡ ✜✐✢✜❢✢❦✌❢✯❢ ❤✒✥✥✌✚✲❡ ✥❤❡❡❧ ✒✳ ✢ ❝✢■ ✒✍ ✢ ✚✢✍♣❡❧■✒✢❧ ✌✥ ✰■❡✢✜❡■ ✜✐✢✍ ✜✐✢✜ ✒✍ ✢ ✳✲✢✜ ■✒✢❧✗

q✒■ r✉ ✇ ① ✌✍ ✸✹✗ ✕✖✗✘❜ ✛✺✔② ✇ ③ ❘ ④ ✜✢✍ ⑤ ⑥ ➼ ✕✖✗✘✘✛

⑦✜ ✜✐✌✥ ✥❤❡❡❧✺ ✳■✌❝✜✌✒✍✢✲ ✳✒■❝❡ ✌✥ ✍✒✜ ✍❡❡❧❡❧ ✢✜ ✢✲✲✜✒ ❤■✒✱✌❧❡ ✜✐❡ ✍❡❝❡✥✥✢■⑧ ❝❡✍✜■✌❤❡✜✢✲ ✳✒■❝❡✗⑨■✌✱✌✍✰ ✢✜ ✜✐✌✥ ✥❤❡❡❧ ✒✍ ✢ ✚✢✍♣❡❧ ■✒✢❧✻✌✲✲ ❝✢✯✥❡

✲✌✜✜✲❡ ✻❡✢■ ✢✍❧ ✜❡✢■ ✒✳ ✜✐❡ ✜⑧■❡✥✗ ⑩✐❡ ✥✢❢❡❡✹✯✢✜✌✒✍ ✢✲✥✒ ✜❡✲✲✥ ⑧✒✯ ✜✐✢✜ ✳✒■ ✔ ❶ ✔❷✺ ✳■✌❝✜✌✒✍✢✲✳✒■❝❡ ✻✌✲✲ ✚❡ ✯❤ ✜✐❡ ✥✲✒❤❡ ✢✍❧ ✜✐✢✜ ✢ ❝✢■ ❝✢✍ ✚❡❤✢■♣❡❧ ✒✍✲⑧ ✌✳ ✜✢✍ ❸ ❹ r❺✗

❻❼❽❾❿➀➁ ➂➃➄➅ ⑦ ❝⑧❝✲✌✥✜ ✥❤❡❡❧✌✍✰ ✢✜ ❜❥

♣❢➆✐ ✒✍✢ ✲❡✱❡✲ ■✒✢❧ ✜✢♣❡✥ ✢ ✥✐✢■❤ ❝✌■❝✯✲✢■✜✯■✍ ✒✳ ■✢❧✌✯✥ ➇ ❢ ✻✌✜✐✒✯✜ ■❡❧✯❝✌✍✰ ✜✐❡✥❤❡❡❧✗ ⑩✐❡ ❝✒➈❡✳✳✌❝✌❡✍✜ ✒✳ ✥✜✢✜✌❝ ✳■✌❝✜✌✒✍✚❡✜✻❡❡✍ ✜✐❡ ✜⑧■❡✥ ✢✍❧ ✜✐❡ ■✒✢❧ ✌✥ ✙✗❜✗ ❲✌✲✲✜✐❡ ❝⑧❝✲✌✥✜ ✥✲✌❤ ✻✐✌✲❡ ✜✢♣✌✍✰ ✜✐❡ ✜✯■✍ ➉

➋➌➍➎➁➏ ➐✍ ✢✍ ✯✍✚✢✍♣❡❧ ■✒✢❧✺ ✳■✌❝✜✌✒✍✢✲ ✳✒■❝❡✢✲✒✍❡ ❝✢✍ ❤■✒✱✌❧❡ ✜✐❡ ❝❡✍✜■✌❤❡✜✢✲ ✳✒■❝❡ ✍❡❡❧❡❧✜✒ ♣❡❡❤ ✜✐❡ ❝⑧❝✲✌✥✜ ❢✒✱✌✍✰ ✒✍ ✢ ❝✌■❝✯✲✢■ ✜✯■✍

✻✌✜✐✒✯✜ ✥✲✌❤❤✌✍✰✗ ➑✳ ✜✐❡ ✥❤❡❡❧ ✌✥ ✜✒✒ ✲✢■✰❡✺ ✒■ ✌✳✜✐❡ ✜✯■✍ ✌✥ ✜✒✒ ✥✐✢■❤ ✕✌✗❡✗ ✒✳ ✜✒✒ ✥❢✢✲✲ ✢ ■✢❧✌✯✥✛✒■ ✚✒✜✐✺ ✜✐❡ ✳■✌❝✜✌✒✍✢✲ ✳✒■❝❡ ✌✥ ✍✒✜ ✥✯✳✳✌❝✌❡✍✜ ✜✒

❤■✒✱✌❧❡ ✜✐❡ ✍❡❝❡✥✥✢■⑧ ❝❡✍✜■✌❤❡✜✢✲ ✳✒■❝❡✺ ✢✍❧ ✜✐❡❝⑧❝✲✌✥✜ ✥✲✌❤✥✗ ⑩✐❡ ❝✒✍❧✌✜✌✒✍ ✳✒■ ✜✐❡ ❝⑧❝✲✌✥✜ ✍✒✜ ✜✒✥✲✌❤ ✌✥ ✰✌✱❡✍ ✚⑧ ✸✹✗ ✕✖✗❜❥✛ ➒

✔➓ ❹ ➔→ ❘ ④

✵✒✻✺ ❘ ✇ ➇ ❢➣ ④ ✓ ↔✗❥ ❢ ✥↕➙✺ ➔→ ✓ ✙✗❜✗ ⑩✐✢✜ ✌✥✺

➔→ ❘ ④ ✓ ✘✗↔➛ ❢➙ ✥↕➙➜ ✔ ✇ ❜❥ ♣❢➆✐ ✇ ✖ ❢ ✥↕➝➞ ✌✗❡✗✺

✔➙ ✓ ✘✖ ❢➙ ✥↕➙✗ ⑩✐❡ ❝✒✍❧✌✜✌✒✍ ✌✥ ✍✒✜ ✒✚❡⑧❡❧✗

⑩✐❡ ❝⑧❝✲✌✥✜ ✻✌✲✲ ✥✲✌❤ ✻✐✌✲❡ ✜✢♣✌✍✰ ✜✐❡ ❝✌■❝✯✲✢■✜✯■✍✗ ➟

❻❼❽❾❿➀➁ ➂➃➄➄ ⑦ ❝✌■❝✯✲✢■ ■✢❝❡✜■✢❝♣ ✒✳■✢❧✌✯✥ ➇✙✙ ❢ ✌✥ ✚✢✍♣❡❧ ✢✜ ✢✍ ✢✍✰✲❡ ✒✳ ❜✖➠✗

➑✳ ✜✐❡ ❝✒❡✳✳✌❝✌❡✍✜ ✒✳ ✳■✌❝✜✌✒✍ ✚❡✜✻❡❡✍ ✜✐❡

✻✐❡❡✲✥ ✒✳ ✢ ■✢❝❡➈❝✢■ ✢✍❧ ✜✐❡ ■✒✢❧ ✌✥ ✙✗✘✺✻✐✢✜ ✌✥ ✜✐❡ ✕✢✛ ✒❤✜✌❢✯❢ ✥❤❡❡❧ ✒✳ ✜✐❡ ■✢❝❡➈❝✢■ ✜✒ ✢✱✒✌❧ ✻❡✢■ ✢✍❧ ✜❡✢■ ✒✍ ✌✜✥ ✜⑧■❡✥✺ ✢✍❧✕✚✛ ❢✢❦✌❢✯❢ ❤❡■❢✌✥✥✌✚✲❡ ✥❤❡❡❧ ✜✒ ✢✱✒✌❧✥✲✌❤❤✌✍✰ ➉

➋➌➍➎➁➏ ➐✍ ✢ ✚✢✍♣❡❧ ■✒✢❧✺ ✜✐❡ ✐✒■✌➡✒✍✜✢✲❝✒❢❤✒✍❡✍✜ ✒✳ ✜✐❡ ✍✒■❢✢✲ ✳✒■❝❡ ✢✍❧ ✜✐❡ ✳■✌❝✜✌✒✍✢✲✳✒■❝❡ ❝✒✍✜■✌✚✯✜❡ ✜✒ ❤■✒✱✌❧❡ ❝❡✍✜■✌❤❡✜✢✲ ✳✒■❝❡ ✜✒

♣❡❡❤ ✜✐❡ ❝✢■ ❢✒✱✌✍✰ ✒✍ ✢ ❝✌■❝✯✲✢■ ✜✯■✍ ✻✌✜✐✒✯✜✥✲✌❤❤✌✍✰✗ ⑦✜ ✜✐❡ ✒❤✜✌❢✯❢ ✥❤❡❡❧✺ ✜✐❡ ✍✒■❢✢✲■❡✢❝✜✌✒✍➢✥ ❝✒❢❤✒✍❡✍✜ ✌✥ ❡✍✒✯✰✐ ✜✒ ❤■✒✱✌❧❡ ✜✐❡✍❡❡❧❡❧ ❝❡✍✜■✌❤❡✜✢✲ ✳✒■❝❡✺ ✢✍❧ ✜✐❡ ✳■✌❝✜✌✒✍✢✲ ✳✒■❝❡✌✥ ✍✒✜ ✍❡❡❧❡❧✗ ⑩✐❡ ✒❤✜✌❢✯❢ ✥❤❡❡❧ ✔❷ ✌✥ ✰✌✱❡✍ ✚⑧

✸✹✗ ✕✖✗✘✘✛➒✔➤ ✇ ③❘ ④ ✜✢✍ ❸⑥➝➥➙

➦❡■❡ ❘ ✓ ➇✙✙ ❢➣ ❸ ✇ ❜✖➠✺ ④ ✇ ↔✗❥ ❢ ✥↕➙➧ ✻❡✐✢✱❡

✔➤ ✇ ✘❥✗❜ ❢ ✥↕➝✗

⑩✐❡❢✢❦✌❢✯❢ ❤❡■❢✌✥✥✌✚✲❡ ✥❤❡❡❧ ✔➨➩➫ ✌✥ ✰✌✱❡✍ ✚⑧

✸✹✗ ✕✖✗✘❜✛➒

➯➲➳➵➸ ➺➻➽➾➚ ➪➾ ➲➳➵

➶➹➘➴

➷➬➮➴

➱ ✃❐ ❒

❐ ❒

❮❰ ÏÐÑ ÑÒ ÓÔÕ Ö

×ØÙÙ ÚÛÜÝÞßà áâÛãÜäåÚ ÞßåäæçèßÞæÚ

⑩✐❡ ✜✐■❡❡ ✲✢✻✥ ✒✳ ❢✒✜✌✒✍ ✜✐✢✜ ⑧✒✯ ✐✢✱❡ ✲❡✢■✍✜ ✌✍✜✐✌✥ ❝✐✢❤✜❡■ ✢■❡ ✜✐❡ ✳✒✯✍❧✢✜✌✒✍ ✒✳ ❢❡❝✐✢✍✌❝✥✗é✒✯ ✥✐✒✯✲❧ ✍✒✻ ✚❡ ✢✚✲❡ ✜✒ ✐✢✍❧✲❡ ✢ ✲✢■✰❡ ✱✢■✌❡✜⑧✒✳ ❤■✒✚✲❡❢✥ ✌✍❢❡❝✐✢✍✌❝✥✗ ⑦ ✜⑧❤✌❝✢✲ ❤■✒✚✲❡❢ ✌✍❢❡❝✐✢✍✌❝✥ ✯✥✯✢✲✲⑧ ❧✒❡✥ ✍✒✜ ❢❡■❡✲⑧ ✌✍✱✒✲✱❡ ✢✥✌✍✰✲❡ ✚✒❧⑧ ✯✍❧❡■ ✜✐❡ ✢❝✜✌✒✍ ✒✳ ✰✌✱❡✍ ✳✒■❝❡✥✗

ê✒■❡ ✒✳✜❡✍✺ ✻❡✻✌✲✲ ✍❡❡❧ ✜✒ ❝✒✍✥✌❧❡■ ✢✍ ✢✥✥❡❢✚✲⑧✒✳ ❧✌✳✳❡■❡✍✜ ✚✒❧✌❡✥ ❡❦❡■✜✌✍✰ ✳✒■❝❡✥ ✒✍ ❡✢❝✐ ✒✜✐❡■✗

ë❡✥✌❧❡✥✺ ❡✢❝✐ ✚✒❧⑧ ✌✍ ✜✐❡ ✢✥✥❡❢✚✲⑧ ❡❦❤❡■✌❡✍❝❡✥✜✐❡ ✳✒■❝❡ ✒✳ ✰■✢✱✌✜⑧✗ ❲✐❡✍ ✜■⑧✌✍✰ ✜✒ ✥✒✲✱❡ ✢❤■✒✚✲❡❢ ✒✳ ✜✐✌✥ ✜⑧❤❡✺ ✌✜ ✌✥ ✯✥❡✳✯✲ ✜✒ ■❡❢❡❢✚❡■✜✐❡ ✳✢❝✜ ✜✐✢✜ ✻❡ ❝✢✍ ❝✐✒✒✥❡ ✢✍⑧ ❤✢■✜ ✒✳ ✜✐❡✢✥✥❡❢✚✲⑧ ✢✍❧ ✢❤❤✲⑧ ✜✐❡ ✲✢✻✥ ✒✳ ❢✒✜✌✒✍ ✜✒ ✜✐✢✜❤✢■✜ ❤■✒✱✌❧❡❧ ✻❡ ✌✍❝✲✯❧❡✢✲✲ ✳✒■❝❡✥ ✒✍ ✜✐❡ ❝✐✒✥❡✍❤✢■✜ ❧✯❡ ✜✒ ✜✐❡ ■❡❢✢✌✍✌✍✰ ❤✢■✜✥ ✒✳ ✜✐❡ ✢✥✥❡❢✚✲⑧✗❲❡ ❢✢⑧ ❝✢✲✲ ✜✐❡ ❝✐✒✥❡✍ ❤✢■✜ ✒✳ ✜✐❡ ✢✥✥❡❢✚✲⑧ ✢✥✜✐❡ ✥⑧✥✜❡❢ ✢✍❧ ✜✐❡ ■❡❢✢✌✍✌✍✰ ❤✢■✜ ✒✳ ✜✐❡✢✥✥❡❢✚✲⑧ ✕❤✲✯✥ ✢✍⑧ ✒✜✐❡■ ✢✰❡✍❝✌❡✥ ✒✳ ✳✒■❝❡✥✛ ✢✥✜✐❡ ❡✍✱✌■✒✍❢❡✍✜✗ ❲❡ ✐✢✱❡ ✳✒✲✲✒✻❡❧ ✜✐❡ ✥✢❢❡

Page 110: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

♠✟✠✡☛☞ ✌✍ ✎☛✏✑✟☞ ✟✒✓♠✔✏✟✎✕ ✖☛ ✡✓✍☞✏✟ ✓ ✠✗✔✌✘✓✏

✔♣☛✙✏✟♠ ✌✍ ♠✟✘✡✓✍✌✘✎ ✎✗✎✠✟♠✓✠✌✘✓✏✏✗✚ ☛✍✟

✎✡☛s✏☞ s✎✟ ✠✡✟ ✛☛✏✏☛✜✌✍✢ ✎✠✟✔✎ ✣

✭✌✤ ❉♣✓✜ ✓ ☞✌✓✢♣✓♠ ✎✡☛✜✌✍✢ ✎✘✡✟♠✓✠✌✘✓✏✏✗ ✠✡✟

✑✓♣✌☛s✎ ✔✓♣✠✎ ☛✛ ✠✡✟ ✓✎✎✟♠✙✏✗ ☛✛ ✙☛☞✌✟✎✚ ✠✡✟

✏✌✍❧✎✚ ✎s✔✔☛♣✠✎✚ ✟✠✘✕

✭✌✌✤ ❈✡☛☛✎✟ ✓ ✘☛✍✑✟✍✌✟✍✠ ✔✓♣✠ ☛✛ ✠✡✟ ✓✎✎✟♠✙✏✗

✓✎ ☛✍✟ ✎✗✎✠✟♠✕

✭✌✌✌✤ ❉♣✓✜ ✓ ✎✟✔✓♣✓✠✟ ☞✌✓✢♣✓♠ ✜✡✌✘✡ ✎✡☛✜✎ ✠✡✌✎

✎✗✎✠✟♠ ✓✍☞ ✓✏✏ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟✎ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✎✗✎✠✟♠ ✙✗

✠✡✟ ♣✟♠✓✌✍✌✍✢ ✔✓♣✠ ☛✛ ✠✡✟ ✓✎✎✟♠✙✏✗✕ t✍✘✏s☞✟

✓✏✎☛ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟✎ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✎✗✎✠✟♠ ✙✗ ☛✠✡✟♣

✓✢✟✍✘✌✟✎✕ ✥✦ ✧✦★ ✩✧✪✫✬✮✯ ★✰✯ ✱✦✲✪✯✳ ✦✧ ★✰✯

✯✧❡✩✲✦✧✴✯✧★ ✵✷ ★✰✯ ✳✷✳★✯✴✕ ✸ ☞✌✓✢♣✓♠ ☛✛

✠✡✌✎ ✠✗✔✟ ✌✎ ❧✍☛✜✍ ✓✎ ✹✓ ✛♣✟✟✺✙☛☞✗ ☞✌✓✢♣✓♠✻✕

✭✼☛✠✟ ✠✡✌✎ ☞☛✟✎ ✍☛✠ ✌♠✔✏✗ ✠✡✓✠ ✠✡✟ ✎✗✎✠✟♠

s✍☞✟♣ ✘☛✍✎✌☞✟♣✓✠✌☛✍ ✌✎ ✜✌✠✡☛s✠ ✓ ✍✟✠ ✛☛♣✘✟✤✕

✭✌✑✤ t✍ ✓ ✛♣✟✟✺✙☛☞✗ ☞✌✓✢♣✓♠✚ ✌✍✘✏s☞✟ ✌✍✛☛♣♠✓✠✌☛✍

✓✙☛s✠ ✛☛♣✘✟✎ ✭✠✡✟✌♣ ♠✓✢✍✌✠s☞✟✎ ✓✍☞

☞✌♣✟✘✠✌☛✍✎✤ ✠✡✓✠ ✓♣✟ ✟✌✠✡✟♣ ✢✌✑✟✍ ☛♣ ✗☛s ✓♣✟

✎s♣✟ ☛✛ ✭✟✕✢✕✚ ✠✡✟ ☞✌♣✟✘✠✌☛✍ ☛✛ ✠✟✍✎✌☛✍ ✌✍ ✓

✎✠♣✌✍✢ ✓✏☛✍✢ ✌✠✎ ✏✟✍✢✠✡✤✕ ✖✡✟ ♣✟✎✠ ✎✡☛s✏☞ ✙✟

✠♣✟✓✠✟☞ ✓✎ s✍❧✍☛✜✍✎ ✠☛ ✙✟ ☞✟✠✟♣♠✌✍✟☞ s✎✌✍✢

✏✓✜✎ ☛✛ ♠☛✠✌☛✍✕

✭✑✤ t✛ ✍✟✘✟✎✎✓♣✗✚ ✛☛✏✏☛✜ ✠✡✟ ✎✓♠✟ ✔♣☛✘✟☞s♣✟ ✛☛♣

✓✍☛✠✡✟♣ ✘✡☛✌✘✟ ☛✛ ✠✡✟ ✎✗✎✠✟♠✕ t✍ ☞☛✌✍✢ ✎☛✚

✟♠✔✏☛✗ ✼✟✜✠☛✍✻✎ ✠✡✌♣☞ ✏✓✜✕ ✖✡✓✠ ✌✎✚ ✌✛ ✌✍ ✠✡✟

✛♣✟✟✺✙☛☞✗ ☞✌✓✢♣✓♠ ☛✛ ❆✚ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✍ ❆ ☞s✟ ✠☛

❇ ✌✎ ✎✡☛✜✍ ✓✎ ❋✽ ✠✡✟✍ ✌✍ ✠✡✟ ✛♣✟✟✺✙☛☞✗

☞✌✓✢♣✓♠ ☛✛ ❇✚ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✍ ❇ ☞s✟ ✠☛ ❆ ✎✡☛s✏☞

✙✟ ✎✡☛✜✍ ✓✎ ❜❋✾

✖✡✟ ✛☛✏✏☛✜✌✍✢ ✟✒✓♠✔✏✟ ✌✏✏s✎✠♣✓✠✟✎ ✠✡✟ ✓✙☛✑✟

✔♣☛✘✟☞s♣✟ ✣

❊✿❀❁❂❃❄ ❅●❍■ ❙✟✟ ✭❏✌✢✕ ❑✕▲❑✤ ✸ ✜☛☛☞✟✍

✙✏☛✘❧ ☛✛ ♠✓✎✎ ▼ ❧✢ ♣✟✎✠✎ ☛✍ ✓ ✎☛✛✠ ✡☛♣✌◆☛✍✠✓✏

✛✏☛☛♣✕ ❖✡✟✍ ✓✍ ✌♣☛✍ ✘✗✏✌✍☞✟♣ ☛✛ ♠✓✎✎ ▼❑ ❧✢

✌✎ ✔✏✓✘✟☞ ☛✍ ✠☛✔ ☛✛ ✠✡✟✙✏☛✘❧✚ ✠✡✟ ✛✏☛☛♣ ✗✌✟✏☞✎

✎✠✟✓☞✌✏✗ ✓✍☞ ✠✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧ ✓✍☞ ✠✡✟ ✘✗✏✌✍☞✟♣

✠☛✢✟✠✡✟♣ ✢☛ ☞☛✜✍ ✜✌✠✡ ✓✍ ✓✘✘✟✏✟♣✓✠✌☛✍ ☛✛

◗✕▲ ♠ ✎➊❘✕ ❖✡✓✠ ✌✎ ✠✡✟ ✓✘✠✌☛✍ ☛✛ ✠✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧

☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✛✏☛☛♣ ✭✓✤ ✙✟✛☛♣✟ ✓✍☞ ✭✙✤ ✓✛✠✟♣ ✠✡✟ ✛✏☛☛♣

✗✌✟✏☞✎ ② ✖✓❧✟ ❣ ❚ ▲◗ ♠ ✎➊❘✕ t☞✟✍✠✌✛✗ ✠✡✟

✓✘✠✌☛✍✺♣✟✓✘✠✌☛✍ ✔✓✌♣✎ ✌✍ ✠✡✟ ✔♣☛✙✏✟♠✕

❯❱❲❳❄❨

✭✓✤ ✖✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧ ✌✎ ✓✠ ♣✟✎✠ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✛✏☛☛♣✕ t✠✎ ✛♣✟✟✺✙☛☞✗

☞✌✓✢♣✓♠ ✎✡☛✜✎ ✠✜☛ ✛☛♣✘✟✎ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧✚ ✠✡✟

✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✛ ✢♣✓✑✌✠✓✠✌☛✍✓✏ ✓✠✠♣✓✘✠✌☛✍ ✙✗ ✠✡✟ ✟✓♣✠✡

✟❩s✓✏ ✠☛ ▼ × ▲◗ ❬ ▼◗ ✼❭ ✓✍☞ ✠✡✟ ✍☛♣♠✓✏ ✛☛♣✘✟

❪ ☛✛ ✠✡✟ ✛✏☛☛♣ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧✕ ❫✗ ✠✡✟ ❏✌♣✎✠ ❴✓✜✚

✠✡✟ ✍✟✠ ✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧ ♠s✎✠ ✙✟ ◆✟♣☛ ✌✕✟✕✚

❪ ❬ ▼◗ ✼✕ ❵✎✌✍✢ ✠✡✌♣☞ ✏✓✜ ✠✡✟ ✓✘✠✌☛✍ ☛✛ ✠✡✟

✙✏☛✘❧ ✭✌✕✟✕ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟ ✟✒✟♣✠✟☞ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✛✏☛☛♣ ✙✗

✠✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧✤ ✌✎ ✟❩s✓✏ ✠☛ ▼◗ ✼ ✓✍☞ ☞✌♣✟✘✠✟☞

✑✟♣✠✌✘✓✏✏✗ ☞☛✜✍✜✓♣☞✎✕

✭✙✤ ✖✡✟ ✎✗✎✠✟♠ ✭✙✏☛✘❧ ❛ ✘✗✏✌✍☞✟♣✤ ✓✘✘✟✏✟♣✓✠✟✎

☞☛✜✍✜✓♣☞✎ ✜✌✠✡ ◗✕▲ ♠ ✎❝❞✕ ✖✡✟ ✛♣✟✟✺✙☛☞✗

☞✌✓✢♣✓♠ ☛✛ ✠✡✟ ✎✗✎✠✟♠ ✎✡☛✜✎ ✠✜☛ ✛☛♣✘✟✎ ☛✍

✠✡✟ ✎✗✎✠✟♠ ✣ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✛ ✢♣✓✑✌✠✗ ☞s✟ ✠☛ ✠✡✟

✟✓♣✠✡ ✭▼❢◗✼✤❭ ✓✍☞ ✠✡✟ ✍☛♣♠✓✏ ✛☛♣✘✟❪❤ ✙✗ ✠✡✟

✛✏☛☛♣✕ ✼☛✠✟✚ ✠✡✟ ✛♣✟✟✺✙☛☞✗ ☞✌✓✢♣✓♠ ☛✛ ✠✡✟

✎✗✎✠✟♠ ☞☛✟✎ ✍☛✠ ✎✡☛✜ ✠✡✟ ✌✍✠✟♣✍✓✏ ✛☛♣✘✟✎

✙✟✠✜✟✟✍ ✠✡✟✙✏☛✘❧✓✍☞ ✠✡✟ ✘✗✏✌✍☞✟♣✕ ✸✔✔✏✗✌✍✢

✠✡✟ ✎✟✘☛✍☞ ✏✓✜ ✠☛ ✠✡✟ ✎✗✎✠✟♠✚

▼❢◗ ❜ ❪❤ ❬ ▼❢ ✐ ◗✕▲✼

✌✟✕ ❪❤ ❬ ▼❥❢✕❦ ✼

♥♦qr ✉r✈✉

❫✗ ✠✡✟ ✠✡✌♣☞ ✏✓✜✚ ✠✡✟ ✓✘✠✌☛✍ ☛✛ ✠✡✟ ✎✗✎✠✟♠ ☛✍

✠✡✟ ✛✏☛☛♣ ✌✎ ✟❩s✓✏ ✠☛ ▼❥❢✕❦ ✼ ✑✟♣✠✌✘✓✏✏✗ ☞☛✜✍✜✓♣☞✕

❯✇①③④❱⑤❨❄❀✇①③④❱ ❂❀③❨❲

❏☛♣ ✭✓✤✣ ✭✌✤ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✛ ✢♣✓✑✌✠✗ ✭▼◗ ✼✤ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧

✙✗ ✠✡✟ ✟✓♣✠✡ ✭✎✓✗✚ ✓✘✠✌☛✍✤❭ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✛

✢♣✓✑✌✠✗ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✟✓♣✠✡ ✙✗ ✠✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧

✭♣✟✓✘✠✌☛✍✤ ✟❩s✓✏ ✠☛ ▼◗ ✼ ☞✌♣✟✘✠✟☞

s✔✜✓♣☞✎ ✭✍☛✠ ✎✡☛✜✍ ✌✍ ✠✡✟ ✛✌✢s♣✟✤✕

✭✌✌✤ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✛✏☛☛♣ ✙✗ ✠✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧

✭✓✘✠✌☛✍✤❭ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✙✏☛✘❧ ✙✗ ✠✡✟

✛✏☛☛♣ ✭♣✟✓✘✠✌☛✍✤✕

❏☛♣ ✭✙✤✣ ✭✌✤ ✠✡✟ ✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✛ ✢♣✓✑✌✠✗ ✭▼❢◗ ✼✤ ☛✍ ✠✡✟

✎✗✎✠✟♠ ✙✗ ✠✡✟ ✟✓♣✠✡ ✭✎✓✗✚ ✓✘✠✌☛✍✤❭ ✠✡✟

✛☛♣✘✟ ☛✛ ✢♣✓✑✌✠✗ ☛✍ ✠✡✟ ✟✓♣✠✡ ✙✗ ✠✡✟

✎✗✎✠✟♠ ✭♣✟✓✘✠✌☛✍✤✚ ✟❩s✓✏ ✠☛ ▼❢◗ ✼✚

Page 111: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✶✠✡

❞☛☞✌✍✎✌❞ ✏✑✒✓☞❞✔ ✕✖✗✎ ✔✘✗✒✖ ☛✖ ✎✘✌

❢☛✙✏☞✌✚✛

✕☛☛✚ ✎✘✌ ❢✗☞✍✌ ✗✖ ✎✘✌ ❢✭✗✗☞ ✜✢ ✎✘✌ ✔✢✔✎✌✣

✕✓✍✎☛✗✖✚✤ ✎✘✌ ❢✗☞✍✌ ✗✖ ✎✘✌ ✔✢✔✎✌✣ ✜✢ ✎✘✌

❢✭✗✗☞ ✕☞✌✓✍✎☛✗✖✚✛ ✥✖ ✓❞❞☛✎☛✗✖✦ ❢✗☞ ✕✜✚✦ ✎✘✌

❢✗☞✍✌ ✗✖ ✎✘✌ ✜✭✗✍✧ ✜✢ ✎✘✌ ✍✢✭☛✖❞✌☞ ✓✖❞

✎✘✌ ❢✗☞✍✌ ✗✖ ✎✘✌ ✍✢✭☛✖❞✌☞ ✜✢ ✎✘✌ ✜✭✗✍✧

✓✭✔✗ ✍✗✖✔✎☛✎✏✎✌ ✓✖ ✓✍✎☛✗✖❛☞✌✓✍✎☛✗✖ ✑✓☛☞✛

❚✘✌ ☛✣✑✗☞✎✓✖✎ ✎✘☛✖✙ ✎✗ ☞✌✣✌✣✜✌☞ ☛✔ ✎✘✓✎ ✓✖

✓✍✎☛✗✖❛☞✌✓✍✎☛✗✖ ✑✓☛☞ ✍✗✖✔☛✔✎✔ ✗❢ ✣✏✎✏✓✭ ❢✗☞✍✌✔

✒✘☛✍✘ ✓☞✌ ✓✭✒✓✢✔ ✌✇✏✓✭ ✓✖❞ ✗✑✑✗✔☛✎✌ ✜✌✎✒✌✌✖

✎✒✗ ✜✗❞☛✌✔✛ ❚✒✗ ❢✗☞✍✌✔ ✗✖ ✎✘✌ ✔✓✣✌ ✜✗❞✢ ✒✘☛✍✘

✘✓✑✑✌✖ ✎✗ ✜✌ ✌✇✏✓✭ ✓✖❞ ✗✑✑✗✔☛✎✌ ✍✓✖ ✖✌❤✌☞

✍✗✖✔✎☛✎✏✎✌ ✓✖ ✓✍✎☛✗✖❛☞✌✓✍✎☛✗✖ ✑✓☛☞✛ ❚✘✌ ❢✗☞✍✌ ✗❢

✙☞✓❤☛✎✢ ✗✖ ✎✘✌ ✣✓✔✔ ☛✖ ✕✓✚ ✗☞ ✕✜✚ ✓✖❞ ✎✘✌ ✖✗☞✣✓✭

❢✗☞✍✌ ✗✖ ✎✘✌ ✣✓✔✔ ✜✢ ✎✘✌ ❢✭✗✗☞ ✓☞✌ ✖✗✎ ✓✍✎☛✗✖❛

☞✌✓✍✎☛✗✖ ✑✓☛☞✔✛ ❚✘✌✔✌ ❢✗☞✍✌✔ ✘✓✑✑✌✖ ✎✗ ✜✌ ✌✇✏✓✭

✓✖❞ ✗✑✑✗✔☛✎✌ ❢✗☞ ✕✓✚ ✔☛✖✍✌ ✎✘✌ ✣✓✔✔ ☛✔ ✓✎ ☞✌✔✎✛

❚✘✌✢ ✓☞✌ ✖✗✎ ✔✗ ❢✗☞ ✍✓✔✌ ✕✜✚✦ ✓✔ ✔✌✌✖ ✓✭☞✌✓❞✢✛

❚✘✌ ✒✌☛✙✘✎ ✗❢ ✎✘✌ ✔✢✔✎✌✣ ☛✔ ★✩✪ ✫✦ ✒✘☛✭✌ ✎✘✌

✖✗☞✣✓✭ ❢✗☞✍✌ ❘✬ ☛✔ ★✮✩✛✯ ✫✛ ✰

❚✘✌ ✑☞✓✍✎☛✍✌ ✗❢ ❞☞✓✒☛✖✙ ❢☞✌✌❛✜✗❞✢ ❞☛✓✙☞✓✣✔ ☛✔

✗❢ ✙☞✌✓✎ ✘✌✭✑ ☛✖ ✔✗✭❤☛✖✙ ✑☞✗✜✭✌✣✔ ☛✖ ✣✌✍✘✓✖☛✍✔✛

✥✎ ✓✭✭✗✒✔ ✢✗✏ ✎✗ ✍✭✌✓☞✭✢ ❞✌❢☛✖✌ ✢✗✏☞ ✔✢✔✎✌✣ ✓✖❞

✍✗✖✔☛❞✌☞ ✓✭✭ ❢✗☞✍✌✔ ✗✖ ✎✘✌ ✔✢✔✎✌✣ ❞✏✌ ✎✗ ✗✜❝✌✍✎✔

✎✘✓✎ ✓☞✌ ✖✗✎ ✑✓☞✎ ✗❢ ✎✘✌ ✔✢✔✎✌✣ ☛✎✔✌✭❢✛ t ✖✏✣✜✌☞

✗❢ ✌♦✌☞✍☛✔✌✔ ☛✖ ✎✘☛✔ ✓✖❞ ✔✏✜✔✌✇✏✌✖✎ ✍✘✓✑✎✌☞✔ ✒☛✭✭

✘✌✭✑ ✢✗✏ ✍✏✭✎☛❤✓✎✌ ✎✘☛✔ ✑☞✓✍✎☛✍✌✛

❙✱✲✲✳✴✵

✷✸ ❆✹✺✻✼✽✼✾✿❀✻ ❁✺✿❂ ✼❃❄✼ ❄ ❅✽✹❇✿ ✺✻ ❈✿❇✿✻✻❄✹❉ ✼✽ ❊✿✿❋ ❄ ●✽❍❉ ✺❈ ■❈✺❅✽✹❏ ❏✽✼✺✽❈ ✺✻ ❂✹✽❈❑✸ ❆

❅✽✹❇✿ ✺✻ ❈✿❇✿✻✻❄✹❉ ✺❈ ❋✹❄❇✼✺❇✿ ✼✽ ❇✽■❈✼✿✹ ✼❃✿ ✽❋❋✽✻✺❈❑ ❅✽✹❇✿ ✽❅ ❅✹✺❇✼✺✽❈✸

▼✸ ◆❄✾✺✾✿✽ ✿❖✼✹❄❋✽✾❄✼✿❍ ✻✺❏❋✾✿ ✽●✻✿✹❁❄✼✺✽❈✻ ✽❈ ❏✽✼✺✽❈ ✽❅ ●✽❍✺✿✻ ✽❈ ✺❈❇✾✺❈✿❍ ❋✾❄❈✿✻P ❄❈❍

❄✹✹✺❁✿❍ ❄✼ ✼❃✿ ✾❄❂ ✽❅ ✺❈✿✹✼✺❄✸ ◗✿❂✼✽❈❀✻ ❅✺✹✻✼ ✾❄❂ ✽❅ ❏✽✼✺✽❈ ✺✻ ✼❃✿ ✻❄❏✿ ✾❄❂ ✹✿❋❃✹❄✻✿❍

✼❃■✻❯ ➇❱❲❳❨❩❬❭❪❩ ❫❭❴❵❜❴❡❳❣ ❵❭ ❬❳ ❜❴ ❜❵❣ ❣❵✐❵❳ ❭❥ ❨❳❣❵ ❭❨ ❭❥ ❡❴❜❥❭❨❦ ❦❭❵❜❭❴ ❜❴ ✐ ❣❵❨✐❜❧♠❵ ♥❜❴❳♣

❡❴♥❳❣❣ ❫❭❦✉❳♥♥❳❪ ❬❩❣❭❦❳ ❳q❵❳❨❴✐♥ ❥❭❨❫❳ ❵❭ ✐❫❵ ❭❵♠❳❨r❜❣❳s✸ ✈❈ ✻✺❏❋✾✿ ✼✿✹❏✻P ✼❃✿ ①✺✹✻✼ ②❄❂

✺✻ ③④⑤ ⑥⑦⑧⑥⑨⑩❶❷ ⑤❸⑨❹⑥ ❸⑩ ❶ ❺❸❻❼ ❽❾ ❿⑥⑨❸➀ ❽⑧❾ ❶❹❹⑥❷⑥⑨❶⑧❽❸⑩ ❽❾ ❿⑥⑨❸➁✸

➂✸ ➃✽❏✿❈✼■❏ ➄➅ ➆ ✽❅ ❄ ●✽❍❉ ✺✻ ✼❃✿ ❋✹✽❍■❇✼ ✽❅ ✺✼✻ ❏❄✻✻ ➈❦➉ ❄❈❍ ❁✿✾✽❇✺✼❉ ➈➊➉ ❯

➅ ➋ ❦ ➊

➌✸ ◗✿❂✼✽❈❀✻ ✻✿❇✽❈❍ ✾❄❂ ✽❅ ❏✽✼✺✽❈ ❯

➍♠❳ ❨✐❵❳ ❭❥ ❫♠✐❴❧❳ ❭❥ ❦❭❦❳❴❵❡❦ ❭❥ ✐ ❬❭❪❩ ❜❣ ✉❨❭✉❭❨❵❜❭❴✐♥ ❵❭ ❵♠❳ ✐✉✉♥❜❳❪ ❥❭❨❫❳ ✐❴❪ ❵✐➎❳❣

✉♥✐❫❳ ❜❴ ❵♠❳ ❪❜❨❳❫❵❜❭❴ ❜❴ r♠❜❫♠ ❵♠❳ ❥❭❨❫❳ ✐❫❵❣➏ ➐❃■✻

❍➎ ➎ ❦

❵➑ ➑

➅➒ ❶

❂❃✿✹✿ ➒ ✺✻ ✼❃✿ ❈✿✼ ✿❖✼✿✹❈❄✾ ❅✽✹❇✿ ✽❈ ✼❃✿ ●✽❍❉ ❄❈❍ ❶ ✺✼✻ ❄❇❇✿✾✿✹❄✼✺✽❈✸ ➓✿ ✻✿✼ ✼❃✿ ❇✽❈✻✼❄❈✼

✽❅ ❋✹✽❋✽✹✼✺✽❈❄✾✺✼❉ ➎ ➋ ✷ ✺❈ ➔✸✈✸ ➐❃✿❈

❍❦

❵➑ ➑

➅➒ ❶

➐❃✿ ➔✈ ■❈✺✼ ✽❅ ❅✽✹❇✿ ✺✻ ❈✿❂✼✽❈ ❯ ✷ ◗ ➋ ✷ ❊❑ ❏ ✻→➣➏

➄❄➆ ➐❃✿ ✻✿❇✽❈❍ ✾❄❂ ✺✻ ❇✽❈✻✺✻✼✿❈✼ ❂✺✼❃ ✼❃✿ ①✺✹✻✼ ②❄❂ ➄➒ ➋ ↔ ✺❏❋✾✺✿✻ ❶ ➋ ↔➆

➄●➆ ✈✼ ✺✻ ❄ ❁✿❇✼✽✹ ✿↕■❄✼✺✽❈

➄❇➆ ✈✼ ✺✻ ❄❋❋✾✺❇❄●✾✿ ✼✽ ❄ ❋❄✹✼✺❇✾✿P ❄❈❍ ❄✾✻✽ ✼✽ ❄ ●✽❍❉ ✽✹ ❄ ✻❉✻✼✿❏ ✽❅ ❋❄✹✼✺❇✾✿✻P ❋✹✽❁✺❍✿❍ ➒

✺✻ ✼❃✿ ✼✽✼❄✾ ✿❖✼✿✹❈❄✾ ❅✽✹❇✿ ✽❈ ✼❃✿ ✻❉✻✼✿❏ ❄❈❍ ❶ ✺✻ ✼❃✿ ❄❇❇✿✾✿✹❄✼✺✽❈ ✽❅ ✼❃✿ ✻❉✻✼✿❏ ❄✻

❄ ❂❃✽✾✿✸

➄❍➆ ➒ ❄✼ ❄ ❋✽✺❈✼ ❄✼ ❄ ❇✿✹✼❄✺❈ ✺❈✻✼❄❈✼ ❍✿✼✿✹❏✺❈✿✻ ❶ ❄✼ ✼❃✿ ✻❄❏✿ ❋✽✺❈✼ ❄✼ ✼❃❄✼ ✺❈✻✼❄❈✼✸

➐❃❄✼ ✺✻ ✼❃✿ ➔✿❇✽❈❍ ②❄❂ ✺✻ ❄ ✾✽❇❄✾ ✾❄❂➙ ❶ ❄✼ ❄❈ ✺❈✻✼❄❈✼ ❍✽✿✻ ❈✽✼ ❍✿❋✿❈❍ ✽❈ ✼❃✿

❃✺✻✼✽✹❉ ✽❅ ❏✽✼✺✽❈✸

➛✸ ✈❏❋■✾✻✿ ✺✻ ✼❃✿ ❋✹✽❍■❇✼ ✽❅ ❅✽✹❇✿ ❄❈❍ ✼✺❏✿ ❂❃✺❇❃ ✿↕■❄✾✻ ❇❃❄❈❑✿ ✺❈ ❏✽❏✿❈✼■❏✸

➐❃✿ ❈✽✼✺✽❈ ✽❅ ✺❏❋■✾✻✿ ✺✻ ■✻✿❅■✾ ❂❃✿❈ ❄ ✾❄✹❑✿ ❅✽✹❇✿ ❄❇✼✻ ❅✽✹ ❄ ✻❃✽✹✼ ✼✺❏✿ ✼✽ ❋✹✽❍■❇✿ ❄

❏✿❄✻■✹❄●✾✿ ❇❃❄❈❑✿ ✺❈ ❏✽❏✿❈✼■❏✸ ➔✺❈❇✿ ✼❃✿ ✼✺❏✿ ✽❅ ❄❇✼✺✽❈ ✽❅ ✼❃✿ ❅✽✹❇✿ ✺✻ ❁✿✹❉ ✻❃✽✹✼P

✽❈✿ ❇❄❈ ❄✻✻■❏✿ ✼❃❄✼ ✼❃✿✹✿ ✺✻ ❈✽ ❄❋❋✹✿❇✺❄●✾✿ ❇❃❄❈❑✿ ✺❈ ✼❃✿ ❋✽✻✺✼✺✽❈ ✽❅ ✼❃✿ ●✽❍❉ ❍■✹✺❈❑

✼❃✿ ❄❇✼✺✽❈ ✽❅ ✼❃✿ ✺❏❋■✾✻✺❁✿ ❅✽✹❇✿✸

➜✸ ◗✿❂✼✽❈❀✻ ✼❃✺✹❍ ✾❄❂ ✽❅ ❏✽✼✺✽❈❯

➍❭ ❳❲❳❨❩ ✐❫❵❜❭❴♣ ❵♠❳❨❳ ❜❣ ✐♥r✐❩❣ ✐❴ ❳➝❡✐♥ ✐❴❪ ❭✉✉❭❣❜❵❳ ❨❳✐❫❵❜❭❴

Page 112: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

■✞ ✟✠✡☛☞✌ ✍✌✎✡✟✏ ✍✑✌ ☞✒✓ ✔✒✞ ✕✌ ✟✍✒✍✌✖ ✍✑✗✟ ✘❋✙✚✛✜✢ ✣✤ ✤✥✦✧✚✜ ✥★✩✥✪✢ ✙✛✛✧✚ ✫✜✦✩✜✜✤ ✬✥✣✚✢ ✙✭ ✫✙✮✣✜✢✯ ❋✙✚✛✜ ✙✤ ✥ ✫✙✮✪ ✰ ✫✪ ✫✙✮✪❇ ✣✢ ✜✱✧✥★ ✥✤✮ ✙✬✬✙✢✣✦✜ ✦✙ ✦✲✜ ✭✙✚✛✜ ✙✤ ✦✲✜ ✫✙✮✪ ❇ ✫✪ ✰✯❆✔✍✠✳✞ ✒✞✖ ✎✌✒✔✍✠✳✞ ✴✳✎✔✌✟ ✒✎✌ ✟✠✡✗☞✍✒✞✌✳✗✟ ✴✳✎✔✌✟✵ ✷✑✌✎✌ ✠✟ ✞✳ ✔✒✗✟✌✸✌✴✴✌✔✍✎✌☞✒✍✠✳✞ ✕✌✍✓✌✌✞ ✒✔✍✠✳✞ ✒✞✖ ✎✌✒✔✍✠✳✞✵ ❆✞r ✳✴ ✍✑✌ ✍✓✳ ✡✗✍✗✒☞ ✴✳✎✔✌✟ ✔✒✞ ✕✌✔✒☞☞✌✖ ✒✔✍✠✳✞ ✒✞✖ ✍✑✌ ✳✍✑✌✎ ✎✌✒✔✍✠✳✞✵ ❆✔✍✠✳✞ ✒✞✖ ✎✌✒✔✍✠✳✞ ✒✔✍ ✳✞ ✖✠✴✴✌✎✌✞✍✕✳✖✠✌✟ ✒✞✖ ✟✳ ✍✑✌r ✔✒✞✞✳✍ ✕✌ ✔✒✞✔✌☞☞✌✖ ✳✗✍✵ ✷✑✌ ✠✞✍✌✎✞✒☞ ✒✔✍✠✳✞ ✒✞✖ ✎✌✒✔✍✠✳✞✴✳✎✔✌✟ ✕✌✍✓✌✌✞ ✖✠✴✴✌✎✌✞✍ ☛✒✎✍✟ ✳✴ ✒ ✕✳✖r ✖✳✏ ✑✳✓✌❡✌✎✏ ✟✗✡ ✍✳ ✹✌✎✳✵

✼✵ ▲✥✩ ✙✭ ✺✙✤✢✜✚✻✥✦✣✙✤ ✙✭ ✽✙✾✜✤✦✧✾✷✑✌ ✍✳✍✒☞ ✡✳✡✌✞✍✗✡ ✳✴ ✒✞ ✠✟✳☞✒✍✌✖ ✟r✟✍✌✡ ✳✴ ☛✒✎✍✠✔☞✌✟ ✠✟ ✔✳✞✟✌✎❡✌✖✵ ✷✑✌ ☞✒✓✴✳☞☞✳✓✟ ✴✎✳✡ ✍✑✌ ✟✌✔✳✞✖ ✒✞✖ ✍✑✠✎✖ ☞✒✓ ✳✴ ✡✳✍✠✳✞✵

✿✵ ❋✚✣✛✦✣✙✤❀✎✠✔✍✠✳✞✒☞ ✴✳✎✔✌ ✳☛☛✳✟✌✟ ❁✠✡☛✌✞✖✠✞❂ ✳✎ ✒✔✍✗✒☞❃ ✎✌☞✒✍✠❡✌ ✡✳✍✠✳✞ ✕✌✍✓✌✌✞ ✍✓✳✟✗✎✴✒✔✌✟ ✠✞ ✔✳✞✍✒✔✍✵ ■✍ ✠✟ ✍✑✌ ✔✳✡☛✳✞✌✞✍ ✳✴ ✍✑✌ ✔✳✞✍✒✔✍ ✴✳✎✔✌ ✒☞✳✞❂ ✍✑✌ ✔✳✡✡✳✞✍✒✞❂✌✞✍ ✍✳ ✍✑✌ ✟✗✎✴✒✔✌ ✠✞ ✔✳✞✍✒✔✍✵ t✍✒✍✠✔ ✴✎✠✔✍✠✳✞ ✭s ✳☛☛✳✟✌✟ ✠✡☛✌✞✖✠✞❂ ✎✌☞✒✍✠❡✌✡✳✍✠✳✞♠ ❄✠✞✌✍✠✔ ✴✎✠✔✍✠✳✞ ✭❦ ✳☛☛✳✟✌✟ ✒✔✍✗✒☞ ✎✌☞✒✍✠❡✌ ✡✳✍✠✳✞✵ ✷✑✌r ✒✎✌ ✠✞✖✌☛✌✞✖✌✞✍✳✴ ✍✑✌ ✒✎✌✒ ✳✴ ✔✳✞✍✒✔✍ ✒✞✖ ✟✒✍✠✟✴r ✍✑✌ ✴✳☞☞✳✓✠✞❂ ✒☛☛✎✳♦✠✡✒✍✌ ☞✒✓✟ ✘

❅ ❈❉❊①❢ ❢ ●❍ ❍ ❍❏ ❑ ➭

❄ ❄✭ ▼◆ ❖

❖s ❁✔✳✸✌✴✴✠✔✠✌✞✍ ✳✴ ✟✍✒✍✠✔ ✴✎✠✔✍✠✳✞❃ ✒✞✖ ❖❦ ❁✔✳✸✌✴✴✠✔✠✌✞✍ ✳✴ ❄✠✞✌✍✠✔ ✴✎✠✔✍✠✳✞❃ ✒✎✌✔✳✞✟✍✒✞✍✟ ✔✑✒✎✒✔✍✌✎✠✟✍✠✔ ✳✴ ✍✑✌ ☛✒✠✎ ✳✴ ✟✗✎✴✒✔✌✟ ✠✞ ✔✳✞✍✒✔✍✵ ■✍ ✠✟ ✴✳✗✞✖✌♦☛✌✎✠✡✌✞✍✒☞☞r ✍✑✒✍ ❖❦ ✠✟ ☞✌✟✟ ✍✑✒✞ ❖s ✵

◗❘❙❚❯❱ ❯❘ ◗❘❚❲❳❨

❩✵ ❀✳✎✔✌ ✠✟ ✞✳✍ ✒☞✓✒r✟ ✠✞ ✍✑✌ ✖✠✎✌✔✍✠✳✞ ✳✴ ✡✳✍✠✳✞✵ ❬✌☛✌✞✖✠✞❂ ✳✞ ✍✑✌ ✟✠✍✗✒✍✠✳✞✏ ❭✡✒r ✕✌ ✒☞✳✞❂ ✈✏ ✳☛☛✳✟✠✍✌ ✍✳ ✈✏ ✞✳✎✡✒☞ ✍✳ ✈ ✳✎ ✡✒r ✡✒❄✌ ✟✳✡✌ ✳✍✑✌✎ ✒✞❂☞✌ ✓✠✍✑✈✵ ■✞ ✌❡✌✎r ✔✒✟✌✏ ✠✍ ✠✟ ☛✒✎✒☞☞✌☞ ✍✳ ✒✔✔✌☞✌✎✒✍✠✳✞✵

❪✵ ■✴ ✈ ❫ ❴ ✒✍ ✒✞ ✠✞✟✍✒✞✍✏ ✠✵✌✵ ✠✴ ✒ ✕✳✖r ✠✟ ✡✳✡✌✞✍✒✎✠☞r ✒✍ ✎✌✟✍✏ ✠✍ ✖✳✌✟ ✞✳✍ ✡✌✒✞ ✍✑✒✍✴✳✎✔✌ ✳✎ ✒✔✔✌☞✌✎✒✍✠✳✞ ✒✎✌ ✞✌✔✌✟✟✒✎✠☞r ✹✌✎✳ ✒✍ ✍✑✒✍ ✠✞✟✍✒✞✍✵ ❀✳✎ ✌♦✒✡☛☞✌✏ ✓✑✌✞ ✒✕✒☞☞ ✍✑✎✳✓✞ ✗☛✓✒✎✖ ✎✌✒✔✑✌✟ ✠✍✟ ✡✒♦✠✡✗✡ ✑✌✠❂✑✍✏ ✈ ❫ ❴ ✕✗✍ ✍✑✌ ✴✳✎✔✌ ✔✳✞✍✠✞✗✌✟✍✳ ✕✌ ✠✍✟ ✓✌✠❂✑✍ ✾❵ ✒✞✖ ✍✑✌ ✒✔✔✌☞✌✎✒✍✠✳✞ ✠✟ ✞✳✍ ✹✌✎✳ ✕✗✍ ❵✵

❛✵ ❀✳✎✔✌ ✳✞ ✒ ✕✳✖r ✒✍ ✒ ❂✠❡✌✞ ✍✠✡✌ ✠✟ ✖✌✍✌✎✡✠✞✌✖ ✕r ✍✑✌ ✟✠✍✗✒✍✠✳✞ ✒✍ ✍✑✌ ☞✳✔✒✍✠✳✞ ✳✴✍✑✌ ✕✳✖r ✒✍ ✍✑✒✍ ✍✠✡✌✵ ❀✳✎✔✌ ✠✟ ✞✳✍ ❜✔✒✎✎✠✌✖❝ ✕r ✍✑✌ ✕✳✖r ✴✎✳✡ ✠✍✟ ✌✒✎☞✠✌✎ ✑✠✟✍✳✎r✳✴ ✡✳✍✠✳✞✵ ✷✑✌ ✡✳✡✌✞✍ ✒✴✍✌✎ ✒ ✟✍✳✞✌ ✠✟ ✎✌☞✌✒✟✌✖ ✳✗✍ ✳✴ ✒✞ ✒✔✔✌☞✌✎✒✍✌✖ ✍✎✒✠✞✏✍✑✌✎✌ ✠✟ ✞✳ ✑✳✎✠✹✳✞✍✒☞ ✴✳✎✔✌ ❁✳✎ ✒✔✔✌☞✌✎✒✍✠✳✞❃ ✳✞ ✍✑✌ ✟✍✳✞✌✏ ✠✴ ✍✑✌ ✌✴✴✌✔✍✟ ✳✴ ✍✑✌✟✗✎✎✳✗✞✖✠✞❂ ✒✠✎ ✒✎✌ ✞✌❂☞✌✔✍✌✖✵ ✷✑✌ ✟✍✳✞✌ ✍✑✌✞ ✑✒✟ ✳✞☞r ✍✑✌ ❡✌✎✍✠✔✒☞ ✴✳✎✔✌ ✳✴❂✎✒❡✠✍r✵

❞✵ ■✞ ✍✑✌ ✟✌✔✳✞✖ ☞✒✓ ✳✴ ✡✳✍✠✳✞ ❭ ❣ ✾ ❤✏ ❭ ✟✍✒✞✖✟ ✴✳✎ ✍✑✌ ✞✌✍ ✴✳✎✔✌ ✖✗✌ ✍✳ ✒☞☞✡✒✍✌✎✠✒☞ ✒❂✌✞✔✠✌✟ ✌♦✍✌✎✞✒☞ ✍✳ ✍✑✌ ✕✳✖r✵ ❤ ✠✟ ✍✑✌ ✌✴✴✌✔✍ ✳✴ ✍✑✌ ✴✳✎✔✌✵ ✾❤ ✟✑✳✗☞✖

Page 113: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✶✠✡

♥☛☞ ✌✍ ✎✍❡✏✎❞✍❞ ✏✑ ✒✍☞ ✏♥☛☞✓✍✎ ✔☛✎✕✍✖ ✌✍✑✗❞✍✑ ❋✳

✺✳ ❚✓✍ ✕✍♥☞✎✗✘✍☞✏✙ ✔☛✎✕✍ ✑✓☛✚✙❞ ♥☛☞ ✌✍ ✎✍❡✏✎❞✍❞ ✏✑ ✒✍☞ ✏♥☛☞✓✍✎ ✛✗♥❞ ☛✔ ✔☛✎✕✍✳ ✜☞ ✗✑

✑✗s✘✙✒ ✏ ♥✏s✍ ❡✗✢✍♥ ☞☛ ☞✓✍ ✔☛✎✕✍ ☞✓✏☞ ✘✎☛✢✗❞✍✑ ✗♥✣✏✎❞ ✎✏❞✗✏✙ ✏✕✕✍✙✍✎✏☞✗☛♥ ☞☛ ✏

✌☛❞✒ ✗♥ ✕✗✎✕✚✙✏✎ s☛☞✗☛♥✳ ❝✍ ✑✓☛✚✙❞ ✏✙✣✏✒✑ ✙☛☛✛ ✔☛✎ ✑☛s✍ s✏☞✍✎✗✏✙ ✔☛✎✕✍ ✙✗✛✍

☞✍♥✑✗☛♥✖ ❡✎✏✢✗☞✏☞✗☛♥✏✙ ✔☛✎✕✍✖ ✍✙✍✕☞✎✗✕✏✙ ✔☛✎✕✍✖ ✔✎✗✕☞✗☛♥✖ ✍☞✕ ✏✑ ☞✓✍ ✕✍♥☞✎✗✘✍☞✏✙ ✔☛✎✕✍

✗♥ ✏♥✒ ✕✗✎✕✚✙✏✎ s☛☞✗☛♥✳

✻✳ ❙☞✏☞✗✕ ✔✎✗✕☞✗☛♥ ✗✑ ✏ ✑✍✙✔✤✏❞✥✚✑☞✗♥❡ ✔☛✎✕✍ ✚✘ ☞☛ ✗☞✑ ✙✗s✗☞ ➭✦ ✧ ★❢✩ ✪✫✩ ✧✬✳ ✭☛ ♥☛☞ ✘✚☞

❢✩❂ ✫✩ ✧ ✣✗☞✓☛✚☞ ✌✍✗♥❡ ✑✚✎✍ ☞✓✏☞ ☞✓✍ s✏✮✗s✚s ✢✏✙✚✍ ☛✔ ✑☞✏☞✗✕ ✔✎✗✕☞✗☛♥ ✗✑ ✕☛s✗♥❡

✗♥☞☛ ✘✙✏✒✳

✼✳ ❚✓✍ ✔✏s✗✙✗✏✎ ✍✯✚✏☞✗☛♥ ♠✰ ❂ ✱ ✔☛✎ ✏ ✌☛❞✒ ☛♥ ✏ ☞✏✌✙✍ ✗✑ ☞✎✚✍ ☛♥✙✒ ✗✔ ☞✓✍ ✌☛❞✒ ✗✑ ✗♥

✍✯✚✗✙✗✌✎✗✚s✳ ❚✓✍ ☞✣☛ ✔☛✎✕✍✑ ♠✰ ✏♥❞ ✱ ✕✏♥ ✌✍ ❞✗✔✔✍✎✍♥☞ ✲✍✳❡✳ ✏ ✌☛❞✒ ✗♥ ✏♥

✏✕✕✍✙✍✎✏☞✍❞ ✙✗✔☞❛✳ ❚✓✍ ✍✯✚✏✙✗☞✒ ☛✔ ♠✰ ✏♥❞ ✱ ✓✏✑ ♥☛ ✕☛♥♥✍✕☞✗☛♥ ✣✗☞✓ ☞✓✍ ☞✓✗✎❞

✙✏✣✳

✽✳ ❚✓✍ ☞✍✎s✑ ✴✏✕☞✗☛♥✵ ✏♥❞ ✴✎✍✏✕☞✗☛♥✵ ✗♥ ☞✓✍ ☞✓✗✎❞ ✷✏✣ ☛✔ ✸☛☞✗☛♥ ✑✗s✘✙✒ ✑☞✏♥❞ ✔☛✎

✑✗s✚✙☞✏♥✍☛✚✑ s✚☞✚✏✙ ✔☛✎✕✍✑ ✌✍☞✣✍✍♥ ✏ ✘✏✗✎ ☛✔ ✌☛❞✗✍✑✳ ✹♥✙✗✛✍ ☞✓✍✗✎ s✍✏♥✗♥❡ ✗♥

☛✎❞✗♥✏✎✒ ✙✏♥❡✚✏❡✍✖ ✏✕☞✗☛♥ ❞☛✍✑ ♥☛☞ ✘✎✍✕✍❞✍ ☛✎ ✕✏✚✑✍ ✎✍✏✕☞✗☛♥✳ ♦✕☞✗☛♥ ✏♥❞ ✎✍✏✕☞✗☛♥

✏✕☞ ☛♥ ❞✗✔✔✍✎✍♥☞ ✌☛❞✗✍✑✳

✾✳ ❚✓✍ ❞✗✔✔✍✎✍♥☞ ☞✍✎s✑ ✙✗✛✍ ✴✔✎✗✕☞✗☛♥✵✖ ✴♥☛✎s✏✙ ✎✍✏✕☞✗☛♥✵ ✴☞✍♥✑✗☛♥✵✖ ✴✏✗✎ ✎✍✑✗✑☞✏♥✕✍✵✖

✴✢✗✑✕☛✚✑ ❞✎✏❡✵✖ ✴☞✓✎✚✑☞✵✖ ✴✌✚☛✒✏♥✕✒✵ ✴✣✍✗❡✓☞✵ ✴✕✍♥☞✎✗✘✍☞✏✙ ✔☛✎✕✍✵ ✏✙✙ ✑☞✏♥❞ ✔☛✎ ✴✔☛✎✕✍✵

✗♥ ❞✗✔✔✍✎✍♥☞ ✕☛♥☞✍✮☞✑✳ ✐☛✎ ✕✙✏✎✗☞✒✖ ✍✢✍✎✒ ✔☛✎✕✍ ✏♥❞ ✗☞✑ ✍✯✚✗✢✏✙✍♥☞ ☞✍✎s✑

✍♥✕☛✚♥☞✍✎✍❞ ✗♥ s✍✕✓✏♥✗✕✑ ✑✓☛✚✙❞ ✌✍ ✎✍❞✚✕✍❞ ☞☛ ☞✓✍ ✘✓✎✏✑✍ ✴✔☛✎✕✍ ☛♥ ❆ ✌✒ ❇✵✳

✿❀✳ ✐☛✎ ✏✘✘✙✒✗♥❡ ☞✓✍ ✑✍✕☛♥❞ ✙✏✣ ☛✔ s☛☞✗☛♥✖ ☞✓✍✎✍ ✗✑ ♥☛ ✕☛♥✕✍✘☞✚✏✙ ❞✗✑☞✗♥✕☞✗☛♥ ✌✍☞✣✍✍♥

✗♥✏♥✗s✏☞✍ ✏♥❞ ✏♥✗s✏☞✍ ☛✌✥✍✕☞✑✳ ♦♥ ✏♥✗s✏☞✍ ☛✌✥✍✕☞ ✑✚✕✓ ✏✑ ✏ ✓✚s✏♥ ✏✙✑☛

✎✍✯✚✗✎✍✑ ✏♥ ✍✮☞✍✎♥✏✙ ✔☛✎✕✍ ☞☛ ✏✕✕✍✙✍✎✏☞✍✳ ✐☛✎ ✍✮✏s✘✙✍✖ ✣✗☞✓☛✚☞ ☞✓✍ ✍✮☞✍✎♥✏✙

✔☛✎✕✍ ☛✔ ✔✎✗✕☞✗☛♥✖ ✣✍ ✕✏♥♥☛☞ ✣✏✙✛ ☛♥ ☞✓✍ ❡✎☛✚♥❞✳

✿✿✳ ❚✓✍ ☛✌✥✍✕☞✗✢✍ ✕☛♥✕✍✘☞ ☛✔ ✔☛✎✕✍ ✗♥ ✘✓✒✑✗✕✑ ✑✓☛✚✙❞ ♥☛☞ ✌✍ ✕☛♥✔✚✑✍❞ ✣✗☞✓ ☞✓✍

✑✚✌✥✍✕☞✗✢✍ ✕☛♥✕✍✘☞ ☛✔ ☞✓✍ ✴✔✍✍✙✗♥❡ ☛✔ ✔☛✎✕✍✵✳ ❁♥ ✏ s✍✎✎✒✤❡☛✤✏✎☛✚♥❞✖ ✏✙✙ ✘✏✎☞✑ ☛✔

☛✚✎ ✌☛❞✒ ✏✎✍ ✑✚✌✥✍✕☞ ☞☛ ✏♥ ✗♥✣✏✎❞ ✔☛✎✕✍✖ ✌✚☞ ✣✍ ✓✏✢✍ ✏ ✔✍✍✙✗♥❡ ☛✔ ✌✍✗♥❡ ✘✚✑✓✍❞

☛✚☞✣✏✎❞ ❃ ☞✓✍ ❞✗✎✍✕☞✗☛♥ ☛✔ ✗s✘✍♥❞✗♥❡ s☛☞✗☛♥

❊❄❊❅❈❉●❊●

✲✐☛✎ ✑✗s✘✙✗✕✗☞✒ ✗♥ ♥✚s✍✎✗✕✏✙ ✕✏✙✕✚✙✏☞✗☛♥✑✖ ☞✏✛✍ ✰ ❍ ✿❀ s ✑■❏❛

❑▼◆ ❖✗✢✍ ☞✓✍ s✏❡♥✗☞✚❞✍ ✏♥❞ ❞✗✎✍✕☞✗☛♥ ☛✔ ☞✓✍ ♥✍☞ ✔☛✎✕✍ ✏✕☞✗♥❡ ☛♥

✲✏❛ ✏ ❞✎☛✘ ☛✔ ✎✏✗♥ ✔✏✙✙✗♥❡ ❞☛✣♥ ✣✗☞✓ ✏ ✕☛♥✑☞✏♥☞ ✑✘✍✍❞✖

✲✌❛ ✏ ✕☛✎✛ ☛✔ s✏✑✑ ✿❀ ❡ ✔✙☛✏☞✗♥❡ ☛♥ ✣✏☞✍✎✖

✲✕❛ ✏ ✛✗☞✍ ✑✛✗✙✙✔✚✙✙✒ ✓✍✙❞ ✑☞✏☞✗☛♥✏✎✒ ✗♥ ☞✓✍ ✑✛✒✖

✲❞❛ ✏ ✕✏✎ s☛✢✗♥❡ ✣✗☞✓ ✏ ✕☛♥✑☞✏♥☞ ✢✍✙☛✕✗☞✒ ☛✔ P❀ ✛s◗✓ ☛♥ ✏ ✎☛✚❡✓ ✎☛✏❞✖

✲✍❛ ✏ ✓✗❡✓✤✑✘✍✍❞ ✍✙✍✕☞✎☛♥ ✗♥ ✑✘✏✕✍ ✔✏✎ ✔✎☛s ✏✙✙ s✏☞✍✎✗✏✙ ☛✌✥✍✕☞✑✖ ✏♥❞ ✔✎✍✍ ☛✔

✍✙✍✕☞✎✗✕ ✏♥❞ s✏❡♥✍☞✗✕ ✔✗✍✙❞✑✳

❑▼❘ ♦ ✘✍✌✌✙✍ ☛✔ s✏✑✑ ❀✳❀✺ ✛❡ ✗✑ ☞✓✎☛✣♥ ✢✍✎☞✗✕✏✙✙✒ ✚✘✣✏✎❞✑✳ ❖✗✢✍ ☞✓✍ ❞✗✎✍✕☞✗☛♥

✏♥❞ s✏❡♥✗☞✚❞✍ ☛✔ ☞✓✍ ♥✍☞ ✔☛✎✕✍ ☛♥ ☞✓✍ ✘✍✌✌✙✍✖

✲✏❛ ❞✚✎✗♥❡ ✗☞✑ ✚✘✣✏✎❞ s☛☞✗☛♥✖

✲✌❛ ❞✚✎✗♥❡ ✗☞✑ ❞☛✣♥✣✏✎❞ s☛☞✗☛♥✖

✲✕❛ ✏☞ ☞✓✍ ✓✗❡✓✍✑☞ ✘☛✗♥☞ ✣✓✍✎✍ ✗☞ ✗✑ s☛s✍♥☞✏✎✗✙✒ ✏☞ ✎✍✑☞✳ ✭☛ ✒☛✚✎ ✏♥✑✣✍✎✑

✕✓✏♥❡✍ ✗✔ ☞✓✍ ✘✍✌✌✙✍ ✣✏✑ ☞✓✎☛✣♥ ✏☞ ✏♥ ✏♥❡✙✍ ☛✔ ❯✺❱ ✣✗☞✓ ☞✓✍ ✓☛✎✗❲☛♥☞✏✙

❞✗✎✍✕☞✗☛♥❳

✜❡♥☛✎✍ ✏✗✎ ✎✍✑✗✑☞✏♥✕✍✳

❑▼❨ ❖✗✢✍ ☞✓✍ s✏❡♥✗☞✚❞✍ ✏♥❞ ❞✗✎✍✕☞✗☛♥ ☛✔ ☞✓✍ ♥✍☞ ✔☛✎✕✍ ✏✕☞✗♥❡ ☛♥ ✏ ✑☞☛♥✍ ☛✔ s✏✑✑

❀✳✿ ✛❡✖

✲✏❛ ✥✚✑☞ ✏✔☞✍✎ ✗☞ ✗✑ ❞✎☛✘✘✍❞ ✔✎☛s ☞✓✍ ✣✗♥❞☛✣ ☛✔ ✏ ✑☞✏☞✗☛♥✏✎✒ ☞✎✏✗♥✖

✲✌❛ ✥✚✑☞ ✏✔☞✍✎ ✗☞ ✗✑ ❞✎☛✘✘✍❞ ✔✎☛s ☞✓✍ ✣✗♥❞☛✣ ☛✔ ✏ ☞✎✏✗♥ ✎✚♥♥✗♥❡ ✏☞ ✏ ✕☛♥✑☞✏♥☞

✢✍✙☛✕✗☞✒ ☛✔ P✻ ✛s◗✓✖

✲✕ ❛ ✥✚✑☞ ✏✔☞✍✎ ✗☞ ✗✑ ❞✎☛✘✘✍❞ ✔✎☛s ☞✓✍ ✣✗♥❞☛✣ ☛✔ ✏ ☞✎✏✗♥ ✏✕✕✍✙✍✎✏☞✗♥❡ ✣✗☞✓ ✿ s ✑■❏✖

✲❞❛ ✙✒✗♥❡ ☛♥ ☞✓✍ ✔✙☛☛✎ ☛✔ ✏ ☞✎✏✗♥ ✣✓✗✕✓ ✗✑ ✏✕✕✍✙✍✎✏☞✗♥❡ ✣✗☞✓ ✿ s ✑■❏✖ ☞✓✍ ✑☞☛♥✍

✌✍✗♥❡ ✏☞ ✎✍✑☞ ✎✍✙✏☞✗✢✍ ☞☛ ☞✓✍ ☞✎✏✗♥✳

Page 114: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✶✆

◆✝✞✟✝✠✡ ☛☞✌ ✌✝✍☞✍✡☛✎✠✝ ✡✏✌✑✒✞✏✑✒✡✓

✺✔✕ ❖✎✝ ✝✎✖ ✑✗ ☛ ✍✡✌☞✎✞ ✑✗ ✟✝✎✞✡✏ ❧ ☞✍ ✠✑✎✎✝✠✡✝✖ ✡✑ ☛ ✥☛✌✡☞✠✟✝ ✑✗ ✘☛✍✍ ♠ ☛✎✖ ✡✏✝

✑✡✏✝✌ ✡✑ ☛ ✍✘☛✟✟ ✥✝✞ ✑✎ ☛ ✍✘✑✑✡✏ ✏✑✌☞♦✑✎✡☛✟ ✡☛✙✟✝✓ ✚✗ ✡✏✝ ✥☛✌✡☞✠✟✝ ✘✑✛✝✍ ☞✎ ☛

✠☞✌✠✟✝ ❝☞✡✏ ✍✥✝✝✖ ✈ ✡✏✝ ✎✝✡ ✗✑✌✠✝ ✑✎ ✡✏✝ ✥☛✌✡☞✠✟✝ ✜✖☞✌✝✠✡✝✖ ✡✑❝☛✌✖✍ ✡✏✝ ✠✝✎✡✌✝✢

☞✍ ✐

✜☞✢ ❚✣ ✜☞☞✢✤

✦✧★

❾ ✱ ✜☞☞☞✢✤

✦✧✰★

✱ ✜☞✛✢ ✩

❚ ☞✍ ✡✏✝ ✡✝✎✍☞✑✎ ☞✎ ✡✏✝ ✍✡✌☞✎✞✓ ✪✫✏✑✑✍✝ ✡✏✝ ✠✑✌✌✝✠✡ ☛✟✡✝✌✎☛✡☞✛✝✬✓

✺✔✺ ❆ ✠✑✎✍✡☛✎✡ ✌✝✡☛✌✖☞✎✞ ✗✑✌✠✝ ✑✗ ✭✩ ◆ ☞✍ ☛✥✥✟☞✝✖ ✡✑ ☛ ✙✑✖✮ ✑✗ ✘☛✍✍ ✯✩ ✲✞ ✘✑✛☞✎✞

☞✎☞✡☞☛✟✟✮ ❝☞✡✏ ☛ ✍✥✝✝✖ ✑✗ ✳✭ ✘ ✍✴✵✓ ✸✑❝ ✟✑✎✞ ✖✑✝✍ ✡✏✝ ✙✑✖✮ ✡☛✲✝ ✡✑ ✍✡✑✥ ✹

✺✔✻ ❆ ✠✑✎✍✡☛✎✡ ✗✑✌✠✝ ☛✠✡☞✎✞ ✑✎ ☛ ✙✑✖✮ ✑✗ ✘☛✍✍ ✼✓✩ ✲✞ ✠✏☛✎✞✝✍ ☞✡✍ ✍✥✝✝✖ ✗✌✑✘ ✯✓✩ ✘ ✍✴✵

✡✑ ✼✓✭ ✘ ✍✴✵ ☞✎ ✯✭ ✍✓ ✽✏✝ ✖☞✌✝✠✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✘✑✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✙✑✖✮ ✌✝✘☛☞✎✍

✒✎✠✏☛✎✞✝✖✓ ✉✏☛✡ ☞✍ ✡✏✝ ✘☛✞✎☞✡✒✖✝ ☛✎✖ ✖☞✌✝✠✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✗✑✌✠✝ ✹

✺✔✾ ❆ ✙✑✖✮ ✑✗ ✘☛✍✍ ✭ ✲✞ ☞✍ ☛✠✡✝✖ ✒✥✑✎ ✙✮ ✡❝✑ ✥✝✌✥✝✎✖☞✠✒✟☛✌ ✗✑✌✠✝✍ ✿ ◆ ☛✎✖ ❀ ◆✓

●☞✛✝ ✡✏✝ ✘☛✞✎☞✡✒✖✝ ☛✎✖ ✖☞✌✝✠✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ☛✠✠✝✟✝✌☛✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✙✑✖✮✓

✺✔❁ ✽✏✝ ✖✌☞✛✝✌ ✑✗ ☛ ✡✏✌✝✝❂❝✏✝✝✟✝✌ ✘✑✛☞✎✞ ❝☞✡✏ ☛ ✍✥✝✝✖ ✑✗ ✼❀ ✲✘❃✏ ✍✝✝✍ ☛ ✠✏☞✟✖

✍✡☛✎✖☞✎✞ ☞✎ ✡✏✝ ✘☞✖✖✟✝ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✌✑☛✖ ☛✎✖ ✙✌☞✎✞✍ ✏☞✍ ✛✝✏☞✠✟✝ ✡✑ ✌✝✍✡ ☞✎ s✓✩ ✍ ❄✒✍✡

☞✎ ✡☞✘✝ ✡✑ ✍☛✛✝ ✡✏✝ ✠✏☞✟✖✓ ✉✏☛✡ ☞✍ ✡✏✝ ☛✛✝✌☛✞✝ ✌✝✡☛✌✖☞✎✞ ✗✑✌✠✝ ✑✎ ✡✏✝ ✛✝✏☞✠✟✝ ✹

✽✏✝ ✘☛✍✍ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✡✏✌✝✝❂❝✏✝✝✟✝✌ ☞✍ s✩✩ ✲✞ ☛✎✖ ✡✏✝ ✘☛✍✍ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✖✌☞✛✝✌ ☞✍ ❀✭ ✲✞✓

✺✔❅ ❆ ✌✑✠✲✝✡ ❝☞✡✏ ☛ ✟☞✗✡❂✑✗✗ ✘☛✍✍ ✯✩✱✩✩✩ ✲✞ ☞✍ ✙✟☛✍✡✝✖ ✒✥❝☛✌✖✍ ❝☞✡✏ ☛✎ ☞✎☞✡☞☛✟

☛✠✠✝✟✝✌☛✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✭✓✩ ✘ ✍✴❇✓ ✫☛✟✠✒✟☛✡✝ ✡✏✝ ☞✎☞✡☞☛✟ ✡✏✌✒✍✡ ✜✗✑✌✠✝✢ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✙✟☛✍✡✓

✺✔❈❉ ❆ ✙✑✖✮ ✑✗ ✘☛✍✍ ✩✓s✩ ✲✞ ✘✑✛☞✎✞ ☞✎☞✡☞☛✟✟✮ ❝☞✡✏ ☛ ✠✑✎✍✡☛✎✡ ✍✥✝✝✖ ✑✗ ✳✩ ✘ ✍✴✵ ✡✑

✡✏✝ ✎✑✌✡✏ ☞✍ ✍✒✙❄✝✠✡ ✡✑ ☛ ✠✑✎✍✡☛✎✡ ✗✑✌✠✝ ✑✗ ✿✓✩ ◆ ✖☞✌✝✠✡✝✖ ✡✑❝☛✌✖✍ ✡✏✝ ✍✑✒✡✏

✗✑✌ ✼✩ ✍✓ ✽☛✲✝ ✡✏✝ ☞✎✍✡☛✎✡ ✡✏✝ ✗✑✌✠✝ ☞✍ ☛✥✥✟☞✝✖ ✡✑ ✙✝ t ❊ ✩✱ ✡✏✝ ✥✑✍☞✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✡✏✝

✙✑✖✮ ☛✡ ✡✏☛✡ ✡☞✘✝ ✡✑ ✙✝ ① ❊ ✩✱ ☛✎✖ ✥✌✝✖☞✠✡ ☞✡✍ ✥✑✍☞✡☞✑✎ ☛✡ ✡ ❊ ➊✭ ✍✱ ✯✭ ✍✱ ✳✩✩ ✍✓

✺✔❈❈ ❆ ✡✌✒✠✲ ✍✡☛✌✡✍ ✗✌✑✘ ✌✝✍✡ ☛✎✖ ☛✠✠✝✟✝✌☛✡✝✍ ✒✎☞✗✑✌✘✟✮ ☛✡ ✯✓✩ ✘ ✍❋❍✓ ❆✡ t ❊ ✳✩ ✍✱ ☛

✍✡✑✎✝ ☞✍ ✖✌✑✥✥✝✖ ✙✮ ☛ ✥✝✌✍✑✎ ✍✡☛✎✖☞✎✞ ✑✎ ✡✏✝ ✡✑✥ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✡✌✒✠✲ ✜❀ ✘ ✏☞✞✏ ✗✌✑✘

✡✏✝ ✞✌✑✒✎✖✢✓ ✉✏☛✡ ☛✌✝ ✡✏✝ ✜☛✢ ✛✝✟✑✠☞✡✮✱ ☛✎✖ ✜✙✢ ☛✠✠✝✟✝✌☛✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✍✡✑✎✝ ☛✡ t ❊

✳✳✍ ✹ ✜◆✝✞✟✝✠✡ ☛☞✌ ✌✝✍☞✍✡☛✎✠✝✓✢

✺✔❈■ ❆ ✙✑✙ ✑✗ ✘☛✍✍ ✩✓✳ ✲✞ ✏✒✎✞ ✗✌✑✘ ✡✏✝ ✠✝☞✟☞✎✞ ✑✗ ☛ ✌✑✑✘ ✙✮ ☛ ✍✡✌☞✎✞ ✯ ✘ ✟✑✎✞ ☞✍

✍✝✡ ☞✎✡✑ ✑✍✠☞✟✟☛✡☞✑✎✓ ✽✏✝ ✍✥✝✝✖ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✙✑✙ ☛✡ ☞✡✍ ✘✝☛✎ ✥✑✍☞✡☞✑✎ ☞✍ ✳ ✘ ✍❋❏✓

✉✏☛✡ ☞✍ ✡✏✝ ✡✌☛❄✝✠✡✑✌✮ ✑✗ ✡✏✝ ✙✑✙ ☞✗ ✡✏✝ ✍✡✌☞✎✞ ☞✍ ✠✒✡ ❝✏✝✎ ✡✏✝ ✙✑✙ ☞✍ ✜☛✢ ☛✡ ✑✎✝

✑✗ ☞✡✍ ✝❑✡✌✝✘✝ ✥✑✍☞✡☞✑✎✍✱ ✜✙✢ ☛✡ ☞✡✍ ✘✝☛✎ ✥✑✍☞✡☞✑✎✓

✺✔❈▲ ❆ ✘☛✎ ✑✗ ✘☛✍✍ ▼✩ ✲✞ ✍✡☛✎✖✍ ✑✎ ☛ ❝✝☞✞✏☞✎✞ ✍✠☛✟✝ ☞✎ ☛ ✟☞✗✡ ❝✏☞✠✏ ☞✍ ✘✑✛☞✎✞

✜☛✢ ✒✥❝☛✌✖✍ ❝☞✡✏ ☛ ✒✎☞✗✑✌✘ ✍✥✝✝✖ ✑✗ ✳✩ ✘ ✍❋❏✱

✜✙✢ ✖✑❝✎❝☛✌✖✍ ❝☞✡✏ ☛ ✒✎☞✗✑✌✘ ☛✠✠✝✟✝✌☛✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✭ ✘ ✍❋❍✱

✜✠✢ ✒✥❝☛✌✖✍ ❝☞✡✏ ☛ ✒✎☞✗✑✌✘ ☛✠✠✝✟✝✌☛✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✭ ✘ ✍❋❍✓

✉✏☛✡ ❝✑✒✟✖ ✙✝ ✡✏✝ ✌✝☛✖☞✎✞✍ ✑✎ ✡✏✝ ✍✠☛✟✝ ☞✎ ✝☛✠✏ ✠☛✍✝✹

✜✖✢ ✉✏☛✡ ❝✑✒✟✖ ✙✝ ✡✏✝ ✌✝☛✖☞✎✞ ☞✗ ✡✏✝ ✟☞✗✡ ✘✝✠✏☛✎☞✍✘ ✗☛☞✟✝✖ ☛✎✖ ☞✡ ✏✒✌✡✟✝✖

✖✑❝✎ ✗✌✝✝✟✮ ✒✎✖✝✌ ✞✌☛✛☞✡✮ ✹

✺✔❈✕ ◗☞✞✒✌✝ ✭✓✳❀ ✍✏✑❝✍ ✡✏✝ ✥✑✍☞✡☞✑✎❂✡☞✘✝ ✞✌☛✥✏ ✑✗ ☛ ✥☛✌✡☞✠✟✝ ✑✗ ✘☛✍✍ s ✲✞✓ ✉✏☛✡ ☞✍

✡✏✝ ✜☛✢ ✗✑✌✠✝ ✑✎ ✡✏✝ ✥☛✌✡☞✠✟✝ ✗✑✌ t ❘ ✩✣ t ❙ s ❯✣ ✩ ❘ t ❘ s ✍✹ ✜✙✢ ☞✘✥✒✟✍✝ ☛✡ t ❱ ✩ ☛✎✖

t ❱ s ✍ ✹ ✜✫✑✎✍☞✖✝✌ ✑✎✝❂✖☞✘✝✎✍☞✑✎☛✟ ✘✑✡☞✑✎ ✑✎✟✮✢✓

❲❳❨❩ ❬❩❭❪

✺✔❈✺ ✽❝✑ ✙✑✖☞✝✍ ✑✗✘☛✍✍✝✍✳✩ ✲✞ ☛✎✖ ✯✩ ✲✞ ✌✝✍✥✝✠✡☞✛✝✟✮ ✲✝✥✡ ✑✎ ☛ ✍✘✑✑✡✏✱ ✏✑✌☞♦✑✎✡☛✟

✍✒✌✗☛✠✝ ☛✌✝ ✡☞✝✖ ✡✑ ✡✏✝ ✝✎✖✍ ✑✗ ☛ ✟☞✞✏✡ ✍✡✌☞✎✞✓ ☛ ✏✑✌☞♦✑✎✡☛✟ ✗✑✌✠✝ ◗ ❊ ❀✩✩ ◆ ☞✍

☛✥✥✟☞✝✖ ✡✑ ✜☞✢ ❆✱ ✜☞☞✢ ❛ ☛✟✑✎✞ ✡✏✝ ✖☞✌✝✠✡☞✑✎ ✑✗ ✍✡✌☞✎✞✓ ✉✏☛✡ ☞✍ ✡✏✝ ✡✝✎✍☞✑✎ ☞✎ ✡✏✝

Page 115: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✶✶✶

s✠✡☛☞✌ ☛☞ ✍✎✏✑ ✏✎s✍✒

✺✓✔✕ ❚✖✗ ✘✎ss✍s ✙ ✚✌ ✎☞✛ ✜✢ ✚✌ ✎✡✍ ✏✗☞☞✍✏✠✍✛ ✎✠ ✠✑✍ ✠✖✗ ✍☞✛s ✗✣ ✎ ✤☛✌✑✠ ☛☞✍✥✠✍☞s☛✦✤✍

s✠✡☛☞✌ ✠✑✎✠ ✌✗✍s ✗✧✍✡ ✎ ✣✡☛✏✠☛✗☞✤✍ss ★✩✤✤✍✪✫ ✬☛☞✛ ✠✑✍ ✎✏✏✍✤✍✡✎✠☛✗☞ ✗✣ ✠✑✍ ✘✎ss✍s✭ ✎☞✛

✠✑✍ ✠✍☞s☛✗☞ ☛☞ ✠✑✍ s✠✡☛☞✌ ✖✑✍☞ ✠✑✍ ✘✎ss✍s ✎✡✍ ✡✍✤✍✎s✍✛✫

✺✓✔✮ ❆ ☞✩✏✤✍✩s ☛s ✎✠ ✡✍s✠ ☛☞ ✠✑✍ ✤✎✦✗✡✎✠✗✡✪ ✣✡✎✘✍ ✗✣ ✡✍✣✍✡✍☞✏✍✫ ✯✑✗✖ ✠✑✎✠ ☛✣ ☛✠ ✛☛s☛☞✠✍✌✡✎✠✍s

☛☞✠✗ ✠✖✗ s✘✎✤✤✍✡ ☞✩✏✤✍☛ ✠✑✍ ★✡✗✛✩✏✠s ✘✩s✠ ✘✗✧✍ ☛☞ ✗★★✗s☛✠✍ ✛☛✡✍✏✠☛✗☞s✫

✺✓✔✰ ❚✖✗ ✦☛✤✤☛✎✡✛ ✦✎✤✤s ✍✎✏✑ ✗✣ ✘✎ss ✱✫✱✲ ✚✌ ✘✗✧☛☞✌ ☛☞ ✗★★✗s☛✠✍ ✛☛✡✍✏✠☛✗☞s ✖☛✠✑ s★✍✍✛ ✳✘ s✴✵

✏✗✤✤☛✛✍ ✎☞✛ ✡✍✦✗✩☞✛ ✖☛✠✑ ✠✑✍ s✎✘✍ s★✍✍✛✫ ❝✑✎✠ ☛s ✠✑✍ ☛✘★✩✤s✍ ☛✘★✎✡✠✍✛ ✠✗ ✍✎✏✑ ✦✎✤✤ ✛✩✍

✠✗ ✠✑✍ ✗✠✑✍✡ ✒

✺✓✔✷ ❆ s✑✍✤✤ ✗✣ ✘✎ss ✱✫✱✢✱ ✚✌ ☛s ✣☛✡✍✛ ✦✪ ✎ ✌✩☞ ✗✣ ✘✎ss ✜✱✱ ✚✌✫ ✸✣ ✠✑✍ ✘✩✹✹✤✍ s★✍✍✛ ✗✣ ✠✑✍

s✑✍✤✤ ☛s ✙✱ ✘ s✴✵✭ ✖✑✎✠ ☛s ✠✑✍ ✡✍✏✗☛✤ s★✍✍✛ ✗✣ ✠✑✍ ✌✩☞ ✒

✺✓✻✼ ❆ ✦✎✠s✘✎☞ ✛✍✣✤✍✏✠s ✎ ✦✎✤✤ ✦✪ ✎☞ ✎☞✌✤✍ ✗✣ ✽✲✾ ✖☛✠✑✗✩✠ ✏✑✎☞✌☛☞✌ ☛✠s ☛☞☛✠☛✎✤ s★✍✍✛ ✖✑☛✏✑ ☛s

✍❡✩✎✤ ✠✗ ✲✽ ✚✘✿✑✫ ❝✑✎✠ ☛s ✠✑✍ ☛✘★✩✤s✍ ☛✘★✎✡✠✍✛ ✠✗ ✠✑✍ ✦✎✤✤ ✒ ❀❁✎ss ✗✣ ✠✑✍ ✦✎✤✤ ☛s ✱✫✜✲ ✚✌✫❂

✺✓✻✔ ❆ s✠✗☞✍ ✗✣ ✘✎ss ✱✫✢✲ ✚✌ ✠☛✍✛ ✠✗ ✠✑✍ ✍☞✛ ✗✣ ✎ s✠✡☛☞✌ ☛s ✖✑☛✡✤✍✛ ✡✗✩☞✛ ☛☞ ✎ ✏☛✡✏✤✍ ✗✣ ✡✎✛☛✩s

✜✫✲ ✘ ✖☛✠✑ ✎ s★✍✍✛ ✗✣ ✽✱ ✡✍✧✫✿✘☛☞ ☛☞ ✎ ✑✗✡☛✹✗☞✠✎✤ ★✤✎☞✍✫ ❝✑✎✠ ☛s ✠✑✍ ✠✍☞s☛✗☞ ☛☞ ✠✑✍

s✠✡☛☞✌ ✒ ❝✑✎✠ ☛s ✠✑✍ ✘✎✥☛✘✩✘ s★✍✍✛ ✖☛✠✑ ✖✑☛✏✑ ✠✑✍ s✠✗☞✍ ✏✎☞ ✦✍ ✖✑☛✡✤✍✛ ✎✡✗✩☞✛ ☛✣

✠✑✍ s✠✡☛☞✌ ✏✎☞ ✖☛✠✑s✠✎☞✛ ✎ ✘✎✥☛✘✩✘ ✠✍☞s☛✗☞ ✗✣ ✢✱✱ t ✒

✺✓✻✻ ✸✣✭ ☛☞ ■✥✍✡✏☛s✍ ✲✫✢✜✭ ✠✑✍ s★✍✍✛ ✗✣ ✠✑✍ s✠✗☞✍ ☛s ☛☞✏✡✍✎s✍✛ ✦✍✪✗☞✛ ✠✑✍✘✎✥☛✘✩✘ ★✍✡✘☛ss☛✦✤✍

✧✎✤✩✍✭ ✎☞✛ ✠✑✍ s✠✡☛☞✌ ✦✡✍✎✚s s✩✛✛✍☞✤✪✭ ✖✑☛✏✑ ✗✣ ✠✑✍ ✣✗✤✤✗✖☛☞✌ ✏✗✡✡✍✏✠✤✪ ✛✍s✏✡☛✦✍s ✠✑✍

✠✡✎❃✍✏✠✗✡✪ ✗✣ ✠✑✍ s✠✗☞✍ ✎✣✠✍✡ ✠✑✍ s✠✡☛☞✌ ✦✡✍✎✚s ❄

❀✎❂ ✠✑✍ s✠✗☞✍ ✘✗✧✍s ✡✎✛☛✎✤✤✪ ✗✩✠✖✎✡✛s✭

❀✦❂ ✠✑✍ s✠✗☞✍ ✣✤☛✍s ✗✣✣ ✠✎☞✌✍☞✠☛✎✤✤✪ ✣✡✗✘ ✠✑✍ ☛☞s✠✎☞✠ ✠✑✍ s✠✡☛☞✌ ✦✡✍✎✚s✭

❀✏❂ ✠✑✍ s✠✗☞✍ ✣✤☛✍s ✗✣✣ ✎✠ ✎☞ ✎☞✌✤✍ ✖☛✠✑ ✠✑✍ ✠✎☞✌✍☞✠ ✖✑✗s✍ ✘✎✌☞☛✠✩✛✍ ✛✍★✍☞✛s ✗☞ ✠✑✍

s★✍✍✛ ✗✣ ✠✑✍ ★✎✡✠☛✏✤✍ ✒

✺✓✻❅ ■✥★✤✎☛☞ ✖✑✪

❀✎❂ ✎ ✑✗✡s✍ ✏✎☞☞✗✠ ★✩✤✤ ✎ ✏✎✡✠ ✎☞✛ ✡✩☞ ☛☞ ✍✘★✠✪ s★✎✏✍✭

❀✦❂ ★✎ss✍☞✌✍✡s ✎✡✍ ✠✑✡✗✖☞ ✣✗✡✖✎✡✛ ✣✡✗✘ ✠✑✍☛✡ s✍✎✠s ✖✑✍☞ ✎ s★✍✍✛☛☞✌ ✦✩s s✠✗★s

s✩✛✛✍☞✤✪✭

❀✏❂ ☛✠ ☛s ✍✎s☛✍✡ ✠✗ ★✩✤✤ ✎ ✤✎✖☞ ✘✗✖✍✡ ✠✑✎☞ ✠✗ ★✩s✑ ☛✠✭

❀✛❂ ✎ ✏✡☛✏✚✍✠✍✡ ✘✗✧✍s ✑☛s ✑✎☞✛s ✦✎✏✚✖✎✡✛s ✖✑☛✤✍ ✑✗✤✛☛☞✌ ✎ ✏✎✠✏✑✫

❇❈❈❉❊❉❋●❍❏ ❑▼◆❖P❉◗◆◗

✺✓✻❘ ✬☛✌✩✡✍ ✲✫✜❙ s✑✗✖s ✠✑✍ ★✗s☛✠☛✗☞❯✠☛✘✍ ✌✡✎★✑ ✗✣ ✎ ✦✗✛✪ ✗✣ ✘✎ss ✱✫✱✽ ✚✌✫ ✯✩✌✌✍s✠ ✎

s✩☛✠✎✦✤✍ ★✑✪s☛✏✎✤ ✏✗☞✠✍✥✠ ✣✗✡ ✠✑☛s ✘✗✠☛✗☞✫ ❝✑✎✠ ☛s ✠✑✍ ✠☛✘✍ ✦✍✠✖✍✍☞ ✠✖✗ ✏✗☞s✍✏✩✠☛✧✍

☛✘★✩✤s✍s ✡✍✏✍☛✧✍✛ ✦✪ ✠✑✍ ✦✗✛✪ ✒ ❝✑✎✠ ☛s ✠✑✍ ✘✎✌☞☛✠✩✛✍ ✗✣ ✍✎✏✑ ☛✘★✩✤s✍ ✒

❱❲❳❨ ❩❨❬❭

✺✓✻✺ ✬☛✌✩✡✍ ✲✫✜✙ s✑✗✖s ✎ ✘✎☞ s✠✎☞✛☛☞✌ s✠✎✠☛✗☞✎✡✪ ✖☛✠✑ ✡✍s★✍✏✠ ✠✗ ✎ ✑✗✡☛✹✗☞✠✎✤ ✏✗☞✧✍✪✗✡

✦✍✤✠ ✠✑✎✠ ☛s ✎✏✏✍✤✍✡✎✠☛☞✌ ✖☛✠✑ ✜ ✘ s✴❪✫ ❝✑✎✠ ☛s ✠✑✍ ☞✍✠ ✣✗✡✏✍ ✗☞ ✠✑✍ ✘✎☞✒ ✸✣ ✠✑✍

✏✗✍✣✣☛✏☛✍☞✠ ✗✣ s✠✎✠☛✏ ✣✡☛✏✠☛✗☞ ✦✍✠✖✍✍☞ ✠✑✍ ✘✎☞❫s s✑✗✍s ✎☞✛ ✠✑✍ ✦✍✤✠ ☛s ✱✫✢✭ ✩★ ✠✗ ✖✑✎✠

✎✏✏✍✤✍✡✎✠☛✗☞ ✗✣ ✠✑✍ ✦✍✤✠ ✏✎☞ ✠✑✍ ✘✎☞ ✏✗☞✠☛☞✩✍ ✠✗ ✦✍ s✠✎✠☛✗☞✎✡✪ ✡✍✤✎✠☛✧✍ ✠✗ ✠✑✍ ✦✍✤✠ ✒

❀❁✎ss ✗✣ ✠✑✍ ✘✎☞ ❴ ✳✲ ✚✌✫❂

❱❲❳❨ ❩❨❬❵

Page 116: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✶✆

❋✝✞✟ ✠✟✡☛

✺☞✌✍ ❆ ✎✏✑✒✓ ✑✔ ✕✖✎✎ ♠ ✏✥✓✗ ✏✑ ✏✘✓ ✓✒✗ ✑✔ ✖ ✎✏✙✥✒✚ ✙✓✛✑✜✛✓✎ ✥✒ ✖ ✛✓✙✏✥✢✖✜ ✢✥✙✢✜✓ ✑✔ ✙✖✗✥✣✎ ❘✳

❚✘✓ ✒✓✏ ✔✑✙✢✓✎ ✖✏ ✏✘✓ ✜✑✤✓✎✏ ✖✒✗ ✘✥✚✘✓✎✏ ✦✑✥✒✏✎ ✑✔ ✏✘✓ ✢✥✙✢✜✓ ✗✥✙✓✢✏✓✗ ✛✓✙✏✥✢✖✜✜✧

✗✑✤✒✤✖✙✗✎ ✖✙✓ ❞ ★✩✘✑✑✎✓ ✏✘✓ ✢✑✙✙✓✢✏ ✖✜✏✓✙✒✖✏✥✛✓✪

▲✑✤✓✎✏ ✫✑✥✒✏ ❍✥✚✘✓✎✏ ✫✑✥✒✏

✭✖✬ ♠✮ ✯ ✰✱ ♠✮ ✲ ✰✷

✭✴✬ ♠✮ ✲ ✰✱ ♠✮ ✯ ✰✷

✭✢✬ ♠✮ ✲ ✰✱ ✯ ✭♠ ✵✸✹ ✬ ✻ ❘ ♠✮ ✯ ✰✷ ✲ ✭♠ ✵✸

✹ ✬ ✻ ❘

✭✗✬ ♠✮ ✯ ✰✱ ✯ ✭♠ ✵✸✹ ✬ ✻ ❘ ♠✮ ✲ ✰✷ ✲ ✭♠ ✵✸

✹ ✬ ✻ ❘

❚✹ ✖✒✗ ✵✹ ✗✓✒✑✏✓ ✏✘✓ ✏✓✒✎✥✑✒ ✖✒✗ ✎✦✓✓✗ ✖✏ ✏✘✓ ✜✑✤✓✎✏ ✦✑✥✒✏✳ ❚✸ ✖✒✗ ✵✸ ✗✓✒✑✏✓

✢✑✙✙✓✎✦✑✒✗✥✒✚ ✛✖✜✣✓✎ ✖✏ ✏✘✓ ✘✥✚✘✓✎✏ ✦✑✥✒✏✳

✺☞✌✼ ❆ ✘✓✜✥✢✑✦✏✓✙ ✑✔ ✕✖✎✎ ✽✾✾✾ ✿✚ ✙✥✎✓✎ ✤✥✏✘ ✖ ✛✓✙✏✥✢✖✜ ✖✢✢✓✜✓✙✖✏✥✑✒ ✑✔ ✽❀ ✕ ✎❁✸✳ ❚✘✓ ✢✙✓✤

✖✒✗ ✏✘✓ ✦✖✎✎✓✒✚✓✙✎ ✤✓✥✚✘ ❛✾✾ ✿✚✳ ❂✥✛✓ ✏✘✓ ✕✖✚✒✥✏✣✗✓ ✖✒✗ ✗✥✙✓✢✏✥✑✒ ✑✔ ✏✘✓

✭✖✬ ✔✑✙✢✓ ✑✒ ✏✘✓ ✔✜✑✑✙ ✴✧ ✏✘✓ ✢✙✓✤ ✖✒✗ ✦✖✎✎✓✒✚✓✙✎❃

✭✴✬ ✖✢✏✥✑✒ ✑✔ ✏✘✓ ✙✑✏✑✙ ✑✔ ✏✘✓ ✘✓✜✥✢✑✦✏✓✙ ✑✒ ✏✘✓ ✎✣✙✙✑✣✒✗✥✒✚ ✖✥✙❃

✭✢✬ ✔✑✙✢✓ ✑✒ ✏✘✓ ✘✓✜✥✢✑✦✏✓✙ ✗✣✓ ✏✑ ✏✘✓ ✎✣✙✙✑✣✒✗✥✒✚ ✖✥✙✳

✺☞✌❄ ❆ ✎✏✙✓✖✕ ✑✔ ✤✖✏✓✙ ✔✜✑✤✥✒✚ ✘✑✙✥❅✑✒✏✖✜✜✧ ✤✥✏✘ ✖ ✎✦✓✓✗ ✑✔ ✽❀ ✕ ✎❁✹ ✚✣✎✘✓✎ ✑✣✏ ✑✔ ✖ ✏✣✴✓ ✑✔

✢✙✑✎✎❝✎✓✢✏✥✑✒✖✜ ✖✙✓✖ ✽✾❁✸ ✕✸❃ ✖✒✗ ✘✥✏✎ ✖ ✛✓✙✏✥✢✖✜ ✤✖✜✜ ✒✓✖✙✴✧✳ ❇✘✖✏ ✥✎ ✏✘✓ ✔✑✙✢✓ ✓❈✓✙✏✓✗

✑✒ ✏✘✓ ✤✖✜✜ ✴✧ ✏✘✓ ✥✕✦✖✢✏ ✑✔ ✤✖✏✓✙❃ ✖✎✎✣✕✥✒✚ ✥✏ ✗✑✓✎ ✒✑✏ ✙✓✴✑✣✒✗ ❡

✺☞✌❉ ❚✓✒ ✑✒✓❝✙✣✦✓✓ ✢✑✥✒✎ ✖✙✓ ✦✣✏ ✑✒ ✏✑✦ ✑✔ ✓✖✢✘ ✑✏✘✓✙ ✑✒ ✖ ✏✖✴✜✓✳ ❊✖✢✘ ✢✑✥✒ ✘✖✎ ✖ ✕✖✎✎ ♠✳

❂✥✛✓ ✏✘✓ ✕✖✚✒✥✏✣✗✓ ✖✒✗ ✗✥✙✓✢✏✥✑✒ ✑✔

✭✖✬ ✏✘✓ ✔✑✙✢✓ ✑✒ ✏✘✓ ●t■ ✢✑✥✒ ✭✢✑✣✒✏✓✗ ✔✙✑✕ ✏✘✓ ✴✑✏✏✑✕✬ ✗✣✓ ✏✑ ✖✜✜ ✏✘✓ ✢✑✥✒✎ ✑✒ ✥✏✎ ✏✑✦❃

✭✴✬ ✏✘✓ ✔✑✙✢✓ ✑✒ ✏✘✓ ●t■ ✢✑✥✒ ✴✧ ✏✘✓ ✓✥✚✘✏✘ ✢✑✥✒❃

✭✢✬ ✏✘✓ ✙✓✖✢✏✥✑✒ ✑✔ ✏✘✓ ❏t■ ✢✑✥✒ ✑✒ ✏✘✓ ●t■ ✢✑✥✒✳

✺☞❑▼ ❆✒ ✖✥✙✢✙✖✔✏ ✓❈✓✢✣✏✓✎ ✖ ✘✑✙✥❅✑✒✏✖✜ ✜✑✑✦ ✖✏ ✖ ✎✦✓✓✗ ✑✔ ●◆✾ ✿✕❖✘ ✤✥✏✘ ✥✏✎ ✤✥✒✚✎ ✴✖✒✿✓✗

✖✏ ✽❀◗✳ ❇✘✖✏ ✥✎ ✏✘✓ ✙✖✗✥✣✎ ✑✔ ✏✘✓ ✜✑✑✦ ❡

✺☞❑❙ ❆ ✏✙✖✥✒ ✙✣✒✎ ✖✜✑✒✚ ✖✒ ✣✒✴✖✒✿✓✗ ✢✥✙✢✣✜✖✙ ✏✙✖✢✿ ✑✔ ✙✖✗✥✣✎ ❛✾ ✕ ✖✏ ✖ ✎✦✓✓✗ ✑✔ ❀❯ ✿✕❖✘✳

❚✘✓ ✕✖✎✎ ✑✔ ✏✘✓ ✏✙✖✥✒ ✥✎ ✽✾❱ ✿✚✳ ❇✘✖✏ ✦✙✑✛✥✗✓✎ ✏✘✓ ✢✓✒✏✙✥✦✓✏✖✜ ✔✑✙✢✓ ✙✓❲✣✥✙✓✗ ✔✑✙ ✏✘✥✎

✦✣✙✦✑✎✓ ♣ ❚✘✓ ✓✒✚✥✒✓ ✑✙ ✏✘✓ ✙✖✥✜✎ ❡ ❇✘✖✏ ✥✎ ✏✘✓ ✖✒✚✜✓ ✑✔ ✴✖✒✿✥✒✚ ✙✓❲✣✥✙✓✗ ✏✑ ✦✙✓✛✓✒✏

✤✓✖✙✥✒✚ ✑✣✏ ✑✔ ✏✘✓ ✙✖✥✜ ❡

✺☞❑✌ ❆ ✴✜✑✢✿ ✑✔ ✕✖✎✎ ◆❀ ✿✚ ✥✎ ✙✖✥✎✓✗ ✴✧ ✖ ❀✾ ✿✚ ✕✖✒ ✥✒ ✏✤✑ ✗✥✔✔✓✙✓✒✏ ✤✖✧✎ ✖✎ ✎✘✑✤✒ ✥✒

❳✥✚✳ ❀✳✽❨✳ ❇✘✖✏ ✥✎ ✏✘✓ ✖✢✏✥✑✒ ✑✒ ✏✘✓ ✔✜✑✑✙ ✴✧ ✏✘✓ ✕✖✒ ✥✒ ✏✘✓ ✏✤✑ ✢✖✎✓✎ ❡ ❩✔ ✏✘✓ ✔✜✑✑✙

✧✥✓✜✗✎ ✏✑ ✖ ✒✑✙✕✖✜ ✔✑✙✢✓ ✑✔ ●✾✾ ②❃ ✤✘✥✢✘ ✕✑✗✓ ✎✘✑✣✜✗ ✏✘✓ ✕✖✒ ✖✗✑✦✏ ✏✑ ✜✥✔✏ ✏✘✓ ✴✜✑✢✿

✤✥✏✘✑✣✏ ✏✘✓ ✔✜✑✑✙ ✧✥✓✜✗✥✒✚ ❡

Page 117: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

▲�✁✂ ✄☎ ✆✄✝✞✄✟ ✶✶✠

✺✡☛☛ ❆ ☞✌✍✎✏✑ ✌✒ ☞✓✔✔ ✕✖ ✎✗ ✘✙✚☞✛✔ ✌✍ ✓ ✜✌✢✏ ✣✤✚✗✥ ✦✥✧✖★ ✩✪✚✘✪

✘✓✍ ✔❝✓✍✫ ✓ ☞✓✬✚☞✭☞ ❝✏✍✔✚✌✍ ✌✒ ✮✖✖ ✯✥ ✰✍ ✩✪✚✘✪ ✌✒ ❝✪✏

✒✌✙✙✌✩✚✍✗ ✘✓✔✏✔ ✩✚✙✙ ❝✪✏ ✜✌✢✏ ✛✜✏✓✎❢ ❝✪✏ ☞✌✍✎✏✑

✣✓★ ✘✙✚☞✛✔ ✭✢ ✩✚❝✪ ✓✍ ✓✘✘✏✙✏✜✓❝✚✌✍ ✌✒ ✮ ☞ ✔✲✱

✣✛★ ✘✙✚☞✛✔ ✫✌✩✍ ✩✚❝✪ ✓✍ ✓✘✘✏✙✏✜✓❝✚✌✍ ✌✒ ✕ ☞ ✔✲✱

✣✘★ ✘✙✚☞✛✔ ✭✢ ✩✚❝✪ ✓ ✭✍✚✒✌✜☞ ✔✢✏✏✫ ✌✒ ✦ ☞ ✔✲✳

✣✫★ ✒✓✙✙✔ ✫✌✩✍ ❝✪✏ ✜✌✢✏ ✍✏✓✜✙✑ ✒✜✏✏✙✑ ✭✍✫✏✜ ✗✜✓✴✚❝✑✵

✷✸✹✻✼✽✾ ✿❀✾ ❁❂❃❃ ✼❄ ✿❀✾ ✽✼❅✾❇❈

✺✡☛❉ ❚✩✌ ✛✌✫✚✏✔ ❊ ✓✍✫ ❋ ✌✒ ☞✓✔✔✏✔ ✦ ✎✗ ✓✍✫ ♦✖ ✎✗ ✚✍ ✘✌✍❝✓✘❝ ✩✚❝✪

✏✓✘✪ ✌❝✪✏✜ ✜✏✔❝ ✌✍ ✓ ❝✓✛✙✏ ✓✗✓✚✍✔❝ ✓ ✜✚✗✚✫ ✩✓✙✙ ✣✤✚✗✥ ✦✥✧♦★✥ ❚✪✏

✘✌✏✒✒✚✘✚✏✍❝ ✌✒ ✒✜✚✘❝✚✌✍ ✛✏❝✩✏✏✍ ❝✪✏ ✛✌✫✚✏✔ ✓✍✫ ❝✪✏ ❝✓✛✙✏ ✚✔

✖✥♦✦✥ ❆ ✒✌✜✘✏ ✌✒ ✧✖✖ ✯ ✚✔ ✓✢✢✙✚✏✫ ✪✌✜✚●✌✍❝✓✙✙✑ ❝✌ ❊✥ ❍✪✓❝ ✓✜✏

✣✓★ ❝✪✏ ✜✏✓✘❝✚✌✍ ✌✒ ❝✪✏ ✢✓✜❝✚❝✚✌✍ ✣✛★ ❝✪✏ ✓✘❝✚✌✍■✜✏✓✘❝✚✌✍ ✒✌✜✘✏✔

✛✏❝✩✏✏✍ ❊ ✓✍✫ ❋ ✵ ❍✪✓❝ ✪✓✢✢✏✍✔ ✩✪✏✍ ❝✪✏ ✩✓✙✙ ✚✔ ✜✏☞✌✴✏✫✵

❏✌✏✔ ❝✪✏ ✓✍✔✩✏✜ ❝✌ ✣✛★ ✘✪✓✍✗✏❑ ✩✪✏✍ ❝✪✏ ✛✌✫✚✏✔ ✓✜✏ ✚✍ ☞✌❝✚✌✍✵

✰✗✍✌✜✏ ❝✪✏ ✫✚✒✒✏✜✏✍✘✏ ✛✏❝✩✏✏✍ ➭s ✓✍✫ ➭❦✥

✺✡☛✺ ❆ ✛✙✌✘✎ ✌✒ ☞✓✔✔ ♦✦ ✎✗ ✚✔ ✢✙✓✘✏✫ ✌✍ ✓ ✙✌✍✗ ❝✜✌✙✙✏✑✥ ❚✪✏ ✘✌✏✒✒✚✘✚✏✍❝ ✌✒ ✔❝✓❝✚✘ ✒✜✚✘❝✚✌✍

✛✏❝✩✏✏✍ ❝✪✏ ✛✙✌✘✎ ✓✍✫ ❝✪✏ ❝✜✌✙✙✏✑ ✚✔ ✖✥♦❜✥ ❚✪✏ ❝✜✌✙✙✏✑ ✓✘✘✏✙✏✜✓❝✏✔ ✒✜✌☞ ✜✏✔❝ ✩✚❝✪

✖✥✦ ☞ ✔✲✱ ✒✌✜ ✧✖ ✔ ✓✍✫ ❝✪✏✍ ☞✌✴✏✔ ✩✚❝✪ ✭✍✚✒✌✜☞ ✴✏✙✌✘✚❝✑✥ ❏✚✔✘✭✔✔ ❝✪✏ ☞✌❝✚✌✍ ✌✒ ❝✪✏

✛✙✌✘✎ ✓✔ ✴✚✏✩✏✫ ✛✑ ✣✓★ ✓ ✔❝✓❝✚✌✍✓✜✑ ✌✛✔✏✜✴✏✜ ✌✍ ❝✪✏ ✗✜✌✭✍✫❑ ✣✛★ ✓✍ ✌✛✔✏✜✴✏✜ ☞✌✴✚✍✗ ✩✚❝✪

❝✪✏ ❝✜✌✙✙✏✑✥

✺✡☛▼ ❚✪✏ ✜✏✓✜ ✔✚✫✏ ✌✒ ✓ ❝✜✭✘✎ ✚✔ ✌✢✏✍ ✓✍✫ ✓ ✛✌✬ ✌✒ ✕✖ ✎✗

☞✓✔✔ ✚✔ ✢✙✓✘✏✫ ✦ ☞ ✓✩✓✑ ✒✜✌☞ ❝✪✏ ✌✢✏✍ ✏✍✫ ✓✔ ✔✪✌✩✍

✚✍ ✤✚✗✥ ✦✥✧✧✥ ❚✪✏ ✘✌✏✒✒✚✘✚✏✍❝ ✌✒ ✒✜✚✘❝✚✌✍ ✛✏❝✩✏✏✍ ❝✪✏

✛✌✬ ✓✍✫ ❝✪✏ ✔✭✜✒✓✘✏ ✛✏✙✌✩ ✚❝ ✚✔ ✖✥♦✦✥ ◆✍ ✓ ✔❝✜✓✚✗✪❝

✜✌✓✫❑ ❝✪✏ ❝✜✭✘✎ ✔❝✓✜❝✔ ✒✜✌☞ ✜✏✔❝ ✓✍✫ ✓✘✘✏✙✏✜✓❝✏✔ ✩✚❝✪

✧ ☞ ✔✲✱✥ ❆❝ ✩✪✓❝ ✫✚✔❝✓✍✘✏ ✒✜✌☞ ❝✪✏ ✔❝✓✜❝✚✍✗ ✢✌✚✍❝

✫✌✏✔ ❝✪✏ ✛✌✬ ✒✓✙✙ ✌✒✒ ❝✪✏ ❝✜✭✘✎✵ ✣✰✗✍✌✜✏ ❝✪✏ ✔✚●✏ ✌✒

❝✪✏ ✛✌✬★✥

✺✡☛❖ ❆ ✫✚✔✘ ✜✏✴✌✙✴✏✔ ✩✚❝✪ ✓ ✔✢✏✏✫ ✌✒ PP◗

P✜✏✴❘☞✚✍❑ ✓✍✫ ✪✓✔ ✓ ✜✓✫✚✭✔ ✌✒ ♦✦ ✘☞✥ ❚✩✌ ✘✌✚✍✔ ✓✜✏

✢✙✓✘✏✫ ✓❝ ✕ ✘☞ ✓✍✫ ♦✕ ✘☞ ✓✩✓✑ ✒✜✌☞ ❝✪✏ ✘✏✍❝✜✏ ✌✒ ❝✪✏ ✜✏✘✌✜✫✥ ✰✒ ❝✪✏ ✘✌■✏✒✒✚✘✚✏✍❝ ✌✒ ✒✜✚✘❝✚✌✍

✛✏❝✩✏✏✍ ❝✪✏ ✘✌✚✍✔ ✓✍✫ ❝✪✏ ✜✏✘✌✜✫ ✚✔ ✖✥♦✦❑ ✩✪✚✘✪ ✌✒ ❝✪✏ ✘✌✚✍✔ ✩✚✙✙ ✜✏✴✌✙✴✏ ✩✚❝✪ ❝✪✏ ✜✏✘✌✜✫ ✵

✺✡☛❙ ❨✌✭ ☞✓✑ ✪✓✴✏ ✔✏✏✍ ✚✍ ✓ ✘✚✜✘✭✔ ✓ ☞✌❝✌✜✘✑✘✙✚✔❝ ✫✜✚✴✚✍✗ ✚✍ ✴✏✜❝✚✘✓✙ ✙✌✌✢✔ ✚✍✔✚✫✏ ✓ ❯✫✏✓❝✪■

✩✏✙✙✇ ✣✓ ✪✌✙✙✌✩ ✔✢✪✏✜✚✘✓✙ ✘✪✓☞✛✏✜ ✩✚❝✪ ✪✌✙✏✔❑ ✔✌ ❝✪✏ ✔✢✏✘❝✓❝✌✜✔ ✘✓✍ ✩✓❝✘✪ ✒✜✌☞ ✌✭❝✔✚✫✏★✥

❱✬✢✙✓✚✍ ✘✙✏✓✜✙✑ ✩✪✑ ❝✪✏ ☞✌❝✌✜✘✑✘✙✚✔❝ ✫✌✏✔ ✍✌❝ ✫✜✌✢ ✫✌✩✍ ✩✪✏✍ ✪✏ ✚✔ ✓❝ ❝✪✏ ✭✢✢✏✜☞✌✔❝

✢✌✚✍❝❑ ✩✚❝✪ ✍✌ ✔✭✢✢✌✜❝ ✒✜✌☞ ✛✏✙✌✩✥ ❍✪✓❝ ✚✔ ❝✪✏ ☞✚✍✚☞✭☞ ✔✢✏✏✫ ✜✏♣✭✚✜✏✫ ✓❝ ❝✪✏

✭✢✢✏✜☞✌✔❝ ✢✌✔✚❝✚✌✍ ❝✌ ✢✏✜✒✌✜☞ ✓ ✴✏✜❝✚✘✓✙ ✙✌✌✢ ✚✒ ❝✪✏ ✜✓✫✚✭✔ ✌✒ ❝✪✏ ✘✪✓☞✛✏✜ ✚✔ ✧✦ ☞ ✵

✺✡☛❲ ❆ ❳✖ ✎✗ ☞✓✍ ✔❝✓✍✫✔ ✚✍ ✘✌✍❝✓✘❝ ✓✗✓✚✍✔❝ ❝✪✏ ✚✍✍✏✜ ✩✓✙✙ ✌✒ ✓ ✪✌✙✙✌✩ ✘✑✙✚✍✫✜✚✘✓✙ ✫✜✭☞ ✌✒

✜✓✫✚✭✔ r ☞ ✜✌❝✓❝✚✍✗ ✓✛✌✭❝ ✚❝✔ ✴✏✜❝✚✘✓✙ ✓✬✚✔ ✩✚❝✪ ✧✖✖ ✜✏✴❘☞✚✍✥ ❚✪✏ ✘✌✏✒✒✚✘✚✏✍❝ ✌✒

✒✜✚✘❝✚✌✍ ✛✏❝✩✏✏✍ ❝✪✏ ✩✓✙✙ ✓✍✫ ✪✚✔ ✘✙✌❝✪✚✍✗ ✚✔ ✖✥♦✦✥ ❍✪✓❝ ✚✔ ❝✪✏ ☞✚✍✚☞✭☞ ✜✌❝✓❝✚✌✍✓✙

✔✢✏✏✫ ✌✒ ❝✪✏ ✘✑✙✚✍✫✏✜ ❝✌ ✏✍✓✛✙✏ ❝✪✏ ☞✓✍ ❝✌ ✜✏☞✓✚✍ ✔❝✭✘✎ ❝✌ ❝✪✏ ✩✓✙✙ ✣✩✚❝✪✌✭❝ ✒✓✙✙✚✍✗★

✩✪✏✍ ❝✪✏ ✒✙✌✌✜ ✚✔ ✔✭✫✫✏✍✙✑ ✜✏☞✌✴✏✫ ✵

✺✡❉❩ ❆ ❝✪✚✍ ✘✚✜✘✭✙✓✜ ✙✌✌✢ ✌✒ ✜✓✫✚✭✔ ❬ ✜✌❝✓❝✏✔ ✓✛✌✭❝ ✚❝✔ ✴✏✜❝✚✘✓✙ ✫✚✓☞✏❝✏✜ ✩✚❝✪ ✓✍ ✓✍✗✭✙✓✜

✒✜✏♣✭✏✍✘✑ ❭❈ ❪✪✌✩ ❝✪✓❝ ✓ ✔☞✓✙✙ ✛✏✓✫ ✌✍ ❝✪✏ ✩✚✜✏ ✙✌✌✢ ✜✏☞✓✚✍✔ ✓❝ ✚❝✔ ✙✌✩✏✜☞✌✔❝ ✢✌✚✍❝

✒✌✜ ❫ ❴ ✹ ❘ ❬ ✥ ❍✪✓❝ ✚✔ ❝✪✏ ✓✍✗✙✏ ☞✓✫✏ ✛✑ ❝✪✏ ✜✓✫✚✭✔ ✴✏✘❝✌✜ ❵✌✚✍✚✍✗ ❝✪✏ ✘✏✍❝✜✏ ❝✌

❝✪✏ ✛✏✓✫ ✩✚❝✪ ❝✪✏ ✴✏✜❝✚✘✓✙ ✫✌✩✍✩✓✜✫ ✫✚✜✏✘❝✚✌✍ ✒✌✜ ❫ ❛ ✧✹ ❘ ❬ ✵ ✯✏✗✙✏✘❝ ✒✜✚✘❝✚✌✍✥

❞❡❣❤ ✐❤❥❧

❞❡❣❤ ✐❤❥♠

❞❡❣❤ ✐❤❥❥

Page 118: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❈❍�✁✂✄☎ ✥■✆

❲❖✝✞✱ ✟◆✠✝✡☛ ❆◆☞ ✌❖✍✠✝

✻✎✏ ✑✒✓✔✕✖✗✘✓✑✕✒❚✙✚ ✛✚✜✢✣ ✤✦✧✜★✩✪ ✤✚✫✚✜✬✭✩ ✮✫✯ ✤✰✧✦✚✜✩ ✮✜✚ ✲✜✚✳✴✚✫✛✵✭ ✴✣✚✯✐✫ ✚✶✚✜✭✯✮✭ ✵✮✫✬✴✮✬✚✷ ✸ ✲✮✜✢✚✜ ✰✵✧✴✬✙✐✫✬ ✛✙✚ ✲✐✚✵✯✪ ✮❝✧✫✣✛✜✴❝✛✐✧✫ ✦✧✜★✚✜ ❝✮✜✜✭✐✫✬ ✹✜✐❝★✣✪ ✮ ✣✛✴✯✚✫✛ ✣✛✴✯✭✐✫✬ ✲✧✜✮ ❝✧✢✰✚✛✐✛✐✶✚ ✚❛✮✢✐✫✮✛✐✧✫✪ ✮✫ ✮✜✛✐✣✛ ✰✮✐✫✛✐✫✬ ✮ ✹✚✮✴✛✐✲✴✵✵✮✫✯✣❝✮✰✚✪ ✮✵✵ ✮✜✚ ✣✮✐✯ ✛✧ ✹✚ ✦✧✜★✐✫✬✷ ✺✫ ✰✙✭✣✐❝✣✪ ✙✧✦✚✶✚✜✪✛✙✚ ✦✧✜✯ ✤t✧✜★✩ ❝✧✶✚✜✣ ✮ ✯✚✲✐✫✐✛✚ ✮✫✯ ✰✜✚❝✐✣✚ ✢✚✮✫✐✫✬✷❙✧✢✚✹✧✯✭ ✦✙✧ ✙✮✣ ✛✙✚ ❝✮✰✮❝✐✛✭ ✛✧ ✦✧✜★ ✲✧✜ ✼✽✾✼✿ ✙✧✴✜✣ ✮✯✮✭ ✐✣ ✣✮✐✯ ✛✧ ✙✮✶✚ ✮ ✵✮✜✬✚ ✣✛✮✢✐✫✮ ✧✜ ✚✫✚✜✬✭✷ t✚ ✮✯✢✐✜✚ ✮✵✧✫✬ ✯✐✣✛✮✫❝✚ ✜✴✫✫✚✜ ✲✧✜ ✙✚✜ ✣✛✮✢✐✫✮ ✧✜ ✚✫✚✜✬✭✷ ❧✫✚✜✬✭ ✐✣✛✙✴✣ ✧✴✜ ❝✮✰✮❝✐✛✭ ✛✧ ✯✧ ✦✧✜★✷ ✺✫ ❀✙✭✣✐❝✣ ✛✧✧✪ ✛✙✚ ✛✚✜✢ ✤✚✫✚✜✬✭✩✐✣ ✜✚✵✮✛✚✯ ✛✧ ✦✧✜★ ✐✫ ✛✙✐✣ ✣✚✫✣✚✪ ✹✴✛ ✮✣ ✣✮✐✯ ✮✹✧✶✚ ✛✙✚ ✛✚✜✢✤✦✧✜★✩ ✐✛✣✚✵✲ ✐✣ ✯✚✲✐✫✚✯ ✢✴❝✙✢✧✜✚ ✰✜✚❝✐✣✚✵✭✷ ❚✙✚ ✦✧✜✯ ✤✰✧✦✚✜✩✐✣ ✴✣✚✯ ✐✫ ✚✶✚✜✭✯✮✭ ✵✐✲✚ ✦✐✛✙ ✯✐✲✲✚✜✚✫✛ ✣✙✮✯✚✣ ✧✲ ✢✚✮✫✐✫✬✷ ✺✫★✮✜✮✛✚ ✧✜ ✹✧❛✐✫✬ ✦✚ ✛✮✵★ ✧✲ ✤✰✧✦✚✜✲✴✵✩ ✰✴✫❝✙✚✣✷ ❚✙✚✣✚ ✮✜✚✯✚✵✐✶✚✜✚✯ ✮✛ ✮ ✬✜✚✮✛ ✣✰✚✚✯✷ ❚✙✐✣ ✣✙✮✯✚ ✧✲ ✢✚✮✫✐✫✬ ✐✣ ❝✵✧✣✚ ✛✧✛✙✚ ✢✚✮✫✐✫✬ ✧✲ ✛✙✚ ✦✧✜✯ ✤✰✧✦✚✜✩ ✴✣✚✯ ✐✫ ✰✙✭✣✐❝✣✷ t✚ ✣✙✮✵✵✲✐✫✯ ✛✙✮✛ ✛✙✚✜✚ ✐✣ ✮✛ ✹✚✣✛ ✮ ✵✧✧✣✚ ❝✧✜✜✚✵✮✛✐✧✫ ✹✚✛✦✚✚✫ ✛✙✚✰✙✭✣✐❝✮✵ ✯✚✲✐✫✐✛✐✧✫✣ ✮✫✯ ✛✙✚ ✰✙✭✣✐✧✵✧✬✐❝✮✵ ✰✐❝✛✴✜✚✣ ✛✙✚✣✚✛✚✜✢✣ ✬✚✫✚✜✮✛✚ ✐✫ ✧✴✜ ✢✐✫✯✣✷ ❚✙✚ ✮✐✢ ✧✲ ✛✙✐✣ ❝✙✮✰✛✚✜ ✐✣ ✛✧✯✚✶✚✵✧✰ ✮✫ ✴✫✯✚✜✣✛✮✫✯✐✫✬ ✧✲ ✛✙✚✣✚ ✛✙✜✚✚ ✰✙✭✣✐❝✮✵ ✳✴✮✫✛✐✛✐✚✣✷❇✚✲✧✜✚ ✦✚ ✰✜✧❝✚✚✯ ✛✧ ✛✙✐✣ ✛✮✣★✪ ✦✚ ✫✚✚✯ ✛✧ ✯✚✶✚✵✧✰ ✮✢✮✛✙✚✢✮✛✐❝✮✵ ✰✜✚✜✚✳✴✐✣✐✛✚✪ ✫✮✢✚✵✭ ✛✙✚ ✣❝✮✵✮✜ ✰✜✧✯✴❝✛ ✧✲ ✛✦✧✶✚❝✛✧✜✣✷

✻✎✏✎✏ ✓❁❂ ❃❄❅❉❅❊ ❋❊●❏❑❄▲t✚ ✙✮✶✚ ✵✚✮✜✫✛ ✮✹✧✴✛ ✶✚❝✛✧✜✣ ✮✫✯ ✛✙✚✐✜ ✴✣✚ ✐✫ ♥✙✮✰✛✚✜ ✽✷❀✙✭✣✐❝✮✵ ✳✴✮✫✛✐✛✐✚✣ ✵✐★✚ ✯✐✣✰✵✮❝✚✢✚✫✛✪ ✶✚✵✧❝✐✛✭✪ ✮❝❝✚✵✚✜✮✛✐✧✫✪✲✧✜❝✚ ✚✛❝✷ ✮✜✚ ✶✚❝✛✧✜✣✷ t✚ ✙✮✶✚ ✮✵✣✧ ✵✚✮✜✫✛ ✙✧✦ ✶✚❝✛✧✜✣ ✮✜✚✮✯✯✚✯ ✧✜ ✣✴✹✛✜✮❝✛✚✯✷ t✚ ✫✧✦ ✫✚✚✯ ✛✧ ★✫✧✦ ✙✧✦ ✶✚❝✛✧✜✣ ✮✜✚✢✴✵✛✐✰✵✐✚✯✷ ❚✙✚✜✚ ✮✜✚ ✛✦✧ ✦✮✭✣ ✧✲ ✢✴✵✛✐✰✵✭✐✫✬ ✶✚❝✛✧✜✣ ✦✙✐❝✙✦✚ ✣✙✮✵✵ ❝✧✢✚ ✮❝✜✧✣✣ ✇ ✧✫✚ ✦✮✭ ★✫✧✦✫ ✮✣ ✛✙✚ ✣❝✮✵✮✜ ✰✜✧✯✴❝✛✬✐✶✚✣ ✮ ✣❝✮✵✮✜ ✲✜✧✢ ✛✦✧ ✶✚❝✛✧✜✣ ✮✫✯ ✛✙✚ ✧✛✙✚✜ ★✫✧✦✫ ✮✣ ✛✙✚✶✚❝✛✧✜ ✰✜✧✯✴❝✛ ✰✜✧✯✴❝✚✣ ✮ ✫✚✦ ✶✚❝✛✧✜ ✲✜✧✢ ✛✦✧ ✶✚❝✛✧✜✣✷ t✚✣✙✮✵✵ ✵✧✧★ ✮✛ ✛✙✚ ✶✚❝✛✧✜ ✰✜✧✯✴❝✛ ✐✫ ♥✙✮✰✛✚✜ s✷ ▼✚✜✚ ✦✚ ✛✮★✚✴✰ ✛✙✚ ✣❝✮✵✮✜ ✰✜✧✯✴❝✛ ✧✲ ✛✦✧ ✶✚❝✛✧✜✣✷ ❚✙✚ ✣❝✮✵✮✜ ✰✜✧✯✴❝✛ ✧✜✯✧✛ ✰✜✧✯✴❝✛ ✧✲ ✮✫✭ ✛✦✧ ✶✚❝✛✧✜✣ P ✮✫✯ ◗✪ ✯✚✫✧✛✚✯ ✮✣ P✎◗ ❘✜✚✮✯

✻✎✏ ❯❱❳❨❩❬❭❪❳❫❩❱✻✎❴ ❵❩❳❫❩❱❜ ❩❞ ❡❩❨❢ ❣❱❬ ❢❫❱❤❳❫❪

❤❱❤❨❥❦ ♠ ♦♣❤ ❡❩❨❢q❤❱❤❨❥❦❳♣❤❩❨❤r

✻✎✉ ✈❩❨❢✻✎① ②❫❱❤❳❫❪ ❤❱❤❨❥❦✻✎③ ✈❩❨❢ ❬❩❱❤ ④❦ ❣ ⑤❣❨❫❣④⑥❤

❞❩❨❪❤✻✎✻ ♦♣❤ ❡❩❨❢q❤❱❤❨❥❦ ❳♣❤❩❨❤r ❞❩❨

❣ ⑤❣❨❫❣④⑥❤ ❞❩❨❪❤✻✎⑦ ♦♣❤ ❪❩❱❪❤⑧❳ ❩❞ ⑧❩❳❤❱❳❫❣⑥

❤❱❤❨❥❦✻✎⑨ ♦♣❤ ❪❩❱❜❤❨⑤❣❳❫❩❱ ❩❞

r❤❪♣❣❱❫❪❣⑥ ❤❱❤❨❥❦✻✎⑩ ♦♣❤ ⑧❩❳❤❱❳❫❣⑥ ❤❱❤❨❥❦ ❩❞ ❣

❜⑧❨❫❱❥✻✎✏❶ ❷❣❨❫❩❭❜ ❞❩❨r❜ ❩❞ ❤❱❤❨❥❦ ♠ ❳♣❤

⑥❣❡ ❩❞ ❪❩❱❜❤❨⑤❣❳❫❩❱ ❩❞ ❤❱❤❨❥❦✻✎✏✏ ❸❩❡❤❨✻✎✏❴ ❹❩⑥⑥❫❜❫❩❱❜

❺❭rr❣❨❦❸❩❫❱❳❜ ❳❩ ⑧❩❱❬❤❨❻❼❤❨❪❫❜❤❜❽❬❬❫❳❫❩❱❣⑥ ❤❼❤❨❪❫❜❤❜❽⑧⑧❤❱❬❫❼ ❾❿➀

Page 119: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆ ✥�✁ ❇✮ ✂✄ ✥☎✆✂✝☎✥ ✞✄❆✳❇ ✟ ✠ ✡ ❝�✄ ☛ ✭☞✌✍✞✮

✇✎☎✏☎ ☛ ✂✄ ✁✎☎ ✞✝✑✒☎ ✓☎✁✇☎☎✝ ✁✎☎ ✁✇� ✔☎❝✁�✏✄ ✞✄✄✎�✇✝ ✂✝ s✂✑✌ ☞✌✍✞✌ ✕✂✝❝☎ ✠✖ ✡ ✞✝✥ ❝�✄ ☛ ✞✏☎✄❝✞✒✞✏✄✗ ✁✎☎ ✥�✁ ✘✏�✥✙❝✁ �✆ ❆ ✞✝✥ ❇ ✂✄ ✞ ✄❝✞✒✞✏q✙✞✝✁✂✁✚✌ ✛✞❝✎ ✔☎❝✁�✏✗ ❆ ✞✝✥ ❇✗ ✎✞✄ ✞ ✥✂✏☎❝✁✂�✝✓✙✁ ✁✎☎✂✏ ✄❝✞✒✞✏ ✘✏�✥✙❝✁ ✥�☎✄ ✝�✁ ✎✞✔☎ ✞✥✂✏☎❝✁✂�✝✌

s✏�❋ ✛q✌ ✭☞✌✍✞✮✗ ✇☎ ✎✞✔☎

❆✳❇ ✟ ✠ ✭✡ ❝�✄ ☛ ✮✟ ✡ ✭✠ ❝�✄ ☛ ✮

●☎�❋☎✁✏✂❝✞✒✒✚✗ ✡ ❝�✄ ☛ ✂✄ ✁✎☎ ✘✏�✜☎❝✁✂�✝ �✆ ❇ �✝✁�❆ ✂✝ s✂✑✌☞✌✍ ✭✓✮ ✞✝✥ ✠ ❝�✄ ☛ ✂✄ ✁✎☎ ✘✏�✜☎❝✁✂�✝ �✆ ❆�✝✁� ❇ ✂✝ s✂✑✌ ☞✌✍ ✭❝✮✌ ✕�✗ ❆✳❇ ✂✄ ✁✎☎ ✘✏�✥✙❝✁ �✆✁✎☎❋✞✑✝✂✁✙✥☎ �✆ ❆ ✞✝✥ ✁✎☎ ❝�❋✘�✝☎✝✁ �✆ ❇ ✞✒�✝✑❆✌ ✢✒✁☎✏✝✞✁✂✔☎✒✚✗ ✂✁ ✂✄ ✁✎☎ ✘✏�✥✙❝✁ �✆ ✁✎☎❋✞✑✝✂✁✙✥☎ �✆ ❇ ✞✝✥ ✁✎☎ ❝�❋✘�✝☎✝✁ �✆ ❆ ✞✒�✝✑ ❇✌

✛q✙✞✁✂�✝ ✭☞✌✍✞✮ ✄✎�✇✄ ✁✎✞✁ ✁✎☎ ✄❝✞✒✞✏ ✘✏�✥✙❝✁✆�✒✒�✇✄ ✁✎☎ ❝�❋❋✙✁✞✁✂✔☎ ✒✞✇ ❢

❆✳❇ ✟ ❇✳❆

✕❝✞✒✞✏ ✘✏�✥✙❝✁ �✓☎✚✄ ✁✎☎ ❞✣✤✦✧✣★✩✦✣✪✫❧✬✯❢

❆✳ ✭❇ ✰ ✱✮ ✟ ❆✳❇ ✰ ❆✳✱

s✙✏✁✎☎✏✗ ❆✳ ✭✲ ❇✮ ✟ ✲ ✭❆✳❇✮

✇✎☎✏☎ ✲ ✂✄ ✞ ✏☎✞✒ ✝✙❋✓☎✏✌

❚✎☎ ✘✏��✆✄ �✆ ✁✎☎ ✞✓�✔☎ ☎q✙✞✁✂�✝✄ ✞✏☎ ✒☎✆✁ ✁�✚�✙ ✞✄ ✞✝ ☎②☎✏❝✂✄☎✌

s�✏ ✙✝✂✁ ✔☎❝✁�✏✄ ✴✴✴✐✵ ❥✵❦ ✇☎ ✎✞✔☎

✶✶ ✶✶ ✶✶✷ ✷ ✸ ✸ ✹ ✹✺ ✻ ✺ ✻ ✺ ✻ ✼✽✽ ✽✽ ✽✽✾ ✿ ✿ ❀ ❀ ✾❁ ❂ ❁ ❂ ❁ ❂ ❃

●✂✔☎✝ ✁✇� ✔☎❝✁�✏✄

❄ ❅ ❈ ❉❊ ❍ ❍■ ■ ■① ❏ ③❑ ❑ ❑

▲ ❅ ❈ ❉❊ ❍ ❍▼ ▼ ▼① ❏ ③❑ ❑ ❑

✁✎☎✂✏ ✄❝✞✒✞✏ ✘✏�✥✙❝✁ ✂✄

◆ ❖ ◆ ❖❼ ❼ ❼ ❼ ❼ ❼P P◗ ❘ ❙ ◗ ❘ ❙■ ■ ■ ▼ ▼ ▼❊ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍❄ ▲ ❅ ❈ ❉ ❅ ❈ ❉

❊ ❍ ❍■ ▼ ■ ▼ ■ ▼① ① ❏ ❏ ③ ③ ✭☞✌✍✓✮s✏�❋ ✁✎☎ ✥☎✆✂✝✂✁✂�✝ �✆ ✄❝✞✒✞✏ ✘✏�✥✙❝✁ ✞✝✥✗ ✭✛q✌☞✌✍✓✮ ✇☎ ✎✞✔☎ ❢

✭ ✂ ✮ ❯ ❯ ❱ ❱ ❲ ❲❳ ❳ ❳ ❳ ❳ ❳❨ ❩ ❩❬ ❬

❭✏✗ ■ ■ ■ ■❪①❪

❏❪

③❪❊ ❍ ❍ ✭☞✌✍❝✮

✄✂✝❝☎ ❆✳❆ ✟ ❫❆ ❫❫❆❫ ❝�✄ ⑤ ✟ ✠❴✌✭✂✂✮ ❆✳❇ ✟ ⑤✗ ✂✆ ❆ ✞✝✥ ❇ ✞✏☎ ✘☎✏✘☎✝✥✂❝✙✒✞✏✌

❵❛❜❡❣❤♠ ♥♦♣ s✂✝✥ ✁✎☎ ✞✝✑✒☎ ✓☎✁✇☎☎✝ ✆�✏❝☎

r ✟ t✉ ✈ ④ ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ ⑨⑩❶ ❶ ❷ ✙✝✂✁ ✞✝✥ ✥✂✄✘✒✞❝☎❋☎✝✁

❞ ✟ ❸❹ ❺ ❻ ❽ ❾ ❻ ❿ ➀➁➂ ➂ ➃ ✙✝✂✁✌ ✢✒✄� ✆✂✝✥ ✁✎☎

✘✏�✜☎❝✁✂�✝ �✆ r �✝ ❞✌

➄➅➆➇♠➈ r.❞ ✟ ➉ ➉ ➊ ➊ ➋ ➋➌ ➍ ➌ ➍ ➌ ➍➎ ➎✟ ➏ ✭➐✮ ✰ ➑ ✭➑✮ ✰ ✭➒ ➏✮ ✭➏✮✟ ✍☞ ✙✝✂✁

➓☎✝❝☎ r.❞ ✟ ➔ →➣↔↕ ➙ ✟ ✍☞ ✙✝✂✁

➛�✇ r.r ✟ ➜ ➜ ➜ ➜◗ ❘ ❙↕ ↕ ↕ ↕❊ ❍ ❍

✟ ➝ ✰ ✍☞ ✰ ➞➐✟ ➐⑤ ✙✝✂✁

✞✝✥ ❞.❞ ✟ ➟➠ ✟ ➡ ➡ ➡➢ ➤ ➥➦ ➦ ➦➧ ➧

✟ ➞➐ ✰ ✍☞ ✰ ➝✟ ➐⑤ ✙✝✂✁

➨ ❝�✄ ➙ ✟➩➫ ➩➫➭ ➭ ➯➲➳➵

➸➯➸➯ ➸➯ ✗

➙ ✟ ❝�✄➺➻ ⑤✌➏➞ ➼

➽➾➚➪ ➶➪➹ ➘➴➷ ➬➮➱ ✃❐❒❮❒❰ Ï❰ÐÑÒ❐Ó ÐÔ ÓÕÐ Ö➱❐ÓÐ❰✃ × ❒ØÑ Ù Ú✃ ❒ ✃❐❒❮❒❰ Û ×ÜÙ Ý Þ ß àáâ ☛ã ➘ä➷ ß àáâ ☛ Ú✃ Ó➮➱ Ï❰Ðå➱❐ÓÚÐØÐÔ Ù ÐØÓÐ ×æ ➘à➷ Þ ❐Ð✃ ☛ Ú✃ Ó➮➱ Ï❰Ðå➱❐ÓÚÐØ ÐÔ × ÐØÓÐ Ùã

çèéêë ìíìéîï ðíñ òèçìé óóô

õ

Page 120: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✶✆

❦✞✟✠✞ ✡✟ ☛☞ ✌✍✟✌✟✍✡✎✟✞✏✑ ✡✟ ✡✒☞ ✓✌☞☞✔ ✟✕

✡✒☞ ✔✍✟✌ ☛t✡ ✎✓ ✟✡✒☞✍✠✎✓☞ t✞✔☞✡☞✍✖✎✞☞✔✗

❈✟✞✓✎✔☞✍ ✏ ✔✍✟✌ ✟✕ ✖✏✓✓✘✗✙✙ ✚ ✕✏✑✑✎✞✚ ✕✍✟✖

✏ ✒☞✎✚✒✡ ✘✗✙✙ ❦✖✗ ❤✡ ✒✎✡✓ ✡✒☞ ✚✍✟t✞✔ ✠✎✡✒

✏ ✓✌☞☞✔ ✟✕ ❛✙✗✙ ✖ ✓✲✛✗ ✥✏✜ ❲✒✏✡ ✎✓ ✡✒☞ ✠✟✍❦

✔✟✞☞ ☛❞ ✡✒☞ ✚✍✏❣✎✡✏✡✎✟✞✏✑ ✕✟✍❢☞ ✢ ❲✒✏✡ ✎✓

✡✒☞ ✠✟✍❦ ✔✟✞☞ ☛❞ ✡✒☞ t✞❦✞✟✠✞ ✍☞✓✎✓✡✎❣☞

✕✟✍❢☞✢

❆✣✤✦✧★ ✥✏✜ ✭✒☞ ❢✒✏✞✚☞ ✎✞ ❦✎✞☞✡✎❢ ☞✞☞✍✚❞ ✟✕ ✡✒☞

✔✍✟✌ ✎✓

✷✩✵

✪❑ ✫ ✬✮ ✯ ❾

✯✩

✪✩✵ ✺✵ ✺✵

✰✱× × ×

❂ ✘✗✳❛ ✴

✠✒☞✍☞ ✠☞ ✒✏❣☞ ✏✓✓t✖☞✔ ✡✒✏✡ ✡✒☞ ✔✍✟✌ ✎✓ ✎✞✎✡✎✏✑✑❞

✏✡ ✍☞✓✡✗

✸✓✓t✖✎✞✚ ✡✒✏✡ ✹ ✎✓ ✏ ❢✟✞✓✡✏✞✡ ✠✎✡✒ ✏ ❣✏✑t☞

✘✙ ✖✻✓✼✽ ✡✒☞ ✠✟✍❦ ✔✟✞☞ ☛❞ ✡✒☞ ✚✍✏❣✎✡✏✡✎✟✞✏✑ ✕✟✍❢☞

✎✓✽

✾✿❂ ♠✹❀

❂ ✘✙✲❁ ❃ ✘✙ ❃ ✘✙❁

❂ ✘✙✗✙ ✴

✥☛✜ ❄✍✟✖ ✡✒☞ ✠✟✍❦❅☞✞☞✍✚❞ ✡✒☞✟✍☞✖

❇ r❉ ❊ ❊❋ ● ❍

✠✒☞✍☞ ✾■ ✎✓ ✡✒☞ ✠✟✍❦ ✔✟✞☞ ☛❞ ✡✒☞ ✍☞✓✎✓✡✎❣☞ ✕✟✍❢☞

✟✞ ✡✒☞ ✍✏✎✞✔✍✟✌✗ ✭✒t✓

✾■ ❂ ❏▲ ▼✾✿

❂ ✘✗✳❛ ▼✘✙

❂ ▼◆✗❖❛ ✴

✎✓ ✞☞✚✏✡✎❣☞✗ ◗

❘❙❚ ❯❱❳❨

✸✓ ✓☞☞✞ ☞✏✍✑✎☞✍✽ ✠✟✍❦ ✎✓ ✍☞✑✏✡☞✔ ✡✟ ✕✟✍❢☞ ✏✞✔ ✡✒☞

✔✎✓✌✑✏❢☞✖☞✞✡ ✟❣☞✍ ✠✒✎❢✒ ✎✡ ✏❢✡✓✗ ❈✟✞✓✎✔☞✍ ✏

❢✟✞✓✡✏✞✡ ✕✟✍❢☞ ❩ ✏❢✡✎✞✚ ✟✞ ✏✞ ✟☛❬☞❢✡ ✟✕ ✖✏✓✓ ♠✗

✭✒☞ ✟☛❬☞❢✡ t✞✔☞✍✚✟☞✓ ✏ ✔✎✓✌✑✏❢☞✖☞✞✡ ❭ ✎✞ ✡✒☞

✌✟✓✎✡✎❣☞ ①❅✔✎✍☞❢✡✎✟✞ ✏✓ ✓✒✟✠✞ ✎✞ ❄✎✚✗ ❪✗✳✗

❫❴❵❜ ❝❜❡ ✐❥ ❧♥♦♣qs ✉❥✈♣✇②❧♣③ ④ ✈⑤③⑥⑦④q♣⑧♣❥s ⑨

✉❥✈♣✇ s⑩♣ ⑤❥❶⑦✉♣❥q♣ ❧❶ s⑩♣ ❶❧✇q♣ ❷❸

❘❙❹ ❺❱❻❼❱❺❽ ❱❩ ❯❱❳❨ ❿❺➀ ❨❼❺➁❻❼➂

➁❺➁❳➃➄➅ ❻➆➁ ❯❱❳❨➇➁❺➁❳➃➄❻➆➁❱❳➁➈

✭✒☞ ✕✟✑✑✟✠✎✞✚ ✍☞✑✏✡✎✟✞ ✕✟✍ ✍☞❢✡✎✑✎✞☞✏✍ ✖✟✡✎✟✞ t✞✔☞✍

❢✟✞✓✡✏✞✡ ✏❢❢☞✑☞✍✏✡✎✟✞ ➉ ✒✏✓ ☛☞☞✞ ☞✞❢✟t✞✡☞✍☞✔

✎✞ ❈✒✏✌✡☞✍ ➊✽

➋✼ ▼➌✼ ❂ ✳ ➉➍

✠✒☞✍☞ ➌ ✏✞✔ ➋ ✏✍☞ ✡✒☞ ✎✞✎✡✎✏✑ ✏✞✔ ✕✎✞✏✑ ✓✌☞☞✔✓

✏✞✔ ➍ ✡✒☞ ✔✎✓✡✏✞❢☞ ✡✍✏❣☞✍✓☞✔✗ ➎t✑✡✎✌✑❞✎✞✚ ☛✟✡✒

✓✎✔☞✓ ☛❞ ♠✻➏✽ ✠☞ ✒✏❣☞

✷ ✷✩ ✩

✪ ✪✫✬ ✫➐ ✫➑➒ ➓➒❾ ✯ ✯ ✥❪✗✳✏✜

✠✒☞✍☞ ✡✒☞ ✑✏✓✡ ✓✡☞✌ ✕✟✑✑✟✠✓ ✕✍✟✖ ➔☞✠✡✟✞→✓

➣☞❢✟✞✔ ↔✏✠✗ ❲☞ ❢✏✞ ✚☞✞☞✍✏✑✎✓☞ ↕➙✗ ✥❪✗✘✜

✡ ✟ ✡ ✒ ✍☞ ☞ ✔ ✎✖ ☞ ✞ ✓ ✎ ✟ ✞ ✓ ☛ ❞ ☞ ✖ ✌ ✑✟ ❞ ✎✞ ✚

❣☞❢✡✟✍✓

➋✼ ▼➌✼ ❂ ✳ ➛❙❭

➜✞❢☞ ✏✚✏✎✞ ✖t✑✡✎✌✑❞✎✞✚ ☛✟✡✒ ✓✎✔☞✓ ☛❞ ♠✻➏ ✽ ✠☞

✟☛✡✏✎✞

✷ ✷✩ ✩➝ ➝

✪ ✪✫✬ ✫➐ ✫ ➑ ➞ ➓ ➞❾ ✯ ✯ ✥❪✗✳☛✜

✭✒☞ ✏☛✟❣☞ ☞➙t✏✡✎✟✞ ✌✍✟❣✎✔☞✓ ✏ ✖✟✡✎❣✏✡✎✟✞ ✕✟✍

✡✒☞ ✔☞✕✎✞✎✡✎✟✞✓ ✟✕ ✠✟✍❦ ✏✞✔ ❦✎✞☞✡✎❢ ☞✞☞✍✚❞✗ ✭✒☞

✑☞✕✡ ✓✎✔☞ ✟✕ ✡✒☞ ☞➙t✏✡✎✟✞ ✎✓ ✡✒☞ ✔✎✕✕☞✍☞✞❢☞ ✎✞ ✡✒☞

➙t✏✞✡✎✡❞ ➟✒✏✑✕ ✡✒☞ ✖✏✓✓ ✡✎✖☞✓ ✡✒☞ ✓➙t✏✍☞ ✟✕ ✡✒☞

✓✌☞☞✔→ ✕✍✟✖ ✎✡✓ ✎✞✎✡✎✏✑ ❣✏✑t☞ ✡✟ ✎✡✓ ✕✎✞✏✑ ❣✏✑t☞✗ ❲☞

❢✏✑✑ ☞✏❢✒ ✟✕ ✡✒☞✓☞ ➙t✏✞✡✎✡✎☞✓ ✡✒☞ ➟❦✎✞☞✡✎❢ ☞✞☞✍✚❞→✽

✔☞✞✟✡☞✔ ☛❞ ▲✗ ✭✒☞ ✍✎✚✒✡ ✓✎✔☞ ✎✓ ✏ ✌✍✟✔t❢✡ ✟✕ ✡✒☞

✔✎✓✌✑✏❢☞✖☞✞✡ ✏✞✔ ✡✒☞ ❢✟✖✌✟✞☞✞✡ ✟✕ ✡✒☞ ✕✟✍❢☞

✏✑✟✞✚ ✡✒☞ ✔✎✓✌✑✏❢☞✖☞✞✡✗ ✭✒✎✓ ➙t✏✞✡✎✡❞ ✎✓ ❢✏✑✑☞✔

➟✠✟✍❦→ ✏✞✔ ✎✓ ✔☞✞✟✡☞✔ ☛❞ ✾➠ ↕➙✗ ✥❪✗✳✜ ✎✓ ✡✒☞✞

▲➡ ➢ ▲➤ ➥ ✾ ✥❪✗➊✜

✠✒☞✍☞ ▲➤ ✏✞✔ ▲➡ ✏✍☞ ✍☞✓✌☞❢✡✎❣☞✑❞ ✡✒☞ ✎✞✎✡✎✏✑ ✏✞✔

✕✎✞✏✑ ❦✎✞☞✡✎❢ ☞✞☞✍✚✎☞✓ ✟✕ ✡✒☞ ✟☛❬☞❢✡✗ ❲✟✍❦ ✍☞✕☞✍✓

✡✟ ✡✒☞ ✕✟✍❢☞ ✏✞✔ ✡✒☞ ✔✎✓✌✑✏❢☞✖☞✞✡ ✟❣☞✍ ✠✒✎❢✒ ✎✡

✏❢✡✓✗ ❯➦➧➨ ➩➫ ❭➦➭➯ ➲➳ ➛ ➵➦➧➸➯ ➦➭ ➺➻➯ ➲➦❭➳ ➦➼➯➧

➛ ➸➯➧➺➛➩➭ ❭➩➫➽➾➛➸➯➚➯➭➺✗

↕➙t✏✡✎✟✞ ✥❪✗✳✜ ✎✓ ✏✑✓✟ ✏ ✓✌☞❢✎✏✑ ❢✏✓☞ ✟✕ ✡✒☞

✠✟✍❦❅☞✞☞✍✚❞ ✥❲↕✜ ✡✒☞✟✍☞✖ ➪ ❻➻➯ ➸➻➛➭➶➯ ➩➭

➨➩➭➯➺➩➸ ➯➭➯➧➶➳ ➦➵ ➛ ➽➛➧➺➩➸➾➯ ➩➫ ➯➹➘➛➾ ➺➦ ➺➻➯

➴➦➧➨ ❭➦➭➯ ➦➭ ➩➺ ➲➳ ➺➻➯ ➭➯➺ ➵➦➧➸➯✗ ❲☞ ✓✒✏✑✑

✚☞✞☞✍✏✑✎✓☞ ✡✒☞ ✏☛✟❣☞ ✔☞✍✎❣✏✡✎✟✞ ✡✟ ✏ ❣✏✍❞✎✞✚ ✕✟✍❢☞

✎✞ ✏ ✑✏✡☞✍ ✓☞❢✡✎✟✞✗

➷➬➮➱✃❐✧ ❒❮❰ ❤✡ ✎✓ ✠☞✑✑ ❦✞✟✠✞ ✡✒✏✡ ✏

✍✏✎✞✔✍✟✌ ✕✏✑✑✓ t✞✔☞✍ ✡✒☞ ✎✞✕✑t☞✞❢☞ ✟✕ ✡✒☞

✔✟✠✞✠✏✍✔ ✚✍✏❣✎✡✏✡✎✟✞✏✑ ✕✟✍❢☞ ✏✞✔ ✡✒☞

✟✌✌✟✓✎✞✚ ✍☞✓✎✓✡✎❣☞ ✕✟✍❢☞✗ ✭✒☞ ✑✏✡✡☞✍ ✎✓

Page 121: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶✶☛

❚❛✌✍✎ ✏✑✒ ❆✍✓✎✔♥❛✓✕✖✎ ✗♥✕✓✘ ✙✚ ✛✙✔♦✜✢♥✎✔❣✣ ✕♥ ✤

❊✥✦✧★✩✪ ✫✬✭ ✮ ✯✰✯✱✲✳✴ ✯✵✷✸✳ ✴✵ ✹ ✳✺✲✻✻✲✼✽

✳✴✵s ✲✼ ✾✿✷❀ ❁❂❃✲✼✽ ✴❄✲✳ s❃✵✯✸✳✳❅ ✴❄✸ ❇✵❃✯✸

✵✼ ✴❄✸ ✯✰✯✱✸ ✻❂✸ ✴✵ ✴❄✸ ❃✵✹✻ ✲✳ ❈✿✿ ❉ ✹✼✻

✲✳ ✻✲❃✸✯✴✱✰ ✵ss✵✳✸✻ ✴✵ ✴❄✸ ✷✵✴✲✵✼❀ ✐✹❋ ●✵❍

✷❂✯❄ ❍✵❃✺ ✻✵✸✳ ✴❄✸ ❃✵✹✻ ✻✵ ✵✼ ✴❄✸ ✯✰✯✱✸ ♠

✐■❋ ●✵❍ ✷❂✯❄ ❍✵❃✺ ✻✵✸✳ ✴❄✸ ✯✰✯✱✸ ✻✵ ✵✼

✴❄✸ ❃✵✹✻ ♠

❏❑▲▼✪◆ ❖✵❃✺ ✻✵✼✸ ✵✼ ✴❄✸ ✯✰✯✱✸ ■✰ ✴❄✸ ❃✵✹✻ ✲✳

✴❄✸ ❍✵❃✺ ✻✵✼✸ ■✰ ✴❄✸ ✳✴✵ss✲✼✽ ✐❇❃✲✯✴✲✵✼✹✱❋ ❇✵❃✯✸

✵✼ ✴❄✸ ✯✰✯✱✸ ✻❂✸ ✴✵ ✴❄✸ ❃✵✹✻❀

✐✹❋ P❄✸ ✳✴✵ss✲✼✽ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✹✼✻ ✴❄✸ ✻✲✳s✱✹✯✸✷✸✼✴✷✹✺✸

✹✼ ✹✼✽✱✸ ✵❇ ✾◗✿❘ ✐❙ ❃✹✻❋ ❍✲✴❄ ✸✹✯❄ ✵✴❄✸❃❀

P❄❂✳❅ ❍✵❃✺ ✻✵✼✸ ■✰ ✴❄✸ ❃✵✹✻❅

❯r ❱ ❳❨ ✯✵✳❩

❱ ❈✿✿ × ✾✿ × ✯✵✳ ❙

❱ ❬ ❈✿✿✿ ❭

❪✴ ✲✳ ✴❄✲✳ ✼✸✽✹✴✲❫✸ ❍✵❃✺ ✴❄✹✴ ■❃✲✼✽✳ ✴❄✸ ✯✰✯✱✸

✴✵ ✹ ❄✹✱✴ ✲✼ ✹✯✯✵❃✻✹✼✯✸ ❍✲✴❄ ❖t ✴❄✸✵❃✸✷❀

✐■❋ ❴❃✵✷ ❉✸❍✴✵✼❵✳ P❄✲❃✻ ❜✹❍ ✹✼ ✸❝❂✹✱ ✹✼✻

✵ss✵✳✲✴✸ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✹✯✴✳ ✵✼ ✴❄✸ ❃✵✹✻ ✻❂✸ ✴✵ ✴❄✸

✯✰✯✱✸❀ ❪✴✳ ✷✹✽✼✲✴❂✻✸ ✲✳ ❈✿✿ ❉❀ ●✵❍✸❫✸❃❅ ✴❄✸

❃✵✹✻ ❂✼✻✸❃✽✵✸✳ ✼✵ ✻✲✳s✱✹✯✸✷✸✼✴❀ P❄❂✳❅

❍✵❃✺ ✻✵✼✸ ■✰ ✯✰✯✱✸ ✵✼ ✴❄✸ ❃✵✹✻ ✲✳ ✇✸❃✵❀ ❞

P❄✸ ✱✸✳✳✵✼ ✵❇ ✴❄✲✳ ✸❡✹✷s✱✸ ✲✳ ✴❄✹✴ ✴❄✵❂✽❄

✴❄✸ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✵✼ ✹ ■✵✻✰ ✮ ✸❡✸❃✴✸✻ ■✰ ✴❄✸ ■✵✻✰ ❢ ✲✳

✹✱❍✹✰✳ ✸❝❂✹✱ ✹✼✻ ✵ss✵✳✲✴✸ ✴✵ ✴❄✹✴ ✵✼ ❢ ■✰ ✮

✐❉✸❍✴✵✼❵✳ P❄✲❃✻ ❜✹❍❋❤ ✴❄✸ ❍✵❃✺ ✻✵✼✸ ✵✼ ✮ ■✰ ❢

✲✳ ✼✵✴ ✼✸✯✸✳✳✹❃✲✱✰ ✸❝❂✹✱ ✹✼✻ ✵ss✵✳✲✴✸ ✴✵ ✴❄✸ ❍✵❃✺

✻✵✼✸ ✵✼ ❢ ■✰ ✮❀

❥❦❧ ♣q✉✈①q② ✈✉✈③④⑤

✮✳ ✼✵✴✸✻ ✸✹❃✱✲✸❃❅ ✲❇ ✹✼ ✵■⑥✸✯✴ ✵❇ ✷✹✳✳ ⑦ ❄✹✳

❫✸✱✵✯✲✴✰ ⑧❅ ✲✴✳ ✺✲✼✸✴✲✯ ✸✼✸❃✽✰ ⑨ ✲✳

⑩❶ ❷ ❷❸

❹ ❹❺ ❺

❻ ❻❼ ❼❽ ✐❾❀❿❋

➀✲✼✸✴✲✯ ✸✼✸❃✽✰ ✲✳ ✹ ✳✯✹✱✹❃ ❝❂✹✼✴✲✴✰❀ P❄✸ ✺✲✼✸✴✲✯

✸✼✸❃✽✰ ✵❇ ✹✼ ✵■⑥✸✯✴ ✲✳ ✹ ✷✸✹✳❂❃✸ ✵❇ ✴❄✸ ❍✵❃✺ ✹✼

①➁➂ ➃➄➅➆ ➇➄➈➂ ➉➊ ➋➁➂ ➌➄➅➍➂ ➎➏ ➇➂➌➎➈➂➇ ➋➄ ➉➂

➋➁➂ ➐➅➄➇➑➍➋ ➄➌ ➍➄➒➐➄➈➂➈➋ ➄➌ ➋➁➂ ➌➄➅➍➂ ➎➈ ➋➁➂

➇➎➅➂➍➋➎➄➈ ➄➌ ➋➁➂ ➇➎➏➐➓➔➍➂➒➂➈➋ ➔➈➇ ➋➁➂

➒➔→➈➎➋➑➇➂ ➄➌ ➋➁➎➏ ➇➎➏➐➓➔➍➂➒➂➈➋❀ P❄❂✳

❯ ❱ ✐❳ ✯✵✳ ❩ ❋❨ ❱ ➣❦➇ ✐❾❀↔❋

❖✸ ✳✸✸ ✴❄✹✴ ✲❇ ✴❄✸❃✸ ✲✳ ✼✵ ✻✲✳s✱✹✯✸✷✸✼✴❅ ✴❄✸❃✸

✲✳ ✼✵ ❍✵❃✺ ✻✵✼✸ ✸❫✸✼ ✲❇ ✴❄✸ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✲✳ ✱✹❃✽✸❀ P❄❂✳❅

❍❄✸✼ ✰✵❂ s❂✳❄ ❄✹❃✻ ✹✽✹✲✼✳✴ ✹ ❃✲✽✲✻ ■❃✲✯✺ ❍✹✱✱❅

✴❄✸ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✰✵❂ ✸❡✸❃✴ ✵✼ ✴❄✸ ❍✹✱✱ ✻✵✸✳ ✼✵ ❍✵❃✺❀ ↕✸✴

✰✵❂❃ ✷❂✳✯✱✸✳ ✹❃✸ ✹✱✴✸❃✼✹✴✲❫✸✱✰ ✯✵✼✴❃✹✯✴✲✼✽ ✹✼✻

❃✸✱✹❡✲✼✽ ✹✼✻ ✲✼✴✸❃✼✹✱ ✸✼✸❃✽✰ ✲✳ ■✸✲✼✽ ❂✳✸✻ ❂s

✹✼✻ ✰✵❂ ✻✵ ✽✸✴ ✴✲❃✸✻❀ P❄❂✳❅ ✴❄✸✷✸✹✼✲✼✽ ✵❇ ❍✵❃✺

✲✼ s❄✰✳✲✯✳ ✲✳ ✻✲❇❇✸❃✸✼✴ ❇❃✵✷ ✲✴✳ ❂✳✹✽✸ ✲✼ ✸❫✸❃✰✻✹✰

✱✹✼✽❂✹✽✸❀

❉✵ ❍✵❃✺ ✲✳ ✻✵✼✸ ✲❇ ➙

✐✲❋ ✴❄✸ ✻✲✳s✱✹✯✸✷✸✼✴ ✲✳ ✇✸❃✵ ✹✳ ✳✸✸✼ ✲✼ ✴❄✸

✸❡✹✷s✱✸ ✹■✵❫✸❀ ✮ ❍✸✲✽❄✴✱✲❇✴✸❃ ❄✵✱✻✲✼✽ ✹ ✾❿✿

✺✽ ✷✹✳✳ ✳✴✸✹✻✲✱✰ ✵✼ ❄✲✳ ✳❄✵❂✱✻✸❃ ❇✵❃ ➛✿ ✳

✻✵✸✳ ✼✵ ❍✵❃✺ ✵✼ ✴❄✸ ✱✵✹✻ ✻❂❃✲✼✽ ✴❄✲✳ ✴✲✷✸❀

✐✲✲❋ ✴❄✸ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✲✳ ✇✸❃✵❀ ✮■✱✵✯✺✷✵❫✲✼✽ ✵✼ ✹ ✳✷✵✵✴❄

❄✵❃✲✇✵✼✴✹✱ ✴✹■✱✸ ✲✳ ✼✵✴ ✹✯✴✸✻ ❂s✵✼ ■✰ ✹

❄✵❃✲✇✵✼✴✹✱ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✐✳✲✼✯✸ ✴❄✸❃✸ ✲✳ ✼✵ ❇❃✲✯✴✲✵✼❋❅ ■❂✴

✷✹✰ ❂✼✻✸❃✽✵ ✹ ✱✹❃✽✸ ✻✲✳s✱✹✯✸✷✸✼✴❀

✐✲✲✲❋ ✴❄✸ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✹✼✻ ✻✲✳s✱✹✯✸✷✸✼✴ ✹❃✸ ✷❂✴❂✹✱✱✰

s✸❃s✸✼✻✲✯❂✱✹❃❀ P❄✲✳ ✲✳ ✳✵ ✳✲✼✯✸❅ ❇✵❃ ❩ ❱ ❙➜❈ ❃✹✻

✐❱ ➝✿❘❋❅ ✯✵✳ ✐❙ ➞❈❋ ❱ ✿❀ ❴✵❃ ✴❄✸ ■✱✵✯✺✷✵❫✲✼✽ ✵✼

✹ ✳✷✵✵✴❄ ❄✵❃✲✇✵✼✴✹✱ ✴✹■✱✸❅ ✴❄✸ ✽❃✹❫✲✴✹✴✲✵✼✹✱

❇✵❃✯✸ ⑦➟ ✻✵✸✳ ✼✵ ❍✵❃✺ ✳✲✼✯✸ ✲✴ ✹✯✴✳ ✹✴ ❃✲✽❄✴

✹✼✽✱✸✳ ✴✵ ✴❄✸ ✻✲✳s✱✹✯✸✷✸✼✴❀ ❪❇ ❍✸ ✹✳✳❂✷✸ ✴❄✹✴

✴❄✸ ✷✵✵✼❵✳ ✵❃■✲✴✳ ✹❃✵❂✼✻ ✴❄✸ ✸✹❃✴❄ ✲✳

s✸❃❇✸✯✴✱✰ ✯✲❃✯❂✱✹❃ ✴❄✸✼ ✴❄✸ ✸✹❃✴❄❵✳

✽❃✹❫✲✴✹✴✲✵✼✹✱ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✻✵✸✳ ✼✵ ❍✵❃✺❀ P❄✸✷✵✵✼❵✳

✲✼✳✴✹✼✴✹✼✸✵❂✳ ✻✲✳s✱✹✯✸✷✸✼✴ ✲✳ ✴✹✼✽✸✼✴✲✹✱

❍❄✲✱✸ ✴❄✸ ✸✹❃✴❄❵✳ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✲✳ ❃✹✻✲✹✱✱✰ ✲✼❍✹❃✻✳✹✼✻

❩ ❱ ❙➜❈❀

❖✵❃✺ ✯✹✼■✸ ■✵✴❄ s✵✳✲✴✲❫✸ ✹✼✻ ✼✸✽✹✴✲❫✸❀ ❪❇ ❩ ✲✳

■✸✴❍✸✸✼ ✿❘ ✹✼✻ ➝✿❘❅ ✯✵✳ ❩ ✲✼ t❝❀ ✐❾❀↔❋ ✲✳ s✵✳✲✴✲❫✸❀

❪❇ ❩ ✲✳ ■✸✴❍✸✸✼ ➝✿❘ ✹✼✻ ✾◗✿❘❅ ✯✵✳ ❩ ✲✳ ✼✸✽✹✴✲❫✸❀

❪✼ ✷✹✼✰ ✸❡✹✷s✱✸✳ ✴❄✸ ❇❃✲✯✴✲✵✼✹✱ ❇✵❃✯✸ ✵ss✵✳✸✳

✻✲✳s✱✹✯✸✷✸✼✴ ✹✼✻ ❩ ❱ ✾◗✿❘❀ P❄✸✼ ✴❄✸ ❍✵❃✺ ✻✵✼✸

■✰ ❇❃✲✯✴✲✵✼ ✲✳ ✼✸✽✹✴✲❫✸ ✐✯✵✳ ✾◗✿❘ ❱ ❬✾❋❀

❴❃✵✷t❝❀ ✐❾❀↔❋ ✲✴ ✲✳ ✯✱✸✹❃ ✴❄✹✴ ❍✵❃✺ ✹✼✻ ✸✼✸❃✽✰

❄✹❫✸ ✴❄✸ ✳✹✷✸ ✻✲✷✸✼✳✲✵✼✳❅ ➠➡❜➢P➤➢➥❀ P❄✸ ➦❪ ❂✼✲✴

✵❇ ✴❄✸✳✸ ✲✳ ⑥✵❂✱✸ ✐❭❋❅✼✹✷✸✻✹❇✴✸❃ ✴❄✸ ❇✹✷✵❂✳❢❃✲✴✲✳❄

s❄✰✳✲✯✲✳✴❭✹✷✸✳➧❃✸✳✯✵✴✴❭✵❂✱✸ ✐✾◗✾✾➨✾◗❾➝❋❀ ➦✲✼✯✸

❍✵❃✺ ✹✼✻ ✸✼✸❃✽✰ ✹❃✸ ✳✵ ❍✲✻✸✱✰ ❂✳✸✻ ✹✳ s❄✰✳✲✯✹✱

✯✵✼✯✸s✴✳❅ ✹✱✴✸❃✼✹✴✲❫✸ ❂✼✲✴✳ ✹■✵❂✼✻ ✹✼✻ ✳✵✷✸ ✵❇

✴❄✸✳✸ ✹❃✸ ✱✲✳✴✸✻ ✲✼ P✹■✱✸ ❾❀✾❀

Page 122: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✶✆

♦✞✟✠✡☛ ✡☞✌ ✍♦ ✞✎ ☛t✠ ✈✏✑☛✒✠ ♦✓ ✏☛✔ ✕♦☛✏♦✌✖ ✗t✏✔✌♦☛✏♦✌ t☞✔ ✞✠✠✌ ✏✌☛✒✏☛✏✈✠♥✎ ✘✌♦✙✌ ✓♦✑ ☞ ♥♦✌✚ ☛✏✕✠✖✗t✠ ✘✏✌✠☛✏✡ ✠✌✠✑✚✎ ♦✓ ☞ ✓☞✔☛ ✓♥♦✙✏✌✚ ✔☛✑✠☞✕t☞✔ ✞✠✠✌ ✒✔✠✍ ☛♦ ✚✑✏✌✍ ✡♦✑✌✖ ❤☞✏♥✏✌✚✔t✏s✔ ✠✕s♥♦✎ ☛t✠ ✘✏✌✠☛✏✡ ✠✌✠✑✚✎ ♦✓ ☛t✠ ✙✏✌✍✖ ✗☞✞♥✠✻✖✛ ♥✏✔☛✔ ☛t✠ ✘✏✌✠☛✏✡ ✠✌✠✑✚✏✠✔ ✓♦✑ ✈☞✑✏♦✒✔♦✞✟✠✡☛✔✖

❊✜✢✣✤✥✦ ✧★✩ ✪✌ ☞ ✞☞♥♥✏✔☛✏✡✔ ✍✠✕♦✌✔☛✑☞☛✏♦✌☞ s♦♥✏✡✠ ♦✓✓✏✡✠✑ ✓✏✑✠✔ ☞ ✞✒♥♥✠☛ ♦✓ ✕☞✔✔ ❛✫✖✫ ✚✙✏☛t ✔s✠✠✍ ✛✫✫ ✕ ✔✲✬ ✭✔✠✠ ✗☞✞♥✠ ✻✖✛✮ ♦✌ ✔♦✓☛s♥✎✙♦♦✍ ♦✓ ☛t✏✡✘✌✠✔✔ ✛✖✫✫ ✡✕✖ ✗t✠ ✞✒♥♥✠☛✠✕✠✑✚✠✔ ✙✏☛t ♦✌♥✎ ❡✫✯ ♦✓ ✏☛✔ ✏✌✏☛✏☞♥ ✘✏✌✠☛✏✡✠✌✠✑✚✎✖ ✰t☞☛ ✏✔ ☛t✠ ✠✕✠✑✚✠✌☛ ✔s✠✠✍ ♦✓ ☛t✠✞✒♥♥✠☛ ❜

❆✱✳✴✦✵ ✗t✠ ✏✌✏☛✏☞♥ ✘✏✌✠☛✏✡ ✠✌✠✑✚✎ ♦✓ ☛t✠ ✞✒♥♥✠☛✏✔ ♠✷✸✹✛ ✺ ❡✫✫✫ ✼✖ ✪☛ t☞✔ ☞ ✓✏✌☞♥ ✘✏✌✠☛✏✡ ✠✌✠✑✚✎♦✓ ✫✖❡×❡✫✫✫ ✺ ❡✫✫ ✼✖ ✪✓ ✷❢ ✏✔ ☛t✠ ✠✕✠✑✚✠✌☛ ✔s✠✠✍♦✓ ☛t✠ ✞✒♥♥✠☛✽

✾✿

❂❀❁ ❃❄ ❅❇❇ ❈

❦❉❋●❍❋❏■❋❋❑▲▼◆❖

◗ ✻❘✖✛ ✕ ✔➊❙

❚❯❱ ❲❳❱❱❨ ❩❲ ❬❱❨❭❪❱❨ ❫❴ ❵❳❳❬❝❞❩❣❵✐❱❥❴ ❧♣qr✉❝✐ ✇①q②✖ ③

❧④⑤ ⑥⑦⑧⑨ ⑩⑦❶❷ ❸❹ ❺ ❻❺⑧❼❺❸❽❷ ❾⑦⑧❿❷➀ ✡♦✌✔☛☞✌☛ ✓♦✑✡✠ ✏✔ ✑☞✑✠✖ ✪☛ ✏✔ ☛t✠ ✈☞✑✏☞✞♥✠ ✓♦✑✡✠✽✙t✏✡t ✏✔ ✕♦✑✠ ✡♦✕✕♦✌♥✎ ✠✌✡♦✒✌☛✠✑✠✍✖ ➁✏✚✖ ✻✖✛✏✔ ☞ s♥♦☛ ♦✓ ☞ ✈☞✑✎✏✌✚ ✓♦✑✡✠ ✏✌ ♦✌✠ ✍✏✕✠✌✔✏♦✌✖

✪✓ ☛t✠ ✍✏✔s♥☞✡✠✕✠✌☛ ➂➃ ✏✔ ✔✕☞♥♥✽ ✙✠ ✡☞✌ ☛☞✘✠☛t✠ ✓♦✑✡✠ ➄ ✭➃✮ ☞✔ ☞ss✑♦➅✏✕☞☛✠♥✎ ✡♦✌✔☛☞✌☛ ☞✌✍☛t✠ ✙♦✑✘ ✍♦✌✠ ✏✔ ☛t✠✌

➂➆ ✺➄ ✭➃✮ ➂➃

➇➈➉➋➌ ➍➎➏ ➇➐➑➒➓➈➋ ➔➒→➌➣➒➓ ➌→➌↔↕➒➌➙ ➛➜➝

✗t✏✔ ✏✔ ✏♥♥✒✔☛✑☞☛✠✍ ✏✌ ➁✏✚✖ ✻✖❘✭☞✮✖ ➀✍✍✏✌✚✔✒✡✡✠✔✔✏✈✠ ✑✠✡☛☞✌✚✒♥☞✑ ☞✑✠☞✔ ✏✌ ➁✏✚✖ ✻✖❘✭☞✮ ✙✠✚✠☛ ☛t✠ ☛♦☛☞♥ ✙♦✑✘ ✍♦✌✠ ☞✔

➞ ➟➠ ➡➢➤

➦➧➧➨➩ ✭✻✖✻✮

✙t✠✑✠ ☛t✠ ✔✒✕✕☞☛✏♦✌ ✏✔ ✓✑♦✕ ☛t✠ ✏✌✏☛✏☞♥ s♦✔✏☛✏♦✌➃➫ ☛♦ ☛t✠ ✓✏✌☞♥ s♦✔✏☛✏♦✌ ➃❢✖

✪✓ ☛t✠ ✍✏✔s♥☞✡✠✕✠✌☛✔ ☞✑✠ ☞♥♥♦✙✠✍ ☛♦ ☞ss✑♦☞✡t➭✠✑♦✽ ☛t✠✌ ☛t✠ ✌✒✕✞✠✑ ♦✓ ☛✠✑✕✔ ✏✌ ☛t✠ ✔✒✕✏✌✡✑✠☞✔✠✔ ✙✏☛t♦✒☛ ♥✏✕✏☛✽ ✞✒☛ ☛t✠ ✔✒✕ ☞ss✑♦☞✡t✠✔☞ ✍✠✓✏✌✏☛✠ ✈☞♥✒✠ ✠➯✒☞♥ ☛♦ ☛t✠ ☞✑✠☞ ✒✌✍✠✑ ☛t✠ ✡✒✑✈✠✏✌ ➁✏✚✖ ✻✖❘✭✞✮✖ ✗t✠✌ ☛t✠ ✙♦✑✘ ✍♦✌✠ ✏✔

➲ ➳ ➵➸

➻➼ ➽ ➽➾ ➚ ✭✻✖➪✮

✙t✠✑✠ ➶➹➘♠➴ ✔☛☞✌✍✔ ✓♦✑ ☛t✠ ♥✏✕✏☛ ♦✓ ☛t✠ ✔✒✕ ✙t✠✌➂➃ ☛✠✌✍✔ ☛♦ ➭✠✑♦✖ ✗t✒✔✽ ✓♦✑ ☞ ✈☞✑✎✏✌✚ ✓♦✑✡✠☛t✠ ✙♦✑✘ ✍♦✌✠ ✡☞✌ ✞✠ ✠➅s✑✠✔✔✠✍ ☞✔ ☞ ✍✠✓✏✌✏☛✠✏✌☛✠✚✑☞♥ ♦✓ ✓♦✑✡✠ ♦✈✠✑ ✍✏✔s♥☞✡✠✕✠✌☛ ✭✔✠✠ ☞♥✔♦➀ss✠✌✍✏➅ ❘✖❡✮✖

➷➬❀➮ ➱✃❐ ❒ ❮ ❰Ï Ð

Ñ

Ò

Ó

ÓÔÔÕ

Ö

ØÙÚÛ ÜÛÝÞßà

Page 123: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶✶☛

❋✌✍✎ ✏✎✑ ✭✒✓ ✔✕✖ ✗✕✒✘✖✘ ✙✖✚✛✒✜✢✣✖ ✙✖✤✙✖✗✖✜✛✗ ✛✕✖✇✥✙✦ ✘✥✜✖ ✧★ ✛✕✖ ✩✒✙★✪✜✢ ✫✥✙✚✖ ✬✮①✯✱ ✥✩✖✙✛✕✖ ✗t✒✣✣ ✘✪✗✤✣✒✚✖t✖✜✛ ✰①✱ ✰✲ ❂ ✬✮①✯✰①✳✭✧✓ ✒✘✘✪✜✢ ✛✕✖ ✒✙✖✒✗ ✥✫ ✒✣✣ ✛✕✖ ✙✖✚✛✒✜✢✣✖✗✇✖ ✫✪✜✘ ✛✕✒✛ ✫✥✙ ✰① ✴✵✱ ✛✕✖ ✒✙✖✒ ✷✜✘✖✙✛✕✖ ✚✷✙✩✖ ✪✗ ✖①✒✚✛✣★ ✖✸✷✒✣ ✛✥ ✛✕✖ ✇✥✙✦ ✘✥✜✖✧★ ✬✮①✯✳

❊✹✺✻✼✽✾ ✿❀❁ ❆ ❃❄❅❇❈ ❉●❍■❏❍ ❇ ❑▲●❈▼ ❄❈❇ ▲❇❛◆❃❇❖ ❉◆❇❑P❄▲❅ ❃■❛◗■ ■❇❍ ❇ ▲❄●❘■❍●▲P❇◗❏s ❙■❏ ❇❉❉◆❛❏❍ ❇ P❄▲◗❏ ❄P ❚❯❯ ❱ ❄❳❏▲❇ ❨❛❍❑❇❈◗❏ ❄P ❚❯ ❅s ❩■❏▲❏❇P❑❏▲❬ ❍■❏ ❘❏❑❍❉▲❄❘▲❏❍❍❛❳❏◆❖ ❑❛▲❏❨ ❇❈❨ ■❏▲ ❇❉❉◆❛❏❨ P❄▲◗❏▲❏❨●◗❏❍ ◆❛❈❏❇▲◆❖ ❃❛❑■ ❨❛❍❑❇❈◗❏ ❑❄ r❯ ❱s ❩■❏❑❄❑❇◆ ❨❛❍❑❇❈◗❏ ❑■▲❄●❘■ ❃■❛◗■ ❑■❏ ❑▲●❈▼ ■❇❍❜❏❏❈❅❄❳❏❨ ❛❍ ❭❯❅s ❪◆❄❑ ❑■❏ P❄▲◗❏ ❇❉❉◆❛❏❨❜❖ ❑■❏ ❃❄❅❇❈ ❇❈❨ ❑■❏ P▲❛◗❑❛❄❈❇◆ P❄▲◗❏❬❃■❛◗■ ❛❍ r❯ ❱s ❫❇◆◗●◆❇❑❏ ❑■❏ ❃❄▲▼ ❨❄❈❏ ❜❖❑■❏ ❑❃❄ P❄▲◗❏❍ ❄❳❏▲ ❭❯❅s

❴❵❝❞✾❡

❋✌✍✎ ✏✎❢ ❣✣✥✛ ✥✫ ✛✕✖ ✫✥✙✚✖ ✬✒✤✤✣✪✖✘ ✧★ ✛✕✖ ✇✥t✒✜ ✒✜✘✛✕✖ ✥✤✤✥✗✪✜✢ ✫✙✪✚✛✪✥✜✒✣ ✫✥✙✚✖ ✫✳

❩■❏ ❉◆❄❑ ❄P ❑■❏ ❇❉❉◆❛❏❨ P❄▲◗❏ ❛❍ ❍■❄❃❈ ❛❈ ❤❛❘s✐s❥s ❆❑ ❦ ❧ ❭❯ ❅❬ ♠ ❧ r❯ ❱ ♥♦ ❯♣s q❏ ❇▲❏ ❘❛❳❏❈❑■❇❑ ❑■❏ P▲❛◗❑❛❄❈❇◆ P❄▲◗❏ ✉ ❛❍ |✈|❧ r❯ ❱s ②❑ ❄❉❉❄❍❏❍❅❄❑❛❄❈ ❇❈❨ ❇◗❑❍ ❛❈ ❇ ❨❛▲❏◗❑❛❄❈ ❄❉❉❄❍❛❑❏ ❑❄ ③s ②❑❛❍ ❑■❏▲❏P❄▲❏❬ ❍■❄❃❈ ❄❈ ❑■❏ ❈❏❘❇❑❛❳❏ ❍❛❨❏ ❄P ❑■❏P❄▲◗❏ ❇④❛❍s

❩■❏ ❃❄▲▼ ❨❄❈❏ ❜❖ ❑■❏ ❃❄❅❇❈ ❛❍⑤⑥⑦❇▲❏❇ ❄P ❑■❏ ▲❏◗❑❇❈❘◆❏ ❆⑧❫⑨ ⑩ ❇▲❏❇ ❄P❑■❏ ❑▲❇❉❏❶❛●❅ ❫❷②⑨

❸ ❹❺❻ ❼ ❽ ❾ ❾ ❽❿➀➀ ❿➀❿➁ ❿➀➀ ➂➀ ❿➀

➃ ❚❯❯❯ ⑩ ➄r❯➃ ❚➄r❯ ➅

❩■❏ ❃❄▲▼ ❨❄❈❏ ❜❖ ❑■❏ P▲❛◗❑❛❄❈❇◆ P❄▲◗❏ ❛❍⑤⑥⑦❇▲❏❇ ❄P ❑■❏ ▲❏◗❑❇❈❘◆❏ ❆➆➇②

⑤➈ ➃ ♥➉r❯♣ × ❭❯➃ ➉ ❚❯❯❯ ➅

❩■❏ ❇▲❏❇ ❄❈ ❑■❏ ❈❏❘❇❑❛❳❏ ❍❛❨❏ ❄P ❑■❏ P❄▲◗❏ ❇④❛❍■❇❍ ❇ ❈❏❘❇❑❛❳❏ ❍❛❘❈s ➊

➋➌➋ ➍➎➏ ➐➑➒➓➔➏→➏➒➣↔ ➍➎➏➑➒➏↕ ③➑➒ ➙➛➙➒➜➙➝➞➏③➑➒➟➏

q❏ ❇▲❏ ❈❄❃ P❇❅❛◆❛❇▲ ❃❛❑■ ❑■❏ ◗❄❈◗❏❉❑❍ ❄P ❃❄▲▼❇❈❨ ▼❛❈❏❑❛◗ ❏❈❏▲❘❖ ❑❄ ❉▲❄❳❏ ❑■❏ ❃❄▲▼➠❏❈❏▲❘❖❑■❏❄▲❏❅ P❄▲ ❇ ❳❇▲❛❇❜◆❏ P❄▲◗❏s q❏ ◗❄❈P❛❈❏❄●▲❍❏◆❳❏❍ ❑❄ ❄❈❏ ❨❛❅❏❈❍❛❄❈s ❩■❏ ❑❛❅❏ ▲❇❑❏ ❄P◗■❇❈❘❏ ❄P ▼❛❈❏❑❛◗ ❏❈❏▲❘❖ ❛❍

➡➢ ➢ ➤➢ ➢ ➥➦ ➧ ➨➩ ➩

➫ ➭➯ ➲ ➳➵ ➸

➺➺➻➼ ➻➽

➻➾❼ ♥P▲❄❅ ❱❏❃❑❄❈➚❍ ❙❏◗❄❈❨ ➪❇❃♣➶➶➹➘ ➴➷

❩■●❍❨➬ ➮ ♠❨❦

②❈❑❏❘▲❇❑❛❈❘ P▲❄❅ ❑■❏ ❛❈❛❑❛❇◆ ❉❄❍❛❑❛❄❈ ♥❦ ➱ ♣ ❑❄ P❛❈❇◆❉❄❍❛❑❛❄❈ ♥ ❦ ➈ ♣❬ ❃❏ ■❇❳❏

➺ ➺✃ ✃

❐ ❐

❒ ❮

❒ ❮❰ ➾ Ï❼Ð Ð

❃■❏▲❏❬ ➬➱ ❇❈❨➬ ➈ ❇▲❏ ❑■❏ ❛❈❛❑❛❇◆ ❇❈❨ P❛❈❇◆ ▼❛❈❏❑❛◗❏❈❏▲❘❛❏❍ ◗❄▲▲❏❍❉❄❈❨❛❈❘ ❑❄ ❦ ➱ ❇❈❨ ❦ Ñs

❄▲ ➺✃

❮Ò Ó

❮❰ ❰ ➾ ÏÔ ❼ Ð ♥✐sÕ❇♣

❤▲❄❅ ❷Ös ♥✐s➄♣❬ ❛❑ P❄◆◆❄❃❍ ❑■❇❑➬➈ Ø ➬➱ ➮ ⑤ ♥✐sÕ❜♣

❩■●❍❬ ❑■❏ q❷ ❑■❏❄▲❏❅ ❛❍ ❉▲❄❳❏❨ P❄▲ ❇ ❳❇▲❛❇❜◆❏P❄▲◗❏s

q■❛◆❏ ❑■❏q❷ ❑■❏❄▲❏❅ ❛❍ ●❍❏P●◆ ❛❈ ❇ ❳❇▲❛❏❑❖ ❄P❉▲❄❜◆❏❅❍❬ ❛❑ ❨❄❏❍ ❈❄❑❬ ❛❈ ❘❏❈❏▲❇◆❬ ❛❈◗❄▲❉❄▲❇❑❏ ❑■❏◗❄❅❉◆❏❑❏ ❨❖❈❇❅❛◗❇◆ ❛❈P❄▲❅❇❑❛❄❈ ❄P ❱❏❃❑❄❈➚❍❙❏◗❄❈❨ ➪❇❃s ②❑ ❛❍ ❇❈ ❛❈❑❏❘▲❇◆ P❄▲❅ ❄P ❱❏❃❑❄❈➚❍❍❏◗❄❈❨ ◆❇❃s ❱❏❃❑❄❈➚❍ ❍❏◗❄❈❨ ◆❇❃ ❛❍ ❇ ▲❏◆❇❑❛❄❈❜❏❑❃❏❏❈ ❇◗◗❏◆❏▲❇❑❛❄❈ ❇❈❨ P❄▲◗❏ ❇❑ ❇❈❖ ❛❈❍❑❇❈❑ ❄P❑❛❅❏s q❄▲▼➠❏❈❏▲❘❖ ❑■❏❄▲❏❅ ❛❈❳❄◆❳❏❍ ❇❈ ❛❈❑❏❘▲❇◆❄❳❏▲❇❈❛❈❑❏▲❳❇◆ ❄P ❑❛❅❏s ②❈❑■❛❍❍❏❈❍❏❬ ❑■❏ ❑❏❅❉❄▲❇◆♥❑❛❅❏♣ ❛❈P❄▲❅❇❑❛❄❈ ◗❄❈❑❇❛❈❏❨ ❛❈ ❑■❏ ❍❑❇❑❏❅❏❈❑ ❄P❱❏❃❑❄❈➚❍ ❍❏◗❄❈❨ ◆❇❃ ❛❍ Ù❛❈❑❏❘▲❇❑❏❨ ❄❳❏▲➚ ❇❈❨ ❛❍

Page 124: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

♥✟✠✡☛✡☞✌✡✍✌✎✎✏✑✌☞✒☞✠✌✓✔✕♥✟✠✖✎✗ ✟✍✘✎✗☛✡✠☞✟♥ ☞✘ ✠✖✡✠◆✎✙✠✟♥✚✘ ✘✎✒✟♥✛ ✌✡✙ ✜✟✗ ✠✙✟ ✟✗ ✠✖✗✎✎ ✛☞✢✎♥✘☞✟♥✘☞✘ ☞♥ ☛✎✒✠✟✗ ✜✟✗✢ ✙✖✎✗✎✡✘ ✠✖✎ ✙✟✗✐✣✎♥✎✗✤✓✠✖✎✟✗✎✢ ☞✘ ☞♥ ✘✒✡✌✡✗ ✜✟✗✢✔ t♥ ✠✖✎ ✘✒✡✌✡✗ ✜✟✗✢✥☞♥✜✟✗✢✡✠☞✟♥ ✙☞✠✖ ✗✎✘✑✎✒✠ ✠✟ ✛☞✗✎✒✠☞✟♥✘ ✒✟♥✠✡☞♥✎✛☞♥ ◆✎✙✠✟♥✚✘ ✘✎✒✟♥✛ ✌✡✙ ☞✘ ♥✟✠ ✑✗✎✘✎♥✠✔

❊✦✧★✩✪✫ ✬✭✬ ✕ ✍✌✟✒✐ ✟✜ ✢✡✘✘ ♠ ✮ ✯ ✐✤✥✢✟☛☞♥✤ ✟♥ ✡ ✖✟✗☞✰✟♥✠✡✌ ✘✱✗✜✡✒✎ ✙☞✠✖ ✘✑✎✎✛✈✲ ✮ ❂ ✢✘➊✳ ✎♥✠✎✗✘ ✡ ✗✟✱✤✖ ✑✡✠✒✖ ✗✡♥✤☞♥✤✜✗✟✢ ① ✮ ✴✔✯✴ ✢ ✠✟ ①✮ ❂✔✴✯ ✢✔ ✵✖✎ ✗✎✠✡✗✛☞♥✤✜✟✗✒✎ ❋r ✟♥ ✠✖✎ ✍✌✟✒✐ ☞♥ ✠✖☞✘ ✗✡♥✤✎ ☞✘ ☞♥☛✎✗✘✎✌✓✑✗✟✑✟✗✠☞✟♥✡✌ ✠✟ ① ✟☛✎✗ ✠✖☞✘ ✗✡♥✤✎✥

✷ ❦✸✹ ✺ ❾

✜✟✗ ✴✔✯ ✻ ① ✻ ❂✔✴✯ ✢

✮ ✴ ✜✟✗ ① ✼ ✴✔✯✢ ✡♥✛ ① ✽ ❂✔✴✯ ✢✙✖✎✗✎ ✾ ✿ ❀❁❃ ❏✔ ❄✖✡✠ ☞✘ ✠✖✎ ✜☞♥✡✌ ✐☞♥✎✠☞✒✎♥✎✗✤✓ ✡♥✛ ✘✑✎✎✛ ✈❢ ✟✜ ✠✖✎ ✍✌✟✒✐ ✡✘ ☞✠✒✗✟✘✘✎✘ ✠✖☞✘ ✑✡✠✒✖ ♦

❆❅❇❈✫❉ ●✗✟✢ ❍■✔ ❑▲✔▼✡❖

◗ ❘ ❞❙❚❯❱

❲ ❳❯❚❱

❨❩ ❩ ❬

❬❭

❪ ❫ ❴

❵ ❛ ❜❝❡❣❡❝❣❤ ❧❥♣

❙❳qs ❨ ❬❪ ❭

✉ ✇❤ ❧❥ ♣②③❤④③②❤♣

❙❳qs ❨❪ ❭

⑤ ❂ ⑥✴✔⑦ ✌♥ ❑❂✴✔✯❖⑤ ❂ ⑥✯✔⑦ ⑤ ✴✔⑦ ❏

⑧⑨⑩❶❷❸ ❹❺❺ ❻❼❽ ❿❿

➀✎✗✎✥ ♥✟✠✎ ✠✖✡✠ ✌♥ ☞✘ ✡ ✘✓✢✍✟✌ ✜✟✗ ✠✖✎ ♥✡✠✱✗✡✌✌✟✤✡✗☞✠✖✢ ✠✟ ✠✖✎ ✍✡✘✎ ➁ ✡♥✛ ♥✟✠ ✠✖✎ ✌✟✤✡✗☞✠✖✢ ✠✟✠✖✎ ✍✡✘✎ ✯✴ ➂✌♥ ➃ ✮ ✌✟✤➄ ➃ ✮ ❂✔➅✴➅ ✌✟✤✳➆ ➃➇✔ ➈

➉➋➌ ➍➎➏ ➐➑➒➐➏➓➍ ➑➔ ➓➑➍➏➒➍→➣↔ ➏➒➏↕➙➛✵✖✎ ✙✟✗✛ ✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌ ✘✱✤✤✎✘✠✘ ✑✟✘✘☞✍☞✌☞✠✓ ✟✗✒✡✑✡✒☞✠✓ ✜✟✗ ✡✒✠☞✟♥✔ ✵✖✎ ✠✎✗✢ ✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌ ✎♥✎✗✤✓✍✗☞♥✤✘ ✠✟ ✟♥✎✚✘ ✢☞♥✛ ➜✘✠✟✗✎✛✚ ✎♥✎✗✤✓✔ ✕ ✘✠✗✎✠✒✖✎✛✍✟✙✣✘✠✗☞♥✤ ✑✟✘✘✎✘✘✎✘ ✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌ ✎♥✎✗✤✓✔ ❄✖✎♥ ☞✠☞✘ ✗✎✌✎✡✘✎✛✥ ✠✖✎ ✡✗✗✟✙ ✜✌☞✎✘ ✟✜✜ ✡✠ ✡ ✤✗✎✡✠ ✘✑✎✎✛✔✵✖✎ ✎✡✗✠✖✚✘ ✒✗✱✘✠ ☞✘ ♥✟✠ ✱♥☞✜✟✗✢✥ ✍✱✠ ✖✡✘✛☞✘✒✟♥✠☞♥✱☞✠☞✎✘ ✡♥✛ ✛☞✘✌✟✒✡✠☞✟♥✘ ✠✖✡✠ ✡✗✎ ✒✡✌✌✎✛✜✡✱✌✠ ✌☞♥✎✘✔ ✵✖✎✘✎ ✜✡✱✌✠ ✌☞♥✎✘ ☞♥ ✠✖✎ ✎✡✗✠✖✚✘ ✒✗✱✘✠

✡✗✎ ✌☞✐✎ ➜✒✟✢✑✗✎✘✘✎✛ ✘✑✗☞♥✤✘✚✔ ✵✖✎✓ ✑✟✘✘✎✘✘ ✡✌✡✗✤✎ ✡✢✟✱♥✠ ✟✜ ✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌ ✎♥✎✗✤✓✔ ✕♥ ✎✡✗✠✖■✱✡✐✎✗✎✘✱✌✠✘ ✙✖✎♥ ✠✖✎✘✎ ✜✡✱✌✠ ✌☞♥✎✘ ✗✎✡✛➝✱✘✠✔ ✵✖✱✘✥✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌ ✎♥✎✗✤✓ ☞✘ ✠✖✎ ➜✘✠✟✗✎✛ ✎♥✎✗✤✓✚ ✍✓ ☛☞✗✠✱✎✟✜ ✠✖✎ ✑✟✘☞✠☞✟♥ ✟✗ ✒✟♥✜☞✤✱✗✡✠☞✟♥ ✟✜ ✡ ✍✟✛✓✔ ✵✖✎✍✟✛✓ ✌✎✜✠ ✠✟ ☞✠✘✎✌✜ ✗✎✌✎✡✘✎✘ ✠✖☞✘ ✘✠✟✗✎✛ ✎♥✎✗✤✓ ☞♥✠✖✎ ✜✟✗✢ ✟✜ ✐☞♥✎✠☞✒ ✎♥✎✗✤✓✔ ➞✎✠ ✱✘ ✢✡✐✎ ✟✱✗ ♥✟✠☞✟♥✟✜ ✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌ ✎♥✎✗✤✓ ✢✟✗✎ ✒✟♥✒✗✎✠✎✔

✵✖✎ ✤✗✡☛☞✠✡✠☞✟♥✡✌ ✜✟✗✒✎ ✟♥ ✡ ✍✡✌✌ ✟✜ ✢✡✘✘ ♠ ☞✘♠➟ ✔ ➟ ✢✡✓✍✎ ✠✗✎✡✠✎✛ ✡✘ ✡ ✒✟♥✘✠✡♥✠♥✎✡✗ ✠✖✎ ✎✡✗✠✖✘✱✗✜✡✒✎✔ ➠✓ ➜♥✎✡✗✚ ✙✎ ☞✢✑✌✓ ✠✖✡✠ ✠✖✎ ✖✎☞✤✖✠ ➡ ✟✜✠✖✎ ✍✡✌✌ ✡✍✟☛✎ ✠✖✎ ✎✡✗✠✖✚✘ ✘✱✗✜✡✒✎ ☞✘ ☛✎✗✓ ✘✢✡✌✌✒✟✢✑✡✗✎✛ ✠✟ ✠✖✎ ✎✡✗✠✖✚✘ ✗✡✛☞✱✘ ➢➤❑➡ ✼✼➢➤❖ ✘✟ ✠✖✡✠✙✎ ✒✡♥ ☞✤♥✟✗✎ ✠✖✎ ☛✡✗☞✡✠☞✟♥ ✟✜ ➟ ♥✎✡✗ ✠✖✎ ✎✡✗✠✖✚✘✘✱✗✜✡✒✎➥✔ t♥ ✙✖✡✠ ✜✟✌✌✟✙✘ ✙✎ ✖✡☛✎ ✠✡✐✎♥ ✠✖✎✱✑✙✡✗✛ ✛☞✗✎✒✠☞✟♥ ✠✟ ✍✎ ✑✟✘☞✠☞☛✎✔ ➞✎✠ ✱✘ ✗✡☞✘✎ ✠✖✎✍✡✌✌✱✑ ✠✟✡✖✎☞✤✖✠➡✔✵✖✎ ✙✟✗✐✛✟♥✎ ✍✓ ✠✖✎✎✏✠✎✗♥✡✌✡✤✎♥✒✓ ✡✤✡☞♥✘✠ ✠✖✎ ✤✗✡☛☞✠✡✠☞✟♥✡✌ ✜✟✗✒✎ ☞✘ ♠➟➡✔ ✵✖☞✘✙✟✗✐ ✤✎✠✘ ✘✠✟✗✎✛ ✡✘ ✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌ ✎♥✎✗✤✓✔➦✗✡☛☞✠✡✠☞✟♥✡✌ ✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌ ✎♥✎✗✤✓ ✟✜ ✡♥ ✟✍➝✎✒✠✥ ✡✘ ✡✜✱♥✒✠☞✟♥ ✟✜ ✠✖✎ ✖✎☞✤✖✠ ➡✥ ☞✘ ✛✎♥✟✠✎✛ ✍✓ ➧❑➡❖ ✡♥✛ ☞✠☞✘ ✠✖✎ ♥✎✤✡✠☞☛✎ ✟✜ ✙✟✗✐ ✛✟♥✎ ✍✓ ✠✖✎ ✤✗✡☛☞✠✡✠☞✟♥✡✌✜✟✗✒✎ ☞♥ ✗✡☞✘☞♥✤ ✠✖✎ ✟✍➝✎✒✠ ✠✟ ✠✖✡✠ ✖✎☞g✖✠✔

➧ ❑➡❖ ⑤ ♠➟➡t✜ ➡ ☞✘ ✠✡✐✎♥ ✡✘ ✡ ☛✡✗☞✡✍✌✎✥ ☞✠ ☞✘ ✎✡✘☞✌✓ ✘✎✎♥ ✠✖✡✠✠✖✎ ✤✗✡☛☞✠✡✠☞✟♥✡✌ ✜✟✗✒✎ ❋ ✎■✱✡✌✘ ✠✖✎ ♥✎✤✡✠☞☛✎ ✟✜✠✖✎ ✛✎✗☞☛✡✠☞☛✎ ✟✜ ➧❑➡❖ ✙☞✠✖ ✗✎✘✑✎✒✠ ✠✟ ➡✔ ✵✖✱✘✥

❞❞

➨ ➩➫➭➯ q ➲➭

❪ ❭ ❪ ❭

✵✖✎ ♥✎✤✡✠☞☛✎ ✘☞✤♥ ☞♥✛☞✒✡✠✎✘ ✠✖✡✠ ✠✖✎✤✗✡☛☞✠✡✠☞✟♥✡✌ ✜✟✗✒✎ ☞✘ ✛✟✙♥✙✡✗✛✔ ❄✖✎♥ ✗✎✌✎✡✘✎✛✥✠✖✎ ✍✡✌✌ ✒✟✢✎✘ ✛✟✙♥ ✙☞✠✖ ✡♥ ☞♥✒✗✎✡✘☞♥✤ ✘✑✎✎✛✔❏✱✘✠ ✍✎✜✟✗✎ ☞✠ ✖☞✠✘ ✠✖✎ ✤✗✟✱♥✛✥ ☞✠✘ ✘✑✎✎✛ ☞✘ ✤☞☛✎♥✍✓ ✠✖✎ ✐☞♥✎✢✡✠☞✒ ✗✎✌✡✠☞✟♥✥

✈➳ ⑤ ❂➟➡✵✖☞✘ ✎■✱✡✠☞✟♥ ✒✡♥ ✍✎ ✙✗☞✠✠✎♥ ✡✘

21

♠ ✈➵ ✮ ♠ ➟ ➡

✙✖☞✒✖ ✘✖✟✙✘ ✠✖✡✠ ✠✖✎ ✤✗✡☛☞✠✡✠☞✟♥✡✌ ✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌✎♥✎✗✤✓ ✟✜ ✠✖✎ ✟✍➝✎✒✠ ✡✠ ✖✎☞✤✖✠ ➡✥ ✙✖✎♥ ✠✖✎ ✟✍➝✎✒✠☞✘ ✗✎✌✎✡✘✎✛✥ ✢✡♥☞✜✎✘✠✘ ☞✠✘✎✌✜ ✡✘ ✐☞♥✎✠☞✒ ✎♥✎✗✤✓ ✟✜✠✖✎ ✟✍➝✎✒✠ ✟♥ ✗✎✡✒✖☞♥✤ ✠✖✎ ✤✗✟✱♥✛✔

➸✖✓✘☞✒✡✌✌✓✥ ✠✖✎ ♥✟✠☞✟♥ ✟✜ ✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌ ✎♥✎✗✤✓ ☞✘✡✑✑✌☞✒✡✍✌✎ ✟♥✌✓ ✠✟ ✠✖✎ ✒✌✡✘✘ ✟✜ ✜✟✗✒✎✘ ✙✖✎✗✎ ✙✟✗✐✛✟♥✎ ✡✤✡☞♥✘✠ ✠✖✎ ✜✟✗✒✎ ✤✎✠✘ ➜✘✠✟✗✎✛ ✱✑✚ ✡✘ ✎♥✎✗✤✓✔❄✖✎♥ ✎✏✠✎✗♥✡✌ ✒✟♥✘✠✗✡☞♥✠✘ ✡✗✎ ✗✎✢✟☛✎✛✥ ☞✠✢✡♥☞✜✎✘✠✘ ☞✠✘✎✌✜ ✡✘ ✐☞♥✎✠☞✒ ✎♥✎✗✤✓✔ ➺✡✠✖✎✢✡✠☞✒✡✌✌✓✥❑✜✟✗ ✘☞✢✑✌☞✒☞✠✓✥ ☞♥ ✟♥✎ ✛☞✢✎♥✘☞✟♥❖ ✠✖✎ ✑✟✠✎♥✠☞✡✌

➥ ➻➼➽ ➾➚➪➶➚➹➶➘➴ ➘➷ ➬ ➮➶➹➼ ➼➽➶➬➼➹ ➶➱ ✃➶➱❐❒➱➱➽✃ ➶➴ ❮➼➚❰➹➽➪ Ï ➘➴ Ð➪➚➾➶➹➚➹➶➘➴Ñ

Page 125: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶☛✶

❡☞❡✌✍✎ ❱✭①✮ ✏✑ ✒❡✓✏☞❡✒ ✏✓ ✔✕❡ ✓✖✌✗❡ ❋✭①✮ ✗✘☞ ✙❡✇✌✏✔✔❡☞ ✘✑

✚ ✛❞❞✜✢ ✣✣

❂ ✤

❚✕✏✑ ✏✥✦✧✏❡✑ ✔✕✘✔

★ ★❢ ❢

✐ ✐

✩ ✪✫ ✬

✩ ✪✯✰✱✲ ✱ ✳ ✳ ✳✴ ✵ ✴ ✵✷ ✷

❚✕❡ ✇✖✌✸ ✒✖☞❡ ✙✎ ✘ ✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✹❡ ✓✖✌✗❡ ✑✺✗✕ ✘✑✍✌✘✹✏✔✎ ✒❡✦❡☞✒✑ ✖☞ ✔✕❡ ✏☞✏✔✏✘✧ ✘☞✒ ✓✏☞✘✧ ✦✖✑✏✔✏✖☞✑✖☞✧✎♦ ✻☞ ✔✕❡ ✦✌❡✹✏✖✺✑ ✗✕✘✦✔❡✌ ✇❡ ✕✘✹❡ ✇✖✌✸❡✒✖☞ ❡✼✘✥✦✧❡✑ ✒❡✘✧✏☞✍ ✇✏✔✕ ✏☞✗✧✏☞❡✒ ✦✧✘☞❡✑♦ ✻✓ ✘☞✖✙✽❡✗✔ ✖✓ ✥✘✑✑ ♠ ✏✑ ✌❡✧❡✘✑❡✒ ✓✌✖✥ ✌❡✑✔✾ ✓✌✖✥ ✔✕❡✔✖✦ ✖✓ ✘ ✑✥✖✖✔✕ ✭✓✌✏✗✔✏✖☞✧❡✑✑✮ ✏☞✗✧✏☞❡✒ ✦✧✘☞❡ ✖✓✕❡✏✍✕✔ ❤✿ ✏✔✑ ✑✦❡❡✒ ✘✔ ✔✕❡ ✙✖✔✔✖✥✏✑ ❣❀❁ ✏✌✌❡✑✦❡✗✔✏✹❡ ✖✓ ✔✕❡ ✘☞✍✧❡ ✖✓ ✏☞✗✧✏☞✘✔✏✖☞♦❚✕✺✑✾ ✘✔ ✔✕❡ ✙✖✔✔✖✥ ✖✓ ✔✕❡ ✏☞✗✧✏☞❡✒ ✦✧✘☞❡ ✏✔✘✗❛✺✏✌❡✑ ✘ ✸✏☞❡✔✏✗ ❡☞❡✌✍✎✾♠❃❤♦ ✻✓ ✔✕❡ ✇✖✌✸ ✒✖☞❡✖✌ ✔✕❡ ✸✏☞❡✔✏✗ ❡☞❡✌✍✎ ✒✏✒ ✒❡✦❡☞✒ ✖☞ ✖✔✕❡✌ ✓✘✗✔✖✌✑✑✺✗✕ ✘✑ ✔✕❡ ✹❡✧✖✗✏✔✎ ✖✌ ✔✕❡ ✦✘✌✔✏✗✺✧✘✌ ✦✘✔✕ ✔✘✸❡☞✙✎ ✔✕❡ ✖✙✽❡✗✔✾ ✔✕❡ ✓✖✌✗❡ ✇✖✺✧✒ ✙❡ ✗✘✧✧❡✒ ☞✖☞❜✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✹❡♦❚✕❡ ✒✏✥❡☞✑✏✖☞✑ ✖✓ ✦✖✔❡☞✔✏✘✧ ❡☞❡✌✍✎ ✘✌❡

❬❄❅❆❚ ❇❆❪ ✘☞✒ ✔✕❡ ✺☞✏✔ ✏✑ ✽✖✺✧❡ ✭❈✮✾ ✔✕❡ ✑✘✥❡ ✘✑✸✏☞❡✔✏✗ ❡☞❡✌✍✎ ✖✌ ✇✖✌✸♦ ❚✖ ✌❡✏✔❡✌✘✔❡✾ ✔✕❡ ✗✕✘☞✍❡✏☞ ✦✖✔❡☞✔✏✘✧ ❡☞❡✌✍✎✾ ✓✖✌ ✘ ✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✹❡ ✓✖✌✗❡✾❉❱ ✏✑ ❡❛✺✘✧ ✔✖ ✔✕❡ ☞❡✍✘✔✏✹❡ ✖✓ ✔✕❡ ✇✖✌✸ ✒✖☞❡ ✙✎✔✕❡ ✓✖✌✗❡

❉❱ ❊ ❾❋✭①✮ ❉① ✭●♦❍✮✻☞ ✔✕❡ ❡✼✘✥✦✧❡ ✖✓ ✔✕❡ ✓✘✧✧✏☞✍ ✙✘✧✧ ✗✖☞✑✏✒❡✌❡✒ ✏☞

✔✕✏✑ ✑❡✗✔✏✖☞ ✇❡ ✑✘✇ ✕✖✇ ✦✖✔❡☞✔✏✘✧ ❡☞❡✌✍✎ ✇✘✑✗✖☞✹❡✌✔❡✒ ✔✖ ✸✏☞❡✔✏✗ ❡☞❡✌✍✎♦ ❚✕✏✑ ✕✏☞✔✑ ✘✔ ✘☞✏✥✦✖✌✔✘☞✔ ✦✌✏☞✗✏✦✧❡ ✖✓ ✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✖☞ ✏☞✥❡✗✕✘☞✏✗✑✾✇✕✏✗✕ ✇❡ ☞✖✇ ✦✌✖✗❡❡✒ ✔✖ ❡✼✘✥✏☞❡♦

■❏❑ ▲▼◆ ❖P◗❘◆❙❯❳▲❨P◗ P❩ ❭◆❖▼❳◗❨❖❳❫◆◗◆❙❴❵

❝✖✌ ✑✏✥✦✧✏✗✏✔✎ ✇❡ ✒❡✥✖☞✑✔✌✘✔❡ ✔✕✏✑ ✏✥✦✖✌✔✘☞✔✦✌✏☞✗✏✦✧❡ ✓✖✌ ✖☞❡❜✒✏✥❡☞✑✏✖☞✘✧ ✥✖✔✏✖☞♦ ♣✺✦✦✖✑❡✔✕✘✔ ✘ ✙✖✒✎ ✺☞✒❡✌✍✖❡✑ ✒✏✑✦✧✘✗❡✥❡☞✔ ❉① ✺☞✒❡✌✔✕❡ ✘✗✔✏✖☞ ✖✓ ✘ ✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✹❡ ✓✖✌✗❡ ❋♦ ❚✕❡☞ ✓✌✖✥✔✕❡ t❥ ✔✕❡✖✌❡✥ ✇❡ ✕✘✹❡✾

❉❦ ❊ ❋✭①✮ ❉①✻✓ ✔✕❡ ✓✖✌✗❡ ✏✑ ✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✹❡✾ ✔✕❡ ✦✖✔❡☞✔✏✘✧ ❡☞❡✌✍✎✓✺☞✗✔✏✖☞ ❱✭①✮ ✗✘☞ ✙❡ ✒❡✓✏☞❡✒ ✑✺✗✕ ✔✕✘✔

❧❉❱ ❊ ❋✭①✮ ❉①❚✕❡ ✘✙✖✹❡ ❡❛✺✘✔✏✖☞✑ ✏✥✦✧✎ ✔✕✘✔

❉❦ ♥ ❉❱ ❊ q❉✭❦ ♥ ❱ ✮ ❊ q ✭●♦rq✮

✇✕✏✗✕ ✥❡✘☞✑ ✔✕✘✔ ❦ ♥ ❱✿ ✔✕❡ ✑✺✥ ✖✓ ✔✕❡ ✸✏☞❡✔✏✗✘☞✒ ✦✖✔❡☞✔✏✘✧ ❡☞❡✌✍✏❡✑ ✖✓ ✔✕❡ ✙✖✒✎ ✏✑ ✘ ✗✖☞✑✔✘☞✔♦s✹❡✌ ✔✕❡ ✇✕✖✧❡ ✦✘✔✕✾ ①✉ ✔✖ ①✈✿ ✔✕✏✑ ✥❡✘☞✑ ✔✕✘✔

❦✉ ② ❱✭①✉ ✮ ③ ❦✈ ② ❱✭①✈ ✮ ✭●♦rr✮❚✕❡ ❛✺✘☞✔✏✔✎ ❦ ②❱✭①✮✾ ✏✑ ✗✘✧✧❡✒ ✔✕❡ ✔✖✔✘✧✥❡✗✕✘☞✏✗✘✧ ❡☞❡✌✍✎ ✖✓ ✔✕❡ ✑✎✑✔❡✥♦ ✻☞✒✏✹✏✒✺✘✧✧✎✔✕❡ ✸✏☞❡✔✏✗ ❡☞❡✌✍✎ ❦ ✘☞✒ ✔✕❡ ✦✖✔❡☞✔✏✘✧ ❡☞❡✌✍✎❱✭①✮ ✥✘✎ ✹✘✌✎ ✓✌✖✥ ✦✖✏☞✔ ✔✖ ✦✖✏☞✔✾ ✙✺✔ ✔✕❡ ✑✺✥✏✑ ✘ ✗✖☞✑✔✘☞✔♦ ❚✕❡ ✘✦✔☞❡✑✑ ✖✓ ✔✕❡ ✔❡✌✥➅✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✹❡ ✓✖✌✗❡④ ✏✑ ☞✖✇ ✗✧❡✘✌♦❅❡✔ ✺✑ ✗✖☞✑✏✒❡✌ ✑✖✥❡ ✖✓ ✔✕❡ ✒❡✓✏☞✏✔✏✖☞✑ ✖✓ ✘

✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✹❡ ✓✖✌✗❡♦⑤ ⑥ ✓✖✌✗❡ ❋✭①✮ ✏✑ ✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✹❡ ✏✓ ✏✔ ✗✘☞ ✙❡ ✒❡✌✏✹❡✒✓✌✖✥ ✘ ✑✗✘✧✘✌ ❛✺✘☞✔✏✔✎ ❱✭①✮ ✙✎ ✔✕❡ ✌❡✧✘✔✏✖☞✍✏✹❡☞ ✙✎ ❥❛♦ ✭●♦❍✮♦ ❚✕❡ ✔✕✌❡❡❜✒✏✥❡☞✑✏✖☞✘✧✍❡☞❡✌✘✧✏✑✘✔✏✖☞ ✌❡❛✺✏✌❡✑ ✔✕❡ ✺✑❡ ✖✓ ✘ ✹❡✗✔✖✌✒❡✌✏✹✘✔✏✹❡✾ ✇✕✏✗✕ ✏✑ ✖✺✔✑✏✒❡ ✔✕❡ ✑✗✖✦❡ ✖✓ ✔✕✏✑✙✖✖✸♦

⑤ ❚✕❡ ✇✖✌✸ ✒✖☞❡ ✙✎ ✔✕❡ ✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✹❡ ✓✖✌✗❡✒❡✦❡☞✒✑ ✖☞✧✎ ✖☞ ✔✕❡ ❡☞✒ ✦✖✏☞✔✑♦ ❚✕✏✑ ✗✘☞ ✙❡✑❡❡☞ ✓✌✖✥ ✔✕❡ ✌❡✧✘✔✏✖☞✾⑦ ❊ ❦✈ ⑧ ❦✉ ❊ ❱ ✭①✉ ✮ ⑨ ❱✭①✈ ✮

✇✕✏✗✕ ✒❡✦❡☞✒✑ ✖☞ ✔✕❡ ❡☞✒ ✦✖✏☞✔✑♦⑤ ⑥ ✔✕✏✌✒ ✒❡✓✏☞✏✔✏✖☞ ✑✔✘✔❡✑ ✔✕✘✔ ✔✕❡ ✇✖✌✸ ✒✖☞❡✙✎ ✔✕✏✑ ✓✖✌✗❡ ✏☞ ✘ ✗✧✖✑❡✒ ✦✘✔✕ ✏✑ ⑩❡✌✖♦ ❚✕✏✑ ✏✑✖☞✗❡ ✘✍✘✏☞ ✘✦✦✘✌❡☞✔ ✓✌✖✥ ❥❛♦ ✭●♦rr✮ ✑✏☞✗❡①✉ ❶ ①✈ ❷❚✕✺✑✾ ✔✕❡ ✦✌✏☞✗✏✦✧❡ ✖✓ ✗✖☞✑❡✌✹✘✔✏✖☞ ✖✓ ✔✖✔✘✧

✥❡✗✕✘☞✏✗✘✧ ❡☞❡✌✍✎ ✗✘☞ ✙❡ ✑✔✘✔❡✒ ✘✑▲❸❹ ❺❻❺❼❽ ❿❹➀❸❼➁➂➀❼❽ ❹➁❹➃➄➆ ❻➇ ❼ ➈➆➈❺❹❿ ➂➈➀❻➁➈❹➃➉❹➊ ➂➇ ❺❸❹ ➇❻➃➀❹➈➋ ➊❻➂➁➄ ➌❻➃➍ ❻➁ ➂❺➋ ❼➃❹➀❻➁➈❹➃➉❼❺➂➉❹♦❚✕❡ ✘✙✖✹❡ ✒✏✑✗✺✑✑✏✖☞ ✗✘☞ ✙❡ ✥✘✒❡ ✥✖✌❡

✗✖☞✗✌❡✔❡ ✙✎ ✗✖☞✑✏✒❡✌✏☞✍ ✔✕❡ ❡✼✘✥✦✧❡ ✖✓ ✔✕❡✍✌✘✹✏✔✘✔✏✖☞✘✧ ✓✖✌✗❡ ✖☞✗❡ ✘✍✘✏☞ ✘☞✒ ✔✕✘✔ ✖✓ ✔✕❡✑✦✌✏☞✍ ✓✖✌✗❡ ✏☞ ✔✕❡ ☞❡✼✔ ✑❡✗✔✏✖☞♦ ❝✏✍♦ ●♦➎ ✒❡✦✏✗✔✑✘ ✙✘✧✧ ✖✓ ✥✘✑✑ ♠ ✙❡✏☞✍ ✒✌✖✦✦❡✒ ✓✌✖✥ ✘ ✗✧✏✓✓ ✖✓✕❡✏✍✕✔ ➏♦

➐➑➒➓ ➔➓→ ➣↔↕ ➙➛➜➝↕➞➟➠➛➜ ➛➡ ➢➛➤↕➜➤➠➥➦ ↕➜↕➞➧➨ ➤➛ ➩➠➜↕➤➠➙↕➜↕➞➧➨ ➡➛➞ ➥ ➫➥➦➦ ➛➡ ➭➥➟➟ ➭ ➯➞➛➢➢↕➯ ➡➞➛➭ ➥↔↕➠➧↔➤ ➲➳

Page 126: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✆

❚✞✟ ✠✡✠☛☞ ✌✟✍✞☛✎✏✍☛☞ ✟✎✟✑✒✏✟✓ ❊✵✱ ❊❤✱ ☛✎✔ ❊❍✡♦ ✠✞✟ ✕☛☞☞ ☛✠ ✠✞✟ ✏✎✔✏✍☛✠✟✔ ✞✟✏✒✞✠✓ ✖✟✑✡ ✗✒✑✡✘✎✔

☞✟❧✟☞✙✱ ✚ ☛✎✔ ✛✱ ☛✑✟

❊❍ ✥ ♠✜✛ ✗✢✣✤✤ ☛✙

✧★ ★✩ ✪❣✫ ✪✈❂ ✬ ✗✢✣✤✤ ✕✙

❊✭ ✥ ✗✮✯✰✙ ♠✲✳ ✗✢✣✤✤ ✍✙

❚✞✟ ✍✡✎✓✠☛✎✠ ♦✡✑✍✟ ✏✓ ☛ ✓✴✟✍✏☛☞ ✍☛✓✟ ✡♦ ☛ ✓✴☛✠✏☛☞☞✸

✔✟✴✟✎✔✟✎✠ ♦✡✑✍✟ ❋✗①✙✣ ✹✟✎✍✟✱ ✠✞✟ ✌✟✍✞☛✎✏✍☛☞

✟✎✟✑✒✸ ✏✓ ✍✡✎✓✟✑❧✟✔✣ ❚✞✘✓

❊❍ ✥ ❊✭

✡✑✱✦

✧❢✪❣✺ ✪✈❂

✷❢✈ ❣✺❂

☛ ✑✟✓✘☞✠ ✠✞☛✠ ❛☛✓ ✡✕✠☛✏✎✟✔ ✏✎ ✓✟✍✠✏✡✎ ✻✣✼ ♦✡✑ ☛

♦✑✟✟☞✸ ♦☛☞☞✏✎✒ ✕✡✔✸✣

✽✘✑✠✞✟✑✱

❊❍ ✥ ❊❤❛✞✏✍✞ ✏✌✴☞✏✟✓✱

✾ ✿❀❁ ❃❄❅❆

❇❈ ❉ ✗✢✣✤✤ ✔✙

☛✎✔ ✏✓ ☛ ♦☛✌✏☞✏☛✑ ✑✟✓✘☞✠ ♦✑✡✌ ●✏✎✟✌☛✠✏✍✓✣

■✠ ✠✞✟ ✞✟✏✒✞✠ ✛✱ ✠✞✟ ✟✎✟✑✒✸ ✏✓ ✴✘✑✟☞✸ ✴✡✠✟✎✠✏☛☞✣

❏✠ ✏✓ ✴☛✑✠✏☛☞☞✸ ✍✡✎❧✟✑✠✟✔ ✠✡ ●✏✎✟✠✏✍ ☛✠ ✞✟✏✒✞✠ ✚ ☛✎✔

✏✓ ♦✘☞☞✸ ●✏✎✟✠✏✍ ☛✠ ✒✑✡✘✎✔ ☞✟❧✟☞✣ ❚✞✏✓ ✏☞☞✘✓✠✑☛✠✟✓

✠✞✟ ✍✡✎✓✟✑❧☛✠✏✡✎ ✡♦ ✌✟✍✞☛✎✏✍☛☞ ✟✎✟✑✒✸✣

❑▲▼◆❖◗❘❙❯❱ ■✕✡✕✡♦✌☛✓✓♠ ✏✓✓✘✓✴✟✎✔✟✔

✕✸ ☛ ☞✏✒✞✠ ✓✠✑✏✎✒✡♦ ☞✟✎✒✠✞ ❲ ✣ ❏✠ ✏✓ ✏✌✴☛✑✠✟✔ ☛

✞✡✑✏✖✡✎✠☛☞ ❧✟☞✡✍✏✠✸ ✲❳ ☛✠ ✠✞✟ ☞✡❛✟✓✠ ✴✡✏✎✠ ■

✓✘✍✞ ✠✞☛✠ ✏✠ ✍✡✌✴☞✟✠✟✓ ☛ ✓✟✌✏s✍✏✑✍✘☞☛✑

✠✑☛t✟✍✠✡✑✸ ✏✎✠✞✟ ❧✟✑✠✏✍☛☞✴☞☛✎✟❛✏✠✞✠✞✟ ✓✠✑✏✎✒

✕✟✍✡✌✏✎✒✓☞☛✍●✡✎☞✸✡✎✑✟☛✍✞✏✎✒✠✞✟ ✠✡✴✌✡✓✠

✴✡✏✎✠✱♣✣ ❚✞✏✓ ✏✓ ✓✞✡❛✎ ✏✎✽✏✒✣ ✢✣✢✣❨✕✠☛✏✎☛✎

✟❡✴✑✟✓✓✏✡✎ ♦✡✑ ✗✏✙ ✲❳❩ ✗✏✏✙ ✠✞✟ ✓✴✟✟✔✓☛✠ ✴✡✏✎✠✓

❬☛✎✔♣❩ ✗✏✏✏✙ ✠✞✟ ✑☛✠✏✡ ✡♦ ✠✞✟ ●✏✎✟✠✏✍✟✎✟✑✒✏✟✓

✗❭❪✯❭❫✙ ☛✠ ❬ ☛✎✔♣✣♣✡✌✌✟✎✠ ✡✎ ✠✞✟ ✎☛✠✘✑✟

✡♦ ✠✞✟ ✠✑☛t✟✍✠✡✑✸ ✡♦ ✠✞✟ ✕✡✕ ☛♦✠✟✑ ✏✠ ✑✟☛✍✞✟✓

✠✞✟ ✴✡✏✎✠ ♣✣

❴❵❜❝ ❞❝❞

✐❥❦♥❘q ✗✏✙ ❚✞✟✑✟ ☛✑✟ ✠❛✡ ✟❡✠✟✑✎☛☞ ♦✡✑✍✟✓ ✡✎

✠✞✟ ✕✡✕ r ✒✑☛❧✏✠✸ ☛✎✔ ✠✞✟ ✠✟✎✓✏✡✎ ✗✉ ✙ ✏✎ ✠✞✟

✓✠✑✏✎✒✣ ❚✞✟ ☞☛✠✠✟✑ ✔✡✟✓ ✎✡ ❛✡✑● ✓✏✎✍✟ ✠✞✟

✔✏✓✴☞☛✍✟✌✟✎✠ ✡♦ ✠✞✟ ✕✡✕ ✏✓ ☛☞❛☛✸✓ ✎✡✑✌☛☞ ✠✡ ✠✞✟

✓✠✑✏✎✒✣ ❚✞✟ ✴✡✠✟✎✠✏☛☞ ✟✎✟✑✒✸ ✡♦ ✠✞✟ ✕✡✕ ✏✓ ✠✞✘✓

☛✓✓✡✍✏☛✠✟✔ ❛✏✠✞ ✠✞✟ ✒✑☛❧✏✠☛✠✏✡✎☛☞ ♦✡✑✍✟ ✡✎☞✸✣ ❚✞✟

✠✡✠☛☞ ✌✟✍✞☛✎✏✍☛☞ ✟✎✟✑✒✸ ❊ ✡♦ ✠✞✟ ✓✸✓✠✟✌ ✏✓

✍✡✎✓✟✑❧✟✔✣ ✇✟ ✠☛●✟ ✠✞✟ ✴✡✠✟✎✠✏☛☞ ✟✎✟✑✒✸ ✡♦ ✠✞✟

✓✸✓✠✟✌ ✠✡ ✕✟ ✖✟✑✡ ☛✠ ✠✞✟ ☞✡❛✟✓✠ ✴✡✏✎✠ ②✣ ❚✞✘✓✱

☛✠ ② r

✩ ✪✈③④

❂✦

✷✗✢✣✤⑤✙

⑦⑧⑦⑨⑩

❶❷

❸ ❹❾ ❺❻✟❛✠✡✎❼✓ ❽✟✍✡✎✔ ❿☛❛➀

❛✞✟✑✟ ✉➁ ✏✓ ✠✞✟ ✠✟✎✓✏✡✎ ✏✎ ✠✞✟ ✓✠✑✏✎✒ ☛✠ ■✣ ■✠ ✠✞✟

✞✏✒✞✟✓✠ ✴✡✏✎✠ ♣✱ ✠✞✟ ✓✠✑✏✎✒ ✓☞☛✍●✟✎✓✱ ☛✓ ✠✞✟

✠✟✎✓✏✡✎ ✏✎ ✠✞✟ ✓✠✑✏✎✒ ✗✉❫✙ ✕✟✍✡✌✟✓ ✖✟✑✡✣

❚✞✘✓✱ ☛✠ ♣

➂➃➄➅➃➆➇ ➈ ➉➊2

➌✗✢✣✤✻✙

⑦⑧⑦⑨

❶➍

❹ ❺❻✟❛✠✡✎❼✓ ❽✟✍✡✎✔ ❿☛❛➀ ✗✢✣✤➎✙

➏➐➑➒➑ ➓➔ →➣ ↔➐➑ ➣↕➑➑➙ ➛↔ ➜➝ ➞➒➟➠ ➡➢➣➝ ➤➥➝➦➧➨ ➛➩➙

➤➥➝➦➫➨

➭✩ ✪❣➯

➲❂

➳➵✘☛✠✏✎✒ ✠✞✏✓ ✠✡ ✠✞✟ ✟✎✟✑✒✸ ☛✠ ■

✷ ✷

✧➺

✪✪❣➯ ✈❂

✡✑✱ ➻➼➽ ➾➚➪

✗✏✏✙ ❏✠ ✏✓ ✍☞✟☛✑ ♦✑✡✌ ➳➵✣ ✗✢✣✤➎✙

➶➹➘➴ ➷

■✠ ❬✱ ✠✞✟ ✟✎✟✑✒✸ ✏✓

✧➬✩ ✪✈ ✪❣➯❂ ✬

➳➵✘☛✠✏✎✒ ✠✞✏✓ ✠✡ ✠✞✟ ✟✎✟✑✒✸ ☛✠ ■ ☛✎✔ ✟✌✴☞✡✸✏✎✒

✠✞✟ ✑✟✓✘☞✠ ♦✑✡✌ ✗✏✙✱ ✎☛✌✟☞✸ ➮➱✃❐❒ 5❮ ✱

✦ ✦

✷ ✷

✧ ✧➬ ➺✪✈ ✪❣➯ ✪✈✬ ❂

✷✪ ❣ ➯❂

Page 127: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶☛☞

❣✌✈❇ ✸❂✍

✭✎✎✎✏ ✑✒✓ ✔✕✖✎✗ ✗✘ ✖✒✓ ✙✎✚✓✖✎✛ ✓✚✓✔✜✎✓✢ ✕✖ ✣ ✕✚✤ ✥✎✢ ✦

✧★

✷✧✷✧

✩✩✪❈

✪✫

❈✫

♠✬

♠✬

❑❑

❆✖ ✮✗✎✚✖ ✥✯ ✖✒✓ ✢✖✔✎✚✜ ✰✓✛✗✱✓✢ ✢✲✕✛✙ ✕✚✤ ✖✒✓✳✓✲✗✛✎✖✴ ✗✘ ✖✒✓ ✰✗✰ ✎✢ ✒✗✔✎✵✗✚✖✕✲ ✕✚✤ ✖✗ ✖✒✓ ✲✓✘✖✹ ✺✘✖✒✓ ✛✗✚✚✓✛✖✎✚✜ ✢✖✔✎✚✜ ✎✢ ✛t✖ ✕✖ ✖✒✎✢ ✎✚✢✖✕✚✖✯ ✖✒✓✰✗✰ ❜✎✲✲ ✓✻✓✛t✖✓ ✕ ✮✔✗✼✓✛✖✎✲✓ ✱✗✖✎✗✚ ❜✎✖✒✒✗✔✎✵✗✚✖✕✲ ✮✔✗✼✓✛✖✎✗✚ ✕✙✎✚ ✖✗ ✕ ✔✗✛✙ ✙✎✛✙✓✤✒✗✔✎✵✗✚✖✕✲✲✴ ✘✔✗✱ ✖✒✓ ✓✤✜✓ ✗✘ ✕ ✛✲✎✘✘✹ ❤✖✒✓✔❜✎✢✓✖✒✓ ✰✗✰ ❜✎✲✲ ✛✗✚✖✎✚t✓ ✗✚ ✎✖✢ ✛✎✔✛t✲✕✔ ✮✕✖✒ ✕✚✤✛✗✱✮✲✓✖✓ ✖✒✓ ✔✓✳✗✲t✖✎✗✚✹ ✽

✾✿❀ ❚❁❃ ❄❅❚❃❉❚❊❋●❃❉❃❍■❏ ❅▲ ❋ ▼❄❍❊❉■✑✒✓ ✢✮✔✎✚✜ ✘✗✔✛✓ ✎✢ ✕✚ ✓✻✕✱✮✲✓ ✗✘ ✕ ✳✕✔✎✕✰✲✓ ✘✗✔✛✓❜✒✎✛✒ ✎✢ ✛✗✚✢✓✔✳✕✖✎✳✓✹ ✇✎✜✹ ◆✹❖ ✢✒✗❜✢ ✕ ✰✲✗✛✙✕✖✖✕✛✒✓✤ ✖✗ ✕ ✢✮✔✎✚✜ ✕✚✤ ✔✓✢✖✎✚✜ ✗✚ ✕ ✢✱✗✗✖✒✒✗✔✎✵✗✚✖✕✲ ✢t✔✘✕✛✓✹ ✑✒✓ ✗✖✒✓✔ ✓✚✤ ✗✘ ✖✒✓ ✢✮✔✎✚✜✎✢ ✕✖✖✕✛✒✓✤ ✖✗ ✕ ✔✎✜✎✤ ❜✕✲✲✹ ✑✒✓ ✢✮✔✎✚✜ ✎✢ ✲✎✜✒✖✕✚✤ ✱✕✴ ✰✓ ✖✔✓✕✖✓✤ ✕✢ ✱✕✢✢✲✓✢✢✹ ✺✚ ✕✚ ✎✤✓✕✲✢✮✔✎✚✜✯ ✖✒✓ ✢✮✔✎✚✜ ✘✗✔✛✓ Ps ✎✢ ✮✔✗✮✗✔✖✎✗✚✕✲ ✖✗① ❜✒✓✔✓ ① ✎✢ ✖✒✓ ✤✎✢✮✲✕✛✓✱✓✚✖ ✗✘ ✖✒✓ ✰✲✗✛✙ ✘✔✗✱✖✒✓ ✓◗t✎✲✎✰✔✎t✱ ✮✗✢✎✖✎✗✚✹ ✑✒✓ ✤✎✢✮✲✕✛✓✱✓✚✖ ✛✗t✲✤✰✓ ✓✎✖✒✓✔ ✮✗✢✎✖✎✳✓ ❘✇✎✜✹ ◆✹❖✭✰✏❙ ✗✔ ✚✓✜✕✖✎✳✓❘✇✎✜✹ ◆✹❖✭✛✏❙✹ ✑✒✎✢ ✘✗✔✛✓ ✲✕❜ ✘✗✔ ✖✒✓ ✢✮✔✎✚✜ ✎✢ ✛✕✲✲✓✤❯✗✗✙✓❱✢ ✲✕❜ ✕✚✤ ✎✢ ✱✕✖✒✓✱✕✖✎✛✕✲✲✴ ✢✖✕✖✓✤ ✕✢

Ps ❳ ❾❨①✑✒✓ ✛✗✚✢✖✕✚✖ ❨ ✎✢ ✛✕✲✲✓✤ ✖✒✓ ✢✮✔✎✚✜ ✛✗✚✢✖✕✚✖✹ ✺✖✢t✚✎✖ ✎✢ ✉ ✱❩❬✹ ✑✒✓ ✢✮✔✎✚✜ ✎✢ ✢✕✎✤ ✖✗ ✰✓ ✢✖✎✘✘ ✎✘ ❨ ✎✢✲✕✔✜✓ ✕✚✤ ✢✗✘✖ ✎✘ ❨ ✎✢ ✢✱✕✲✲✹❭t✮✮✗✢✓ ✖✒✕✖ ❜✓ ✮t✲✲ ✖✒✓ ✰✲✗✛✙ ✗t✖❜✕✔✤✢ ✕✢ ✎✚

✇✎✜✹ ◆✹❖✭✰✏✹ ✺✘ ✖✒✓ ✓✻✖✓✚✢✎✗✚ ✎✢ ①❪✯ ✖✒✓ ❜✗✔✙ ✤✗✚✓ ✰✴✖✒✓✢✮✔✎✚✜ ✘✗✔✛✓ ✎✢

❞❫❴

❵ ❵❛

❝ ❡ ❢✐ ❥ ❞❫❴

❛❦❢ ❢✐ ❧ ❥

♥♦♣qr②③ ✭◆✹④⑤✏

✑✒✎✢ ✓✻✮✔✓✢✢✎✗✚ ✱✕✴ ✕✲✢✗ ✰✓ ✗✰✖✕✎✚✓✤ ✰✴✛✗✚✢✎✤✓✔✎✚✜ ✖✒✓ ✕✔✓✕ ✗✘ ✖✒✓ ✖✔✎✕✚✜✲✓ ✕✢ ✎✚✇✎✜✹ ◆✹❖✭✤✏✹ ✉✗✖✓ ✖✒✕✖ ✖✒✓ ❜✗✔✙ ✤✗✚✓ ✰✴ ✖✒✓✓✻✖✓✔✚✕✲ ✮t✲✲✎✚✜ ✘✗✔✛✓ P ✎✢ ✮✗✢✎✖✎✳✓ ✢✎✚✛✓ ✎✖✗✳✓✔✛✗✱✓✢ ✖✒✓ ✢✮✔✎✚✜ ✘✗✔✛✓✹

⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩❶ ❷❸ ✭◆✹④◆✏

❹❺❻❼ ❽❼❿ ➀➁➁➂➃➄➅➆➄➇➈➉ ➈➊ ➄➋➌ ➃➍➅➇➉➎ ➊➈➅➏➌ ➐➇➄➋ ➆ ➑➁➈➏➒➆➄➄➆➏➋➌➓ ➄➈ ➄➋➌ ➊➅➌➌ ➌➉➓ ➈➊ ➄➋➌ ➃➍➅➇➉➎➔→➆➣ ↔➋➌ ➃➍➅➇➉➎ ➊➈➅➏➌ ↕➙ ➇➃ ➛➌➅➈ ➐➋➌➉ ➄➋➌➓➇➃➍➁➆➏➌➜➌➉➄ ➝ ➊➅➈➜ ➄➋➌ ➌➞➂➇➁➇➑➅➇➂➜➍➈➃➇➄➇➈➉➇➃ ➛➌➅➈➔ →➑➣ ↕➈➅ ➄➋➌ ➃➄➅➌➄➏➋➌➓ ➃➍➅➇➉➎ ➝ ➟ ➠➆➉➓ ↕➙ ➡ ➠ →➏➣ ↕➈➅ ➄➋➌ ➏➈➜➍➅➌➃➃➌➓ ➃➍➅➇➉➎➝ ➡ ➠ ➆➉➓ ↕➙ ➟ ➠➔→➓➣ ↔➋➌ ➍➁➈➄ ➈➊ ↕➙ ➢➌➅➃➂➃ ➝➔↔➋➌ ➆➅➌➆ ➈➊ ➄➋➌ ➃➋➆➓➌➓ ➄➅➇➆➉➎➁➌ ➅➌➍➅➌➃➌➉➄➃➄➋➌ ➐➈➅➒ ➓➈➉➌ ➑➤ ➄➋➌ ➃➍➅➇➉➎ ➊➈➅➏➌➔ ➥➂➌ ➄➈ ➄➋➌➈➍➍➈➃➇➉➎ ➃➇➎➉➃ ➈➊ ↕➦ ➆➉➓ ➝➧ ➄➋➇➃ ➐➈➅➒ ➓➈➉➌ ➇➃➉➌➎➆➄➇➢➌➧ ➨ ➩➫ ➭➯ ➲

➳➵ ➸ ➺ ➔

✑✒✓ ✢✕✱✓ ✎✢ ✖✔t✓ ❜✒✓✚ ✖✒✓ ✢✮✔ ✎✚✜ ✎✢✛✗✱✮✔✓✢✢✓✤ ❜✎✖✒ ✕ ✤✎✢✮✲✕✛✓✱✓✚✖ ①➻ ✭➼ ➽✏✹ ✑✒✓✢✮✔✎✚✜ ✘✗✔✛✓ ✤✗✓✢ ❜✗✔✙ ➾➚➪➶➹ ➘➴➷ ➬➮ ❜✒✎✲✓ ✖✒✓

Page 128: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

❋✞✟✠ ✡✠☛ ☞✌✍✌✎✏✑✒✓ ✔✑✏✕✖ ✏✗ ✕✘✙ ✔✏✕✙✚✕✒✌✑ ✙✚✙✍✛✜ ✢✌✚✣❦✒✚✙✕✒✓ ✙✚✙✍✛✜ ❣ ✏✗ ✌ ✎✑✏✓❦ ✌✕✕✌✓✘✙✣ ✕✏ ✌✖✔✍✒✚✛ ✏✎✙✜✒✚✛ s✏✏❦✙✤✖ ✑✌✥✦ ✧✘✙ ✕✥✏ ✔✑✏✕✖✌✍✙ ✓✏❡✔✑✙❡✙✚✕✌✍✜★ ✏✚✙ ✣✙✓✍✙✌✖✒✚✛ ✌✖ ✕✘✙✏✕✘✙✍ ✒✚✓✍✙✌✖✙✖✦ ✧✘✙ ✕✏✕✌✑ ❡✙✓✘✌✚✒✓✌✑✙✚✙✍✛✜ ✩ ✪ ❣ ✫ ✢ ✍✙❡✌✒✚✖ ✓✏✚✖✕✌✚✕✦

✭✮✯✭✰✱✲✳ ✴✵✰✷✭ ✸ ✹✵✭✺ ✻✵✰✼ ✽ ✾✿❝❀ ❁ ❂❃ ❄✴ ✯❅✭ ❆✳✵✷✼

✐✺ ❇✵❈✭✹ ✴✰✵❇ ✲✱ ✐✱✐✯✐✲✳ ✹✐✺❉✳✲✷✭❇✭✱✯ ①❊ ✯✵ ✲✴✐✱✲✳ ✹✐✺❉✳✲✷✭❇✭✱✯ ①❢ ● ✯❅✭ ✻✵✰✼ ✹✵✱✭ ❆❍ ✯❅✭✺❉✰✐✱■ ✴✵✰✷✭ ❲❏ ✐✺

❑❑❞

▲ ▲

❖◗❘❙

❚ ❯❚ ❯❱ ❚ ❯ ❯❳ ❨ ❳ ❨❩ ❬❭❃❪❫❴

❵❅❛✺ ✯❅✭ ✻✵✰✼ ✹✵✱✭ ❆❍ ✯❅✭ ✺❉✰✐✱■ ✴✵✰✷✭ ✹✭❉✭✱✹✺✵✱✳❍ ✵✱ ✯❅✭ ✭✱✹ ❉✵✐✱✯✺❃ ♦❉✭✷✐✴✐✷✲✳✳❍● ✐✴ ✯❅✭ ❆✳✵✷✼✐✺ ❉❛✳✳✭✹ ✴✰✵❇ ①❊ ✲✱✹ ✲✳✳✵✻✭✹ ✯✵ ✰✭✯❛✰✱ ✯✵ ①❊ ❜

❤ ❤❥

❧ ❧

♥♣ ♣q

r t r t✉ r t t✈ ✇ ✈ ✇②

③ ④ ❬❭❃❪⑤❴❵❅✭ ✻✵✰✼ ✹✵✱✭ ❆❍ ✯❅✭ ✺❉✰✐✱■ ✴✵✰✷✭ ✐✱ ✲ ✷❍✷✳✐✷❉✰✵✷✭✺✺ ✐✺ ⑥✭✰✵❃ ⑦✭ ❅✲❈✭ ✭✮❉✳✐✷✐✯✳❍ ✹✭❇✵✱✺✯✰✲✯✭✹✯❅✲✯ ✯❅✭ ✺❉✰✐✱■ ✴✵✰✷✭ ❬✐❴ ✐✺ ❉✵✺✐✯✐✵✱ ✹✭❉✭✱✹✭✱✯✵✱✳❍ ✲✺ ✴✐✰✺✯ ✺✯✲✯✭✹ ❆❍ ⑧✵✵✼✭● ❬✸❏ ⑨ ❾ ⑩①❴❜ ❬✐✐❴✹✵✭✺ ✻✵✰✼ ✻❅✐✷❅ ✵✱✳❍ ✹✭❉✭✱✹✺ ✵✱ ✯❅✭ ✐✱✐✯✐✲✳ ✲✱✹✴✐✱✲✳ ❉✵✺✐✯✐✵✱✺● ✭❃■❃ ❶❷❃ ❬❭❃❪❫❴❃ ❵❅❛✺● ✯❅✭ ✺❉✰✐✱■✴✵✰✷✭ ✐✺ ✲ ❸❹❺❻❼❽❿➀➁➂❿❼ ➃❹❽❸❼➄⑦✭ ✹✭✴✐✱✭ ✯❅✭ ❉✵✯✭✱✯✐✲✳ ✭✱✭✰■❍➅❬①❴ ✵✴ ✯❅✭ ✺❉✰✐✱■

✯✵ ❆✭ ⑥✭✰✵ ✻❅✭✱❆✳✵✷✼ ✲✱✹ ✺❉✰✐✱■ ✺❍✺✯✭❇ ✐✺ ✐✱ ✯❅✭✭❷❛✐✳✐❆✰✐❛❇ ❉✵✺✐✯✐✵✱❃ ➆✵✰ ✲✱ ✭✮✯✭✱✺✐✵✱ ❬✵✰✷✵❇❉✰✭✺✺✐✵✱❴ ① ✯❅✭ ✲❆✵❈✭ ✲✱✲✳❍✺✐✺ ✺❛■■✭✺✯✺ ✯❅✲✯

➇➈➉➊➋➉➌

➍➎

❬❭❃❪➏❴

➐✵❛ ❇✲❍ ✭✲✺✐✳❍ ❈✭✰✐✴❍ ✯❅✲✯ ➑✹➅➒✹① ⑨ ❾⑩ ①● ✯❅✭✺❉✰✐✱■ ✴✵✰✷✭❃ ❄✴ ✯❅✭ ❆✳✵✷✼ ✵✴ ❇✲✺✺ ➓ ✐✱ ➆✐■❃ ❭❃❫ ✐✺✭✮✯✭✱✹✭✹ ✯✵ ①➔ ✲✱✹ ✰✭✳✭✲✺✭✹ ✴✰✵❇ ✰✭✺✯● ✯❅✭✱ ✐✯✺✯✵✯✲✳ ❇✭✷❅✲✱✐✷✲✳ ✭✱✭✰■❍ ✲✯ ✲✱❍ ✲✰❆✐✯✰✲✰❍ ❉✵✐✱✯ ①●✻❅✭✰✭ ① ✳✐✭✺ ❆✭✯✻✭✭✱ → ①➔ ✲✱✹ ➣ ①➔↔ ✻✐✳✳ ❆✭ ■✐❈✭✱❆❍

↕↕↕➙ ➛➜➝➞➝➞

➟➠

➟➠

➟➠

➡➢

✻❅✭✰✭ ✻✭ ❅✲❈✭ ✐✱❈✵✼✭✹ ✯❅✭ ✷✵✱✺✭✰❈✲✯✐✵✱ ✵✴❇✭✷❅✲✱✐✷✲✳ ✭✱✭✰■❍❃ ❵❅✐✺ ✺❛■■✭✺✯✺ ✯❅✲✯ ✯❅✭ ✺❉✭✭✹✲✱✹ ✯❅✭ ✼✐✱✭✯✐✷ ✭✱✭✰■❍ ✻✐✳✳ ❆✭ ❇✲✮✐❇❛❇ ✲✯ ✯❅✭✭❷❛✐✳✐❆✰✐❛❇ ❉✵✺✐✯✐✵✱● ① ⑨ ④● ✐❃✭❃●

➤➥

➤➥ ➦➧➨➩

➫➭

➫➭

✻❅✭✰✭ ➲➔ ✐✺ ✯❅✭ ❇✲✮✐❇❛❇ ✺❉✭✭✹❃

✵✰ ➳➳ ➵➸➺

➻ ➼

➽✵✯✭ ✯❅✲✯ ⑩➒➓ ❅✲✺ ✯❅✭ ✹✐❇✭✱✺✐✵✱✺ ✵✴ ➾❵➚➪➶ ✲✱✹✵❛✰ ✭❷❛✲✯✐✵✱ ✐✺ ✹✐❇✭✱✺✐✵✱✲✳✳❍ ✷✵✰✰✭✷✯❃ ❵❅✭✼✐✱✭✯✐✷ ✭✱✭✰■❍ ■✭✯✺ ✷✵✱❈✭✰✯✭✹ ✯✵ ❉✵✯✭✱✯✐✲✳ ✭✱✭✰■❍

✲✱✹ ❈✐✷✭ ❈✭✰✺✲● ❅✵✻✭❈✭✰● ✯❅✭ ✯✵✯✲✳ ❇✭✷❅✲✱✐✷✲✳✭✱✭✰■❍ ✰✭❇✲✐✱✺ ✷✵✱✺✯✲✱✯❃ ❵❅✐✺ ✐✺ ■✰✲❉❅✐✷✲✳✳❍✹✭❉✐✷✯✭✹ ✐✱ ➆✐■❃ ❭❃⑤❃

➹➘➴➷➬➮➱✃❐❒ ❵✵✺✐❇❛✳✲✯✭✷✲✰✲✷✷✐✹✭✱✯✺●✲❛✯✵❇✲✱❛✴✲✷✯❛✰✭✰✺ ✺✯❛✹❍ ✯❅✭ ✷✵✳✳✐✺✐✵✱✺ ✵✴❇✵❈✐✱■✷✲✰✺ ✻✐✯❅❇✵❛✱✯✭✹✺❉✰✐✱■✺ ✵✴ ✹✐✴✴✭✰✭✱✯ ✺❉✰✐✱■✷✵✱✺✯✲✱✯✺❃ ❮✵✱✺✐✹✭✰✲ ✯❍❉✐✷✲✳✺✐❇❛✳✲✯✐✵✱✻✐✯❅✲ ✷✲✰ ✵✴ ❇✲✺✺ ❪④④④ ✼■ ❇✵❈✐✱■ ✻✐✯❅ ✲ ✺❉✭✭✹❪⑤❃④ ✼❇❰❅ ✵✱ ✲ ✺❇✵✵✯❅ ✰✵✲✹ ✲✱✹ ✷✵✳✳✐✹✐✱■✻✐✯❅✲ ❅✵✰✐⑥✵✱✯✲✳✳❍❇✵❛✱✯✭✹ ✺❉✰✐✱■ ✵✴ ✺❉✰✐✱■✷✵✱✺✯✲✱✯ ❭❃ÏÐ Ñ ❪④Ò ➽ ❇ÓÔ❃ ⑦❅✲✯ ✐✺ ✯❅✭❇✲✮✐❇❛❇✷✵❇❉✰✭✺✺✐✵✱✵✴ ✯❅✭ ✺❉✰✐✱■ Õ

Ö×ØÙ➱Ú Û✯ ❇✲✮✐❇❛❇ ✷✵❇❉✰✭✺✺✐✵✱ ✯❅✭ ✼✐✱✭✯✐✷✭✱✭✰■❍ ✵✴ ✯❅✭ ✷✲✰ ✐✺ ✷✵✱❈✭✰✯✭✹ ✭✱✯✐✰✭✳❍ ✐✱✯✵ ✯❅✭❉✵✯✭✱✯✐✲✳ ✭✱✭✰■❍ ✵✴ ✯❅✭ ✺❉✰✐✱■❃❵❅✭ ✼✐✱✭✯✐✷ ✭✱✭✰■❍ ✵✴ ✯❅✭ ❇✵❈✐✱■ ✷✲✰ ✐✺

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ààáâãá ä åååæ

ç ⑨ ❪❃ÏÐ è ❪④é ê

✻❅✭✰✭✻✭ ❅✲❈✭ ✷✵✱❈✭✰✯✭✹❪⑤ ✼❇❅ÓÔ ✯✵ Ð❇✺ÓÔ ëì➁ ➂❻í❻❼➃íî ➁❹ ❽❼ï❼ïð❼❽ ➁ñ➀➁ òó ôï ñõö ÷ øù ï ❻õöú❃Û✯ ❇✲✮✐❇❛❇ ✷✵❇❉✰✭✺✺✐✵✱ ①➔● ✯❅✭ ❉✵✯✭✱✯✐✲✳✭✱✭✰■❍ ➅ ✵✴ ✯❅✭ ✺❉✰✐✱■ ✐✺ ✭❷❛✲✳ ✯✵ ✯❅✭ ✼✐✱✭✯✐✷✭✱✭✰■❍ ç ✵✴ ✯❅✭ ❇✵❈✐✱■ ✷✲✰ ✴✰✵❇ ✯❅✭ ❉✰✐✱✷✐❉✳✭ ✵✴✷✵✱✺✭✰❈✲✯✐✵✱ ✵✴ ❇✭✷❅✲✱✐✷✲✳ ✭✱✭✰■❍❃

➤➥➦➧û

➫➭

Page 129: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶☛☞

✥ ✍✎✏✑ × ✍✒✹ ✓✔❡ ✕✖✗✘✙✚

①♠ ✛ ✏✎✒✒ ✜

✔❡ ✚✕✗❡ ✗✢✘✗ ✣❡ ✢✘✤❡ ✙✦❡✘✧✙★❡✦ ✗✢❡ ★✙✗✩✘✗✙✕✚✎❚✢❡ ★✪✫✙✚✬ ✙★ ✭✕✚★✙✦❡✫❡✦ ✗✕ ✖❡ ✜✘★★✧❡★★✎ ❚✢❡★✩✫s✘✭❡ ✢✘★ ✖❡❡✚ ✭✕✚★✙✦❡✫❡✦ ✗✕ ✪✕★★❡★★

✚❡✬✧✙✬✙✖✧❡ s✫✙✭✗✙✕✚✎ ✮

✔❡ ✭✕✚✭✧✩✦❡ ✗✢✙★ ★❡✭✗✙✕✚ ✖✯ ✜✘✰✙✚✬ ✘ s❡✣✫❡✜✘✫✰★ ✕✚ ✭✕✚★❡✫✤✘✗✙✤❡ s✕✫✭❡★✎

✱✙✲ ■✚s✕✫✜✘✗✙✕✚ ✕✚ ✗✙✜❡ ✙★ ✘✖★❡✚✗ s✫✕✜ ✗✢❡ ✘✖✕✤❡✦✙★✭✩★★✙✕✚★✎ ■✚ ✗✢❡ ❡❞✘✜✪✧❡ ✭✕✚★✙✦❡✫❡✦

✘✖✕✤❡❛ ✣❡ ✭✘✚ ✭✘✧✭✩✧✘✗❡ ✗✢❡ ✭✕✜✪✫❡★★✙✕✚❛ ✖✩✗

✚✕✗ ✗✢❡ ✗✙✜❡ ✕✤❡✫ ✣✢✙✭✢ ✗✢❡ ✭✕✜✪✫❡★★✙✕✚

✕✭✭✩✫★✎ ♦ ★✕✧✩✗✙✕✚ ✕s ✳❡✣✗✕✚✴★ ✵❡✭✕✚✦ ✷✘✣

s✕✫ ✗✢✙★ ★✯★✗❡✜ ✙★ ✫❡❢✩✙✫❡✦ s✕✫ ✗❡✜✪✕✫✘✧

✙✚s✕✫✜✘✗✙✕✚✎

✱✙✙✲ ✳✕✗ ✘✧✧ s✕✫✭❡★ ✘✫❡ ✭✕✚★❡✫✤✘✗✙✤❡✎ ◆✫✙✭✗✙✕✚❛ s✕✫

❡❞✘✜✪✧❡❛ ✙★ ✘ ✚✕✚✸✭✕✚★❡✫✤✘✗✙✤❡ s✕✫✭❡✎ ❚✢❡✪✫✙✚✭✙✪✧❡ ✕s ✭✕✚★❡✫✤✘✗✙✕✚ ✕s ❡✚❡✫✬✯ ✣✙✧✧ ✢✘✤❡

✗✕ ✖❡✜✕✦✙s✙❡✦ ✙✚ ✗✢✙★ ✭✘★❡✎ ❚✢✙★ ✙★ ✙✧✧✩★✗✫✘✗❡✦

✙✚ ✐❞✘✜✪✧❡ ✺✎✻✎

✱✙✙✙✲ ❚✢❡ ✼❡✫✕ ✕s ✗✢❡ ✪✕✗❡✚✗✙✘✧ ❡✚❡✫✬✯ ✙★ ✘✫✖✙✗✫✘✫✯✎■✗ ✙★ ★❡✗ ✘✭✭✕✫✦✙✚✬ ✗✕ ✭✕✚✤❡✚✙❡✚✭❡✎ ◆✕✫ ✗✢❡

★✪✫✙✚✬ s✕✫✭❡ ✣❡ ✗✕✕✰ ❱✱①✲ ✛ ✒❛ ✘✗ ① ✛ ✒❛ ✙✎❡✎ ✗✢❡

✩✚★✗✫❡✗✭✢❡✦ ★✪✫✙✚✬ ✢✘✦ ✼❡✫✕ ✪✕✗❡✚✗✙✘✧

❡✚❡✫✬✯✎ ◆✕✫ ✗✢❡ ✭✕✚★✗✘✚✗ ✬✫✘✤✙✗✘✗✙✕✚✘✧ s✕✫✭❡

✽✾❛ ✣❡ ✗✕✕✰ ❱ ✥ ✒ ✕✚ ✗✢❡ ❡✘✫✗✢✴★ ★✩✫s✘✭❡✎ ■✚

✘ ✧✘✗❡✫ ✭✢✘✪✗❡✫ ✣❡ ★✢✘✧✧ ★❡❡ ✗✢✘✗ s✕✫ ✗✢❡ s✕✫✭❡✦✩❡ ✗✕ ✗✢❡ ✩✚✙✤❡✫★✘✧ ✧✘✣ ✕s ✬✫✘✤✙✗✘✗✙✕✚❛ ✗✢❡

✼❡✫✕ ✙★ ✖❡★✗ ✦❡s✙✚❡✦ ✘✗ ✘✚ ✙✚s✙✚✙✗❡ ✦✙★✗✘✚✭❡s✫✕✜ ✗✢❡ ✬✫✘✤✙✗✘✗✙✕✚✘✧ ★✕✩✫✭❡✎ ✿✕✣❡✤❡✫❛ ✕✚✭❡

✗✢❡ ✼❡✫✕ ✕s ✗✢❡ ✪✕✗❡✚✗✙✘✧ ❡✚❡✫✬✯ ✙★ s✙❞❡✦ ✙✚ ✘

✬✙✤❡✚ ✦✙★✭✩★★✙✕✚❛ ✙✗ ✜✩★✗ ✖❡ ✭✕✚★✙★✗❡✚✗✧✯

✘✦✢❡✫❡✦ ✗✕ ✗✢✫✕✩✬✢✕✩✗ ✗✢❡ ✦✙★✭✩★★✙✕✚✎ ❀✕✩

✭✘✚✚✕✗ ✭✢✘✚✬❡ ✢✕✫★❡★ ✙✚ ✜✙✦★✗✫❡✘✜ ❝

❊❁❂❃❄❅❆❇❈❉ ❋✕✚★✙✦❡✫✐❞✘✜✪✧❡✺✎● ✗✘✰✙✚✬

✗✢❡ ✭✕❡ss✙✭✙❡✚✗ ✕s s✫✙✭✗✙✕✚❛ ➭❛ ✗✕ ✖❡ ✒✎✑ ✘✚✦✭✘✧✭✩✧✘✗❡ ✗✢❡ ✜✘❞✙✜✩✜✭✕✜✪✫❡★★✙✕✚ ✕s ✗✢❡★✪✫✙✚✬✎

❍❏❑▲❆▼ ■✚ ✪✫❡★❡✚✭❡ ✕s s✫✙✭✗✙✕✚❛ ✖✕✗✢ ✗✢❡ ★✪✫✙✚✬

s✕✫✭❡ ✘✚✦ ✗✢❡ s✫✙✭✗✙✕✚✘✧ s✕✫✭❡ ✘✭✗ ★✕ ✘★ ✗✕ ✕✪✪✕★❡

✗✢❡ ✭✕✜✪✫❡★★✙✕✚ ✕s ✗✢❡ ★✪✫✙✚✬ ✘★ ★✢✕✣✚ ✙✚

◆✙✬✎ ✺✎✻✎

✔❡ ✙✚✤✕✰❡ ✗✢❡ ✣✕✫✰✸❡✚❡✫✬✯ ✗✢❡✕✫❡✜❛ ✫✘✗✢❡✫

✗✢✘✚ ✗✢❡ ✭✕✚★❡✫✤✘✗✙✕✚ ✕s ✜❡✭✢✘✚✙✭✘✧ ❡✚❡✫✬✯✎

❚✢❡ ✭✢✘✚✬❡ ✙✚ ✰✙✚❡✗✙✭ ❡✚❡✫✬✯ ✙★

❖P◗❘ ❙❘❯ ❳❨❩ ❬❭❪❫❩❴ ❵❫❜❣❤❥ ❭❤ ❜❨❩ ❫❵❪❦

❧♥ ✥ ♥♣ ❾♥qr✈t

✇② ③④

❚✢❡ ✣✕✫✰ ✦✕✚❡ ✖✯ ✗✢❡ ✚❡✗ s✕✫✭❡ ✙★

⑦⑧ ⑧⑨ ⑩❶ ❷ ❸ ❶❹ ❺ ❺ ❻

✐❢✩✘✗✙✚✬ ✣❡ ✢✘✤❡

❼ ❼

❽ ❽❿ ❿

➀ ➀➁ ➂ ➃ ➄ ➁ ➅ ➄➆ ➇ ➈

✳✕✣ ➉✽✾ ✛ ✒✎✑ × ✍✒➊ × ✍✒ ➋ ✑ × ✍✒➊ ✳ ✱✗✘✰✙✚✬✾ ✛✍✒✎✒ ✜ ★➌➍✲✎ ♦s✗❡✫ ✫❡✘✫✫✘✚✬✙✚✬ ✗✢❡ ✘✖✕✤❡❡❢✩✘✗✙✕✚ ✣❡ ✕✖✗✘✙✚ ✗✢❡ s✕✧✧✕✣✙✚✬ ❢✩✘✦✫✘✗✙✭

❡❢✩✘✗✙✕✚ ✙✚ ✗✢❡ ✩✚✰✚✕✣✚ ①♠✎

➎➏ ➏➐ ➐➑ ➒ ➓ ➔ ➒ ➓ → ➣↔ ↕ ➙➛

➜➝⑦⑦ ⑦ ⑦ ⑦

⑧❷ ❸ ❷ ❸ ❷ ⑩ ➞

❶⑩

➟ ➟➠ ➡❺ ➢ ➢➤ ➥❹

✣✢❡✫❡ ✣❡ ✗✘✰❡ ✗✢❡ ✪✕★✙✗✙✤❡ ★❢✩✘✫❡ ✫✕✕✗ ★✙✚✭❡ ①♠✙★ ✪✕★✙✗✙✤❡✎ ➦✩✗✗✙✚✬ ✙✚ ✚✩✜❡✫✙✭✘✧ ✤✘✧✩❡★ ✣❡✕✖✗✘✙✚

①♠ ✥ ✍✎➧✑ ✜

✣✢✙✭✢❛ ✘★ ❡❞✪❡✭✗❡✦❛ ✙★ ✧❡★★ ✗✢✘✚ ✗✢❡ ✫❡★✩✧✗ ✙✚✐❞✘✜✪✧❡ ✺✎➨✎

■s ✗✢❡ ✗✣✕ s✕✫✭❡★ ✕✚ ✗✢❡ ✖✕✦✯ ✭✕✚★✙★✗ ✕s ✘✭✕✚★❡✫✤✘✗✙✤❡ s✕✫✭❡ ➩➫ ✘✚✦ ✘ ✚✕✚✸✭✕✚★❡✫✤✘✗✙✤❡s✕✫✭❡ ➩➯➫ ❛ ✗✢❡ ✭✕✚★❡✫✤✘✗✙✕✚ ✕s ✜❡✭✢✘✚✙✭✘✧ ❡✚❡✫✬✯s✕✫✜✩✧✘ ✣✙✧✧ ✢✘✤❡ ✗✕ ✖❡ ✜✕✦✙s✙❡✦✎ ➲✯ ✗✢❡ ✔✐✗✢❡✕✫❡✜

✱➩➫➳ ➩➯➫ ✲ ❧① ✥ ❧♥

➲✩✗ ➩➫ ❧① ✥ ❾❧❱

✿❡✚✭❡❛ ❧✱♥ ➳ ❱✲ ✥ ➩➯➫ ❧①

❧➵ ✥ ➩➯➫ ❧①

✣✢❡✫❡ ➵ ✙★ ✗✢❡ ✗✕✗✘✧ ✜❡✭✢✘✚✙✭✘✧ ❡✚❡✫✬✯✎ ➸✤❡✫

✗✢❡ ✪✘✗✢ ✗✢✙★ ✘★★✩✜❡★ ✗✢❡ s✕✫✜

➵♣ ➺➵q ✥ ➻➯➫

✔✢❡✫❡ ➻➯➫ ✙★ ✗✢❡ ✗✕✗✘✧ ✣✕✫✰ ✦✕✚❡ ✖✯ ✗✢❡✚✕✚✸✭✕✚★❡✫✤✘✗✙✤❡ s✕✫✭❡★ ✕✤❡✫ ✗✢❡ ✪✘✗✢✎ ✳✕✗❡ ✗✢✘✗

Page 130: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

✉✞✟✠✡☛ ☞✌☛ ✍✎✞✏☛✑✒✓☞✠✒☛ ✔✎✑✍☛✕ ❲♥✖ ❞☛✗☛✞❞✏ ✎✞

☞✌☛ ✗✓✑☞✠✍✉✟✓✑ ✗✓☞✌ ✐ ☞✎ ✥✳ ✘

✻✙✚✛ ❱✜✢✣✤✦✧ ★✤✢✩✧ ✤★ ✪✫✪✢✬✭ ✮ ✯✰✪ ✱✜✲

✤★ ❖✤✫✧✪✢❱✜✯✣✤✫ ✤★ ✪✫✪✢✬✭

■✞ ☞✌☛ ✗✑☛✒✠✎✉✏ ✏☛✍☞✠✎✞ ✴☛ ✌✓✒☛ ❞✠✏✍✉✏✏☛❞

♠☛✍✌✓✞✠✍✓✟ ☛✞☛✑❣✵✷ ✸☛ ✌✓✒☛ ✏☛☛✞ ☞✌✓☞ ✠☞ ✍✓✞ ❡☛

✍✟✓✏✏✠✔✠☛❞ ✠✞☞✎ ☞✴✎ ❞✠✏☞✠✞✍☞ ✍✓☞☛❣✎✑✠☛✏ ❝ ✎✞☛ ❡✓✏☛❞

✎✞ ♠✎☞✠✎✞✕ ✞✓♠☛✟✵ ✡✠✞☛☞✠✍ ☛✞☛✑❣✵♦ ☞✌☛ ✎☞✌☛✑ ✎✞

✍✎✞✔✠❣✉✑✓☞✠✎✞ ✹✗✎✏✠☞✠✎✞✺✕ ✞✓♠☛✟✵ ✗✎☞☛✞☞✠✓✟ ☛✞☛✑❣✵✷

❊✞☛✑❣✵ ✍✎♠☛✏ ✠✞ ♠✓✞✵ ✓ ✔✎✑♠✏ ✴✌✠✍✌ ☞✑✓✞✏✔✎✑♠

✠✞☞✎ ✎✞☛ ✓✞✎☞✌☛✑ ✠✞ ✴✓✵✏ ✴✌✠✍✌ ♠✓✵ ✞✎☞ ✎✔☞☛✞

❡☛ ✍✟☛✓✑ ☞✎ ✉✏✷

✻✙✚✛✙✚ ✰✼✽✾

✸☛ ✌✓✒☛ ✏☛☛✞ ☞✌✓☞ ☞✌☛ ✔✑✠✍☞✠✎✞✓✟ ✔✎✑✍☛ ✠✏ ☛✿✍✟✉❞☛❞

✔✑✎♠ ☞✌☛ ✍✓☞☛❣✎✑✵ ✎✔ ✍✎✞✏☛✑✒✓☞✠✒☛ ✔✎✑✍☛✏✷❀✎✴☛✒☛✑✕

✴✎✑✡ ✠✏ ✓✏✏✎✍✠✓☞☛❞ ✴✠☞✌ ☞✌☛ ✔✎✑✍☛ ✎✔ ✔✑✠✍☞✠✎✞✷ ✇

❡✟✎✍✡ ✎✔ ♠✓✏✏ ❁ ✏✟✠❞✠✞❣ ✎✞ ✓ ✑✎✉❣✌ ✌✎✑✠❂✎✞☞✓✟

✏✉✑✔✓✍☛ ✴✠☞✌ ✏✗☛☛❞ ✈❃ ✍✎♠☛✏ ☞✎ ✓ ✌✓✟☞ ✎✒☛✑ ✓

❞✠✏☞✓✞✍☛ ①❃✷ ❄✌☛ ✴✎✑✡ ❞✎✞☛ ❡✵ ☞✌☛ ✔✎✑✍☛ ✎✔ ✡✠✞☛☞✠✍

✔✑✠✍☞✠✎✞ ✥ ✎✒☛✑ ①❃ ✠✏ ❅✥ ①❃✳ ❇✵ ☞✌☛ ✴✎✑✡❆☛✞☛✑❣✵

☞✌☛✎✑☛♠❈❉ ❋● ❍ ❏❑ ❢ ▲ ▼◆ ■✔ ✴☛ ✍✎✞✔✠✞☛ ✎✉✑ ✏✍✎✗☛

☞✎ ♠☛✍✌✓✞✠✍✏✕ ✴☛ ✴✎✉✟❞ ✏✓✵ ☞✌✓☞ ☞✌☛ ✡✠✞☛☞✠✍

☛✞☛✑❣✵ ✎✔ ☞✌☛ ❡✟✎✍✡ ✠✏ ◗✟✎✏☞❘ ❞✉☛ ☞✎ ☞✌☛ ✔✑✠✍☞✠✎✞✓✟

✔✎✑✍☛✷ ❙✞ ☛✿✓♠✠✞✓☞✠✎✞ ✎✔ ☞✌☛ ❡✟✎✍✡ ✓✞❞ ☞✌☛ ☞✓❡✟☛

✴☛ ✴✎✉✟❞ ❞☛☞☛✍☞ ✓ ✏✟✠❣✌☞ ✠✞✍✑☛✓✏☛ ✠✞ ☞✌☛✠✑

☞☛♠✗☛✑✓☞✉✑☛✏✷ ❄✌☛ ✴✎✑✡ ❞✎✞☛ ❡✵ ✔✑✠✍☞✠✎✞ ✠✏ ✞✎☞

◗✟✎✏☞❘✕ ❡✉☞ ✠✏ ☞✑✓✞✏✔☛✑✑☛❞ ✓✏ ✌☛✓☞ ☛✞☛✑❣✵✷ ❄✌✠✏

✑✓✠✏☛✏ ☞✌☛ ✠✞☞☛✑✞✓✟ ☛✞☛✑❣✵ ✎✔ ☞✌☛ ❡✟✎✍✡ ✓✞❞ ☞✌☛

☞✓❡✟☛✷ ■✞ ✴✠✞☞☛✑✕ ✠✞ ✎✑❞☛✑ ☞✎ ✔☛☛✟ ✴✓✑♠✕ ✴☛

❣☛✞☛✑✓☞☛ ✌☛✓☞ ❡✵ ✒✠❣✎✑✎✉✏✟✵ ✑✉❡❡✠✞❣ ✎✉✑ ✗✓✟♠✏

☞✎❣☛☞✌☛✑✷ ✸☛ ✏✌✓✟✟ ✏☛☛ ✟✓☞☛✑ ☞✌✓☞ ☞✌☛ ✠✞☞☛✑✞✓✟

☛✞☛✑❣✵ ✠✏ ✓✏✏✎✍✠✓☞☛❞ ✴✠☞✌ ☞✌☛ ✍☛✓✏☛✟☛✏✏✕ ✎✔☞☛✞

✑✓✞❞✎♠✕ ♠✎☞✠✎✞ ✎✔ ♠✎✟☛✍✉✟☛✏✷ ✇ r✉✓✞☞✠☞✓☞✠✒☛ ✠❞☛✓

✎✔ ☞✌☛ ☞✑✓✞✏✔☛✑ ✎✔ ✌☛✓☞ ☛✞☛✑❣✵ ✠✏ ✎❡☞✓✠✞☛❞ ❡✵

✞✎☞✠✞❣ ☞✌✓☞ ❚ ✡❣ ✎✔ ✴✓☞☛✑ ✑☛✟☛✓✏☛✏ ✓❡✎✉☞ ❯❳❨❨❨ ❩

✎✔ ☛✞☛✑❣✵ ✴✌☛✞ ✠☞ ✍✎✎✟✏ ❡✵❚❨ ➦❬✷

✻✙✚✛✙❭ ❖❪✼❫❴❵✽❛ ✪❜✼❤❥❦

❙✞☛ ✎✔ ☞✌☛ ❣✑☛✓☞☛✏☞ ☞☛✍✌✞✠✍✓✟ ✓✍✌✠☛✒☛♠☛✞☞✏ ✎✔

✌✉♠✓✞✡✠✞❞ ✎✍✍✉✑✑☛❞ ✴✌☛✞ ✴☛ ❞✠✏✍✎✒☛✑☛❞ ✌✎✴

☞✎ ✠❣✞✠☞☛ ✓✞❞ ✍✎✞☞✑✎✟ ✔✠✑☛✷ ✸☛ ✟☛✓✑✞☞ ☞✎ ✑✉❡ ☞✴✎

✔✟✠✞☞ ✏☞✎✞☛✏ ☞✎❣☛☞✌☛✑ ✹♠☛✍✌✓✞✠✍✓✟ ☛✞☛✑❣✵✺✕ ❣✎☞

☞✌☛♠ ☞✎ ✌☛✓☞ ✉✗ ✓✞❞ ☞✎ ✠❣✞✠☞☛ ✓ ✌☛✓✗ ✎✔ ❞✑✵ ✟☛✓✒☛✏

✹✍✌☛♠✠✍✓✟ ☛✞☛✑❣✵✺✕ ✴✌✠✍✌ ☞✌☛✞ ✗✑✎✒✠❞☛❞

✏✉✏☞✓✠✞☛❞ ✴✓✑♠☞✌✷ ✇ ♠✓☞✍✌✏☞✠✍✡ ✠❣✞✠☞☛✏ ✠✞☞✎ ✓

❡✑✠❣✌☞ ✔✟✓♠☛ ✴✌☛✞ ✏☞✑✉✍✡ ✓❣✓✠✞✏☞ ✓ ✏✗☛✍✠✓✟✟✵

✗✑☛✗✓✑☛❞ ✍✌☛♠✠✍✓✟ ✏✉✑✔✓✍☛✷ ❄✌☛ ✟✠❣✌☞☛❞

♠✓☞✍✌✏☞✠✍✡✕ ✴✌☛✞ ✓✗✗✟✠☛❞ ☞✎ ✓ ✔✠✑☛✍✑✓✍✡☛✑✕

✑☛✏✉✟☞✏ ✠✞ ✓ ✏✗☛✍☞✓✍✉✟✓✑ ❞✠✏✗✟✓✵ ✎✔ ✏✎✉✞❞ ✓✞❞

✟✠❣✌☞✷

❬✌☛♠✠✍✓✟ ☛✞☛✑❣✵ ✓✑✠✏☛✏ ✔✑✎♠ ☞✌☛ ✔✓✍☞ ☞✌✓☞ ☞✌☛

♠✎✟☛✍✉✟☛✏ ✗✓✑☞✠✍✠✗✓☞✠✞❣ ✠✞ ☞✌☛ ✍✌☛♠✠✍✓✟ ✑☛✓✍☞✠✎✞

✌✓✒☛ ❞✠✔✔☛✑☛✞☞ ❡✠✞❞✠✞❣ ☛✞☛✑❣✠☛✏✷ ✇ ✏☞✓❡✟☛ ✍✌☛♠✠✍✓✟

✍✎♠✗✎✉✞❞✌✓✏✟☛✏✏☛✞☛✑❣✵☞✌✓✞☞✌☛✏☛✗✓✑✓☞☛❞✗✓✑☞✏✷

✇ ✍✌☛♠✠✍✓✟ ✑☛✓✍☞✠✎✞ ✠✏ ❡✓✏✠✍✓✟✟✵ ✓ ✑☛✓✑✑✓✞❣☛♠☛✞☞

✎✔ ✓☞✎♠✏✷ ■✔ ☞✌☛ ☞✎☞✓✟ ☛✞☛✑❣✵✎✔ ☞✌☛✑☛✓✍☞✓✞☞✏✠✏♠✎✑☛

☞✌✓✞ ☞✌☛✗✑✎❞✉✍☞✏ ✎✔ ☞✌☛ ✑☛✓✍☞✠✎✞✕ ✌☛✓☞ ✠✏ ✑☛✟☛✓✏☛❞

✓✞❞ ☞✌☛ ✑☛✓✍☞✠✎✞ ✠✏ ✏✓✠❞ ☞✎ ❡☛ ✓✞ ✼❧♣✾❪✼❤❫❴❵

✑☛✓✍☞✠✎✞✷■✔ ☞✌☛✑☛✒☛✑✏☛ ✠✏ ☞✑✉☛✕ ✌☛✓☞ ✠✏✓❡✏✎✑❡☛❞✓✞❞

☞✌☛ ✑☛✓✍☞✠✎✞ ✠✏ ✼❜q♣✾❪✼❤❫❴❵✳ ❬✎✓✟ ✍✎✞✏✠✏☞✏ ✎✔

✍✓✑❡✎✞ ✓✞❞ ✓ ✡✠✟✎❣✑✓♠ ✎✔ ✠☞ ✴✌☛✞ ❡✉✑✞☞ ✑☛✟☛✓✏☛✏

s × ❚❨t❩✎✔ ☛✞☛✑❣✵✷

❬✌☛♠✠✍✓✟ ☛✞☛✑❣✵ ✠✏ ✓✏✏✎✍✠✓☞☛❞ ✴✠☞✌ ☞✌☛ ✔✎✑✍☛✏

☞✌✓☞ ❣✠✒☛ ✑✠✏☛ ☞✎ ☞✌☛ ✏☞✓❡✠✟✠☞✵ ✎✔ ✏✉❡✏☞✓✞✍☛✏✷ ❄✌☛✏☛

✔✎✑✍☛✏ ❡✠✞❞ ✓☞✎♠✏ ✠✞☞✎ ♠✎✟☛✍✉✟☛✏✕♠✎✟☛✍✉✟☛✏ ✠✞☞✎

✗✎✟✵♠☛✑✠✍ ✍✌✓✠✞✏✕ ☛☞✍✷ ❄✌☛ ✍✌☛♠✠✍✓✟ ☛✞☛✑❣✵

✓✑✠✏✠✞❣ ✔✑✎♠ ☞✌☛ ✍✎♠❡✉✏☞✠✎✞ ✎✔ ✍✎✓✟✕ ✍✎✎✡✠✞❣ ❣✓✏✕

✴✎✎❞ ✓✞❞ ✗☛☞✑✎✟☛✉♠ ✠✏ ✠✞❞✠✏✗☛✞✏✓❡✟☛ ☞✎ ✎✉✑ ❞✓✠✟✵

☛✿✠✏☞☛✞✍☛✷

✻✙✚✛✙② ✪❛✼❵✾❤❴❵✽❛ ✪❜✼❤❥❦

❄✌☛ ✔✟✎✴ ✎✔ ☛✟☛✍☞✑✠✍✓✟ ✍✉✑✑☛✞☞ ✍✓✉✏☛✏ ❡✉✟❡✏ ☞✎

❣✟✎✴✕ ✔✓✞✏ ☞✎ ✑✎☞✓☞☛ ✓✞❞ ❡☛✟✟✏ ☞✎ ✑✠✞❣✷ ❄✌☛✑☛ ✓✑☛

✟✓✴✏ ❣✎✒☛✑✞✠✞❣ ☞✌☛ ✓☞☞✑✓✍☞✠✎✞ ✓✞❞ ✑☛✗✉✟✏✠✎✞ ✎✔

✍✌✓✑❣☛✏ ✓✞❞ ✍✉✑✑☛✞☞✏✕ ✴✌✠✍✌ ✴☛ ✏✌✓✟✟ ✟☛✓✑✞

✟✓☞☛✑✷ ❊✞☛✑❣✵ ✠✏ ✓✏✏✎✍✠✓☞☛❞ ✴✠☞✌ ✓✞ ☛✟☛✍☞✑✠✍

✍✉✑✑☛✞☞✷ ✇✞ ✉✑❡✓✞ ■✞❞✠✓✞ ✌✎✉✏☛✌✎✟❞ ✍✎✞✏✉♠☛✏

✓❡✎✉☞ ❳❨❨ ❩ ✎✔ ☛✞☛✑❣✵ ✗☛✑ ✏☛✍✎✞❞ ✎✞ ✓✞ ✓✒☛✑✓❣☛✷

✻✙✚✛✙③ ✯❪✼ ✪④⑤❴⑥✽❛✼❜❵✼ ♣⑦ ✩✽⑧⑧ ✽❜q ✪❜✼❤❥❦

❄✠✟✟ ☞✌☛ ☛✞❞ ✎✔ ☞✌☛ ✞✠✞☛☞☛☛✞☞✌ ✍☛✞☞✉✑✵✕ ✗✌✵✏✠✍✠✏☞✏

❡☛✟✠☛✒☛❞ ☞✌✓☞ ✠✞ ☛✒☛✑✵ ✗✌✵✏✠✍✓✟ ✓✞❞ ✍✌☛♠✠✍✓✟

✗✑✎✍☛✏✏✕ ☞✌☛ ♠✓✏✏ ✎✔ ✓✞ ✠✏✎✟✓☞☛❞ ✏✵✏☞☛♠ ✠✏

✍✎✞✏☛✑✒☛❞✷ ⑨✓☞☞☛✑ ♠✠❣✌☞ ✍✌✓✞❣☛ ✠☞✏ ✗✌✓✏☛✕ ☛✷❣✷

❣✟✓✍✠✓✟ ✠✍☛ ✍✎✉✟❞ ♠☛✟☞ ✠✞☞✎ ✓ ❣✉✏✌✠✞❣ ✏☞✑☛✓♠✕ ❡✉☞

♠✓☞☞☛✑ ✠✏ ✞☛✠☞✌☛✑ ✍✑☛✓☞☛❞ ✞✎✑ ❞☛✏☞✑✎✵☛❞♦ ✇✟❡☛✑☞

❊✠✞✏☞☛✠✞ ✹❚⑩❶❷❆❚❷❸❸✺ ✌✎✴☛✒☛✑✕ ✏✌✎✴☛❞ ☞✌✓☞ ♠✓✏✏

✓✞❞ ☛✞☛✑❣✵ ✓✑☛ ☛r✉✠✒✓✟☛✞☞ ✓✞❞ ✓✑☛ ✑☛✟✓☞☛❞ ❡✵

☞✌☛ ✑☛✟✓☞✠✎✞

❹ ❺ ❁ ❻❼ ✹❽✷❳❨✺

✴✌☛✑☛ ❻✕ ☞✌☛ ✏✗☛☛❞ ✎✔ ✟✠❣✌☞ ✠✞ ✒✓✍✉✉♠ ✠✏

✓✗✗✑✎✿✠♠✓☞☛✟✵ s ×❚❨❾ ♠ ✏➊❿✷ ❄✌✉✏✕ ✓ ✏☞✓❣❣☛✑✠✞❣

✓♠✎✉✞☞ ✎✔ ☛✞☛✑❣✵ ✠✏ ✓✏✏✎✍✠✓☞☛❞ ✴✠☞✌ ✓ ♠☛✑☛

✡✠✟✎❣✑✓♠ ✎✔ ♠✓☞☞☛✑

❹ ➀ ❚× ✹s ×❚❨❾✺❼ ❩ ❺ ❷ ×❚❨❿➁ ❩✷

❄✌✠✏ ✠✏ ☛r✉✠✒✓✟☛✞☞ ☞✎ ☞✌☛ ✓✞✞✉✓✟ ☛✟☛✍☞✑✠✍✓✟ ✎✉☞✗✉☞

✎✔ ✓ ✟✓✑❣☛ ✹s❨❨❨ ⑨✸✺ ✗✎✴☛✑ ❣☛✞☛✑✓☞✠✞❣ ✏☞✓☞✠✎✞✷

✻✙✚✛✙➂ ✫⑤❵❛✼✽❤ ✪❜✼❤❥❦

❄✌☛ ♠✎✏☞ ❞☛✏☞✑✉✍☞✠✒☛✴☛✓✗✎✞✏♠✓❞☛ ❡✵ ♠✓✞✕ ☞✌☛

✔✠✏✏✠✎✞ ✓✞❞ ✔✉✏✠✎✞ ❡✎♠❡✏ ✓✑☛ ♠✓✞✠✔☛✏☞✓☞✠✎✞✏ ✎✔

Page 131: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶☛☞

t✌✍ ✎✏✑✒✍ ✍✓✔✕✒✎✖✍✗✘✍ ✑✙ ✚✎✛✛ ✎✗✜ ✍✗✍✢✣✤ ✥✦✓✧

✭★✧✩✪✫✬✧ ✮✗ t✌✍ ✑t✌✍✢ ✌✎✗✜ t✌✍ ✍✯✰✖✎✗✎t✕✑✗ ✑✙ t✌✍

✖✕✙✍❧✗✑✔✢✕✛✌✕✗✣ ✍✗✍✢✣✤ ✑✔t✰✔t ✑✙ t✌✍ ✛✔✗ ✕✛ ✎✖✛✑

✏✎✛✍✜ ✑✗ t✌✍ ✎✏✑✒✍ ✍✓✔✎t✕✑✗✧ ❜✗ t✌✕✛ ✘✎✛✍

✍✙✙✍✘t✕✒✍✖✤ ✙✑✔✢ ✖✕✣✌t ✌✤✜✢✑✣✍✗ ✗✔✘✖✍✕ ✙✔✛✍ t✑ ✙✑✢✚

✎ ✌✍✖✕✔✚ ✗✔✘✖✍✔✛ ❛✌✑✛✍ ✚✎✛✛ ✕✛ ✖✍✛✛ t✌✎✗ t✌✍

✛✔✚ ✑✙ t✌✍ ✚✎✛✛✍✛ ✑✙ t✌✍ ✢✍✎✘t✎✗t✛✧ s✌✕✛ ✚✎✛✛

✜✕✙✙✍✢✍✗✘✍❞ ✘✎✖✖✍✜ t✌✍ ✚✎✛✛ ✜✍✙✍✘t ✱♠ ✕✛ t✌✍

✛✑✔✢✘✍ ✑✙ ✍✗✍✢✣✤ ✭✱♠✫❝✷✧ ❜✗ ✙✕✛✛✕✑✗❞ ✎ ✌✍✎✒✤

✗✔✘✖✍✔✛ ✖✕♥✍ ✔✢✎✗✕✔✚ ❯✲✳✴✾✲

❞ ✕✛ ✛✰✖✕t ✏✤ ✎ ✗✍✔t✢✑✗

✕✗t✑ ✖✕✣✌t✍✢ ✗✔✘✖✍✕✧ ✮✗✘✍ ✎✣✎✕✗ t✌✍ ✙✕✗✎✖ ✚✎✛✛ ✕✛

✖✍✛✛ t✌✎✗ t✌✍ ✕✗✕t✕✎✖ ✚✎✛✛ ✎✗✜ t✌✍ ✚✎✛✛ ✜✕✙✙✍✢✍✗✘✍

t✢✎✗✛✖✎t✍✛ ✕✗t✑ ✍✗✍✢✣✤❞ ❛✌✕✘✌ ✘✎✗ ✏✍ t✎✰✰✍✜ t✑

✰✢✑✒✕✜✍ ✍✖✍✘t✢✕✘✎✖ ✍✗✍✢✣✤ ✎✛ ✕✗ ✗✔✘✖✍✎✢ ✰✑❛✍✢

✰✖✎✗t✛ ✭✘✑✗t✢✑✖✖✍✜ ✗✔✘✖✍✎✢ ✙✕✛✛✕✑✗✫ ✑✢ ✘✎✗ ✏✍

✍✚✰✖✑✤✍✜ ✕✗ ✚✎♥✕✗✣ ✗✔✘✖✍✎✢ ❛✍✎✰✑✗✛

✭✔✗✘✑✗t✢✑✖✖✍✜ ✗✔✘✖✍✎✢ ✙✕✛✛✕✑✗✫✧ ✵t✢✕✘t✖✤❞ t✌✍ ✍✗✍✢✣✤

✱❊ ✢✍✖✍✎✛✍✜ ✕✗ ✎ ✘✌✍✚✕✘✎✖ ✢✍✎✘t✕✑✗ ✘✎✗ ✎✖✛✑ ✏✍

✢✍✖✎t✍✜ t✑ t✌✍ ✚✎✛✛ ✜✍✙✍✘t ✱♠ ✸ ✱❊✹❝✷✺ ❍✑❛✍✒✍✢❞

✙✑✢ ✎ ✘✌✍✚✕✘✎✖ ✢✍✎✘t✕✑✗❞ t✌✕✛ ✚✎✛✛ ✜✍✙✍✘t ✕✛ ✚✔✘✌

✛✚✎✖✖✍✢ t✌✎✗ ✙✑✢ ✎ ✗✔✘✖✍✎✢ ✢✍✎✘t✕✑✗✧ s✎✏✖✍ ★✧✻

✖✕✛t✛ t✌✍ t✑t✎✖ ✍✗✍✢✣✕✍✛ ✙✑✢ ✎ ✒✎✢✕✍t✤ ✑✙ ✍✒✍✗t✛ ✎✗✜

✰✌✍✗✑✚✍✗✎✧

❚✼✽✿❀ ❁❂❃ ❆❄❄❅❇❈❉❋✼●❀ ❀■❀❅❏❑ ✼▲▲❇▼❉✼●❀◆ ❖❉●P ◗✼❅❉❇❘▲ ❄P❀■❇❋❀■✼

❙❱❳❨❩❬❭ ❪❫❴❵ ✦✯✎✚✕✗✍ s✎✏✖✍✛ ★✧❡❧★✧✻

✎✗✜ ✍✯✰✢✍✛✛ ✭✎✫ s✌✍ ✍✗✍✢✣✤ ✢✍✓✔✕✢✍✜ t✑

✏✢✍✎♥ ✑✗✍ ✏✑✗✜ ✕✗ ❢❣❤ ✕✗ ✍✐❥ ✭✏✫ s✌✍

♥✕✗✍t✕✘ ✍✗✍✢✣✤ ✑✙ ✎✗ ✎✕✢ ✚✑✖✍✘✔✖✍ ✭❡✪➋❦♦ ♣✫

✕✗ ✍✐❥ ✭✘✫ s✌✍ ✜✎✕✖✤ ✕✗t✎♥✍ ✑✙ ✎ ✌✔✚✎✗ ✎✜✔✖t

✕✗ ♥✕✖✑✘✎✖✑✢✕✍✛✧

qr✉✈❭✇ ✭✎✫ ✦✗✍✢✣✤ ✢✍✓✔✕✢✍✜ t✑ ✏✢✍✎♥ ✑✗✍ ✏✑✗✜

✑✙ ❢❣❤ ✕✛

①②

③④

⑤⑥ ⑦⑧ ⑥⑨⑥⑩ ❶❷

⑤⑨⑩ ⑤⑥ ⑦❸❶❷

❾×

❛✌✍✢✍ t✌✍ ✛✤✚✏✑✖ ❹❺❻ ✛t✎✗✜✛ ✙✑✢ ✎✰✰✢✑✯✕✚✎t✍✧

❣✑t✍ ✪✧❡ ✍✐ ❼ ❡✪✪ ✚✍✐ ✭❡✪✪ ✚✕✖✖✕✍✖✍✘t✢✑✗ ✒✑✖t✫✧

✭✏✫ s✌✍ ♥✕✗✍t✕✘ ✍✗✍✢✣✤ ✑✙ ✎✗ ✎✕✢ ✚✑✖✍✘✔✖✍ ✕✛

①③

③④

⑤⑥ ⑦⑧ ⑥⑨⑥⑥⑩❽ ❶❷

⑤⑨⑩ ⑤⑥ ⑦❸❶❷

❾×

s✌✕✛ ✕✛ t✌✍ ✛✎✚✍ ✎✛ ★✧✩ ✚✍✐✧

✭✘✫ s✌✍ ✎✒✍✢✎✣✍ ✌✔✚✎✗ ✘✑✗✛✔✚✰t✕✑✗ ✕✗ ✎ ✜✎✤ ✕✛

7

➀➁ ➂➃ ➄➅➁➁ ➆➇➈➉

➅➊➄➌➀➁ ➂➍➆➇➈➉

Page 132: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

❲❡ ✞✟✠✡☛ ✟☞☛ ✌ ✍✟✎✎✟✡ ✎✠✏✍✟✡✍❡✞☛✠✟✡ ✍✑❡✌☛❡✒

❜✓ ✡❡✔✏✞✌✞❡✑✏ ✌✡✒ ✎✌✕✌✖✠✡❡✏✗ ✘✙❡✓ ✎❡✡☛✠✟✡

❢✟✟✒ ✚✌✛☞❡✏ ✠✡ ✍✌✛✟✑✠❡✏ ✌✡✒ ☞✑✕❡ ☞✏ ☛✟ ✑❡✏☛✑✠✍☛

✒✠❡☛ ✠✡☛✌❞❡ ☛✟ ❜❡✛✟✔ ✜✢✣✣ ✍✌✛✟✑✠❡✏✗ ❲✙✌☛ ☛✙❡✓

✏✙✟☞✛✒ ❜❡ ✏✌✓✠✡✕ ✠✏ ❞✠✛✟✍✌✛✟✑✠❡✏ s❞✍✌✛✤ ✌✡✒ ✡✟☛

✍✌✛✟✑✠❡✏✗ ❝ ✞❡✑✏✟✡ ✍✟✡✏☞✎✠✡✕ ✜✢✣✣ ✍✌✛✟✑✠❡✏ ✌

✒✌✓ ✔✠✛✛ ✏✟✟✡ ✏☛✌✑✚❡ ☛✟ ✒❡✌☛✙✥ ✦ ❢✟✟✒ ✍✌✛✟✑✠❡ ✠✏

✦ ❞✍✌✛✗ ✧

✻★✩✪★✻ ❚✫✬ ✭✮✯✰✱✯✲✳✬ ✴✵ ✷✴✰✸✬✮✹✺✼✯✴✰ ✴✵

❊✰✬✮✽✾

❲❡ ✙✌✚❡ ✏❡❡✡ ☛✙✌☛ ☛✙❡ ☛✟☛✌✛ ✎❡✍✙✌✡✠✍✌✛ ❡✡❡✑✕✓

✟❢ ☛✙❡ ✏✓✏☛❡✎ ✠✏ ✍✟✡✏❡✑✚❡✒ ✠❢ ☛✙❡ ❢✟✑✍❡✏ ✒✟✠✡✕ ✔✟✑❞

✟✡ ✠☛ ✌✑❡ ✍✟✡✏❡✑✚✌☛✠✚❡✗ ♦❢ ✏✟✎❡ ✟❢ ☛✙❡ ❢✟✑✍❡✏

✠✡✚✟✛✚❡✒ ✌✑❡ ✡✟✡✐✍✟✡✏❡✑✚✌☛✠✚❡✿ ✞✌✑☛ ✟❢ ☛✙❡

✎❡✍✙✌✡✠✍✌✛ ❡✡❡✑✕✓ ✎✌✓ ✕❡☛ ☛✑✌✡✏❢✟✑✎❡✒ ✠✡☛✟

✟☛✙❡✑ ❢✟✑✎✏ ✏☞✍✙ ✌✏ ✙❡✌☛✿ ✛✠✕✙☛ ✌✡✒ ✏✟☞✡✒✗

❍✟✔❡✚❡✑✿ ☛✙❡ ☛✟☛✌✛ ❡✡❡✑✕✓ ✟❢ ✌✡ ✠✏✟✛✌☛❡✒ ✏✓✏☛❡✎

✒✟❡✏ ✡✟☛ ✍✙✌✡✕❡✿ ✌✏ ✛✟✡✕ ✌✏ ✟✡❡ ✌✍✍✟☞✡☛✏ ❢✟✑ ✌✛✛

❢✟✑✎✏ ✟❢ ❡✡❡✑✕✓✗ ❀✡❡✑✕✓ ✎✌✓ ❜❡ ☛✑✌✡✏❢✟✑✎❡✒ ❢✑✟✎

✟✡❡ ❢✟✑✎ ☛✟ ✌✡✟☛✙❡✑ ❜☞☛ ☛✙❡ ☛✟☛✌✛ ❡✡❡✑✕✓ ✟❢ ✌✡

✠✏✟✛✌☛❡✒ ✏✓✏☛❡✎ ✑❡✎✌✠✡✏ ✍✟✡✏☛✌✡☛✗ ❀✡❡✑✕✓ ✍✌✡

✡❡✠☛✙❡✑ ❜❡ ✍✑❡✌☛❡✒✿ ✡✟✑ ✒❡✏☛✑✟✓❡✒✗

❙✠✡✍❡ ☛✙❡ ☞✡✠✚❡✑✏❡ ✌✏ ✌ ✔✙✟✛❡ ✎✌✓ ❜❡ ✚✠❡✔❡✒

✌✏ ✌✡ ✠✏✟✛✌☛❡✒ ✏✓✏☛❡✎✿ ☛✙❡ ☛✟☛✌✛ ❡✡❡✑✕✓ ✟❢ ☛✙❡

☞✡✠✚❡✑✏❡ ✠✏ ✍✟✡✏☛✌✡☛✗ ♦❢ ✟✡❡ ✞✌✑☛ ✟❢ ☛✙❡ ☞✡✠✚❡✑✏❡

✛✟✏❡✏ ❡✡❡✑✕✓✿ ✌✡✟☛✙❡✑ ✞✌✑☛ ✎☞✏☛ ✕✌✠✡ ✌✡ ❡❧☞✌✛

✌✎✟☞✡☛ ✟❢ ❡✡❡✑✕✓✗

✘✙❡ ✞✑✠✡✍✠✞✛❡ ✟❢ ✍✟✡✏❡✑✚✌☛✠✟✡ ✟❢ ❡✡❡✑✕✓ ✍✌✡✡✟☛

❜❡ ✞✑✟✚❡✒✗ ❍✟✔❡✚❡✑✿ ✡✟ ✚✠✟✛✌☛✠✟✡ ✟❢ ☛✙✠✏ ✞✑✠✡✍✠✞✛❡

✙✌✏ ❜❡❡✡ ✟❜✏❡✑✚❡✒✗ ✘✙❡ ✍✟✡✍❡✞☛ ✟❢ ✍✟✡✏❡✑✚✌☛✠✟✡

✌✡✒ ☛✑✌✡✏❢✟✑✎✌☛✠✟✡ ✟❢ ❡✡❡✑✕✓ ✠✡☛✟ ✚✌✑✠✟☞✏ ❢✟✑✎✏

✛✠✡❞✏ ☛✟✕❡☛✙❡✑ ✚✌✑✠✟☞✏ ❜✑✌✡✍✙❡✏ ✟❢ ✞✙✓✏✠✍✏✿

✍✙❡✎✠✏☛✑✓ ✌✡✒ ✛✠❢❡ ✏✍✠❡✡✍❡✏✗ ♦☛ ✞✑✟✚✠✒❡✏ ✌

☞✡✠❢✓✠✡✕✿ ❡✡✒☞✑✠✡✕ ❡✛❡✎❡✡☛ ✠✡ ✟☞✑ ✏✍✠❡✡☛✠❢✠✍

✞☞✑✏☞✠☛✏✗ ♣✑✟✎ ❡✡✕✠✡❡❡✑✠✡✕ ✞✟✠✡☛ ✟❢ ✚✠❡✔ ✌✛✛

❡✛❡✍☛✑✟✡✠✍✿ ✍✟✎✎☞✡✠✍✌☛✠✟✡ ✌✡✒ ✎❡✍✙✌✡✠✍✌✛

✒❡✚✠✍❡✏ ✑❡✛✓ ✟✡ ✏✟✎❡ ❢✟✑✎✏ ✟❢ ❡✡❡✑✕✓

☛✑✌✡✏❢✟✑✎✌☛✠✟✡✗

✻★✩✩ ✭❁❂❊❃

❖❢☛❡✡ ✠☛ ✠✏ ✠✡☛❡✑❡✏☛✠✡✕ ☛✟ ❞✡✟✔ ✡✟☛ ✟✡✛✓ ☛✙❡ ✔✟✑❞

✒✟✡❡ ✟✡ ✌✡ ✟❜❄❡✍☛✿ ❜☞☛ ✌✛✏✟ ☛✙❡ ✑✌☛❡ ✌☛ ✔✙✠✍✙

☛✙✠✏ ✔✟✑❞ ✠✏ ✒✟✡❡✗ ❲❡ ✏✌✓ ✌ ✞❡✑✏✟✡ ✠✏ ✞✙✓✏✠✍✌✛✛✓

❢✠☛ ✠❢ ✙❡ ✡✟☛ ✟✡✛✓ ✍✛✠✎❜✏ ❢✟☞✑ ❢✛✟✟✑✏ ✟❢ ✌ ❜☞✠✛✒✠✡✕

❜☞☛ ✍✛✠✎❜✏ ☛✙❡✎ ❢✌✏☛✗ ✭✴❅✬✮ ✠✏ ✒❡❢✠✡❡✒ ✌✏ ☛✙❡

☛✠✎❡ ✑✌☛❡ ✌☛ ✔✙✠✍✙ ✔✟✑❞ ✠✏ ✒✟✡❡ ✟✑ ❡✡❡✑✕✓ ✠✏

☛✑✌✡✏❢❡✑✑❡✒✗

✘✙❡ ✌✚❡✑✌✕❡ ✞✟✔❡✑ ✟❢ ✌ ❢✟✑✍❡ ✠✏ ✒❡❢✠✡❡✒ ✌✏ ☛✙❡

✑✌☛✠✟ ✟❢ ☛✙❡ ✔✟✑❞✿ ❆✿ ☛✟ ☛✙❡ ☛✟☛✌✛ ☛✠✎❡ t ☛✌❞❡✡

❇❈

❉❛❋ ●

✘✙❡ ✠✡✏☛✌✡☛✌✡❡✟☞✏ ✞✟✔❡✑ ✠✏ ✒❡❢✠✡❡✒ ✌✏ ☛✙❡

✛✠✎✠☛✠✡✕ ✚✌✛☞❡ ✟❢ ☛✙❡ ✌✚❡✑✌✕❡ ✞✟✔❡✑ ✌✏ ☛✠✎❡

✠✡☛❡✑✚✌✛ ✌✞✞✑✟✌✍✙❡✏ ✖❡✑✟✿

❈❇

❉● s❏✗✜✦✤

✘✙❡ ✔✟✑❞ ❑❆ ✒✟✡❡ ❜✓ ✌ ❢✟✑✍❡ ♣ ❢✟✑ ✌ ✒✠✏✞✛✌✍❡✎❡✡☛

❑✮ ✠✏ ❑❆ ▲ ▼★❑✮✗ ✘✙❡ ✠✡✏☛✌✡☛✌✡❡✟☞✏ ✞✟✔❡✑ ✍✌✡

✌✛✏✟ ❜❡ ❡◆✞✑❡✏✏❡✒ ✌✏

■❇

❉● ◗❘

r

❯ ▼★✹ s❏✗✜✜✤

✔✙❡✑❡ ✹ ✠✏ ☛✙❡ ✠✡✏☛✌✡☛✌✡❡✟☞✏ ✚❡✛✟✍✠☛✓ ✔✙❡✡ ☛✙❡

❢✟✑✍❡ ✠✏ ▼✗

❱✟✔❡✑✿ ✛✠❞❡ ✔✟✑❞ ✌✡✒ ❡✡❡✑✕✓✿ ✠✏ ✌ ✏✍✌✛✌✑

❧☞✌✡☛✠☛✓✗ ♦☛✏ ✒✠✎❡✡✏✠✟✡✏ ✌✑❡ q❳❨❩✘➊❬❪✗ ♦✡ ☛✙❡ ❙♦✿

✠☛✏ ☞✡✠☛ ✠✏ ✍✌✛✛❡✒ ✌ ✔✌☛☛ s❲✤✗ ✘✙❡ ✔✌☛☛ ✠✏ ✦ ❭ ✏➊❫✗

✘✙❡ ☞✡✠☛ ✟❢ ✞✟✔❡✑ ✠✏ ✡✌✎❡✒ ✌❢☛❡✑ ❭✌✎❡✏ ❲✌☛☛✿

✟✡❡ ✟❢ ☛✙❡ ✠✡✡✟✚✌☛✟✑✏ ✟❢ ☛✙❡ ✏☛❡✌✎ ❡✡✕✠✡❡ ✠✡ ☛✙❡

❡✠✕✙☛❡❡✡☛✙ ✍❡✡☛☞✑✓✗

✘✙❡✑❡ ✠✏ ✌✡✟☛✙❡✑ ☞✡✠☛ ✟❢ ✞✟✔❡✑✿ ✡✌✎❡✛✓ ☛✙❡

✙✟✑✏❡✐✞✟✔❡✑ s✙✞✤

✦ ✙✞ ❴ ❵✢❏ ❲

✘✙✠✏ ☞✡✠☛ ✠✏ ✏☛✠✛✛ ☞✏❡✒ ☛✟ ✒❡✏✍✑✠❜❡ ☛✙❡ ✟☞☛✞☞☛ ✟❢

✌☞☛✟✎✟❜✠✛❡✏✿ ✎✟☛✟✑❜✠❞❡✏✿ ❡☛✍✗

❲❡ ❡✡✍✟☞✡☛❡✑ ☛✙❡ ☞✡✠☛ ✔✌☛☛ ✔✙❡✡ ✔❡ ❜☞✓

❡✛❡✍☛✑✠✍✌✛ ✕✟✟✒✏ ✏☞✍✙ ✌✏ ❜☞✛❜✏✿ ✙❡✌☛❡✑✏ ✌✡✒

✑❡❢✑✠✕❡✑✌☛✟✑✏✗ ❝ ✦✣✣ ✔✌☛☛ ❜☞✛❜ ✔✙✠✍✙ ✠✏ ✟✡ ❢✟✑ ✦✣

✙✟☞✑✏ ☞✏❡✏ ✦ ❞✠✛✟✔✌☛☛ ✙✟☞✑ s❞❲✙✤ ✟❢ ❡✡❡✑✕✓✗

✦✣✣ s✔✌☛☛✤ × ✦✣ s✙✟☞✑✤

▲ ✦✣✣✣ ✔✌☛☛ ✙✟☞✑

▲✦ ❞✠✛✟✔✌☛☛ ✙✟☞✑ s❞❲✙✤

▲ ✦✣❬ s❲✤ × ❣❏✣✣ s✏✤

▲ ❣✗❏ × ✦✣❤ ❭

❖☞✑ ❡✛❡✍☛✑✠✍✠☛✓ ❜✠✛✛✏ ✍✌✑✑✓ ☛✙❡ ❡✡❡✑✕✓

✍✟✡✏☞✎✞☛✠✟✡ ✠✡ ☞✡✠☛✏ ✟❢ ❞❲✙✗ ❥✟☛❡ ☛✙✌☛ ❞❲✙ ✠✏

✌ ☞✡✠☛ ✟❢ ❡✡❡✑✕✓ ✌✡✒ ✡✟☛ ✟❢ ✞✟✔❡✑✗

❦♠♥✉✈✇① ②③④④ ❝✡ ❡✛❡✚✌☛✟✑ ✍✌✡ ✍✌✑✑✓ ✌

✎✌◆✠✎☞✎ ✛✟✌✒ ✟❢ ✦⑤✣✣ ❞✕ s❡✛❡✚✌☛✟✑ ⑥

✞✌✏✏❡✡✕❡✑✏✤ ✠✏ ✎✟✚✠✡✕ ☞✞ ✔✠☛✙ ✌ ✍✟✡✏☛✌✡☛

✏✞❡❡✒ ✟❢ ✜✎ ✏➊❫✗ ✘✙❡ ❢✑✠✍☛✠✟✡✌✛ ❢✟✑✍❡✟✞✞✟✏✠✡✕

☛✙❡ ✎✟☛✠✟✡ ✠✏ ✢✣✣✣ ❥✗ ⑦❡☛❡✑✎✠✡❡ ☛✙❡

✎✠✡✠✎☞✎ ✞✟✔❡✑ ✒❡✛✠✚❡✑❡✒ ❜✓ ☛✙❡ ✎✟☛✟✑ ☛✟

☛✙❡ ❡✛❡✚✌☛✟✑ ✠✡ ✔✌☛☛✏ ✌✏ ✔❡✛✛ ✌✏ ✠✡ ✙✟✑✏❡

✞✟✔❡✑✗

Page 133: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶☛☞

❆✌✍✎✏✑ ❚✒✓ ✔✕✖✗✖✘✙✔ ✚✕✙✛✓ ✕✗ ✜✒✓ ✓✢✓✣✘✜✕✙ ✤✥

❋ ✦ ✧ ★ ✩ ❋❢✦ ✭✪✫✬✬ × ✪✬✮ ✩ ✯✬✬✬ ✰ ✱✱✬✬✬ ✲

❚✒✓✳✕✜✕✙ ✳✴✥✜ ✥✴✵✵✢✷ ✓✗✕✴✸✒✵✕✖✓✙ ✜✕ ✹✘✢✘✗✛✓

✜✒✤✥ ✚✕✙✛✓t ✺✓✗✛✓✻

P ✦ ✼✽ ✾ ✦ ✱✱✬✬✬ × ✱ ✦ ✯✯✬✬✬ ✿ ✦ ❀❁ ✒✵ ❂

❃✽❄❅ ❈❇❉❉❊●❊❇❍●

■✗ ✵✒✷✥✤✛✥ ✖✓ ✥✜✴✔✷✳✕✜✤✕✗ ✭✛✒✘✗✸✓ ✤✗ ✵✕✥✤✜✤✕✗✮t

❏✜ ✜✒✓ ✥✘✳✓ ✜✤✳✓✻ ✖✓ ✜✙✷ ✜✕ ✔✤✥✛✕✣✓✙ ✵✒✷✥✤✛✘✢

q✴✘✗✜✤✜✤✓✥✻ ✖✒✤✛✒ ✔✕ ✗✕✜ ✛✒✘✗✸✓ ✤✗ ✘ ✵✒✷✥✤✛✘✢

✵✙✕✛✓✥✥t ❚✒✓ ✢✘✖✥ ✕✚ ✳✕✳✓✗✜✴✳ ✘✗✔ ✓✗✓✙✸✷

✛✕✗✥✓✙✣✘✜✤✕✗ ✘✙✓ ✜✷✵✤✛✘✢ ✓❝✘✳✵✢✓✥t ■✗ ✜✒✤✥

✥✓✛✜✤✕✗ ✖✓ ✥✒✘✢✢ ✘✵✵✢✷ ✜✒✓✥✓ ✢✘✖✥ ✜✕ ✘ ✛✕✳✳✕✗✢✷

✓✗✛✕✴✗✜✓✙✓✔ ✵✒✓✗✕✳✓✗✘✻ ✗✘✳✓✢✷ ✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗✥t

❙✓✣✓✙✘✢ ✸✘✳✓✥ ✥✴✛✒ ✘✥ ✹✤✢✢✤✘✙✔✥✻ ✳✘✙✹✢✓✥ ✕✙

✛✘✙✙✕✳ ✤✗✣✕✢✣✓ ✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗✥t✿✓ ✥✒✘✢✢ ✥✜✴✔✷ ✜✒✓

✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗ ✕✚ ✜✖✕ ✳✘✥✥✓✥ ✤✗ ✘✗ ✤✔✓✘✢✤✥✓✔ ✚✕✙✳t❑✕✗✥✤✔✓✙ ✜✖✕ ✳✘✥✥✓✥ ✧▲ ✘✗✔✧▼t ❚✒✓ ✵✘✙✜✤✛✢✓

✧▲ ✤✥ ✳✕✣✤✗✸ ✖✤✜✒ ✥✵✓✓✔ ✈▲◆ ✻ ✜✒✓ ✥✴✹✥✛✙✤✵✜ ❖✐➆

✤✳✵✢✷✤✗✸ ✤✗✤✜✤✘✢t ✿✓ ✛✘✗ ✛✕✥✤✔✓✙ ✧▼ ✜✕ ✹✓ ✘✜ ✙✓✥✜t✲✕ ✢✕✥✥ ✕✚ ✸✓✗✓✙✘✢✤✜✷ ✤✥ ✤✗✣✕✢✣✓✔ ✤✗ ✳✘◗✤✗✸ ✥✴✛✒

✘ ✥✓✢✓✛✜✤✕✗t ■✗ ✜✒✤✥ ✥✤✜✴✘✜✤✕✗ ✜✒✓ ✳✘✥✥ ✧▲✛✕✢✢✤✔✓✥ ✖✤✜✒ ✜✒✓ ✥✜✘✜✤✕✗✘✙✷ ✳✘✥✥ ✧▼ ✘✗✔ ✜✒✤✥

✤✥ ✔✓✵✤✛✜✓✔ ✤✗ ❘✤✸t ❯t✪✬t

❱❳❨❩❬❩❭❪❫❴❵❵❛❜❛❴❞❴❡❣❤❜❜✧▲❥❦❛❧♠❤❜❧❤❧❛❴❞❤♥♦❣❤❜❜✧▼♣

❚✒✓ ✳✘✥✥✓✥ ✧r ✘✗✔ ✧s ✚✢✷✉✕✚✚ ✤✗ ✔✤✚✚✓✙✓✗✜

✔✤✙✓✛✜✤✕✗✥t ✿✓ ✥✒✘✢✢ ✥✓✓ ✜✒✘✜ ✜✒✓✙✓ ✘✙✓

✙✓✢✘✜✤✕✗✥✒✤✵✥✻ ✖✒✤✛✒ ✛✕✗✗✓✛✜ ✜✒✓ ✳✘✥✥✓✥✻ ✜✒✓

✣✓✢✕✛✤✜✤✓✥ ✘✗✔ ✜✒✓ ✘✗✸✢✓✥t

❃✽❄❅✽❄ ✇①②③④⑤⑥ ②⑦⑧ ❊⑦⑨①②③④⑤⑥ ❈⑩①①⑤③⑤⑩⑦③

■✗ ✘✢✢ ✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗✥ ✜✒✓ ✜✕✜✘✢ ✢✤✗✓✘✙ ✳✕✳✓✗✜✴✳ ✤✥

✛✕✗✥✓✙✣✓✔❶ ✜✒✓ ✤✗✤✜✤✘✢ ✳✕✳✓✗✜✴✳ ✕✚ ✜✒✓ ✥✷✥✜✓✳

✤✥ ✓q✴✘✢ ✜✕ ✜✒✓ ✚✤✗✘✢ ✳✕✳✓✗✜✴✳ ✕✚ ✜✒✓ ✥✷✥✜✓✳t❷✗✓ ✛✘✗ ✘✙✸✴✓ ✜✒✤✥ ✘✥ ✚✕✢✢✕✖✥t ✿✒✓✗ ✜✖✕ ✕✹❸✓✛✜✥

✛✕✢✢✤✔✓✻ ✜✒✓ ✳✴✜✴✘✢ ✤✳✵✴✢✥✤✣✓ ✚✕✙✛✓✥ ✘✛✜✤✗✸ ✕✣✓✙

✜✒✓ ✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗ ✜✤✳✓ ❹❺ ✛✘✴✥✓ ✘ ✛✒✘✗✸✓ ✤✗ ✜✒✓✤✙

✙✓✥✵✓✛✜✤✣✓ ✳✕✳✓✗✜✘ ❻

❹❼r ❽ ✼rs ❹❺

❹❼s ❽ ✼sr ❹❺

✖✒✓✙✓ ✼rs ✤✥ ✜✒✓ ✚✕✙✛✓ ✓❝✓✙✜✓✔ ✕✗ ✜✒✓ ✚✤✙✥✜ ✵✘✙✜✤✛✢✓

✹✷ ✜✒✓ ✥✓✛✕✗✔ ✵✘✙✜✤✛✢✓t ✼sr ✤✥ ✢✤◗✓✖✤✥✓ ✜✒✓ ✚✕✙✛✓

✓❝✓✙✜✓✔ ✕✗ ✜✒✓ ✥✓✛✕✗✔✵✘✙✜✤✛✢✓ ✹✷ ✜✒✓ ✚✤✙✥✜ ✵✘✙✜✤✛✢✓t✲✕✖ ✚✙✕✳ ✲✓✖✜✕✗➆✥ ❚✒✤✙✔ ❾✘✖✻ ✼rs ✰ ❿✼srt ❚✒✤✥

✤✳✵✢✤✓✥

❹❼r ➀ ❹❼s ✦ ➁

❚✒✓ ✘✹✕✣✓ ✛✕✗✛✢✴✥✤✕✗ ✤✥ ✜✙✴✓ ✓✣✓✗ ✜✒✕✴✸✒ ✜✒✓

✚✕✙✛✓✥ ✣✘✙✷ ✤✗ ✘ ✛✕✳✵✢✓❝ ✚✘✥✒✤✕✗ ✔✴✙✤✗✸ ✜✒✓

✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗ ✜✤✳✓ ❹❺t ❙✤✗✛✓ ✜✒✓ ✜✒✤✙✔ ✢✘✖ ✤✥ ✜✙✴✓ ✘✜

✓✣✓✙✷ ✤✗✥✜✘✗✜✻ ✜✒✓ ✜✕✜✘✢ ✤✳✵✴✢✥✓ ✕✗ ✜✒✓ ✚✤✙✥✜ ✕✹❸✓✛✜

✤✥ ✓q✴✘✢ ✘✗✔ ✕✵✵✕✥✤✜✓ ✜✕ ✜✒✘✜ ✕✗ ✜✒✓ ✥✓✛✕✗✔t❷✗ ✜✒✓ ✕✜✒✓✙ ✒✘✗✔✻ ✜✒✓ ✜✕✜✘✢ ◗✤✗✓✜✤✛ ✓✗✓✙✸✷ ✕✚

✜✒✓ ✥✷✥✜✓✳ ✤✥ ✗✕✜ ✗✓✛✓✥✥✘✙✤✢✷ ✛✕✗✥✓✙✣✓✔t ❚✒✓

✤✳✵✘✛✜ ✘✗✔ ✔✓✚✕✙✳✘✜✤✕✗ ✔✴✙✤✗✸ ✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗ ✳✘✷

✸✓✗✓✙✘✜✓ ✒✓✘✜ ✘✗✔✥✕✴✗✔t ➂✘✙✜ ✕✚ ✜✒✓ ✤✗✤✜✤✘✢ ◗✤✗✓✜✤✛

✓✗✓✙✸✷ ✤✥ ✜✙✘✗✥✚✕✙✳✓✔ ✤✗✜✕ ✕✜✒✓✙ ✚✕✙✳✥ ✕✚ ✓✗✓✙✸✷t

❏ ✴✥✓✚✴✢ ✖✘✷ ✜✕ ✣✤✥✴✘✢✤✥✓ ✜✒✓ ✔✓✚✕✙✳✘✜✤✕✗ ✔✴✙✤✗✸

✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗ ✤✥ ✤✗ ✜✓✙✳✥ ✕✚ ✘ ❖✛✕✳✵✙✓✥✥✓✔ ✥✵✙✤✗✸➆t ■✚

✜✒✓ ❖✥✵✙✤✗✸➆ ✛✕✗✗✓✛✜✤✗✸ ✜✒✓ ✜✖✕ ✳✘✥✥✓✥ ✙✓✸✘✤✗✥

✤✜✥ ✕✙✤✸✤✗✘✢ ✥✒✘✵✓ ✖✤✜✒✕✴✜ ✢✕✥✥ ✤✗ ✓✗✓✙✸✷✻ ✜✒✓✗

✜✒✓ ✤✗✤✜✤✘✢ ◗✤✗✓✜✤✛ ✓✗✓✙✸✷ ✤✥ ✓q✴✘✢ ✜✕ ✜✒✓ ✚✤✗✘✢◗✤✗✓✜✤✛ ✓✗✓✙✸✷ ✹✴✜ ✜✒✓ ◗✤✗✓✜✤✛ ✓✗✓✙✸✷ ✔✴✙✤✗✸ ✜✒✓

✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗ ✜✤✳✓ ❹❺ ✤✥ ✗✕✜ ✛✕✗✥✜✘✗✜t ❙✴✛✒ ✘ ✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗

✤✥ ✛✘✢✢✓✔ ✘✗ ⑨①②③④⑤⑥ ⑥⑩①①⑤③⑤⑩⑦t ❷✗ ✜✒✓ ✕✜✒✓✙ ✒✘✗✔

✜✒✓ ✔✓✚✕✙✳✘✜✤✕✗ ✳✘✷ ✗✕✜ ✹✓ ✙✓✢✤✓✣✓✔ ✘✗✔ ✜✒✓ ✜✖✕

✹✕✔✤✓✥ ✛✕✴✢✔ ✳✕✣✓ ✜✕✸✓✜✒✓✙ ✘✚✜✓✙ ✜✒✓ ✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗t ❏

✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗ ✤✗ ✖✒✤✛✒ ✜✒✓ ✜✖✕✵✘✙✜✤✛✢✓✥ ✳✕✣✓ ✜✕✸✓✜✒✓✙

✘✚✜✓✙ ✜✒✓ ✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗ ✤✥ ✛✘✢✢✓✔ ✘⑥⑩➃❼①⑨④⑨①➄ ⑤⑦⑨①②③④⑤⑥

⑥⑩①①⑤③⑤⑩⑦t ❚✒✓ ✤✗✜✓✙✳✓✔✤✘✜✓ ✛✘✥✓ ✖✒✓✙✓ ✜✒✓

✔✓✚✕✙✳✘✜✤✕✗ ✤✥ ✵✘✙✜✢✷ ✙✓✢✤✓✣✓✔ ✘✗✔ ✥✕✳✓ ✕✚ ✜✒✓

✤✗✤✜✤✘✢ ◗✤✗✓✜✤✛ ✓✗✓✙✸✷ ✤✥ ✢✕✥✜ ✤✥ ✳✕✙✓ ✛✕✳✳✕✗ ✘✗✔

✤✥ ✘✵✵✙✕✵✙✤✘✜✓✢✷ ✛✘✢✢✓✔ ✘✗ ⑤⑦⑨①②③④⑤⑥ ⑥⑩①①⑤③⑤⑩⑦t

❃✽❄❅✽❅ ❈⑩①①⑤③⑤⑩⑦③ ⑤⑦ ❇⑦⑨ ➅⑤➃⑨⑦③⑤⑩⑦

❑✕✗✥✤✔✓✙ ✚✤✙✥✜ ✘ ⑥⑩➃❼①⑨④⑨①➄ ⑤⑦⑨①②③④⑤⑥ ⑥⑩①①⑤③⑤⑩⑦

✤✗ ✕✗✓ ✔✤✳✓✗✥✤✕✗t ❚✒✓✗✻ ✤✗ ❘✤✸t ❯t✪✬✻

➇ r ✦ ➇ s ✦ ✬

✧r✈r◆ ✦ ✭✧r➀✧s✮✈❢ ✭✳✕✳✓✗✜✴✳ ✛✕✗✥✓✙✣✘✜✤✕✗✮

➈➈

➈ ➉➊ ➋

➌➍ ➍

➌ ➌➎

➏✭❯t✱➐✮

❚✒✓ ✢✕✥✥ ✤✗ ◗✤✗✓✜✤✛ ✓✗✓✙✸✷ ✕✗ ✛✕✢✢✤✥✤✕✗ ✤✥

➉ ➉➈ ➈ ➉

➑ ➑

➒ ➒➓➋ ➊➔ ➌ ➍ ➌ ➌ ➍→ ➎ ➣ ➏↔ ↕

➙➙ ➙➛

➛ ➛ ➛➛ ➙

➜ ➜

➝ ➝➞ ➞

➟➟ ➠ ➠

➟ ➟➡ ➢

➤➥✴✥✤✗✸ ➦qt ✭❯t✱➐✮➧

➨ ➩➩ ➩

➩ ➨

➫➫

➭➯

➲➲ ➳

➲ ➲

➵ ➸➺ ➻➼ ➽

➾➚ ➪

Page 134: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

✷✟ ✷✟

✟ ✷

✡✐

♠ ♠✈

♠ ♠❂

✇☛☞✌☛ ☞✍ ✎ ✏✑✍☞✒☞✓✔ ✕✖✎✗✒☞✒✘ ✎✍ ✔✙✏✔✌✒✔✚✛

❈✑✗✍☞✚✔✜ ✗✔✙✒ ✎✗ ✔✢✎✍✒☞✌ ✌✑✢✢☞✍☞✑✗✳ ✥✍☞✗✣ ✒☛✔

✎❛✑✓✔ ✗✑✤✔✗✌✢✎✒✖✜✔ ✇☞✒☛ ✦✧ ★ ✦✩ ★ ✪✫ ✒☛✔

✤✑✤✔✗✒✖✤ ✎✗✚ ✬☞✗✔✒☞✌ ✔✗✔✜✣✘ ✌✑✗✍✔✜✓✎✒☞✑✗

✔✕✖✎✒☞✑✗✍ ✎✜✔

✭✧✮✧✯ ★ ✭✧✮✧❢ ✱ ✭✩✮✩❢ ✲✴✛✵✸✹

✷ ✷ ✷✟ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✷ ✷✐ ✺ ✺♠ ✈ ♠ ✈ ♠ ✈❂ ✰ ✲✴✛✵✻✹

❋✜✑✤ ✼✕✍✛ ✲✴✛✵✸✹ ✎✗✚ ✲✴✛✵✻✹ ☞✒ ✽✑✢✢✑✇✍ ✒☛✎✒✫

✾ ✾ ✿ ✾ ✾ ✾ ✿ ✾❀ ❁ ❀ ❁❃ ❄ ❃ ❄ ❄ ❄❅ ❆ ❆ ❆ ❅ ❆ ❆ ❆❾ ❇ ❾

✑✜✫✷ ✷

✷ ✟ ✟ ✟ ✟❉ ❊✺ ✐ ✺ ✐ ✺✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✈● ❂ ●

❍ ❍ ❍ ❍■ ❏■ ❏❑ ▲ ❑ ▲▼ ▼ ▼ ▼◆ ❖ ◗

❘✔✗✌✔✫ ❙ ❍ ❍▲ ❑ ▲▼ ▼ ▼❚ ◆ ◗ ✲✴✛✵✴✹

❯✖❛✍✒☞✒✖✒☞✗✣ ✒☛☞✍ ☞✗ ✼✕✛ ✲✴✛✵✸✹✫ ✇✔ ✑❛✒✎☞✗

✟ ✷✟ ✟

✟ ✷

❉ ❊✺ ✐

♠ ♠✈ ✈

♠ ♠

●❂

✰✲✴✛✵❱✹

✎✗✚✟ ✟

✷✟ ✷

✡ ✐✺

♠ ✈✈

♠ ♠❂

✰✲✴✛✵❲✹

❳☛✖✍✫ ✒☛✔ ❨✖✗✬✗✑✇✗✍❩ ❬✮✧❢✫ ✮❭❢⑥ ✎✜✔ ✑❛✒✎☞✗✔✚ ☞✗

✒✔✜✤✍ ✑✽ ✒☛✔ ❨✬✗✑✇✗✍❩ ❬✭✧✫ ✭✩✫ ✮✧✯⑥✛ ❯✏✔✌☞✎✢ ✌✎✍✔✍

✑✽ ✑✖✜ ✎✗✎✢✘✍☞✍ ✎✜✔ ☞✗✒✔✜✔✍✒☞✗✣✛

❪❫❴❵ ❜ ❝ ❞✽ ✒☛✔ ✒✇✑ ✤✎✍✍✔✍ ✎✜✔ ✔✕✖✎✢

✮✧❢ ★ ✪

✮✩❢ ★ ✮✧✯

❳☛✔ ✽☞✜✍✒ ✤✎✍✍ ✌✑✤✔✍ ✒✑ ✜✔✍✒ ✎✗✚ ✏✖✍☛✔✍ ✑✽✽ ✒☛✔

✍✔✌✑✗✚ ✤✎✍✍ ✇☞✒☛ ☞✒✍ ☞✗☞✒☞✎✢ ✍✏✔✔✚ ✑✗ ✌✑✢✢☞✍☞✑✗✛

❪❫❴❵ ❜❜ ❝ ❞✽ ✑✗✔ ✤✎✍✍ ✚✑✤☞✗✎✒✔✍✫ ✔✛✣✛ ✭✩ ❡ ❡ ✭✧✮✧❢ ⑦ ❣✮✧✯ ✮✩❢ ⑦ ✪

❳☛✔ ☛✔✎✓☞✔✜ ✤✎✍✍ ☞✍ ✖✗✚☞✍✒✖✜❛✔✚ ✇☛☞✢✔ ✒☛✔

✢☞✣☛✒✔✜ ✤✎✍✍ ✜✔✓✔✜✍✔✍ ☞✒✍ ✓✔✢✑✌☞✒✘✛

❤❥❦❧♥♦♣ qrst ✉①②③④⑤⑧ ⑨②③⑤②⑩⑤❵❶❷❸②⑤❴❹

❞✗ ✎ ✗✖✌✢✔✎✜ ✜✔✎✌✒✑✜ ✎ ✗✔✖✒✜✑✗ ✑✽ ☛☞✣☛

✍✏✔✔✚ ✲✒✘✏☞✌✎✢✢✘ ❺✪❻ ✤ ✍➊✧✹ ✤✖✍✒ ❛✔ ✍✢✑✇✔✚

❼⑤ ❵❽❿❵❸④➀❵⑤❷ ②⑤ ➁❵❫⑨➂②⑤ ➃②①①④❴④②⑤

❞✗ ✏✔✜✽✑✜✤☞✗✣ ✎✗ ✔✙✏✔✜☞✤✔✗✒ ✑✗ ✌✑✢✢☞✍☞✑✗ ✑✗ ✎ ☛✑✜☞➄✑✗✒✎✢ ✍✖✜✽✎✌✔✫ ✇✔ ✽✎✌✔ ✒☛✜✔✔ ✚☞✽✽☞✌✖✢✒☞✔✍✛

➅✗✔✫ ✒☛✔✜✔ ✇☞✢✢ ❛✔ ✽✜☞✌✒☞✑✗ ✎✗✚ ❛✑✚☞✔✍ ✇☞✢✢ ✗✑✒ ✒✜✎✓✔✢ ✇☞✒☛ ✖✗☞✽✑✜✤ ✓✔✢✑✌☞✒☞✔✍✛ ❳✇✑✫ ☞✽ ✒✇✑ ❛✑✚☞✔✍

✑✽ ✚☞✽✽✔✜✔✗✒ ✍☞➄✔✍ ✌✑✢✢☞✚✔ ✑✗ ✎ ✒✎❛✢✔✫ ☞✒ ✇✑✖✢✚ ❛✔ ✚☞✽✽☞✌✖✢✒ ✒✑ ✎✜✜✎✗✣✔ ✒☛✔✤ ✽✑✜ ✎ ☛✔✎✚➆✑✗ ✌✑✢✢☞✍☞✑✗

✖✗✢✔✍✍ ✒☛✔☞✜ ✌✔✗✒✜✔✍ ✑✽ ✤✎✍✍ ✎✜✔ ✎✒ ✒☛✔ ✍✎✤✔ ☛✔☞✣☛✒ ✎❛✑✓✔ ✒☛✔ ✍✖✜✽✎✌✔✛ ❳☛✜✔✔✫ ☞✒ ✇☞✢✢ ❛✔ ✽✎☞✜✢✘

✚☞✽✽☞✌✖✢✒ ✒✑ ✤✔✎✍✖✜✔ ✓✔✢✑✌☞✒☞✔✍ ✑✽ ✒☛✔ ✒✇✑ ❛✑✚☞✔✍ ➇✖✍✒ ❛✔✽✑✜✔ ✎✗✚ ➇✖✍✒ ✎✽✒✔✜ ✌✑✢✢☞✍☞✑✗✛

➈✘ ✏✔✜✽✑✜✤☞✗✣ ✒☛☞✍ ✔✙✏✔✜☞✤✔✗✒ ☞✗ ✎ ✓✔✜✒☞✌✎✢ ✚☞✜✔✌✒☞✑✗✫ ✎✢✢ ✒☛✔ ✒☛✜✔✔ ✚☞✽✽☞✌✖✢✒☞✔✍ ✓✎✗☞✍☛✛ ❳✎✬✔

✒✇✑ ❛✎✢✢✍✫ ✑✗✔ ✑✽ ✇☛☞✌☛ ☞✍ ☛✔✎✓☞✔✜ ✲❛✎✍✬✔✒❛✎✢✢➉✽✑✑✒❛✎✢✢➉✓✑✢✢✔✘❛✎✢✢✹ ✎✗✚ ✒☛✔ ✑✒☛✔✜ ✢☞✣☛✒✔✜ ✲✒✔✗✗☞✍

❛✎✢✢➉✜✖❛❛✔✜ ❛✎✢✢➉✒✎❛✢✔ ✒✔✗✗☞✍ ❛✎✢✢✹✛ ❋☞✜✍✒ ✒✎✬✔ ✑✗✢✘ ✒☛✔ ☛✔✎✓☞✔✜ ❛✎✢✢ ✎✗✚ ✚✜✑✏ ☞✒ ✓✔✜✒☞✌✎✢✢✘ ✽✜✑✤

✍✑✤✔ ☛✔☞✣☛✒✫ ✍✎✘ ❺✤✛ ➋✑✒✔ ✒✑ ✇☛☞✌☛ ☞✒ ✜☞✍✔✍✛ ❳☛☞✍ ✣☞✓✔✍ ✒☛✔ ✓✔✢✑✌☞✒☞✔✍ ✗✔✎✜ ✒☛✔ ✽✢✑✑✜ ✑✜ ✣✜✑✖✗✚✫

➇✖✍✒ ❛✔✽✑✜✔ ✎✗✚ ➇✖✍✒ ✎✽✒✔✜ ✒☛✔ ❛✑✖✗✌✔ ✲❛✘ ✖✍☞✗✣➌➍❆ ➎➏❇ ✹✛ ❘✔✗✌✔ ✘✑✖

✇☞✢✢ ✣✔✒ ✒☛✔ ✌✑✔✽✽☞✌☞✔✗✒ ✑✽ ✜✔✍✒☞✒✖✒☞✑✗✛

➋✑✇ ✒✎✬✔ ✒☛✔ ❛☞✣ ❛✎✢✢ ✎✗✚ ✎ ✍✤✎✢✢ ❛✎✢✢ ✎✗✚ ☛✑✢✚ ✒☛✔✤ ☞✗ ✘✑✖✜

☛✎✗✚✍ ✑✗✔ ✑✓✔✜ ✒☛✔ ✑✒☛✔✜✫ ✇☞✒☛ ✒☛✔ ☛✔✎✓☞✔✜ ❛✎✢✢ ❛✔✢✑✇ ✒☛✔ ✢☞✣☛✒✔✜

✑✗✔✫ ✎✍ ✍☛✑✇✗ ☛✔✜✔✛ ➐✜✑✏ ✒☛✔✤ ✒✑✣✔✒☛✔✜✫ ✒✎✬☞✗✣ ✌✎✜✔ ✒☛✎✒ ✒☛✔✘ ✜✔✤✎☞✗

✒✑✣✔✒☛✔✜ ✇☛☞✢✔ ✽✎✢✢☞✗✣✫ ✎✗✚ ✍✔✔ ✇☛✎✒ ☛✎✏✏✔✗✍✛ ➑✑✖ ✇☞✢✢ ✽☞✗✚ ✒☛✎✒ ✒☛✔

☛✔✎✓☞✔✜ ❛✎✢✢ ✜☞✍✔✍ ✢✔✍✍ ✒☛✎✗ ✇☛✔✗ ☞✒ ✇✎✍ ✚✜✑✏✏✔✚ ✎✢✑✗✔✫ ✇☛☞✢✔ ✒☛✔

✢☞✣☛✒✔✜ ✑✗✔ ✍☛✑✑✒✍ ✖✏ ✒✑ ✎❛✑✖✒ ➒✤✛➓☞✒☛ ✏✜✎✌✒☞✌✔✫ ✘✑✖✇☞✢✢ ❛✔ ✎❛✢✔ ✒✑

☛✑✢✚ ✒☛✔ ❛✎✢✢ ✏✜✑✏✔✜✢✘ ✍✑ ✒☛✎✒ ✒☛✔ ✢☞✣☛✒✔✜ ❛✎✢✢ ✜☞✍✔✍ ✓✔✜✒☞✌✎✢✢✘ ✖✏ ✎✗✚

✚✑✔✍ ✗✑✒ ✽✢✘ ✍☞✚✔✇✎✘✍✛ ❳☛☞✍ ☞✍ ☛✔✎✚➆✑✗ ✌✑✢✢☞✍☞✑✗✛

➑✑✖ ✌✎✗ ✒✜✘ ✒✑ ✽☞✗✚ ✒☛✔ ❛✔✍✒ ✌✑✤❛☞✗✎✒☞✑✗ ✑✽ ❛✎✢✢✍ ✇☛☞✌☛ ✣☞✓✔✍ ✘✑✖

✒☛✔ ❛✔✍✒ ✔✽✽✔✌✒✛ ➑✑✖ ✌✎✗✤✔✎✍✖✜✔ ✒☛✔ ✤✎✍✍✔✍ ✑✗ ✎ ✍✒✎✗✚✎✜✚ ❛✎✢✎✗✌✔✛

➓✔ ✢✔✎✓✔ ☞✒ ✒✑ ✘✑✖ ✒✑ ✒☛☞✗✬ ☛✑✇ ✘✑✖ ✌✎✗ ✚✔✒✔✜✤☞✗✔ ✒☛✔ ☞✗☞✒☞✎✢ ✎✗✚

✽☞✗✎✢ ✓✔✢✑✌☞✒☞✔✍ ✑✽ ✒☛✔ ❛✎✢✢✍✛

Page 135: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶☛✶

t✌ ✍✎✸ ✥ ✏➊✑ ✏✌ t✒✓t ✔t ✕✓✖ ✒✓✗✘ ✓ ✒✔✙✒

♣✚✌✛✓✛✔✜✔t✢ ✌✣ ✔✖t✘✚✓✕t✔✖✙ ✤✔t✒ ✔✏✌t✌♣✘ ✾✦✦✷✧❯

✓✖❛ ✕✓★✏✔✖✙ ✔t t✌ ✣✔✏✏✔✌✖✩ ✪✒✌✤ t✒✓t ✓✖✘★t✚✌✖ ✕✓✖ ✜✌✏✘ ✥✌✏t ✌✣ ✔t✏ ♥✔✖✘t✔✕ ✘✖✘✚✙✢✔✖ ✓✖ ✘✜✓✏t✔✕ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖ ✤✔t✒ ✓ ✜✔✙✒t ✖★✕✜✘✔✜✔♥✘ ❛✘★t✘✚✔★✥ ✌✚ ✕✓✚✛✌✖✤✒✔✕✒ ✒✓✏ ✓ ✥✓✏✏✌✣ ✌✖✜✢ ✓ ✣✘✤ t✔✥✘✏ t✒✘ ✖✘★t✚✌✖ ✥✓✏✏✩ ♦✒✘✥✓t✘✚✔✓✜✥✓♥✔✖✙ ★♣ t✒✘ ✜✔✙✒t ✖★✕✜✘✔♠ ★✏★✓✜✜✢✒✘✓✗✢ ✤✓t✘✚ ❤✫✬❖✭ ✌✚ ✙✚✓♣✒✔t✘♠ ✔✏ ✕✓✜✜✘❛ ✓✥✌❛✘✚✓t✌✚✩

❆✮✯✰✱✲ ♦✒✘ ✔✖✔t✔✓✜ ♥✔✖✘t✔✕ ✘✖✘✚✙✢ ✌✣ t✒✘ ✖✘★t✚✌✖✔✏

✳✴ ✴ ✴

✵✹✐ ✐❑ ✺ ✈❂

✤✒✔✜✘ ✔t✏ ✣✔✖✓✜ ♥✔✖✘t✔✕ ✘✖✘✚✙✢ ✣✚✌✥ ✇✻✩ ❤✼✩✽✿✭❀

❀ ❀❁ ❀❁ ❁ ❁ ❁ ❁

❁ ❀

❃ ❃❄ ❄❢ ❢ ❅

❇ ❇❈ ❇ ❉ ❇ ❉

❇ ❇❊ ❋❾

● ● ❍ ■❏▲ ▼

♦✒✘ ✣✚✓✕t✔✌✖✓✜ ♥✔✖✘t✔✕ ✘✖✘✚✙✢ ✜✌✏t ✔✏❀

❁ ❁ ❀❁

❁ ❁ ❀

❈ ❇ ❇◆

❈ ❇ ❇❊ ❋❾

● ● ❍ ■❏▲ ▼

✤✒✔✜✘ t✒✘ ✣✚✓✕t✔✌✖✓✜ ♥✔✖✘t✔✕ ✘✖✘✚✙✢ ✙✓✔✖✘❛ ✛✢ t✒✘✥✌❛✘✚✓t✔✖✙ ✖★✕✜✘✔ P◗❘ ❙P❚❱ ✔✏

❳◗ ❨ ❩ ❬❳✑ ❤✘✜✓✏t✔✕ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖✭

❭ ❪❫ ❴

❴❫ ❴

❵❜ ❜

❜ ❜❝

❖✖✘ ✕✓✖ ✓✜✏✌ ✗✘✚✔✣✢ t✒✔✏ ✚✘✏★✜t ✛✢ ✏★✛✏t✔t★t✔✖✙✣✚✌✥ ✇✻✩ ❤✼✩✽❡✭✩❣✌✚ ❛✘★t✘✚✔★✥ ❥◗ ❨ ✽❥✑ ✓✖❛ ✤✘ ✌✛t✓✔✖

❳✑ ❨ ✍❙❦ ✤✒✔✜✘ ❳◗ ❨ ❡❙❦✩ ❧✜✥✌✏t ❦✎q ✌✣ t✒✘✖✘★t✚✌✖r✏ ✘✖✘✚✙✢ ✔✏ t✚✓✖✏✣✘✚✚✘❛ t✌ ❛✘★t✘✚✔★✥✩ ❣✌✚✕✓✚✛✌✖ ❳✑ ❨ ✿✍✩✼q ✓✖❛ ❳✬ ❨ ✽❡✩sq✩ ✉✖ ♣✚✓✕t✔✕✘♠✒✌✤✘✗✘✚♠ t✒✔✏ ✖★✥✛✘✚ ✔✏ ✏✥✓✜✜✘✚ ✏✔✖✕✘ ✒✘✓❛①✌✖✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖✏ ✓✚✘ ✚✓✚✘✩ ②

✉✣ t✒✘ ✔✖✔t✔✓✜ ✗✘✜✌✕✔t✔✘✏ ✓✖❛ ✣✔✖✓✜ ✗✘✜✌✕✔t✔✘✏ ✌✣✛✌t✒ t✒✘ ✛✌❛✔✘✏ ✓✚✘ ✓✜✌✖✙ t✒✘ ✏✓✥✘ ✏t✚✓✔✙✒t ✜✔✖✘♠t✒✘✖ ✔t ✔✏ ✕✓✜✜✘❛ ✓ ✌✖✘①❛✔✥✘✖✏✔✌✖✓✜ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖♠ ✌✚③④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨ ⑩⑧❶❶❷❸❷⑧⑨❹ ✉✖ t✒✘ ✕✓✏✘ ✌✣ ✏✥✓✜✜ ✏♣✒✘✚✔✕✓✜✛✌❛✔✘✏♠ t✒✔✏ ✔✏ ♣✌✏✏✔✛✜✘ ✔✣ t✒✘ ❛✔✚✘✕t✔✌✖ ✌✣ t✚✓✗✘✜✌✣ ✛✌❛✢ ✍ ♣✓✏✏✘✏ t✒✚✌★✙✒ t✒✘ ✕✘✖t✚✘ ✌✣ ✛✌❛✢ ✽✤✒✔✕✒ ✔✏ ✓t ✚✘✏t✩ ✉✖ ✙✘✖✘✚✓✜♠ t✒✘ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖ ✔✏ t✤✌①❛✔✥✘✖✏✔✌✖✓✜♠ ✤✒✘✚✘ t✒✘ ✔✖✔t✔✓✜ ✗✘✜✌✕✔t✔✘✏ ✓✖❛ t✒✘✣✔✖✓✜ ✗✘✜✌✕✔t✔✘✏ ✜✔✘ ✔✖ ✓ ♣✜✓✖✘✩

❺❹❻❼❹❽ ❿⑧❶❶❷❸❷⑧⑨❸ ❷⑨ ➀➁⑧ ➂❷➃④⑨❸❷⑧⑨❸

❣✔✙✩ ✼✩✍✎ ✓✜✏✌ ❛✘♣✔✕t✏ t✒✘ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖ ✌✣ ✓ ✥✌✗✔✖✙✥✓✏✏ ❥✑ ✤✔t✒ t✒✘ ✏t✓t✔✌✖✓✚✢ ✥✓✏✏ ❥✬✩ ➄✔✖✘✓✚✥✌✥✘✖t★✥ ✔✏ ✕✌✖✏✘✚✗✘❛ ✔✖ ✏★✕✒ ✓ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖✩✪✔✖✕✘ ✥✌✥✘✖t★✥ ✔✏ ✓ ✗✘✕t✌✚ t✒✔✏ ✔✥♣✜✔✘✏ t✒✚✘✘✘✻★✓t✔✌✖✏ ✣✌✚ t✒✘ t✒✚✘✘ ❛✔✚✘✕t✔✌✖✏ ➅➆➇ ➈➇ ➉➋✩➌✌✖✏✔❛✘✚ t✒✘ ♣✜✓✖✘ ❛✘t✘✚✥✔✖✘❛ ✛✢ t✒✘ ✣✔✖✓✜✗✘✜✌✕✔t✢ ❛✔✚✘✕t✔✌✖✏ ✌✣ ❥✑✓✖❛ ❥✬✓✖❛ ✕✒✌✌✏✘ ✔t t✌✛✘ t✒✘ ➆➍➈ ♣✜✓✖✘✩ ♦✒✘ ✕✌✖✏✘✚✗✓t✔✌✖ ✌✣ t✒✘➉①✕✌✥♣✌✖✘✖t ✌✣ t✒✘ ✜✔✖✘✓✚ ✥✌✥✘✖t★✥ ✔✥♣✜✔✘✏t✒✓t t✒✘ ✘✖t✔✚✘ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖ ✔✏ ✔✖ t✒✘ ➆➍➈ ♣✜✓✖✘✩ ♦✒✘➆① ✓✖❛ ➈➍✕✌✥♣✌✖✘✖t ✘✻★✓t✔✌✖✏ ✓✚✘

❥✑➎✑❱ ❨ ❥✑➎✑❘ ✕✌✏ ➏ ✑ ➐ ❥✬➎✬❘ ✕✌✏ ➏ ✬ ❤✼✩✽❦✭

✎ ❨ ❥✑➎✑❘ ✏✔✖ ➏✑ ➑ ❥✬➎✬❘ ✏✔✖ ➏✬ ❤✼✩➒✎✭

❖✖✘ ♥✖✌✤✏ ➅❥✑➇ ❥✬➇ ➎✑❱➋ ✔✖ ✥✌✏t ✏✔t★✓t✔✌✖✏✩ ♦✒✘✚✘✓✚✘ t✒★✏ ✣✌★✚ ★✖♥✖✌✤✖✏ ➅➎✑❘ ➇ ➎✬❘ ➇ ➏✑➓➔→ ➏✬➋♠ ✓✖❛✌✖✜✢ t✤✌ ✘✻★✓t✔✌✖✏✩ ✉✣ ➏ ✑ ❨ ➏ ✬ ❨ ✎♠ ✤✘ ✚✘✙✓✔✖✇✻✩ ❤✼✩✽s✭ ✣✌✚ ✌✖✘ ❛✔✥✘✖✏✔✌✖✓✜ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖✩

✉✣♠ ✣★✚t✒✘✚ t✒✘ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖ ✔✏ ✘✜✓✏t✔✕♠

➣ ➣ ➣↔ ↔ ↔ ↔ ➣ ➣

↕ ↕ ↕➙ ➙ ➙➛ ➜ ➜➝ ➞ ➝ ➞ ➝ ➞➟ ➠ ❤✼✩➒✍✭

➡✘ ✌✛t✓✔✖ ✓✖ ✓❛❛✔t✔✌✖✓✜ ✘✻★✓t✔✌✖✩ ♦✒✓t ✏t✔✜✜✜✘✓✗✘✏ ★✏ ✌✖✘ ✘✻★✓t✔✌✖ ✏✒✌✚t✩ ❧t ✜✘✓✏t ✌✖✘ ✌✣t✒✘ ✣✌★✚★✖♥✖✌✤✖✏♠ ✏✓✢ ➏ ✑♠✥★✏t ✛✘✥✓❛✘♥✖✌✤✖✣✌✚ t✒✘ ♣✚✌✛✜✘✥ t✌ ✛✘ ✏✌✜✗✓✛✜✘✩ ❣✌✚ ✘➢✓✥♣✜✘♠ ➏✑✕✓✖ ✛✘ ❛✘t✘✚✥✔✖✘❛ ✛✢ ✥✌✗✔✖✙ ✓ ❛✘t✘✕t✌✚ ✔✖ ✓✖✓✖✙★✜✓✚ ✣✓✏✒✔✌✖ ✣✚✌✥ t✒✘ ➆ t✌ t✒✘ ➈ ✓➢✔✏✩ ➤✔✗✘✖➅❥✑♠ ❥✬♠ ➎❚❱ ♠ ➏✑➋ ✤✘ ✕✓✖ ❛✘t✘✚✥✔✖✘ ➅➎❚❘ ➇ ➎◗❘ ➇ ➏◗➋✣✚✌✥✇✻✏✩ ❤✼✩✽❦✭①❤✼✩➒✍✭✩

➥➦➧➨➩➫✱ ➭➯➲➳ ➌✌✖✏✔❛✘✚ t✒✘ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖❛✘♣✔✕t✘❛ ✔✖ ❣✔✙✩ ✼✩✍✎ t✌ ✛✘ ✛✘t✤✘✘✖ t✤✌✛✔✜✜✔✓✚❛ ✛✓✜✜✏ ✤✔t✒ ✘✻★✓✜ ✥✓✏✏✘✏ ❥❚ ❨ ❥◗✩♦✒✘ ✣✔✚✏t ✛✓✜✜ ✔✏ ✕✓✜✜✘❛ t✒✘ ✕★✘ ✤✒✔✜✘ t✒✘✏✘✕✌✖❛ ✛✓✜✜ ✔✏ ✕✓✜✜✘❛ t✒✘ t✓✚✙✘t✩ ♦✒✘✛✔✜✜✔✓✚❛ ♣✜✓✢✘✚ ✤✓✖t✏ t✌ ➵✏✔✖♥r t✒✘ t✓✚✙✘t✛✓✜✜ ✔✖ ✓ ✕✌✚✖✘✚ ♣✌✕♥✘t♠ ✤✒✔✕✒ ✔✏ ✓t ✓✖✓✖✙✜✘ ➏✬ ❨ ➒✿➸✩ ❧✏✏★✥✘ t✒✓t t✒✘ ✕✌✜✜✔✏✔✌✖✔✏ ✘✜✓✏t✔✕ ✓✖❛ t✒✓t ✣✚✔✕t✔✌✖ ✓✖❛ ✚✌t✓t✔✌✖✓✜✥✌t✔✌✖ ✓✚✘ ✖✌t ✔✥♣✌✚t✓✖t✩ ❖✛t✓✔✖ ➏ ✑✩

❆✮✯✰✱✲ ❣✚✌✥✥✌✥✘✖t★✥ ✕✌✖✏✘✚✗✓t✔✌✖♠ ✏✔✖✕✘t✒✘ ✥✓✏✏✘✏ ✓✚✘ ✘✻★✓✜

➺➻➼➻➼➽ ➾➾➾ ➚➪

✌✚ ➶ ➹ ➶ ➹2

1 2 1 2➘➴➷ ➬ ➮ ➱ ➮✃ ✃ ✃ ✃f f f f

✳ ✳✴ ✳ ✴ ✳✹ ❐❒ ❒ ❒ ❒✈ ✈❂ ❮ ❮ ❰ ❰

Page 136: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

✭ ✮ ⑥✷ ✷✞ ✷ ✞ ✷ ✞✥ ✟♦s ✸✼❢ ❢ ❢ ❢✈ ✈ ✈ ✈ ✠❂ ✡ ✡ ✡ ➦ ☛☞✌✍✎✏

❙✑✒✓✔ ✕✖✔ ✓✗✘✘✑✙✑✗✒ ✑✙ ✔✘✚✙✕✑✓ ✚✒✛♠✜ ✢♠✣ ✑✕ ✤✗✘✘✗✦✙✤✧✗★ ✓✗✒✙✔✧✩✚✕✑✗✒ ✗✤ ✪✑✒✔✕✑✓ ✔✒✔✧✫✬ ✕✖✚✕

✯ ✯ ✯✰ ✰ ✯✐ ✱ ✱✲ ✲ ✲✳ ✴ ☛☞✌✍✍✏

❈✗★✵✚✧✑✒✫ ✹✺✙✌ ☛☞✌✍✎✏ ✚✒✛ ☛☞✌✍✍✏✻ ✦✔ ✫✔✕

✓✗✙ ☛✽✾ ✿ ✍❀❁✏ ✢ ❃✗✧ ✽✾ ✿ ✍❀❁ ✢ ❄❃❁

❚✖❅✙✻ ✽✾ ✢❆✍❁

❚✖✑✙ ✵✧✗✩✔✙ ✕✖✔ ✤✗✘✘✗✦✑✒✫ ✧✔✙❅✘✕ ❇ ✦✖✔✒ ✕✦✗ ✔✺❅✚✘★✚✙✙✔✙ ❅✒✛✔✧✫✗ ✚ ✫✘✚✒✓✑✒✫ ✔✘✚✙✕✑✓ ✓✗✘✘✑✙✑✗✒ ✦✑✕✖✗✒✔ ✗✤ ✕✖✔★ ✚✕ ✧✔✙✕✻ ✚✤✕✔✧ ✕✖✔ ✓✗✘✘✑✙✑✗✒✻ ✕✖✔✬ ✦✑✘✘★✗✩✔ ✚✕ ✧✑✫✖✕ ✚✒✫✘✔✙ ✕✗ ✔✚✓✖ ✗✕✖✔✧✌ ❉

❚✖✔ ★✚✕✕✔✧ ✙✑★✵✘✑✤✑✔✙ ✫✧✔✚✕✘✬ ✑✤ ✦✔ ✓✗✒✙✑✛✔✧✙✵✖✔✧✑✓✚✘ ★✚✙✙✔✙ ✦✑✕✖ ✙★✗✗✕✖ ✙❅✧✤✚✓✔✙✻ ✚✒✛✚✙✙❅★✔ ✕✖✚✕ ✓✗✘✘✑✙✑✗✒ ✕✚✪✔✙ ✵✘✚✓✔ ✗✒✘✬ ✦✖✔✒ ✕✖✔❜✗✛✑✔✙ ✕✗❅✓✖ ✔✚✓✖ ✗✕✖✔✧✌ ❚✖✑✙ ✑✙ ✦✖✚✕ ✖✚✵✵✔✒✙✑✒ ✕✖✔ ✫✚★✔✙ ✗✤ ★✚✧❜✘✔✙✻ ✓✚✧✧✗★ ✚✒✛ ❜✑✘✘✑✚✧✛✙✌

■✒ ✗❅✧ ✔✩✔✧✬✛✚✬✦✗✧✘✛✻ ✓✗✘✘✑✙✑✗✒✙ ✕✚✪✔ ✵✘✚✓✔ ✗✒✘✬✦✖✔✒ ✕✦✗ ❜✗✛✑✔✙ ✕✗❅✓✖ ✔✚✓✖ ✗✕✖✔✧✌ ❊❅✕ ✓✗✒✙✑✛✔✧✚ ✓✗★✔✕ ✓✗★✑✒✫ ✤✧✗★ ✤✚✧ ✛✑✙✕✚✒✓✔✙ ✕✗ ✕✖✔ ✙❅✒✻ ✗✧✚✘✵✖✚ ✵✚✧✕✑✓✘✔ ✓✗★✑✒✫ ✕✗✦✚✧✛✙ ✚ ✒❅✓✘✔❅✙ ✚✒✛✫✗✑✒✫ ✚✦✚✬ ✑✒ ✙✗★✔ ✛✑✧✔✓✕✑✗✒✌ ❣✔✧✔ ✦✔ ✖✚✩✔ ✕✗✛✔✚✘ ✦✑✕✖ ✤✗✧✓✔✙ ✑✒✩✗✘✩✑✒✫ ✚✓✕✑✗✒ ✚✕ ✚ ✛✑✙✕✚✒✓✔✌❙❅✓✖ ✚✒ ✔✩✔✒✕ ✑✙ ✓✚✘✘✔✛ ✙✓✚✕✕✔✧✑✒✫✌ ❚✖✔ ✩✔✘✗✓✑✕✑✔✙✚✒✛ ✛✑✧✔✓✕✑✗✒✙ ✑✒ ✦✖✑✓✖ ✕✖✔ ✕✦✗✵✚✧✕✑✓✘✔✙ ✫✗ ✚✦✚✬✛✔✵✔✒✛ ✗✒ ✕✖✔✑✧ ✑✒✑✕✑✚✘ ✩✔✘✗✓✑✕✑✔✙ ✚✙ ✦✔✘✘ ✚✙ ✕✖✔✕✬✵✔ ✗✤ ✑✒✕✔✧✚✓✕✑✗✒ ❜✔✕✦✔✔✒ ✕✖✔★✻ ✕✖✔✑✧ ★✚✙✙✔✙✻✙✖✚✵✔✙ ✚✒✛ ✙✑❋✔✙✌

●❍❏❏❑▲▼

◆❖ ◗❘❯ ✇❱❲❳❨❩❬❩❲❭❪ ❫❴❩❱❲❩❵ ❛❝❞❝❯❛ ❝❘❞❝ ❝❘❯ ❡❘❞❤❥❯ ❦❤ ❧❦❤❯❝❦❡ ❯❤❯♥❥♣ qr ❞ tq✉♣ ❦❛ ❝❘❯ ①q♥❧✉q❤❯ t♣ ❝❘❯ ❤❯❝ rq♥❡❯ q❤ ❝❘❯ tq✉♣❖

②③ ❨ ②④ ⑤ ⑦⑧⑨⑩❶❖ ❷ rq♥❡❯ ❦❛ ❸❱❬❹❩❲❺❻❫❼❺❩ ❦r ❽❦❾ ①q♥❧ ✉q❤❯ t♣ ❦❝ q❤ ❞❤ qt❿❯❡❝ ❦❛ ➀❞❝❘ ❦❤✉❯➀❯❤✉❯❤❝ ❞❤✉

✉❯➀❯❤✉❛ q❤➁♣ q❤ ❝❘❯ ❯❤✉ ➀q❦❤❝❛ ➂➃④➄ ➃➅➆➇ q♥ ❽❦❦❾ ❝❘❯ ①q♥❧ ✉q❤❯ t♣ ❝❘❯ rq♥❡❯ ❦❛ ➈❯♥q rq♥ ❞❤❞♥t❦❝♥❞♥♣ ❡➁q❛❯✉ ➀❞❝❘ ❝❞❧❯❤ t♣ ❝❘❯ qt❿❯❡❝ ❛➉❡❘ ❝❘❞❝ ❦❝ ♥❯❝➉♥❤❛ ❝q ❦❝❛ ❦❤❦❝❦❞➁ ➀q❛❦❝❦q❤❖

➊❖ ➋q♥ ❞ ❡q❤❛❯♥➌❞❝❦➌❯ rq♥❡❯ ❦❤ q❤❯ ✉❦➍❯❤❛❦q❤➇ ①❯ ➍❞♣ ✉❯r❦❤❯ ❞ ➎❱❫❩❬❫❼❻➏ ❩❬❩❲❭❪ r➉❤❡❝❦q❤ ➐❽➃❾❛➉❡❘ ❝❘❞❝

➑ ➒➓ ➒➒

➔ → ➣ ↔ ➔ →↕↕

q♥ ➙ ➙ ✢ ➛ ➜ ➜✐ ✱➝

➟➠ ➡ ➢➤ ✛

➥❖ ◗❘❯ ➀♥❦❤❡❦➀➁❯ qr ❡q❤❛❯♥➌❞❝❦q❤ qr ➍❯❡❘❞❤❦❡❞➁ ❯❤❯♥❥♣ ❛❝❞❝❯❛ ❝❘❞❝ ❝❘❯ ❝q❝❞➁ ➍❯❡❘❞❤❦❡❞➁❯❤❯♥❥♣ qr ❞ tq✉♣ ♥❯➍❞❦❤❛ ❡q❤❛❝❞❤❝ ❦r ❝❘❯ q❤➁♣ rq♥❡❯❛ ❝❘❞❝ ❞❡❝ q❤ ❝❘❯ tq✉♣ ❞♥❯ ❡q❤❛❯♥➌❞❝❦➌❯❖

➧❖ ◗❘❯ ❭❲❻❺❼❫❻❫❼❱❬❻➏ ➎❱❫❩❬❫❼❻➏ ❩❬❩❲❭❪ qr ❞ ➀❞♥❝❦❡➁❯ qr ➍❞❛❛ ❵ ❞❝ ❞ ❘❯❦❥❘❝ ➃ ❞tq➉❝ ❝❘❯ ❯❞♥❝❘➨❛❛➉♥r❞❡❯ ❦❛

➐❽➃❾ ⑤ ❵ ❭ ➃①❘❯♥❯ ❝❘❯ ➌❞♥❦❞❝❦q❤ qr ❥ ①❦❝❘ ❘❯❦❥❘❝ ❦❛ ❦❥❤q♥❯✉❖

➩❖ ◗❘❯ ❯➁❞❛❝❦❡ ➀q❝❯❤❝❦❞➁ ❯❤❯♥❥♣ qr ❞ ❛➀♥❦❤❥ qr rq♥❡❯ ❡q❤❛❝❞❤❝ ❳ ❞❤✉ ❯➫❝❯❤❛❦q❤ ➃ ❦❛

➭ ➯ ➲ ➯➳ ➵ ➸ ➺➻

➽❖ ◗❘❯ ❛❡❞➁❞♥ q♥ ✉q❝ ➀♥q✉➉❡❝ qr ❝①q ➌❯❡❝q♥❛ ❑ ❞❤✉ ➾ ❦❛ ①♥❦❝❝❯❤ ❞❛ ❑➚➾ ❞❤✉ ❦❛ ❞ ❛❡❞➁❞♥➪➉❞❤❝❦❝♣ ❥❦➌❯❤ t♣ ➶ ❑➚➾ ➹ ➘➴ ❡q❛ ➷➬ ①❘❯♥❯ ➷ ❦❛ ❝❘❯ ❞❤❥➁❯ t❯❝①❯❯❤ ❑ ❞❤✉ ➾❖ ➮❝ ❡❞❤ t❯➀q❛❦❝❦➌❯➇ ❤❯❥❞❝❦➌❯ q♥ ➈❯♥q ✉❯➀❯❤✉❦❤❥ ➉➀q❤ ❝❘❯ ➌❞➁➉❯ qr ➷❖ ◗❘❯ ❛❡❞➁❞♥ ➀♥q✉➉❡❝ qr ❝①q➌❯❡❝q♥❛ ❡❞❤ t❯ ❦❤❝❯♥➀♥❯❝❯✉ ❞❛ ❝❘❯ ➀♥q✉➉❡❝ qr ➍❞❥❤❦❝➉✉❯ qr q❤❯ ➌❯❡❝q♥ ❞❤✉ ❡q➍➀q❤❯❤❝qr ❝❘❯ q❝❘❯♥ ➌❯❡❝q♥ ❞➁q❤❥ ❝❘❯ r❦♥❛❝ ➌❯❡❝q♥❖ ➋q♥ ➉❤❦❝ ➌❯❡❝q♥❛ ➶

➱ ➱ ➱ ➱ ➱ ➱✃ ✃ ❐ ❐ ❒ ❒❮ ❰ ❮ ❰ ❮ ❰ Ï ❞❤✉ Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð ÐÑ Ò Ò Ó Ó ÑÔ Õ Ô Õ Ô Õ Ö×❡❞➁❞♥ ➀♥q✉➉❡❝❛ qt❯♣ ❝❘❯ ❡q➍➍➉❝❞❝❦➌❯ ❞❤✉ ❝❘❯ ✉❦❛❝♥❦t➉❝❦➌❯ ➁❞①❛❖

Page 137: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶☛☛

P☞✌✍✎✏ ✎☞ P☞✍✑✒✓

✔✳ ❚✕✖ ✗✕✘✙✚✖ ✛✜✙✢✜✣✢✙✤✖ ✤✕✖ ✥✦✘✧ ★✦✩✖✪ ✫✚ ✫✩✜✦✬✗✢✖✤✖✳ ✭✖ ✚✕✦✣✢★ ✘✖❡✖✘ ✮✦✘ ✫✬✗✢✯

✜✢✖✙✘✢✯ ❝✯ ✜✦✩✤✖✰✤✱ ✤✦ ✤✕✖ ✥✦✘✧ ★✦✩✖ ❝✯ ✙ ✚✗✖✜✫❡✫✜ ❡✦✘✜✖ ✦✘ ✙ ✲✘✦✣✗ ✦❡ ❡✦✘✜✖✚ ✦✩ ✙

✲✫❣✖✩ ❝✦★✯ ✦❣✖✘ ✙ ✜✖✘✤✙✫✩ ★✫✚✗✢✙✜✖✬✖✩✤✳

✷✳ ✭✦✘✧ ★✦✩✖ ✫✚ ✙ ✚✜✙✢✙✘ ♦✣✙✩✤✫✤✯✳ ✴✤ ✜✙✩ ❝✖ ✗✦✚✫✤✫❣✖ ✦✘ ✩✖✲✙✤✫❣✖ ✣✩✢✫✧✖ ✬✙✚✚ ✙✩★

✧✫✩✖✤✫✜ ✖✩✖✘✲✯ ✥✕✫✜✕ ✙✘✖ ✗✦✚✫✤✫❣✖ ✚✜✙✢✙✘ ♦✣✙✩✤✫✤✫✖✚✳ ❚✕✖ ✥✦✘✧ ★✦✩✖ ❝✯ ✤✕✖ ❡✘✫✜✤✫✦✩

✦✘ ❣✫✚✜✦✣✚ ❡✦✘✜✖ ✦✩ ✙ ✬✦❣✫✩✲ ❝✦★✯ ✫✚ ✩✖✲✙✤✫❣✖✳

✸✳ ❋✦✘ ✤✥✦ ❝✦★✫✖✚✵ ✤✕✖ ✚✣✬ ✦❡ ✤✕✖ ✬✣✤✣✙✢ ❡✦✘✜✖✚ ✖✰✖✘✤✖★ ❝✖✤✥✖✖✩ ✤✕✖✬ ✫✚ ✹✖✘✦ ❡✘✦✬

◆✖✥✤✦✩✪✚ ❚✕✫✘★ ✺✙✥✵

✻✼✽ ✾ ✻✽✼ ❂ ✿

❇✣✤ ✤✕✖ ✚✣✬ ✦❡ ✤✕✖ ✥✦✘✧ ★✦✩✖ ❝✯ ✤✕✖ ✤✥✦ ❡✦✘✜✖✚ ✩✖✖★ ✩✦✤ ❛❀❁❛❃❄ ❅❛❆❅❈❀❉ ❊●❈●

❍■❏ ❑ ❍❏■ ▲ ▼

❖✦✥✖❣✖✘✵ ✫✤ ♠❛❃ ❄◗♠❈❘❊♠❈❄ ❙❈ ❘❯❱❈●

❳✳ ❚✕✖ ✥✦✘✧ ★✦✩✖ ❝✯ ✙ ❡✦✘✜✖ ✜✙✩ ❝✖ ✜✙✢✜✣✢✙✤✖★ ✚✦✬✖✤✫✬✖✚ ✖❣✖✩ ✫❡ ✤✕✖ ✖✰✙✜✤ ✩✙✤✣✘✖ ✦❡

✤✕✖ ❡✦✘✜✖ ✫✚ ✩✦✤ ✧✩✦✥✩✳ ❚✕✫✚ ✫✚ ✜✢✖✙✘ ❡✘✦✬ t✰✙✬✗✢✖ ❨✳✔ ✥✕✖✘✖ ✤✕✖ ✭t ✤✕✖✦✘✖✬ ✫✚

✣✚✖★ ✫✩ ✚✣✜✕ ✙ ✚✫✤✣✙✤✫✦✩✳

❩✳ ❚✕✖ ✭t ✤✕✖✦✘✖✬ ✫✚ ✩✦✤ ✫✩★✖✗✖✩★✖✩✤ ✦❡ ◆✖✥✤✦✩✪✚ ❬✖✜✦✩★ ✺✙✥✳ ❚✕✖ ✭t ✤✕✖✦✘✖✬

✬✙✯ ❝✖ ❣✫✖✥✖★ ✙✚ ✙ ✚✜✙✢✙✘ ❡✦✘✬ ✦❡ ✤✕✖ ❬✖✜✦✩★ ✺✙✥✳ ❚✕✖ ✗✘✫✩✜✫✗✢✖ ✦❡ ✜✦✩✚✖✘❣✙✤✫✦✩

✦❡ ✬✖✜✕✙✩✫✜✙✢ ✖✩✖✘✲✯ ✬✙✯ ❝✖ ❣✫✖✥✖★ ✙✚ ✙ ✜✦✩✚✖♦✣✖✩✜✖ ✦❡ ✤✕✖ ✭t ✤✕✖✦✘✖✬ ❡✦✘

✜✦✩✚✖✘❣✙✤✫❣✖ ❡✦✘✜✖✚✳

❨✳ ❚✕✖ ✭t ✤✕✖✦✘✖✬ ✕✦✢★✚ ✫✩ ✙✢✢ ✫✩✖✘✤✫✙✢ ❡✘✙✬✖✚✳ ✴✤ ✜✙✩ ✙✢✚✦ ❝✖ ✖✰✤✖✩★✖★ ✤✦ ✩✦✩❭

✫✩✖✘✤✫✙✢ ❡✘✙✬✖✚ ✗✘✦❣✫★✖★ ✥✖ ✫✩✜✢✣★✖ ✤✕✖ ✗✚✖✣★✦❡✦✘✜✖✚ ✫✩ ✤✕✖ ✜✙✢✜✣✢✙✤✫✦✩ ✦❡ ✤✕✖

✩✖✤ ❡✦✘✜✖ ✙✜✤✫✩✲ ✦✩ ✤✕✖ ❝✦★✯ ✣✩★✖✘ ✜✦✩✚✫★✖✘✙✤✫✦✩✳

❪✳ ❚✕✖ ✗✦✤✖✩✤✫✙✢ ✖✩✖✘✲✯ ✦❡ ✙ ❝✦★✯ ✚✣❝❫✖✜✤✖★ ✤✦ ✙ ✜✦✩✚✖✘❣✙✤✫❣✖ ❡✦✘✜✖ ✫✚ ✙✢✥✙✯✚

✣✩★✖✤✖✘✬✫✩✖★ ✣✗✤✦ ✙ ✜✦✩✚✤✙✩✤✳ ❋✦✘ ✖✰✙✬✗✢✖✵ ✤✕✖ ✗✦✫✩✤ ✥✕✖✘✖ ✤✕✖ ✗✦✤✖✩✤✫✙✢

✖✩✖✘✲✯ ✫✚ ✹✖✘✦ ✫✚ ✙ ✬✙✤✤✖✘ ✦❡ ✜✕✦✫✜✖✳ ❋✦✘ ✤✕✖ ✲✘✙❣✫✤✙✤✫✦✩✙✢ ✗✦✤✖✩✤✫✙✢ ✖✩✖✘✲✯ ♠✲❤✵

✤✕✖ ✹✖✘✦ ✦❡ ✤✕✖ ✗✦✤✖✩✤✫✙✢ ✖✩✖✘✲✯ ✫✚ ✜✕✦✚✖✩ ✤✦ ❝✖ ✤✕✖ ✲✘✦✣✩★✳ ❋✦✘ ✤✕✖ ✚✗✘✫✩✲

✗✦✤✖✩✤✫✙✢ ✖✩✖✘✲✯ ❦❴❏❵✷ ✵ ✤✕✖ ✹✖✘✦ ✦❡ ✤✕✖ ✗✦✤✖✩✤✫✙✢ ✖✩✖✘✲✯ ✫✚ ✤✕✖ ✖♦✣✫✢✫❝✘✫✣✬ ✗✦✚✫✤✫✦✩

✦❡ ✤✕✖ ✦✚✜✫✢✢✙✤✫✩✲ ✬✙✚✚✳

❜✳ t❣✖✘✯ ❡✦✘✜✖ ✖✩✜✦✣✩✤✖✘✖★ ✫✩ ✬✖✜✕✙✩✫✜✚ ★✦✖✚ ✩✦✤ ✕✙❣✖ ✙✩ ✙✚✚✦✜✫✙✤✖★ ✗✦✤✖✩✤✫✙✢

✖✩✖✘✲✯✳ ❋✦✘ ✖✰✙✬✗✢✖✵ ✥✦✘✧ ★✦✩✖ ❝✯ ❡✘✫✜✤✫✦✩ ✦❣✖✘ ✙ ✜✢✦✚✖★ ✗✙✤✕ ✫✚ ✩✦✤ ✹✖✘✦ ✙✩★ ✩✦

✗✦✤✖✩✤✫✙✢ ✖✩✖✘✲✯ ✜✙✩ ❝✖ ✙✚✚✦✜✫✙✤✖★ ✥✫✤✕ ❡✘✫✜✤✫✦✩✳

❞✳ ❢✣✘✫✩✲ ✙ ✜✦✢✢✫✚✫✦✩ ✐ ✮✙✱ ✤✕✖ ✤✦✤✙✢ ✢✫✩✖✙✘ ✬✦✬✖✩✤✣✬ ✫✚ ✜✦✩✚✖✘❣✖★ ✙✤ ✖✙✜✕ ✫✩✚✤✙✩✤ ✦❡

✤✕✖ ✜✦✢✢✫✚✫✦✩ ❥ ✮❝✱ ✤✕✖ ✧✫✩✖✤✫✜ ✖✩✖✘✲✯ ✜✦✩✚✖✘❣✙✤✫✦✩ ✮✖❣✖✩ ✫❡ ✤✕✖ ✜✦✢✢✫✚✫✦✩ ✫✚ ✖✢✙✚✤✫✜✱

✙✗✗✢✫✖✚ ✙❡✤✖✘ ✤✕✖ ✜✦✢✢✫✚✫✦✩ ✫✚ ✦❣✖✘ ✙✩★ ★✦✖✚ ✩✦✤ ✕✦✢★ ✙✤ ✖❣✖✘✯ ✫✩✚✤✙✩✤ ✦❡ ✤✕✖ ✜✦✢✢✫✚✫✦✩✳

✴✩ ❡✙✜✤ ✤✕✖ ✤✥✦ ✜✦✢✢✫★✫✩✲ ✦❝❫✖✜✤✚ ✙✘✖ ★✖❡✦✘✬✖★ ✙✩★ ✬✙✯ ❝✖ ✬✦✬✖✩✤✙✘✫✢✯ ✙✤ ✘✖✚✤

✥✫✤✕ ✘✖✚✗✖✜✤ ✤✦ ✖✙✜✕ ✦✤✕✖✘✳

Page 138: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

❊✞❊✟✠✡☛❊☛

✻☞✌ ❚✍✎ ✏✑✒✓ ✔✕ ✖✔✗✘ ✙✔✓✎ ✚✛ ✜ ✕✔✗✢✎ ✔✓ ✜ ✚✔✙✛ ✑✏ ✑✣✤✔✗✥✜✓✥ ✥✔ ✦✓✙✎✗✏✥✜✓✙✧ ★✥✜✥✎ ✢✜✗✎✕✦✩✩✛

✑✕ ✥✍✎ ✕✔✩✩✔✖✑✓✒ ✐✦✜✓✥✑✥✑✎✏ ✜✗✎ ✤✔✏✑✥✑✪✎ ✔✗ ✓✎✒✜✥✑✪✎✫

✭✜✮ ✖✔✗✘ ✙✔✓✎ ✚✛ ✜ ✣✜✓ ✑✓ ✩✑✕✥✑✓✒ ✜ ✚✦✢✘✎✥ ✔✦✥ ✔✕ ✜ ✖✎✩✩ ✚✛ ✣✎✜✓✏ ✔✕ ✜ ✗✔✤✎ ✥✑✎✙ ✥✔ ✥✍✎

✚✦✢✘✎✥✧

✭✚✮ ✖✔✗✘ ✙✔✓✎ ✚✛ ✒✗✜✪✑✥✜✥✑✔✓✜✩ ✕✔✗✢✎ ✑✓ ✥✍✎ ✜✚✔✪✎ ✢✜✏✎✇

✭✢✮ ✖✔✗✘ ✙✔✓✎ ✚✛ ✕✗✑✢✥✑✔✓ ✔✓ ✜ ✚✔✙✛

✏✩✑✙✑✓✒ ✙✔✖✓ ✜✓ ✑✓✢✩✑✓✎✙ ✤✩✜✓✎✇

✭✙✮ ✖✔✗✘ ✙✔✓✎ ✚✛ ✜✓ ✜✤✤✩✑✎✙ ✕✔✗✢✎ ✔✓

✜ ✚✔✙✛ ✣✔✪✑✓✒ ✔✓ ✜ ✗✔✦✒✍

✍✔✗✑❤✔✓✥✜✩ ✤✩✜✓✎ ✖✑✥✍ ✦✓✑✕✔✗✣

✪✎✩✔✢✑✥✛✇

✭✎✮ ✖✔✗✘ ✙✔✓✎ ✚✛ ✥✍✎ ✗✎✏✑✏✥✑✪✎ ✕✔✗✢✎ ✔✕

✜✑✗ ✔✓ ✜ ✪✑✚✗✜✥✑✓✒ ✤✎✓✙✦✩✦✣ ✑✓

✚✗✑✓✒✑✓✒ ✑✥ ✥✔ ✗✎✏✥✧

✻☞✬ ❆ ✚✔✙✛ ✔✕ ✣✜✏✏ ✯ ✘✒ ✑✓✑✥✑✜✩✩✛ ✜✥ ✗✎✏✥

✣✔✪✎✏ ✦✓✙✎✗ ✥✍✎ ✜✢✥✑✔✓ ✔✕ ✜✓ ✜✤✤✩✑✎✙

✍✔✗✑❤✔✓✥✜✩ ✕✔✗✢✎ ✔✕ ✼ ✰ ✔✓ ✜ ✥✜✚✩✎ ✖✑✥✍

✢✔✎✕✕✑✢✑✎✓✥ ✔✕ ✘✑✓✎✥✑✢ ✕✗✑✢✥✑✔✓ ❝ ✱✧✲✧

❈✔✣✤✦✥✎ ✥✍✎

✭✜✮ ✖✔✗✘ ✙✔✓✎ ✚✛ ✥✍✎ ✜✤✤✩✑✎✙ ✕✔✗✢✎ ✑✓

✲✱ ✏✇

✭✚✮ ✖✔✗✘ ✙✔✓✎ ✚✛ ✕✗✑✢✥✑✔✓ ✑✓ ✲✱ ✏✇

✭✢✮ ✖✔✗✘ ✙✔✓✎ ✚✛ ✥✍✎ ✓✎✥ ✕✔✗✢✎ ✔✓ ✥✍✎

✚✔✙✛ ✑✓ ✲✱ ✏✇

✭✙✮ ✢✍✜✓✒✎ ✑✓ ✘✑✓✎✥✑✢ ✎✓✎✗✒✛ ✔✕ ✥✍✎

✚✔✙✛ ✑✓ ✲✱ ✏✇

✜✓✙ ✑✓✥✎✗✤✗✎✥ ✛✔✦✗ ✗✎✏✦✩✥✏✧

✻☞✳ ●✑✪✎✓ ✑✓ ✴✑✒✧ ✵✧✲✲ ✜✗✎ ✎✷✜✣✤✩✎✏ ✔✕ ✏✔✣✎

✤✔✥✎✓✥✑✜✩ ✎✓✎✗✒✛ ✕✦✓✢✥✑✔✓✏ ✑✓ ✔✓✎

✙✑✣✎✓✏✑✔✓✧ ❚✍✎ ✥✔✥✜✩ ✎✓✎✗✒✛ ✔✕ ✥✍✎

✤✜✗✥✑✢✩✎ ✑✏ ✑✓✙✑✢✜✥✎✙ ✚✛ ✜ ✢✗✔✏✏ ✔✓ ✥✍✎

✔✗✙✑✓✜✥✎ ✜✷✑✏✧ ♦✓ ✎✜✢✍ ✢✜✏✎✇ ✏✤✎✢✑✕✛ ✥✍✎

✗✎✒✑✔✓✏✇ ✑✕ ✜✓✛✇ ✑✓ ✖✍✑✢✍ ✥✍✎ ✤✜✗✥✑✢✩✎

✢✜✓✓✔✥ ✚✎ ✕✔✦✓✙ ✕✔✗ ✥✍✎ ✒✑✪✎✓ ✎✓✎✗✒✛✧

❆✩✏✔✇ ✑✓✙✑✢✜✥✎ ✥✍✎ ✣✑✓✑✣✦✣ ✥✔✥✜✩

✎✓✎✗✒✛ ✥✍✎ ✤✜✗✥✑✢✩✎ ✣✦✏✥ ✍✜✪✎ ✑✓ ✎✜✢✍

✢✜✏✎✧ ❚✍✑✓✘ ✔✕ ✏✑✣✤✩✎ ✤✍✛✏✑✢✜✩ ✢✔✓✥✎✷✥✏

✕✔✗✖✍✑✢✍ ✥✍✎✏✎ ✤✔✥✎✓✥✑✜✩ ✎✓✎✗✒✛ ✏✍✜✤✎✏

✜✗✎ ✗✎✩✎✪✜✓✥✧

❋✸✹✺ ✽✺✾✾

Page 139: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶☛☞

✻✌✍ ❚✎✏ ✑✒✓✏✔✓✕✖✗ ✏✔✏✘✙✚ ✛✜✔✢✓✕✒✔ ✛✒✘ ✖

✑✖✘✓✕✢✗✏ ✏♣✏✢✜✓✕✔✙ ✗✕✔✏✖✘ ✣✕✤✑✗✏

✎✖✘✤✒✔✕✢ ✤✒✓✕✒✔ ✕✣ ✙✕❤✏✔ ✥✚ ❱✭①✮ ✦

❦①✷✴✧★ ✩✎✏✘✏ ❦ ✕✣ ✓✎✏ ✛✒✘✢✏ ✢✒✔✣✓✖✔✓

✒✛ ✓✎✏ ✒✣✢✕✗✗✖✓✒✘✳ ✪✒✘ ❦ ✦ ✵✳✫ ✬ ✤✲✯★

✓✎✏ ✙✘✖✑✎ ✒✛ ❱✭①✮ ❤✏✘✣✜✣ ① ✕✣ ✣✎✒✩✔

✕✔ ✪✕✙✳ ✐✳✰✧✳ ✱✎✒✩ ✓✎✖✓ ✖ ✑✖✘✓✕✢✗✏ ✒✛

✓✒✓✖✗ ✏✔✏✘✙✚ ✰ t ✤✒❤✕✔✙ ✜✔✸✏✘ ✓✎✕✣

✑✒✓✏✔✓✕✖✗ ✤✜✣✓ ✹✓✜✘✔ ✥✖✢✺✼ ✩✎✏✔ ✕✓

✘✏✖✢✎✏✣ ① ✽ ✾ ✧ ✤✳

✻✌✿ ❆✔✣✩✏✘ ✓✎✏ ✛✒✗✗✒✩✕✔✙ ❀

✭✖✮ ❚✎✏ ✢✖✣✕✔✙ ✒✛ ✖ ✘✒✢✺✏✓ ✕✔ ✛✗✕✙✎✓

✥✜✘✔✣ ✜✑ ✸✜✏ ✓✒ ✛✘✕✢✓✕✒✔✳ ❆✓

✩✎✒✣✏ ✏♣✑✏✔✣✏ ✕✣ ✓✎✏ ✎✏✖✓

✏✔✏✘✙✚ ✘✏❡✜✕✘✏✸ ✛✒✘ ✥✜✘✔✕✔✙

✒✥✓✖✕✔✏✸♦ ❚✎✏ ✘✒✢✺✏✓ ✒✘ ✓✎✏

✖✓✤✒✣✑✎✏✘✏♦

✭✥✮ ❈✒✤✏✓✣ ✤✒❤✏ ✖✘✒✜✔✸ ✓✎✏ ✣✜✔

✕✔ ✎✕✙✎✗✚ ✏✗✗✕✑✓✕✢✖✗ ✒✘✥✕✓✣✳ ❚✎✏

✙✘✖❤✕✓✖✓✕✒✔✖✗ ✛✒✘✢✏ ✒✔ ✓✎✏

✢✒✤✏✓ ✸✜✏ ✓✒ ✓✎✏ ✣✜✔ ✕✣ ✔✒✓

✔✒✘✤✖✗ ✓✒ ✓✎✏ ✢✒✤✏✓✼✣ ❤✏✗✒✢✕✓✚

✕✔ ✙✏✔✏✘✖✗✳ ❁✏✓ ✓✎✏ ✩✒✘✺ ✸✒✔✏ ✥✚ ✓✎✏ ✙✘✖❤✕✓✖✓✕✒✔✖✗ ✛✒✘✢✏ ✒❤✏✘ ✏❤✏✘✚ ✢✒✤✑✗✏✓✏ ✒✘✥✕✓

✒✛ ✓✎✏ ✢✒✤✏✓ ✕✣ ❂✏✘✒✳ ❃✎✚ ♦

✭✢✮ ❆✔ ✖✘✓✕✛✕✢✕✖✗ ✣✖✓✏✗✗✕✓✏ ✒✘✥✕✓✕✔✙ ✓✎✏ ✏✖✘✓✎ ✕✔ ❤✏✘✚ ✓✎✕✔ ✖✓✤✒✣✑✎✏✘✏ ✗✒✣✏✣ ✕✓✣ ✏✔✏✘✙✚

✙✘✖✸✜✖✗✗✚ ✸✜✏ ✓✒ ✸✕✣✣✕✑✖✓✕✒✔ ✖✙✖✕✔✣✓ ✖✓✤✒✣✑✎✏✘✕✢ ✘✏✣✕✣✓✖✔✢✏★ ✎✒✩✏❤✏✘ ✣✤✖✗✗✳ ❃✎✚

✓✎✏✔ ✸✒✏✣ ✕✓✣ ✣✑✏✏✸ ✕✔✢✘✏✖✣✏ ✑✘✒✙✘✏✣✣✕❤✏✗✚ ✖✣ ✕✓ ✢✒✤✏✣ ✢✗✒✣✏✘ ✖✔✸ ✢✗✒✣✏✘ ✓✒ ✓✎✏ ✏✖✘✓✎ ♦

✭✸✮ ■✔ ✪✕✙✳ ✐✳✰❄✭✕✮ ✓✎✏ ✤✖✔ ✩✖✗✺✣ ✧ ✤ ✢✖✘✘✚✕✔✙ ✖ ✤✖✣✣ ✒✛ ✰✫ ✺✙ ✒✔ ✎✕✣ ✎✖✔✸✣✳ ■✔ ✪✕✙✳

✐✳✰❄✭✕✕✮★ ✎✏ ✩✖✗✺✣ ✓✎✏ ✣✖✤✏ ✸✕✣✓✖✔✢✏ ✑✜✗✗✕✔✙ ✓✎✏ ✘✒✑✏ ✥✏✎✕✔✸ ✎✕✤✳ ❚✎✏ ✘✒✑✏ ✙✒✏✣

✒❤✏✘ ✖ ✑✜✗✗✏✚★ ✖✔✸ ✖ ✤✖✣✣ ✒✛ ✰✫ ✺✙ ✎✖✔✙✣ ✖✓ ✕✓✣ ✒✓✎✏✘ ✏✔✸✳ ■✔ ✩✎✕✢✎ ✢✖✣✏ ✕✣ ✓✎✏ ✩✒✘✺

✸✒✔✏ ✙✘✏✖✓✏✘ ♦

✻✌✻ ❯✔✸✏✘✗✕✔✏ ✓✎✏ ✢✒✘✘✏✢✓ ✖✗✓✏✘✔✖✓✕❤✏ ❀

✭✖✮ ❃✎✏✔ ✖ ✢✒✔✣✏✘❤✖✓✕❤✏ ✛✒✘✢✏ ✸✒✏✣ ✑✒✣✕✓✕❤✏ ✩✒✘✺ ✒✔ ✖ ✥✒✸✚★ ✓✎✏ ✑✒✓✏✔✓✕✖✗ ✏✔✏✘✙✚ ✒✛

✓✎✏ ✥✒✸✚ ✕✔✢✘✏✖✣✏✣❅✸✏✢✘✏✖✣✏✣❅✘✏✤✖✕✔✣ ✜✔✖✗✓✏✘✏✸✳

✭✥✮ ❃✒✘✺ ✸✒✔✏ ✥✚ ✖ ✥✒✸✚ ✖✙✖✕✔✣✓ ✛✘✕✢✓✕✒✔ ✖✗✩✖✚✣ ✘✏✣✜✗✓✣ ✕✔ ✖ ✗✒✣✣ ✒✛ ✕✓✣ ✺✕✔✏✓✕✢❅✑✒✓✏✔✓✕✖✗

✏✔✏✘✙✚✳

✭✢✮ ❚✎✏ ✘✖✓✏ ✒✛ ✢✎✖✔✙✏ ✒✛ ✓✒✓✖✗ ✤✒✤✏✔✓✜✤ ✒✛ ✖ ✤✖✔✚❇✑✖✘✓✕✢✗✏ ✣✚✣✓✏✤ ✕✣ ✑✘✒✑✒✘✓✕✒✔✖✗

✓✒ ✓✎✏ ✏♣✓✏✘✔✖✗ ✛✒✘✢✏❅✣✜✤ ✒✛ ✓✎✏ ✕✔✓✏✘✔✖✗ ✛✒✘✢✏✣ ✒✔ ✓✎✏ ✣✚✣✓✏✤✳

✭✸✮ ■✔ ✖✔ ✕✔✏✗✖✣✓✕✢ ✢✒✗✗✕✣✕✒✔ ✒✛ ✓✩✒ ✥✒✸✕✏✣★ ✓✎✏ ❡✜✖✔✓✕✓✕✏✣ ✩✎✕✢✎ ✸✒ ✔✒✓ ✢✎✖✔✙✏ ✖✛✓✏✘

✓✎✏ ✢✒✗✗✕✣✕✒✔ ✖✘✏ ✓✎✏ ✓✒✓✖✗ ✺✕✔✏✓✕✢ ✏✔✏✘✙✚❅✓✒✓✖✗ ✗✕✔✏✖✘ ✤✒✤✏✔✓✜✤❅✓✒✓✖✗ ✏✔✏✘✙✚ ✒✛

✓✎✏ ✣✚✣✓✏✤ ✒✛ ✓✩✒ ✥✒✸✕✏✣✳

✻✌❉ ✱✓✖✓✏ ✕✛ ✏✖✢✎ ✒✛ ✓✎✏ ✛✒✗✗✒✩✕✔✙ ✣✓✖✓✏✤✏✔✓✣ ✕✣ ✓✘✜✏ ✒✘ ✛✖✗✣✏✳ ❙✕❤✏ ✘✏✖✣✒✔✣ ✛✒✘ ✚✒✜✘ ✖✔✣✩✏✘✳

✭✖✮ ■✔ ✖✔ ✏✗✖✣✓✕✢ ✢✒✗✗✕✣✕✒✔ ✒✛ ✓✩✒ ✥✒✸✕✏✣★ ✓✎✏ ✤✒✤✏✔✓✜✤ ✖✔✸ ✏✔✏✘✙✚ ✒✛ ✏✖✢✎ ✥✒✸✚ ✕✣

✢✒✔✣✏✘❤✏✸✳

✭✥✮ ❚✒✓✖✗ ✏✔✏✘✙✚ ✒✛ ✖ ✣✚✣✓✏✤ ✕✣ ✖✗✩✖✚✣ ✢✒✔✣✏✘❤✏✸★ ✔✒ ✤✖✓✓✏✘✩✎✖✓ ✕✔✓✏✘✔✖✗ ✖✔✸ ✏♣✓✏✘✔✖✗

✛✒✘✢✏✣ ✒✔ ✓✎✏ ✥✒✸✚ ✖✘✏ ✑✘✏✣✏✔✓✳

✭✢✮ ❃✒✘✺ ✸✒✔✏ ✕✔ ✓✎✏ ✤✒✓✕✒✔ ✒✛ ✖ ✥✒✸✚ ✒❤✏✘ ✖ ✢✗✒✣✏✸ ✗✒✒✑ ✕✣ ❂✏✘✒ ✛✒✘ ✏❤✏✘✚ ✛✒✘✢✏ ✕✔

✔✖✓✜✘✏✳

✭✸✮ ■✔ ✖✔ ✕✔✏✗✖✣✓✕✢ ✢✒✗✗✕✣✕✒✔★ ✓✎✏ ✛✕✔✖✗ ✺✕✔✏✓✕✢ ✏✔✏✘✙✚ ✕✣ ✖✗✩✖✚✣ ✗✏✣✣ ✓✎✖✔ ✓✎✏ ✕✔✕✓✕✖✗

✺✕✔✏✓✕✢ ✏✔✏✘✙✚ ✒✛ ✓✎✏ ✣✚✣✓✏✤✳

✻✌❊ ❆✔✣✩✏✘ ✢✖✘✏✛✜✗✗✚★ ✩✕✓✎ ✘✏✖✣✒✔✣ ❀

✭✖✮ ■✔ ✖✔ ✏✗✖✣✓✕✢ ✢✒✗✗✕✣✕✒✔ ✒✛ ✓✩✒ ✥✕✗✗✕✖✘✸ ✥✖✗✗✣★ ✕✣ ✓✎✏ ✓✒✓✖✗ ✺✕✔✏✓✕✢ ✏✔✏✘✙✚ ✢✒✔✣✏✘❤✏✸

✸✜✘✕✔✙ ✓✎✏ ✣✎✒✘✓ ✓✕✤✏ ✒✛ ✢✒✗✗✕✣✕✒✔ ✒✛ ✓✎✏ ✥✖✗✗✣ ✭✕✳✏✳ ✩✎✏✔ ✓✎✏✚ ✖✘✏ ✕✔ ✢✒✔✓✖✢✓✮ ♦

✭✥✮ ■✣ ✓✎✏ ✓✒✓✖✗ ✗✕✔✏✖✘ ✤✒✤✏✔✓✜✤ ✢✒✔✣✏✘❤✏✸ ✸✜✘✕✔✙ ✓✎✏ ✣✎✒✘✓ ✓✕✤✏ ✒✛ ✖✔ ✏✗✖✣✓✕✢ ✢✒✗✗✕✣✕✒✔

✒✛ ✓✩✒ ✥✖✗✗✣ ♦

❋●❍❏ ❑❏▲▼

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Page 140: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

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✭❝✮ ❲✞✟✠ ✟✡☛ ✠✞☛ ✟☞✌✍☛✡✌ ✠✎ ✭✟✮ ✟☞✏ ✭✑✮ ✒✎✡ ✟☞ ✓☞☛✔✟✌✠✓❝ ❝✎✔✔✓✌✓✎☞ ✕

✭✏✮ ■✒ ✠✞☛ ✖✎✠☛☞✠✓✟✔ ☛☞☛✡✗✘ ✎✒ ✠✍✎ ✑✓✔✔✓✟✡✏ ✑✟✔✔✌ ✏☛✖☛☞✏✌ ✎☞✔✘ ✎☞ ✠✞☛ ✌☛✖✟✡✟✠✓✎☞ ✏✓✌✠✟☞❝☛

✑☛✠✍☛☛☞ ✠✞☛✓✡ ❝☛☞✠✡☛✌❜ ✓✌ ✠✞☛ ❝✎✔✔✓✌✓✎☞ ☛✔✟✌✠✓❝ ✎✡ ✓☞☛✔✟✌✠✓❝ ✕ ✭✙✎✠☛❜ ✍☛ ✟✡☛ ✠✟✔✚✓☞✗

✞☛✡☛ ✎✒ ✖✎✠☛☞✠✓✟✔ ☛☞☛✡✗✘ ❝✎✡✡☛✌✖✎☞✏✓☞✗ ✠✎ ✠✞☛ ✒✎✡❝☛ ✏❤✡✓☞✗ ❝✎✔✔✓✌✓✎☞❜ ☞✎✠ ✗✡✟✛✓✠✟✠✓✎☞✟✔

✖✎✠☛☞✠✓✟✔ ☛☞☛✡✗✘✮♣

✻✜✢ ❆ ✑✎✏✘ ✓✌ ✓☞✓✠✓✟✔✔✘ ✟✠ ✡☛✌✠♣ ■✠ ❤☞✏☛✡✗✎☛✌ ✎☞☛✣✏✓✤☛☞✌✓✎☞✟✔ ✤✎✠✓✎☞ ✍✓✠✞ ❝✎☞✌✠✟☞✠

✟❝❝☛✔☛✡✟✠✓✎☞♣ ❛✞☛ ✖✎✍☛✡ ✏☛✔✓✛☛✡☛✏ ✠✎ ✓✠ ✟✠ ✠✓✤☛ t ✓✌ ✖✡✎✖✎✡✠✓✎☞✟✔ ✠✎

✭✓✮ t✥✦✧ ✭✓✓✮ t ✭✓✓✓✮ t✸✦✧ ✭✓✛✮ t✧

✻✜★✩ ❆ ✑✎✏✘ ✓✌ ✤✎✛✓☞✗ ❤☞✓✏✓✡☛❝✠✓✎☞✟✔✔✘ ❤☞✏☛✡ ✠✞☛ ✓☞✒✔❤☛☞❝☛ ✎✒ ✟ ✌✎❤✡❝☛ ✎✒ ❝✎☞✌✠✟☞✠ ✖✎✍☛✡♣

■✠✌ ✏✓✌✖✔✟❝☛✤☛☞✠ ✓☞ ✠✓✤☛ t ✓✌ ✖✡✎✖✎✡✠✓✎☞✟✔ ✠✎

✭✓✮ t✥✦✧ ✭✓✓✮ t ✭✓✓✓✮ t✸✦✧ ✭✓✛✮ t✧

✻✜★★ ❆ ✑✎✏✘ ❝✎☞✌✠✡✟✓☞☛✏ ✠✎ ✤✎✛☛ ✟✔✎☞✗ ✠✞☛ ✪✣✟✫✓✌ ✎✒ ✟ ❝✎✎✡✏✓☞✟✠☛ ✌✘✌✠☛✤ ✓✌ ✌❤✑✬☛❝✠ ✠✎ ✟

❝✎☞✌✠✟☞✠ ✒✎✡❝☛ ❋ ✗✓✛☛☞ ✑✘

◆❼✯❼✷❼ ❦❥✐✰ ✱✱❾❂

✍✞☛✡☛ ✲✳✴✳✵ ✹✹✹ ✟✡☛ ❤☞✓✠ ✛☛❝✠✎✡✌ ✟✔✎☞✗ ✠✞☛ ①✣❜ ✺✣ ✟☞✏ ③✣✟✫✓✌ ✎✒ ✠✞☛ ✌✘✌✠☛✤ ✡☛✌✖☛❝✠✓✛☛✔✘♣

❲✞✟✠ ✓✌ ✠✞☛ ✍✎✡✚ ✏✎☞☛ ✑✘ ✠✞✓✌ ✒✎✡❝☛ ✓☞ ✤✎✛✓☞✗ ✠✞☛ ✑✎✏✘ ✟ ✏✓✌✠✟☞❝☛ ✎✒ ✼ ✤ ✟✔✎☞✗ ✠✞☛

③✣✟✫✓✌ ✕

✻✜★✽ ❆☞ ☛✔☛❝✠✡✎☞ ✟☞✏ ✟ ✖✡✎✠✎☞ ✟✡☛ ✏☛✠☛❝✠☛✏ ✓☞ ✟ ❝✎✌✤✓❝ ✡✟✘ ☛✫✖☛✡✓✤☛☞✠❜ ✠✞☛ ✒✓✡✌✠ ✍✓✠✞ ✚✓☞☛✠✓❝

☛☞☛✡✗✘ ❣✾ ✚☛✿❜ ✟☞✏ ✠✞☛ ✌☛❝✎☞✏ ✍✓✠✞ ❣✾✾ ✚☛✿♣ ❲✞✓❝✞ ✓✌ ✒✟✌✠☛✡❜ ✠✞☛ ☛✔☛❝✠✡✎☞ ✎✡ ✠✞☛

✖✡✎✠✎☞ ✕ ❀✑✠✟✓☞ ✠✞☛ ✡✟✠✓✎ ✎✒ ✠✞☛✓✡ ✌✖☛☛✏✌♣ ✭☛✔☛❝✠✡✎☞ ✤✟✌✌ ❁ ❃♣❣❣×❣✾❄❅❇ ✚✗❜ ✖✡✎✠✎☞ ✤✟✌✌

❁ ❣♣❈❉×❣✾➊❊● ✚✗❜ ❣ ☛✿ ❁ ❣♣❈✾ ×❣✾➊❇❍ ❏✮♣

✻✜★❑ ❆ ✡✟✓☞ ✏✡✎✖ ✎✒ ✡✟✏✓❤✌ ▲ ✤✤ ✒✟✔✔✌ ✒✡✎✤ ✟ ✞☛✓✗✞✠ ✎✒ ▼✾✾ ✤ ✟✑✎✛☛ ✠✞☛ ✗✡✎❤☞✏♣ ■✠ ✒✟✔✔✌ ✍✓✠✞

✏☛❝✡☛✟✌✓☞✗ ✟❝❝☛✔☛✡✟✠✓✎☞ ✭✏❤☛ ✠✎ ✛✓✌❝✎❤✌ ✡☛✌✓✌✠✟☞❝☛ ✎✒ ✠✞☛ ✟✓✡✮ ❤☞✠✓✔ ✟✠ ✞✟✔✒ ✓✠✌ ✎✡✓✗✓☞✟✔

✞☛✓✗✞✠❜ ✓✠ ✟✠✠✟✓☞✌ ✓✠✌ ✤✟✫✓✤❤✤ ✭✠☛✡✤✓☞✟✔✮ ✌✖☛☛✏❜ ✟☞✏ ✤✎✛☛✌ ✍✓✠✞ ❤☞✓✒✎✡✤ ✌✖☛☛✏

✠✞☛✡☛✟✒✠☛✡♣ ❲✞✟✠ ✓✌ ✠✞☛ ✍✎✡✚ ✏✎☞☛ ✑✘ ✠✞☛ ✗✡✟✛✓✠✟✠✓✎☞✟✔ ✒✎✡❝☛ ✎☞ ✠✞☛ ✏✡✎✖ ✓☞ ✠✞☛ ✒✓✡✌✠

✟☞✏ ✌☛❝✎☞✏ ✞✟✔✒ ✎✒ ✓✠✌ ✬✎❤✡☞☛✘ ✕ ❲✞✟✠ ✓✌ ✠✞☛ ✍✎✡✚ ✏✎☞☛ ✑✘ ✠✞☛ ✡☛✌✓✌✠✓✛☛ ✒✎✡❝☛ ✓☞ ✠✞☛

☛☞✠✓✡☛ ✬✎❤✡☞☛✘ ✓✒ ✓✠✌ ✌✖☛☛✏ ✎☞ ✡☛✟❝✞✓☞✗ ✠✞☛ ✗✡✎❤☞✏ ✓✌ ❣✾ ✤ ✌➊❇ ✕

✻✜★❖ ❆ ✤✎✔☛❝❤✔☛ ✓☞ ✟ ✗✟✌ ❝✎☞✠✟✓☞☛✡ ✞✓✠✌ ✟ ✞✎✡✓✪✎☞✠✟✔ ✍✟✔✔ ✍✓✠✞ ✌✖☛☛✏ ▲✾✾ ✤ ✌➊❇ ✟☞✏ ✟☞✗✔☛ ◗✾❘

✍✓✠✞ ✠✞☛ ☞✎✡✤✟✔❜ ✟☞✏ ✡☛✑✎❤☞✏✌ ✍✓✠✞ ✠✞☛ ✌✟✤☛ ✌✖☛☛✏♣ ■✌ ✤✎✤☛☞✠❤✤ ❝✎☞✌☛✡✛☛✏ ✓☞ ✠✞☛

❝✎✔✔✓✌✓✎☞ ✕ ■✌ ✠✞☛ ❝✎✔✔✓✌✓✎☞ ☛✔✟✌✠✓❝ ✎✡ ✓☞☛✔✟✌✠✓❝ ✕

✻✜★❙ ❆ ✖❤✤✖ ✎☞ ✠✞☛ ✗✡✎❤☞✏ ✒✔✎✎✡ ✎✒ ✟ ✑❤✓✔✏✓☞✗ ❝✟☞ ✖❤✤✖ ❤✖ ✍✟✠☛✡ ✠✎ ✒✓✔✔ ✟ ✠✟☞✚ ✎✒ ✛✎✔❤✤☛ ◗✾ ✤❅

✓☞ ❣▼ ✤✓☞♣ ■✒ ✠✞☛ ✠✟☞✚ ✓✌ ✼✾ ✤ ✟✑✎✛☛ ✠✞☛ ✗✡✎❤☞✏❜ ✟☞✏ ✠✞☛ ☛✒✒✓❝✓☛☞❝✘ ✎✒ ✠✞☛ ✖❤✤✖ ✓✌ ◗✾❚❜

✞✎✍ ✤❤❝✞ ☛✔☛❝✠✡✓❝ ✖✎✍☛✡ ✓✌ ❝✎☞✌❤✤☛✏ ✑✘ ✠✞☛ ✖❤✤✖ ✕

✻✜★✻ ❛✍✎ ✓✏☛☞✠✓❝✟✔ ✑✟✔✔ ✑☛✟✡✓☞✗✌ ✓☞ ❝✎☞✠✟❝✠ ✍✓✠✞ ☛✟❝✞ ✎✠✞☛✡ ✟☞✏ ✡☛✌✠✓☞✗ ✎☞ ✟ ✒✡✓❝✠✓✎☞✔☛✌✌

✠✟✑✔☛ ✟✡☛ ✞✓✠ ✞☛✟✏✣✎☞ ✑✘ ✟☞✎✠✞☛✡ ✑✟✔✔ ✑☛✟✡✓☞✗ ✎✒ ✠✞☛ ✌✟✤☛ ✤✟✌✌ ✤✎✛✓☞✗ ✓☞✓✠✓✟✔✔✘ ✍✓✠✞ ✟

✌✖☛☛✏ ❱♣ ■✒ ✠✞☛ ❝✎✔✔✓✌✓✎☞ ✓✌ ☛✔✟✌✠✓❝❜ ✍✞✓❝✞ ✎✒ ✠✞☛ ✒✎✔✔✎✍✓☞✗ ✭❯✓✗♣ ❈♣❣✼✮ ✓✌ ✟ ✖✎✌✌✓✑✔☛ ✡☛✌❤✔✠

✟✒✠☛✡ ❝✎✔✔✓✌✓✎☞ ✕

❳❨❩❬ ❭❬❪❫

Page 141: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶☛☞

✻✌✍✎ ❚✏✑ ✒✓✒ ✔ ✓✕ ✖ ✗✑✘✙✚✛✚✜ ✢✑✛✑✖✣✑✙ ✕✢✓✜ ✤✥♦ ✦✓ ✦✏✑

✈✑✢✦✧★✖✛ ✏✧✦✣ ✖✘✓✦✏✑✢ ✒✓✒ ✩ ✓✕ ✦✏✑ ✣✖✜✑ ✜✖✣✣ ✖✦ ✢✑✣✦

✓✘ ✖ ✦✖✒✛✑ ✖✣ ✣✏✓✪✘ ✧✘ ✫✧✬✭ ✮✭✯✰✭ ✱✓✪ ✏✧✬✏ ✙✓✑✣

✦✏✑ ✒✓✒ ✔ ✢✧✣✑ ✖✕✦✑✢ ✦✏✑ ★✓✛✛✧✣✧✓✘❄ ✲✑✬✛✑★✦ ✦✏✑ ✣✧✳✑ ✓✕

✦✏✑ ✒✓✒✣ ✖✘✙ ✖✣✣✚✜✑ ✦✏✑ ★✓✛✛✧✣✧✓✘ ✦✓ ✒✑ ✑✛✖✣✦✧★✭

✻✌✍✴ ❚✏✑ ✒✓✒ ✓✕ ✖ ✗✑✘✙✚✛✚✜ ✧✣ ✢✑✛✑✖✣✑✙ ✕✢✓✜✖ ✏✓✢✧✳✓✘✦✖✛

✗✓✣✧✦✧✓✘✭ ♣✕ ✦✏✑ ✛✑✘✬✦✏ ✓✕ ✦✏✑ ✗✑✘✙✚✛✚✜ ✧✣ ✯✭✰ ✜✵

✪✏✖✦ ✧✣ ✦✏✑ ✣✗✑✑✙ ✪✧✦✏ ✪✏✧★✏ ✦✏✑ ✒✓✒ ✖✢✢✧✈✑✣ ✖✦ ✦✏✑

✛✓✪✑✢✜✓✣✦ ✗✓✧✘✦✵ ✬✧✈✑✘ ✦✏✖✦ ✧✦ ✙✧✣✣✧✗✖✦✑✙ ✰❧ ✓✕ ✧✦✣

✧✘✧✦✧✖✛ ✑✘✑✢✬✐ ✖✬✖✧✘✣✦ ✖✧✢ ✢✑✣✧✣✦✖✘★✑ ❄

✻✌✍✷ ✔ ✦✢✓✛✛✑✐ ✓✕ ✜✖✣✣ ✤✥✥ ❆✬ ★✖✢✢✐✧✘✬ ✖ ✣✖✘✙✒✖✬ ✓✕ ✸✰ ❆✬

✧✣ ✜✓✈✧✘✬ ✚✘✧✕✓✢✜✛✐ ✪✧✦✏ ✖ ✣✗✑✑✙ ✓✕ ✸✹ ❆✜✺✏ ✓✘ ✖

✕✢✧★✦✧✓✘✛✑✣✣ ✦✢✖★❆✭ ✔✕✦✑✢ ✖ ✪✏✧✛✑✵ ✣✖✘✙ ✣✦✖✢✦✣ ✛✑✖❆✧✘✬

✓✚✦ ✓✕ ✖ ✏✓✛✑ ✓✘ ✦✏✑ ✕✛✓✓✢ ✓✕ ✦✏✑ ✦✢✓✛✛✑✐ ✖✦ ✦✏✑ ✢✖✦✑ ✓✕

✥✭✥✰ ❆✬ ✣➊✼✭ ✽✏✖✦ ✧✣ ✦✏✑ ✣✗✑✑✙ ✓✕ ✦✏✑ ✦✢✓✛✛✑✐ ✖✕✦✑✢ ✦✏✑ ✑✘✦✧✢✑ ✣✖✘✙ ✒✖✬ ✧✣ ✑✜✗✦✐ ❄

✻✌✾✿ ✔ ✒✓✙✐ ✓✕ ✜✖✣✣ ✥✭✰ ❆✬ ✦✢✖✈✑✛✣ ✧✘ ✖ ✣✦✢✖✧✬✏✦ ✛✧✘✑ ✪✧✦✏ ✈✑✛✓★✧✦✐ ❀ ❁❛ ①❂❃❅ ✪✏✑✢✑ ❛ ❇

✰ ✜➊✼❃❅ ✣➊✼✭ ✽✏✖✦ ✧✣ ✦✏✑ ✪✓✢❆ ✙✓✘✑ ✒✐ ✦✏✑ ✘✑✦ ✕✓✢★✑ ✙✚✢✧✘✬ ✧✦✣ ✙✧✣✗✛✖★✑✜✑✘✦ ✕✢✓✜ ①

❁ ✥ ✦✓ ① ❁ ✸ ✜ ❄

✻✌✾✍ ❚✏✑ ✒✛✖✙✑✣ ✓✕ ✖ ✪✧✘✙✜✧✛✛ ✣✪✑✑✗ ✓✚✦ ✖ ★✧✢★✛✑ ✓✕ ✖✢✑✖ ❈✭ ❉✖❊ ♣✕ ✦✏✑ ✪✧✘✙ ✕✛✓✪✣ ✖✦ ✖

✈✑✛✓★✧✦✐ ❀ ✗✑✢✗✑✘✙✧★✚✛✖✢ ✦✓ ✦✏✑ ★✧✢★✛✑✵ ✪✏✖✦ ✧✣ ✦✏✑ ✜✖✣✣ ✓✕ ✦✏✑ ✖✧✢ ✗✖✣✣✧✘✬ ✦✏✢✓✚✬✏ ✧✦

✧✘ ✦✧✜✑ t ❄ ❉✒❊ ✽✏✖✦ ✧✣ ✦✏✑ ❆✧✘✑✦✧★ ✑✘✑✢✬✐ ✓✕ ✦✏✑ ✖✧✢ ❄ ❉★❊ ✔✣✣✚✜✑ ✦✏✖✦ ✦✏✑ ✪✧✘✙✜✧✛✛

★✓✘✈✑✢✦✣ ✸✰❧ ✓✕ ✦✏✑ ✪✧✘✙❝✣ ✑✘✑✢✬✐ ✧✘✦✓ ✑✛✑★✦✢✧★✖✛ ✑✘✑✢✬✐✵ ✖✘✙ ✦✏✖✦ ❈ ❁ ✤✥ ✜❅✵ ❀ ❁ ✤✮

❆✜✺✏ ✖✘✙ ✦✏✑ ✙✑✘✣✧✦✐ ✓✕ ✖✧✢ ✧✣ ✯✭✸ ❆✬ ✜➊❂✭ ✽✏✖✦ ✧✣ ✦✏✑ ✑✛✑★✦✢✧★✖✛ ✗✓✪✑✢ ✗✢✓✙✚★✑✙ ❄

✻✌✾✾ ✔ ✗✑✢✣✓✘ ✦✢✐✧✘✬ ✦✓ ✛✓✣✑ ✪✑✧✬✏✦ ❉✙✧✑✦✑✢❊ ✛✧✕✦✣ ✖ ✯✥ ❆✬ ✜✖✣✣✵ ✓✘✑ ✦✏✓✚✣✖✘✙ ✦✧✜✑✣✵ ✦✓ ✖

✏✑✧✬✏✦ ✓✕ ✥✭✰ ✜ ✑✖★✏ ✦✧✜✑✭ ✔✣✣✚✜✑ ✦✏✖✦ ✦✏✑ ✗✓✦✑✘✦✧✖✛ ✑✘✑✢✬✐ ✛✓✣✦ ✑✖★✏ ✦✧✜✑ ✣✏✑

✛✓✪✑✢✣ ✦✏✑✜✖✣✣ ✧✣ ✙✧✣✣✧✗✖✦✑✙✭ ❉✖❊ ✱✓✪✜✚★✏ ✪✓✢❆✙✓✑✣ ✣✏✑ ✙✓ ✖✬✖✧✘✣✦ ✦✏✑ ✬✢✖✈✧✦✖✦✧✓✘✖✛

✕✓✢★✑ ❄ ❉✒❊ ✫✖✦ ✣✚✗✗✛✧✑✣ ✤✭❢ ❋ ✯✥●❏ ✓✕ ✑✘✑✢✬✐ ✗✑✢ ❆✧✛✓✬✢✖✜ ✪✏✧★✏ ✧✣ ★✓✘✈✑✢✦✑✙ ✦✓

✜✑★✏✖✘✧★✖✛ ✑✘✑✢✬✐ ✪✧✦✏ ✖ ✸✥❧ ✑✕✕✧★✧✑✘★✐ ✢✖✦✑✭ ✱✓✪ ✜✚★✏ ✕✖✦ ✪✧✛✛ ✦✏✑ ✙✧✑✦✑✢ ✚✣✑ ✚✗❄

✻✌✾❍ ✔ ✕✖✜✧✛✐ ✚✣✑✣ ❢ ❆✽ ✓✕ ✗✓✪✑✢✭ ❉✖❊ ■✧✢✑★✦ ✣✓✛✖✢ ✑✘✑✢✬✐ ✧✣ ✧✘★✧✙✑✘✦ ✓✘ ✦✏✑ ✏✓✢✧✳✓✘✦✖✛

✣✚✢✕✖★✑ ✖✦ ✖✘ ✖✈✑✢✖✬✑ ✢✖✦✑ ✓✕ ✸✥✥ ✽ ✗✑✢ ✣❑✚✖✢✑ ✜✑✦✑✢✭ ♣✕ ✸✥❧ ✓✕ ✦✏✧✣ ✑✘✑✢✬✐ ★✖✘ ✒✑

★✓✘✈✑✢✦✑✙ ✦✓ ✚✣✑✕✚✛ ✑✛✑★✦✢✧★✖✛ ✑✘✑✢✬✐✵ ✏✓✪ ✛✖✢✬✑ ✖✘ ✖✢✑✖ ✧✣ ✘✑✑✙✑✙ ✦✓ ✣✚✗✗✛✐ ❢ ❆✽❄

❉✒❊ ▲✓✜✗✖✢✑ ✦✏✧✣ ✖✢✑✖ ✦✓ ✦✏✖✦ ✓✕ ✦✏✑ ✢✓✓✕ ✓✕ ✖ ✦✐✗✧★✖✛ ✏✓✚✣✑✭

▼◆◆❖P❖◗❘❙❯ ❱❳❨❩❬❖❭❨❭

✻✌✾❪ ✔ ✒✚✛✛✑✦ ✓✕ ✜✖✣✣ ✥✭✥✯✸ ❆✬ ✖✘✙ ✏✓✢✧✳✓✘✦✖✛ ✣✗✑✑✙ ✹✥ ✜ ✣➊✼ ✣✦✢✧❆✑✣ ✖ ✒✛✓★❆ ✓✕ ✪✓✓✙ ✓✕

✜✖✣✣ ✥✭♠ ❆✬ ✖✘✙ ✧✘✣✦✖✘✦✛✐ ★✓✜✑✣ ✦✓ ✢✑✣✦ ✪✧✦✏ ✢✑✣✗✑★✦ ✦✓ ✦✏✑ ✒✛✓★❆✭ ❚✏✑ ✒✛✓★❆ ✧✣

✣✚✣✗✑✘✙✑✙ ✕✢✓✜ ✦✏✑ ★✑✧✛✧✘✬ ✒✐ ✜✑✖✘✣ ✓✕ ✦✏✧✘ ✪✧✢✑✣✭ ▲✖✛★✚✛✖✦✑ ✦✏✑ ✏✑✧✬✏✦ ✦✓ ✪✏✧★✏

✦✏✑ ✒✛✓★❆ ✢✧✣✑✣✭ ✔✛✣✓✵ ✑✣✦✧✜✖✦✑ ✦✏✑ ✖✜✓✚✘✦ ✓✕ ✏✑✖✦ ✗✢✓✙✚★✑✙ ✧✘ ✦✏✑ ✒✛✓★❆✭

✻✌✾❫ ❚✪✓ ✧✘★✛✧✘✑✙ ✕✢✧★✦✧✓✘✛✑✣✣ ✦✢✖★❆✣✵ ✓✘✑ ✬✢✖✙✚✖✛ ✖✘✙ ✦✏✑ ✓✦✏✑✢ ✣✦✑✑✗ ✜✑✑✦ ✖✦ ✔ ✕✢✓✜

✪✏✑✢✑ ✦✪✓ ✣✦✓✘✑✣ ✖✢✑ ✖✛✛✓✪✑✙ ✦✓ ✣✛✧✙✑ ✙✓✪✘ ✕✢✓✜ ✢✑✣✦✵ ✓✘✑ ✓✘ ✑✖★✏ ✦✢✖★❆ ❉✫✧✬✭ ✮✭✯✮❊✭

✽✧✛✛ ✦✏✑ ✣✦✓✘✑✣ ✢✑✖★✏ ✦✏✑ ✒✓✦✦✓✜ ✖✦ ✦✏✑ ✣✖✜✑ ✦✧✜✑❄ ✽✧✛✛ ✦✏✑✐ ✢✑✖★✏ ✦✏✑✢✑ ✪✧✦✏ ✦✏✑

✣✖✜✑ ✣✗✑✑✙❄ ❴❵✗✛✖✧✘✭ ❜✧✈✑✘ ❞✼ ❁ ✤✥❡✵ ❞❅ ❁ ✮✥

❡✵ ✖✘✙ ❤ ❁ ✯✥ ✜✵ ✪✏✖✦ ✖✢✑ ✦✏✑ ✣✗✑✑✙✣ ✖✘✙

✦✧✜✑✣ ✦✖❆✑✘ ✒✐ ✦✏✑ ✦✪✓ ✣✦✓✘✑✣ ❄

❣❥❦♥ q♥rq

❣❥❦♥ q♥rs

Page 142: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

✻✞✟✻ ❆ ✠ ✡☛ ☞✌✍✎✡ ✏✑✒✓✔✒✕✖ ✍✗ ✔ ✘✍✓☛✙ ✑✗✎✌✑✗✕ ✑✏ ✎✍✗✗✕✎✒✕✖ ✒✍ ✔ ✏✚✘✑✗☛ ✍✛ ✏✚✘✑✗☛ ✎✍✗✏✒✔✗✒ ✠✜✜

◆ ✢➊✣ ✔✏ ✏✙✍✥✗ ✑✗ ✤✑☛✦ ✧✦✠★✦ ✩✙✕ ☞✌✍✎✡ ✑✏ ✘✕✌✕✔✏✕✖ ✛✘✍✢ ✘✕✏✒ ✥✑✒✙ ✒✙✕ ✏✚✘✑✗☛ ✑✗ ✒✙✕

✓✗✏✒✘✕✒✎✙✕✖ ✚✍✏✑✒✑✍✗✦ ✩✙✕ ☞✌✍✎✡ ✢✍✉✕✏ ✠✜ ✎✢ ✖✍✥✗ ✒✙✕ ✑✗✎✌✑✗✕ ☞✕✛✍✘✕ ✎✍✢✑✗☛ ✒✍ ✘✕✏✒✦

✤✑✗✖ ✒✙✕ ✎✍✕✛✛✑✎✑✕✗✒ ✍✛ ✛✘✑✎✒✑✍✗ ☞✕✒✥✕✕✗ ✒✙✕ ☞✌✍✎✡ ✔✗✖ ✒✙✕ ✑✗✎✌✑✗✕✦ ❆✏✏✓✢✕ ✒✙✔✒ ✒✙✕

✏✚✘✑✗☛ ✙✔✏ ✔ ✗✕☛✌✑☛✑☞✌✕ ✢✔✏✏ ✔✗✖ ✒✙✕ ✚✓✌✌✕s ✑✏ ✛✘✑✎✒✑✍✗✌✕✏✏✦

❋✪✫✬ ✭✬✮✯

✻✞✟✰ ❆ ☞✍✌✒ ✍✛ ✢✔✏✏ ✜✦✱ ✡☛ ✛✔✌✌✏ ✛✘✍✢ ✒✙✕ ✎✕✑✌✑✗☛ ✍✛ ✔✗ ✕✌✕✉✔✒✍✘ ✢✍✉✑✗☛ ✖✍✥✗ ✥✑✒✙ ✔✗ ✓✗✑✛✍✘✢

✏✚✕✕✖ ✍✛ ★ ✢ ✏➊✣✦ ✳✒ ✙✑✒✏ ✒✙✕ ✛✌✍✍✘ ✍✛ ✒✙✕ ✕✌✕✉✔✒✍✘ ✲✌✕✗☛✒✙ ✍✛ ✒✙✕ ✕✌✕✉✔✒✍✘ ✴ ✱ ✢✵ ✔✗✖ ✖✍✕✏

✗✍✒ ✘✕☞✍✓✗✖✦ ❡✙✔✒ ✑✏ ✒✙✕ ✙✕✔✒ ✚✘✍✖✓✎✕✖ ☞s ✒✙✕ ✑✢✚✔✎✒ ♦ ❡✍✓✌✖ s✍✓✘ ✔✗✏✥✕✘ ☞✕ ✖✑✛✛✕✘✕✗✒

✑✛ ✒✙✕ ✕✌✕✉✔✒✍✘ ✥✕✘✕ ✏✒✔✒✑✍✗✔✘s ♦

✻✞✟✷ ❆ ✒✘✍✌✌✕s ✍✛ ✢✔✏✏ ✸✜✜ ✡☛ ✢✍✉✕✏ ✥✑✒✙ ✔ ✓✗✑✛✍✘✢ ✏✚✕✕✖ ✍✛ ✱✧ ✡✢✹✙ ✍✗ ✔ ✛✘✑✎✒✑✍✗✌✕✏✏ ✒✘✔✎✡✦

❆ ✎✙✑✌✖ ✍✛ ✢✔✏✏ ✸✜ ✡☛ ✘✓✗✏ ✍✗ ✒✙✕ ✒✘✍✌✌✕s ✛✘✍✢ ✍✗✕ ✕✗✖ ✒✍ ✒✙✕ ✍✒✙✕✘ ✲✠✜ ✢ ✔✥✔s✵ ✥✑✒✙ ✔

✏✚✕✕✖ ✍✛ ✺ ✢ ✏➊✣ ✘✕✌✔✒✑✉✕ ✒✍ ✒✙✕ ✒✘✍✌✌✕s ✑✗ ✔ ✖✑✘✕✎✒✑✍✗ ✍✚✚✍✏✑✒✕ ✒✍ ✒✙✕ ✑✒✏ ✢✍✒✑✍✗✼ ✔✗✖

❥✓✢✚✏ ✍✓✒ ✍✛ ✒✙✕ ✒✘✍✌✌✕s✦ ❡✙✔✒ ✑✏ ✒✙✕ ✛✑✗✔✌ ✏✚✕✕✖ ✍✛ ✒✙✕ ✒✘✍✌✌✕s ♦ ✽✍✥ ✢✓✎✙ ✙✔✏ ✒✙✕

✒✘✍✌✌✕s ✢✍✉✕✖ ✛✘✍✢ ✒✙✕ ✒✑✢✕ ✒✙✕ ✎✙✑✌✖ ☞✕☛✑✗✏ ✒✍ ✘✓✗ ♦

✻✞✟✾ ❡✙✑✎✙ ✍✛ ✒✙✕ ✛✍✌✌✍✥✑✗☛ ✚✍✒✕✗✒✑✔✌ ✕✗✕✘☛s ✎✓✘✉✕✏ ✑✗ ✤✑☛✦ ✧✦✠❲ ✎✔✗✗✍✒ ✚✍✏✏✑☞✌s ✖✕✏✎✘✑☞✕ ✒✙✕

✕✌✔✏✒✑✎ ✎✍✌✌✑✏✑✍✗ ✍✛ ✒✥✍ ☞✑✌✌✑✔✘✖ ☞✔✌✌✏ ♦ ✽✕✘✕ r ✑✏ ✒✙✕ ✖✑✏✒✔✗✎✕ ☞✕✒✥✕✕✗ ✎✕✗✒✘✕✏ ✍✛ ✒✙✕ ☞✔✌✌✏✦

❋✪✫✬ ✭✬✮✿

✻✞❀❁ ❈✍✗✏✑✖✕✘ ✒✙✕ ✖✕✎✔s ✍✛ ✔ ✛✘✕✕ ✗✕✓✒✘✍✗ ✔✒ ✘✕✏✒ ❂ ♥ ❃♣ ❄ ❅❇

Page 143: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❲�✁✂✄ ☎✆☎✁✝✞ ✟✆✠ ✡�❲☎✁ ✶☛☞

❙✌✍✎ ✏✌✑✏ ✏✌✒ ✏✎✍✓✔✍✕✖ ✕✒✗✑✖ ✍✘ ✏✌✙✚ ✏✖✛✒ ✜✢✚✏ ✣✒✗✒✚✚✑✤✙✥✖ ✦✙✧✒ ✑✣ ✒✥✒✗✏✤✍✣ ✍✘ ✘✙★✒✕

✒✣✒✤✦✖ ✑✣✕❡ ✏✌✒✤✒✘✍✤✒❡ ✗✑✣✣✍✏ ✑✗✗✍✢✣✏ ✘✍✤ ✏✌✒ ✍✔✚✒✤✧✒✕ ✗✍✣✏✙✣✢✍✢✚ ✒✣✒✤✦✖ ✕✙✚✏✤✙✔✢✏✙✍✣

✙✣ ✏✌✒ ✩✓✕✒✗✑✖ ✍✘ ✑ ✣✒✢✏✤✍✣ ✍✤ ✑ ✣✢✗✥✒✢✚ ✲✪✙✦✫ ✬✫✭✮✯✫

❋✰✱✳ ✴✳✵✷

❬✸✍✏✒✹ ✺✌✒ ✚✙✜✛✥✒ ✤✒✚✢✥✏ ✍✘ ✏✌✙✚ ✒★✒✤✗✙✚✒ ✎✑✚ ✍✣✒ ✑✜✍✣✦ ✏✌✒ ✚✒✧✒✤✑✥ ✑✤✦✢✜✒✣✏✚ ✑✕✧✑✣✗✒✕ ✔✖ ✻✫

P✑✢✥✙ ✏✍ ✛✤✒✕✙✗✏ ✏✌✒ ✒★✙✚✏✒✣✗✒ ✍✘ ✑ ✏✌✙✤✕ ✛✑✤✏✙✗✥✒ ✙✣ ✏✌✒ ✕✒✗✑✖ ✛✤✍✕✢✗✏✚ ✍✘ ✩✓✕✒✗✑✖✫ ✺✌✙✚

✛✑✤✏✙✗✥✒ ✙✚ ♣✣✍✎✣ ✑✚ ✣✒✢✏✤✙✣✍✫ ✻✒ ✣✍✎ ♣✣✍✎ ✏✌✑✏ ✙✏ ✙✚ ✑ ✛✑✤✏✙✗✥✒ ✍✘ ✙✣✏✤✙✣✚✙✗ ✚✛✙✣ ✼ ✲✥✙♣✒

✽➋❡ ✾ ✍✤ ♥✯❡ ✔✢✏ ✙✚ ✣✒✢✏✤✑✥❡ ✑✣✕ ✒✙✏✌✒✤ ✜✑✚✚✥✒✚✚ ✍✤ ✌✑✧✙✣✦ ✑✣ ✒★✏✤✒✜✒✥✖ ✚✜✑✥✥ ✜✑✚✚

✲✗✍✜✛✑✤✒✕ ✏✍ ✏✌✒ ✜✑✚✚ ✍✘ ✒✥✒✗✏✤✍✣✯ ✑✣✕ ✎✌✙✗✌ ✙✣✏✒✤✑✗✏✚ ✧✒✤✖ ✎✒✑♣✥✖ ✎✙✏✌ ✜✑✏✏✒✤✫ ✺✌✒

✗✍✤✤✒✗✏ ✕✒✗✑✖ ✛✤✍✗✒✚✚ ✍✘ ✣✒✢✏✤✍✣ ✙✚ ✹ ♥ ✿ ✾ ❀ ✽ ➊ ❁ ❂ ❃

Page 144: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

P�✁✂✄☎✂✶✆✝

❆✞✞✟✠✡☛☞ ✌✍✎ ✏ ✞✑✒✟✓ ✔✑✠✕✖✗✞✘☛✑✠ ☛✠✒❆✙✚☛✠✛

❚✜✢ ✣✤✥✦✢ ✥✢✦✧★ ✦✩✪✣✪ ✣✜✢ ✤✫✫✬✧✭✩✮✤✣✢ ✫✧★✢✬ ✢✭✫✢✯✰✢✰ ✥✱ ✤✯ ✤✰✲✦✣ ✜✲✮✤✯ ✧✳ ✮✤✪✪ ✴✵ ✷✸✹

✺✻✼✽✾ ✿❀❁ ❂❃❃❄❅❇❈❉✻❊✾ ❃❅❋✾❄ ●❅❍■❏❉❃❊❈❅❍

▼✢❑✜✤✯✩❑✤✦ ★✧✬✷ ✮✲✪✣ ✯✧✣ ✥✢ ❑✧✯✳✲✪✢✰★✩✣✜ ✣✜✢ ✢▲✢✬✱✰✤✱ ✲✪✤✸✢

✧✳ ✣✜✢ ✣✢✬✮ ★✧✬✷✹ ♦ ★✧✮✤✯ ✪✣✤✯✰✩✯✸ ★✩✣✜ ✤ ▲✢✬✱ ✜✢✤▲✱ ✦✧✤✰ ✧✯

✜✢✬ ✜✢✤✰✮✤✱ ✸✢✣ ▲✢✬✱ ✣✩✬✢✰✹ ❤✲✣ ✯✧✮✢❑✜✤✯✩❑✤✦ ★✧✬✷ ✩✪ ✩✯▲✧✦▲✢✰✹

❚✜✤✣ ✩✪ ✯✧✣ ✣✧ ✪✤✱ ✣✜✤✣ ✮✢❑✜✤✯✩❑✤✦ ★✧✬✷ ❑✤✯✯✧✣ ✥✢ ✢✪✣✩✮✤✣✢✰ ✩✯

✧✬✰✩✯✤✬✱ ✜✲✮✤✯ ✤❑✣✩▲✩✣✱✹

◆✧✯✪✩✰✢✬ ✤ ✫✢✬✪✧✯ ★✤✦✷✩✯✸ ★✩✣✜ ❑✧✯✪✣✤✯✣ ✪✫✢✢✰ ✈❖✹ ❚✜✢ ✮✢❑✜✤✯✩❑✤✦ ★✧✬✷ ✜✢ ✰✧✢✪ ✮✤✱ ✥✢ ✢✪✣✩✮✤✣✢✰ ✪✩✮✫✦✱

★✩✣✜ ✣✜✢ ✜✢✦✫ ✧✳ ✣✜✢ ★✧✬✷✇✢✯✢✬✸✱ ✣✜✢✧✬✢✮✹ ♦✪✪✲✮✢ ◗

❘✤❙ ❚✜✢ ✮✤❯✧✬ ★✧✬✷ ✰✧✯✢ ✩✯ ★✤✦✷✩✯✸ ✩✪ ✰✲✢ ✣✧ ✣✜✢ ✤❑❑✢✦✢✬✤✣✩✧✯ ✤✯✰ ✰✢❑✢✦✢✬✤✣✩✧✯ ✧✳ ✣✜✢ ✦✢✸✪ ★✩✣✜ ✢✤❑✜ ✪✣✬✩✰✢

❘❱✢✢ ❲✩✸✹ ✴✹❳✵❙✹

❘✥❙ ❨✢✸✦✢❑✣ ✤✩✬ ✬✢✪✩✪✣✤✯❑✢✹

❘❑❙ ❨✢✸✦✢❑✣ ✣✜✢ ✪✮✤✦✦ ★✧✬✷ ✰✧✯✢ ✩✯ ✦✩✳✣✩✯✸ ✣✜✢ ✦✢✸✪ ✤✸✤✩✯✪✣ ✸✬✤▲✩✣✱✹

❘✰❙ ❨✢✸✦✢❑✣ ✣✜✢ ✪★✩✯✸✩✯✸ ✧✳ ✜✤✯✰✪ ✢✣❑✹ ✤✪ ✩✪ ❑✧✮✮✧✯ ✩✯ ★✤✦✷✩✯✸✹

♦✪ ★✢ ❑✤✯ ✪✢✢ ✩✯ ❲✩✸✹ ✴✹❳✵❩ ✩✯ ✢✤❑✜ ✪✣✬✩✰✢ ✣✜✢ ✦✢✸ ✩✪ ✥✬✧✲✸✜✣ ✳✬✧✮ ✬✢✪✣ ✣✧ ✤ ✪✫✢✢✰❩ ✤✫✫✬✧✭✩✮✤✣✢✦✱ ✢❬✲✤✦ ✣✧ ✣✜✢

✪✫✢✢✰ ✧✳ ★✤✦✷✩✯✸❩ ✤✯✰ ✣✜✢✯ ✥✬✧✲✸✜✣ ✣✧ ✬✢✪✣ ✤✸✤✩✯✹

❭❪❫❴ ❵❴❛❜ ❝❞ ❡❢❢❣✐❥❦❧❥❡♠❞ ♠♥ ❧ ✐❡❞♣❢q ✐❥❦❡rq ❡❞ s❧❢t❡❞♣✉ ①②❡❢q ❥②q ♥❡❦✐❥ ❢q♣ ❡✐ ③❧④❡③❧❢❢⑤ ♠♥♥ ❥②q ❦♠❣❞r⑥ ❥②q ✐q⑦♠❞r ❢q♣

❡✐ ♠❞ ❥②q ♣❦♠❣❞r ❧❞r ✈❡⑦q⑧✈q❦✐❧

❚✜✢ ★✧✬✷ ✰✧✯✢ ✥✱ ✧✯✢ ✦✢✸ ✩✯ ✢✤❑✜ ✪✣✬✩✰✢ ✩✪⑨⑩❶ ❷❸ ✥✱ ✣✜✢ ★✧✬✷✇✢✯✢✬✸✱ ✣✜✢✧✬✢✮✹ ❹✢✬✢ ③❺ ✩✪ ✣✜✢ ✮✤✪✪ ✧✳ ✣✜✢ ✦✢✸✹

❨✧✣✢ ❻❼❽❾❿ ➀➁ ✢✯✢✬✸✱ ✩✪ ✢✭✫✢✯✰✢✰ ✥✱ ✧✯✢ ✪✢✣ ✧✳ ✦✢✸ ✮✲✪❑✦✢✪ ✣✧ ✥✬✩✯✸ ✣✜✢ ✳✧✧✣ ✳✬✧✮ ✬✢✪✣ ✣✧ ✪✫✢✢✰ ✈❖ ★✜✩✦✢ ✤✯

✤✰✰✩✣✩✧✯✤✦ ➂➃⑨⑩❶ ❷❸ ✩✪ ✢✭✫✢✯✰✢✰ ✥✱ ✤ ❑✧✮✫✦✢✮✢✯✣✤✬✱ ✪✢✣ ✧✳ ✦✢✸ ✮✲✪❑✦✢✪ ✣✧ ✥✬✩✯✸ ✣✜✢ ✳✧✧✣ ✣✧ ✬✢✪✣ ✳✬✧✮ ✪✫✢✢✰ ✈❖✹

❹✢✯❑✢ ★✧✬✷ ✰✧✯✢ ✥✱ ✥✧✣✜ ✦✢✸✪ ✩✯ ✧✯✢ ✪✣✬✩✰✢ ✩✪ ❘✪✣✲✰✱ ❲✩✸✹ ✴✹❳✵ ❑✤✬✢✳✲✦✦✱❙

⑨⑩❶➄ ❷❸➅ ➂➆ ❘✴✹➇➈❙

♦✪✪✲✮✩✯✸ ③❺ ➉ ➊✵ ✷✸ ✤✯✰ ✪✦✧★ ✬✲✯✯✩✯✸ ✧✳ ✤ ✯✩✯✢✇✮✩✯✲✣✢ ✮✩✦✢ ★✜✩❑✜ ✣✬✤✯✪✦✤✣✢✪ ✣✧ ➇ ✮ ✪➋➌ ✩✯ ❱➍ ✲✯✩✣✪❩ ★✢ ✧✥✣✤✩✯

①➎ ➏➊➐✵ ➑➒✪✣✬✩✰✢

➍✳ ★✢ ✣✤✷✢ ✤ ✪✣✬✩✰✢ ✣✧ ✥✢ ❳ ✮ ✦✧✯✸❩ ✣✜✢ ✫✢✬✪✧✯ ❑✧▲✢✬✪ ➊✹➓ ✪✣✬✩✰✢✪ ✫✢✬ ✪✢❑✧✯✰ ✤✣ ✜✩✪ ✪✫✢✢✰ ✧✳ ➇ ✮ ✪➋➌✹ ❚✜✲✪ ✣✜✢

✫✧★✢✬ ✢✭✫✢✯✰✢✰

➔→➣↔↕➙

➔➛➜➝➙→➞➟➠

➔➛➜➝➙→

➡➞➢➤ ×➥➦

➉ ❳➧✵ ➨

➨✢ ✮✲✪✣ ✥✢✤✬ ✩✯✮✩✯✰ ✣✜✤✣ ✣✜✩✪ ✩✪ ✤ ✦✧★✢✬ ✢✪✣✩✮✤✣✢ ✪✩✯❑✢ ✪✢▲✢✬✤✦ ✤▲✢✯✲✢✪ ✧✳ ✫✧★✢✬ ✦✧✪✪ ❘✢✹✸✹ ✪★✩✯✸✩✯✸ ✧✳ ✜✤✯✰✪❩

✤✩✬ ✬✢✪✩✪✣✤✯❑✢ ✢✣❑✹❙ ✜✤▲✢ ✥✢✢✯ ✩✸✯✧✬✢✰✹ ❚✜✢ ✩✯✣✢✬✢✪✣✩✯✸ ✫✧✩✯✣ ✩✪ ✣✜✤✣ ★✢ ✰✩✰ ✯✧✣ ★✧✬✬✱ ✤✥✧✲✣ ✣✜✢ ✳✧✬❑✢✪ ✩✯▲✧✦▲✢✰✹

❚✜✢ ✳✧✬❑✢✪❩ ✮✤✩✯✦✱ ✳✬✩❑✣✩✧✯ ✤✯✰ ✣✜✧✪✢ ✢✭✢✬✣✢✰ ✧✯ ✣✜✢ ✦✢✸ ✥✱ ✣✜✢ ✮✲✪❑✦✢✪ ✧✳ ✣✜✢ ✬✢✪✣ ✧✳ ✣✜✢ ✥✧✰✱❩ ✤✬✢ ✜✤✬✰ ✣✧

✢✪✣✩✮✤✣✢✹ ❱✣✤✣✩❑ ✳✬✩❑✣✩✧✯ ✰✧✢✪ ✯✧ ★✧✬✷ ✤✯✰★✢ ✥✱✫✤✪✪✢✰ ✣✜✢ ✩✮✫✧✪✪✩✥✦✢ ✣✤✪✷ ✧✳ ✢✪✣✩✮✤✣✩✯✸ ✣✜✢ ★✧✬✷ ✰✧✯✢ ✥✱ ✣✜✢

✮✲✪❑✦✢✪ ✥✱ ✣✤✷✩✯✸ ✬✢❑✧✲✬✪✢ ✣✧ ✣✜✢ ★✧✬✷✇✢✯✢✬✸✱ ✣✜✢✧✬✢✮✹ ➨✢ ❑✤✯ ✤✦✪✧ ✪✢✢ ✣✜✢ ✤✰▲✤✯✣✤✸✢ ✧✳ ✤ ★✜✢✢✦✹ ❚✜✢ ★✜✢✢✦

✫✢✬✮✩✣✪ ✪✮✧✧✣✜ ✦✧❑✧✮✧✣✩✧✯ ★✩✣✜✧✲✣ ✣✜✢ ❑✧✯✣✩✯✲✤✦ ✪✣✤✬✣✩✯✸ ✤✯✰ ✪✣✧✫✫✩✯✸ ✩✯ ✮✤✮✮✤✦✩✤✯ ✦✧❑✧✮✧✣✩✧✯✹

Page 145: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❈❍�✁✂✄☎ ✥✄❊✄✆

❙❨✝✞✟✠✝ ❖✡ ☛❆☞✞✌✍✎✟✝ ❆✏✑ ✒❖✞❆✞✌❖✏❆✎ ✓❖✞✌❖✏

✼✔✕ ■✖✗✘✙✚✛✜✗■✙✖

✢✣ ✤✦✧ ✧★✩✪✫✧✩ ✬✦★✭✤✧✩✮ ✯✧ ✭✩✫✰★✩✫✪✱ ✬✲✣✮✫✳✧✩✧✳ ✤✦✧ ✰✲✤✫✲✣✲♦ ★ ✮✫✣✴✪✧ ✭★✩✤✫✬✪✧ ✵✶ ✭★✩✤✫✬✪✧ ✫✮ ✩✧✭✩✧✮✧✣✤✧✳ ★✮ ★ ✭✲✫✣✤ ✰★✮✮✷✢✤ ✦★✮ ✭✩★✬✤✫✬★✪✪✱ ✣✲ ✮✫✸✧✹✷ ✺✧ ★✭✭✪✫✧✳ ✤✦✧ ✩✧✮❡✪✤✮ ✲♦ ✲❡✩✮✤❡✳✱ ✧s✧✣ ✤✲ ✤✦✧ ✰✲✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ✻✲✳✫✧✮ ✲♦ ♦✫✣✫✤✧ ✮✫✸✧✽ ★✮✮❡✰✫✣✴✤✦★✤ ✰✲✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ✮❡✬✦ ✻✲✳✫✧✮ ✬★✣ ✻✧ ✳✧✮✬✩✫✻✧✳ ✫✣ ✤✧✩✰✮ ✲♦ ✤✦✧✰✲✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ★ ✭★✩✤✫✬✪✧✷✶✣✱ ✩✧★✪ ✻✲✳✱ ✯✦✫✬✦ ✯✧ ✧✣✬✲❡✣✤✧✩ ✫✣ ✳★✫✪✱ ✪✫♦✧ ✦★✮ ★

♦✫✣✫✤✧ ✮✫✸✧✷ ✢✣ ✳✧★✪✫✣✴ ✯✫✤✦ ✤✦✧ ✰✲✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ✧❢✤✧✣✳✧✳ ✻✲✳✫✧✮✵✻✲✳✫✧✮ ✲♦ ♦✫✣✫✤✧ ✮✫✸✧✹ ✲♦✤✧✣ ✤✦✧ ✫✳✧★✪✫✮✧✳✰✲✳✧✪ ✲♦ ★ ✭★✩✤✫✬✪✧ ✫✮✫✣★✳✧✐❡★✤✧✷ ✢✣ ✤✦✫✮ ✬✦★✭✤✧✩ ✯✧ ✮✦★✪✪ ✤✩✱ ✤✲ ✴✲ ✻✧✱✲✣✳ ✤✦✫✮✫✣★✳✧✐❡★✬✱✷ ✺✧ ✮✦★✪✪ ★✤✤✧✰✭✤ ✤✲ ✻❡✫✪✳ ★✣ ❡✣✳✧✩✮✤★✣✳✫✣✴ ✲♦✤✦✧ ✰✲✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ✧❢✤✧✣✳✧✳ ✻✲✳✫✧✮✷ ✶✣ ✧❢✤✧✣✳✧✳ ✻✲✳✱✽ ✫✣ ✤✦✧♦✫✩✮✤ ✭✪★✬✧✽ ✫✮ ★ ✮✱✮✤✧✰ ✲♦ ✭★✩✤✫✬✪✧✮✷ ✺✧ ✮✦★✪✪ ✻✧✴✫✣ ✯✫✤✦ ✤✦✧✬✲✣✮✫✳✧✩★✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ✰✲✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ✤✦✧ ✮✱✮✤✧✰ ★✮ ★ ✯✦✲✪✧✷ ❝✦✧ ✬✧✣✤✩✧✲♦ ✰★✮✮ ✲♦ ★ ✮✱✮✤✧✰ ✲♦ ✭★✩✤✫✬✪✧✮ ✯✫✪✪ ✻✧ ★ ✾✧✱ ✬✲✣✬✧✭✤ ✦✧✩✧✷✺✧ ✮✦★✪✪ ✳✫✮✬❡✮✮ ✤✦✧✰✲✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ✤✦✧ ✬✧✣✤✩✧ ✲♦ ✰★✮✮ ✲♦ ★ ✮✱✮✤✧✰✲♦ ✭★✩✤✫✬✪✧✮ ★✣✳ ❡✮✧♦❡✪✣✧✮✮ ✲♦ ✤✦✫✮ ✬✲✣✬✧✭✤ ✫✣ ❡✣✳✧✩✮✤★✣✳✫✣✴✤✦✧ ✰✲✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ✧❢✤✧✣✳✧✳ ✻✲✳✫✧✮✷✶ ✪★✩✴✧ ✬✪★✮✮ ✲♦ ✭✩✲✻✪✧✰✮ ✯✫✤✦ ✧❢✤✧✣✳✧✳ ✻✲✳✫✧✮ ✬★✣ ✻✧

✮✲✪s✧✳ ✻✱ ✬✲✣✮✫✳✧✩✫✣✴ ✤✦✧✰ ✤✲ ✻✧ ✩✫✴✫✳ ✻✲✳✫✧✮✷ ■✿❀❁❂❂❃ ❁r❄❅❄✿ ❇❉✿❃ ❄❋ ❁ ❇❉✿❃ ●❄❏❑ ❁ ▲❀r▼❀◆❏❂❃ ✿❀▼❄P❄❏❀ ❁P✿✉P◆❑❁P❅❄P❅ ❋❑❁▲❀✔ ✗❑❀ ✿❄❋❏❁P◆❀❋ ❇❀❏●❀❀P ✿❄▼▼❀r❀P❏ ▲❁❄r❋❉▼ ❋✉◆❑ ❁ ❇❉✿❃ ✿❉ P❉❏ ◆❑❁P❅❀✔ ✢✤ ✫✮ ✧s✫✳✧✣✤ ♦✩✲✰ ✤✦✫✮✳✧♦✫✣✫✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ★ ✩✫✴✫✳ ✻✲✳✱ ✤✦★✤ ✣✲ ✩✧★✪ ✻✲✳✱ ✫✮ ✤✩❡✪✱ ✩✫✴✫✳✽ ✮✫✣✬✧✩✧★✪ ✻✲✳✫✧✮ ✳✧♦✲✩✰ ❡✣✳✧✩ ✤✦✧ ✫✣♦✪❡✧✣✬✧ ✲♦ ♦✲✩✬✧✮✷ ♠❡✤ ✫✣ ✰★✣✱✮✫✤❡★✤✫✲✣✮ ✤✦✧ ✳✧♦✲✩✰★✤✫✲✣✮ ★✩✧ ✣✧✴✪✫✴✫✻✪✧✷ ❝✦❡✮✽ ✫✣ ★ ✣❡✰✻✧✩✲♦ ✮✫✤❡★✤✫✲✣✮ ✫✣s✲✪s✫✣✴ ✻✲✳✫✧✮ ✮❡✬✦ ★✮ ✯✦✧✧✪✮✽ ✤✲✭✮✽ ✮✤✧✧✪✻✧★✰✮✽✰✲✪✧✬❡✪✧✮ ★✣✳✭✪★✣✧✤✮ ✲✣ ✤✦✧ ✲✤✦✧✩ ✦★✣✳✽ ✯✧ ✬★✣ ✫✴✣✲✩✧✤✦★✤ ✤✦✧✱ ✯★✩✭✽ ✻✧✣✳ ✲✩ s✫✻✩★✤✧ ★✣✳ ✤✩✧★✤ ✤✦✧✰ ★✮ ✩✫✴✫✳✷

✼✔✕✔✕ ◗❑❁❏ ❘❄P✿ ❉▼ ❚❉❏❄❉P ◆❁P ❁ r❄❅❄✿ ❇❉✿❃ ❑❁❯❀❱

❲✧✤ ❡✮ ✤✩✱ ✤✲ ✧❢✭✪✲✩✧ ✤✦✫✮ ✐❡✧✮✤✫✲✣ ✻✱ ✤★✾✫✣✴ ✮✲✰✧ ✧❢★✰✭✪✧✮✲♦ ✤✦✧✰✲✤✫✲✣ ✲♦ ✩✫✴✫✳ ✻✲✳✫✧✮✷ ❲✧✤ ❡✮ ✻✧✴✫✣ ✯✫✤✦ ★ ✩✧✬✤★✣✴❡✪★✩✻✪✲✬✾ ✮✪✫✳✫✣✴ ✳✲✯✣ ★✣ ✫✣✬✪✫✣✧✳ ✭✪★✣✧ ✯✫✤✦✲❡✤ ★✣✱ ✮✫✳✧✯✫✮✧

✼✔✕ ❳❩❬❭❪❫❴❵❬❛❪❩✼✔❜ ❞❣❩❬❭❣ ❪❤ ❥❦❧❧✼✔♥ ♣❪❬❛❪❩ ❪❤ ❵❣❩❬❭❣ ❪❤ ❥❦❧❧✼✔q t❛❩❣❦❭ ❥❪❥❣❩❬❴❥ ❪❤ ❦

❧✈❧❬❣❥ ❪❤ ✇❦❭❬❛❵①❣❧✼✔② ③❣❵❬❪❭ ✇❭❪❫❴❵❬ ❪❤ ❬④❪

⑤❣❵❬❪❭❧✼✔⑥ ⑦❩⑧❴①❦❭ ⑤❣①❪❵❛❬✈ ❦❩❫ ❛❬❧

❭❣①❦❬❛❪❩ ④❛❬⑨ ①❛❩❣❦❭ ⑤❣①❪❵❛❬✈✼✔✼ ⑩❪❭❶❴❣ ❦❩❫ ❦❩⑧❴①❦❭

❥❪❥❣❩❬❴❥✼✔❷ ❸❶❴❛①❛❹❭❛❴❥ ❪❤ ❦ ❭❛⑧❛❫ ❹❪❫✈✼✔❺ ♣❪❥❣❩❬ ❪❤ ❛❩❣❭❬❛❦✼✔✕❻ ⑩⑨❣❪❭❣❥❧ ❪❤ ✇❣❭✇❣❩❫❛❵❴①❦❭

❦❩❫ ✇❦❭❦①①❣① ❦❼❣❧✼✔✕✕ ❽❛❩❣❥❦❬❛❵❧ ❪❤ ❭❪❬❦❬❛❪❩❦①

❥❪❬❛❪❩ ❦❹❪❴❬ ❦ ❤❛❼❣❫ ❦❼❛❧✼✔✕❜ ❾✈❩❦❥❛❵❧ ❪❤ ❭❪❬❦❬ ❛❪❩❦①

❥❪❬❛❪❩ ❦❹❪❴❬ ❦ ❤❛❼❣❫ ❦❼❛❧✼✔✕♥ ⑦❩⑧❴①❦❭ ❥❪❥❣❩❬❴❥ ❛❩ ❵❦❧❣

❪❤ ❭❪❬❦❬❛❪❩ ❦❹❪❴❬ ❦ ❤❛❼❣❫ ❦❼❛❧✼✔✕q ❿❪①①❛❩⑧ ❥❪❬❛❪❩

➀❴❥❥❦❭✈➁❪❛❩❬❧ ❬❪ ➁❪❩❫❣❭❸❼❣❭❵❛❧❣❧⑦❫❫❛❬❛❪❩❦① ❣❼❣❭❵❛❧❣❧

Page 146: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

♠✞✟✠♠✠✡☛☞ ✌✍✠ ✎✏✞✑✒ ✓✔ ✕ ✖✓✗✓✘ ✎✞✘✙☞ ✚☛✔ ♠✞☛✓✞✡

✘✞❞✡ ☛✍✠ ✛✏✕✡✠ ✓✔ ✔✜✑✍ ☛✍✕☛ ✕✏✏ ☛✍✠ ✛✕✖☛✓✑✏✠✔ ✞✢

☛✍✠ ✎✞✘✙ ✕✖✠ ♠✞✟✓✡✗ ☛✞✗✠☛✍✠✖✱ ✓☞✠☞ ☛✍✠✙ ✍✕✟✠ ☛✍✠

✔✕♠✠ ✟✠✏✞✑✓☛✙ ✕☛ ✕✡✙ ✓✡✔☛✕✡☛ ✞✢ ☛✓♠✠☞ ✌✍✠ ✖✓✗✓✘

✎✞✘✙ ✍✠✖✠ ✓✔ ✓✡ ✛✜✖✠ ☛✖✕✡✔✏✕☛✓✞✡✕✏ ♠✞☛✓✞✡

✭✣✓✗☞ ✤☞✥✦☞

■✧ ★✩✪❡ ✫✪✬✧✮✯✬✫✰✲✧✬✯ ✳✲✫✰✲✧ ✬✫ ✬✧✴

✰✧✮✫✬✧✫ ✲✐ ✫✰✳❡ ❡✵❡✪✴ ★✬✪✫✰✷✯❡ ✲✐ ✫✸❡ ✹✲✺✴ ✸✬✮

✫✸❡ ✮✬✳❡ ✵❡✯✲✷✰✫✴t

❈✞✡✔✓✘✠✖ ✡✞❞ ☛✍✠ ✖✞✏✏✓✡✗ ♠✞☛✓✞✡ ✞✢ ✕ ✔✞✏✓✘

♠✠☛✕✏✏✓✑ ✞✖ ❞✞✞✘✠✡ ✑✙✏✓✡✘✠✖ ✘✞❞✡ ☛✍✠ ✔✕♠✠

✓✡✑✏✓✡✠✘ ✛✏✕✡✠ ✭✣✓✗☞ ✤☞✻✦☞ ✌✍✠ ✖✓✗✓✘ ✎✞✘✙ ✓✡ ☛✍✓✔

✛✖✞✎✏✠♠✱ ✡✕♠✠✏✙ ☛✍✠ ✑✙✏✓✡✘✠✖✱ ✔✍✓✢☛✔ ✢✖✞♠ ☛✍✠

☛✞✛ ☛✞ ☛✍✠ ✎✞☛☛✞♠ ✞✢ ☛✍✠ ✓✡✑✏✓✡✠✘ ✛✏✕✡✠✱ ✕✡✘ ☛✍✜✔✱

✍✕✔ ☛✖✕✡✔✏✕☛✓✞✡✕✏ ♠✞☛✓✞✡☞ ❤✜☛ ✕✔ ✣✓✗☞ ✤☞✻ ✔✍✞❞✔✱

✕✏✏ ✓☛✔ ✛✕✖☛✓✑✏✠✔ ✕✖✠ ✡✞☛ ♠✞✟✓✡✗ ❞✓☛✍ ☛✍✠ ✔✕♠✠

✟✠✏✞✑✓☛✙ ✕☛ ✕✡✙ ✓✡✔☛✕✡☛☞ ✌✍✠ ✎✞✘✙ ☛✍✠✖✠✢✞✖✠✱ ✓✔

✡✞☛ ✓✡ ✛✜✖✠ ☛✖✕✡✔✏✕☛✓✞✡☞ ✚☛✔ ♠✞☛✓✞✡ ✓✔ ☛✖✕✡✔✏✕☛✓✞✡

✛✏✜✔ ♣✔✞♠✠☛✍✓✡✗ ✠✏✔✠☞✼

✚✡ ✞✖✘✠✖ ☛✞ ✜✡✘✠✖✔☛✕✡✘ ❞✍✕☛ ☛✍✓✔ ♣✔✞♠✠☛✍✓✡✗

✠✏✔✠✼ ✓✔✱ ✏✠☛ ✜✔ ☛✕✒✠ ✕ ✖✓✗✓✘ ✎✞✘✙ ✔✞ ✑✞✡✔☛✖✕✓✡✠✘

☛✍✕☛ ✓☛ ✑✕✡✡✞☛ ✍✕✟✠ ☛✖✕✡✔✏✕☛✓✞✡✕✏ ♠✞☛✓✞✡☞ ✌✍✠

♠✞✔☛ ✑✞♠♠✞✡ ❞✕✙ ☛✞ ✑✞✡✔☛✖✕✓✡ ✕ ✖✓✗✓✘ ✎✞✘✙ ✔✞

☛✍✕☛ ✓☛ ✘✞✠✔ ✡✞☛ ✍✕✟✠ ☛✖✕✡✔✏✕☛✓✞✡✕✏ ♠✞☛✓✞✡ ✓✔ ☛✞

✢✓❢ ✓☛ ✕✏✞✡✗ ✕ ✔☛✖✕✓✗✍☛ ✏✓✡✠☞ ✌✍✠ ✞✡✏✙ ✛✞✔✔✓✎✏✠

♠✞☛✓✞✡ ✞✢ ✔✜✑✍ ✕ ✖✓✗✓✘ ✎✞✘✙ ✓✔ ✪✲✫✬✫✰✲✧☞ ✌✍✠

✏✓✡✠ ✕✏✞✡✗ ❞✍✓✑✍ ☛✍✠ ✎✞✘✙ ✓✔ ✢✓❢✠✘ ✓✔ ☛✠✖♠✠✘ ✕✔

✓☛✔ ✬❛✰✮ ✲✐ ✪✲✫✬✫✰✲✧☞ ✚✢ ✙✞✜ ✏✞✞✒ ✕✖✞✜✡✘✱ ✙✞✜

❞✓✏✏ ✑✞♠✠ ✕✑✖✞✔✔ ♠✕✡✙ ✠❢✕♠✛✏✠✔ ✞✢ ✖✞☛✕☛✓✞✡

✕✎✞✜☛ ✕✡ ✕❢✓✔✱ ✕ ✑✠✓✏✓✡✗ ✢✕✡✱ ✕ ✛✞☛☛✠✖✼✔ ❞✍✠✠✏✱ ✕

✗✓✕✡☛ ❞✍✠✠✏ ✓✡ ✕ ✢✕✓✖✱ ✕ ♠✠✖✖✙✽✗✞✽✖✞✜✡✘ ✕✡✘ ✔✞

✞✡ ✭✣✓✗ ✤☞♦✭✕✦ ✕✡✘ ✭✎✦✦☞

✭✕✦

✭✎✦

❋✾✿❀ ❁❀❂ ❘❃❄❅❄❆❃❇ ❅❉❃❊❄ ❅ ●❆❍❏❑ ❅❍❆▲

▼❅◆ ❖ ◗❏❆❙❆❇❚ ●❅❇

▼❉◆ ❖ ❯❃❄❄❏❱❲▲ ❳❨❏❏❙☞

❩✠☛ ✜✔ ☛✖✙ ☛✞ ✜✡✘✠✖✔☛✕✡✘ ❞✍✕☛ ✖✞☛✕☛✓✞✡ ✓✔✱

❞✍✕☛ ✑✍✕✖✕✑☛✠✖✓✔✠✔ ✖✞☛✕☛✓✞✡☞ ❬✞✜ ♠✕✙ ✡✞☛✓✑✠

☛✍✕☛ ✰✧ ✪✲✫✬✫✰✲✧ ✲✐ ✬ ✪✰❭✰✺ ✹✲✺✴ ✬✹✲✩✫ ✬ ✐✰❛❡✺

❋✾✿ ❁❀❪ ❫❱❅❇▲❙❅❄❆❃❇❅❙ ▼▲❙❆❑❆❇❚◆ r❃❄❆❃❇ ❃● ❅ ❉❙❃◗❴ ❑❃❳❇

❅❇ ❆❇◗❙❆❇❏❑ ❯❙❅❇❏❵

▼❖❇❜ ❯❃❆❇❄ ❙❆❴❏ ❝❣ ❃❱ ❝❥ ❃● ❄❨❏ ❉❙❃◗❴ r❃❦❏▲

❳❆❄❨ ❄❨❏ ▲❅r❏ ❦❏❙❃◗❆❄❜ ❅❄ ❅❇❜ ❆❇▲❄❅❇❄ ❃● ❄❆r❏❵◆

❋✾✿❀ ❁❀❧ ❘❃❙❙❆❇❚ r❃❄❆❃❇ ❃● ❅ ◗❜❙❆❇❑❏❱ ♥❄ ❆▲ ❇❃❄ ❯❊❱❏

❄❱❅❇▲❙❅❄❆❃❇❅❙ r❃❄❆❃❇❵ ❝❃❆❇❄▲ ❝❣q ❝❥q ❝s ❅❇❑ ❝✉❨❅❦❏ ❑❆●●❏❱❏❇❄ ❦❏❙❃◗❆❄❆❏▲ ▼▲❨❃❳❇ ❉❜ ❅❱❱❃❳▲◆

❅❄ ❅❇❜ ❆❇▲❄❅❇❄ ❃● ❄❆r❏❵ ♥❇ ●❅◗❄q ❄❨❏ ❦❏❙❃◗❆❄❜ ❃●

❄❨❏ ❯❃❆❇❄ ❃● ◗❃❇❄❅◗❄ ❝s ❆▲ ✈❏❱❃ ❅❄ ❅❇❜ ❆❇▲❄❅❇❄q

❆● ❄❨❏ ◗❜❙❆❇❑❏❱ ❱❃❙❙▲ ❳❆❄❨❃❊❄ ▲❙❆❯❯❆❇❚❵

Page 147: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✹✸

❛✌✍✎✏ ✑✒✑✓✔ ✕❛✓✖✍✗✘✑ ✙✚ ✖✛✑ ✜✙✢✔ ✣✙✒✑✎ ✍✤ ❛

✗✍✓✗✘✑✏ ❝✛✍✗✛ ✘✍✑✎ ✍✤ ❛ ✕✘❛✤✑ ✕✑✓✕✑✤✢✍✗✥✘❛✓ ✖✙

✖✛✑ ❛✌✍✎ ❛✤✢ ✛❛✎ ✍✖✎ ✗✑✤✖✓✑ ✙✤ ✖✛✑ ❛✌✍✎✳ ✦✧★✩

✼✩✪ ✫✬✭✮✫ ✯✬✰ ✱✭✯♦✯✧✭✲♦✴ ✵✭✯✧✭✲ ✭✷ ♦ ✱✧★✧✺ ✻✭✺✽

♦✻✭✾✯ ♦ ✷✧✿✰✺ ♦✿✧✫ ❀✯✬✰ ③❁♦✿✧✫ ✭✷ ✯✬✰ ✷✱♦✵✰ ✭✷

✱✰✷✰✱✰✲❡✰❂✩ ❃✰✯ ❄❅ ✻✰ ♦ ❆♦✱✯✧❡✴✰ ✭✷ ✯✬✰ ✱✧★✧✺ ✻✭✺✽❇

♦✱✻✧✯✱♦✱✧✴✽ ❡✬✭✫✰✲ ♦✲✺ ♦✯ ♦ ✺✧✫✯♦✲❡✰ r❅ ✷✱✭✵ ✷✧✿✰✺

♦✿✧✫✩ ❈✬✰ ❆♦✱✯✧❡✴✰ ❄❅ ✺✰✫❡✱✧✻✰✫ ♦ ❡✧✱❡✴✰ ✭✷ ✱♦✺✧✾✫

r❅✮✧✯✬ ✧✯✫ ❡✰✲✯✱✰ ✇❅ ✭✲ ✯✬✰ ✷✧✿✰✺ ♦✿✧✫✩ ❈✬✰ ❡✧✱❡✴✰

✴✧✰✫ ✧✲ ♦ ❆✴♦✲✰ ❆✰✱❆✰✲✺✧❡✾✴♦✱ ✯✭ ✯✬✰ ♦✿✧✫✩ ❈✬✰

✷✧★✾✱✰ ♦✴✫✭ ✫✬✭✮✫ ♦✲✭✯✬✰✱ ❆♦✱✯✧❡✴✰ ❄❉ ✭✷ ✯✬✰ ✱✧★✧✺

✻✭✺✽❇ ❄❉ ✧✫ ♦✯ ♦ ✺✧✫✯♦✲❡✰ r❉ ✷✱✭✵ ✯✬✰ ✷✧✿✰✺ ♦✿✧✫✩

❈✬✰ ❆♦✱✯✧❡✴✰ ❄❉ ✵✭❊✰✫ ✧✲ ♦ ❡✧✱❡✴✰ ✭✷ ✱♦✺✧✾✫ r❉♦✲✺

✮✧✯✬ ❡✰✲✯✱✰ ✇❉ ✭✲ ✯✬✰ ♦✿✧✫✩ ❈✬✧✫ ❡✧✱❡✴✰❇ ✯✭✭❇ ✴✧✰✫

✧✲ ♦ ❆✴♦✲✰ ❆✰✱❆✰✲✺✧❡✾✴♦✱ ✯✭ ✯✬✰ ♦✿✧✫✩ ✐✭✯✰ ✯✬♦✯

✯✬✰ ❡✧✱❡✴✰✫ ✺✰✫❡✱✧✻✰✺ ✻✽ ❄❅ ♦✲✺ ❄❉ ✵♦✽ ✴✧✰ ✧✲

✺✧✷✷✰✱✰✲✯ ❆✴♦✲✰✫❋ ✻✭✯✬ ✯✬✰✫✰ ❆✴♦✲✰✫❇ ✬✭✮✰❊✰✱❇

♦✱✰ ❆✰✱❆✰✲✺✧❡✾✴♦✱ ✯✭ ✯✬✰ ✷✧✿✰✺ ♦✿✧✫✩ ✦✭✱ ♦✲✽

❆♦✱✯✧❡✴✰ ✭✲ ✯✬✰ ♦✿✧✫ ✴✧♣✰ ❄●❇ r ❍ ■✩ ❏✲✽ ✫✾❡✬

❆♦✱✯✧❡✴✰ ✱✰✵♦✧✲✫ ✫✯♦✯✧✭✲♦✱✽ ✮✬✧✴✰ ✯✬✰ ✻✭✺✽

✱✭✯♦✯✰✫✩ ❈✬✧✫ ✧✫ ✰✿❆✰❡✯✰✺ ✫✧✲❡✰ ✯✬✰ ♦✿✧✫ ✧✫ ✷✧✿✰✺✩

❑▲▼◆ ❖◆P ◗❘❯ ❱ ❲❳❨❩❩❨❩❬ ❭❪❳

❫❴❵❜ ❳❪❨❩❭ ❪❞ ❢❪❩❭❣❢❭ ❪❞ ❭❵❜ ❭❪❳ ❤❨❭❵ ❭❵❜

❬❥❪❦❩❧♠ ❨❭❲ ❭❨❳ ♥♠ ❨❲ ❞❨q❜❧st

❑▲▼◆ ❖◆P ◗✉❯ ❱❩ ❪❲❢❨✈✈❣❭❨❩❬ ❭❣①✈❜ ❞❣❩s ❴❵❜ ❳❨②❪❭ ❪❞ ❭❵❜

❞❣❩♠ ❳❪❨❩❭ ♥♠ ❨❲ ❞❨q❜❧s

④✲ ✫✭✵✰ ✰✿♦✵❆✴✰✫ ✭✷ ✱✭✯♦✯✧✭✲❇ ✬✭✮✰❊✰✱❇ ✯✬✰

♦✿✧✫ ✵♦✽ ✲✭✯ ✻✰ ✷✧✿✰✺✩ ❏ ❆✱✭✵✧✲✰✲✯ ✰✿♦✵❆✴✰ ✭✷

✯✬✧✫ ♣✧✲✺ ✭✷ ✱✭✯♦✯✧✭✲ ✧✫ ♦ ✯✭❆ ✫❆✧✲✲✧✲★ ✧✲ ❆✴♦❡✰

⑤✦✧★✩ ✼✩⑥❀♦❂⑦✩ ❀⑧✰ ♦✫✫✾✵✰ ✯✬♦✯ ✯✬✰ ✯✭❆ ✺✭✰✫ ✲✭✯

✫✴✧❆ ✷✱✭✵ ❆✴♦❡✰ ✯✭ ❆✴♦❡✰ ♦✲✺ ✫✭ ✺✭✰✫ ✲✭✯ ✬♦❊✰

✯✱♦✲✫✴♦✯✧✭✲♦✴ ✵✭✯✧✭✲✩❂ ⑧✰ ♣✲✭✮ ✷✱✭✵✰✿❆✰✱✧✰✲❡✰

✯✬♦✯ ✯✬✰ ♦✿✧✫ ✭✷ ✫✾❡✬ ♦ ✫❆✧✲✲✧✲★ ✯✭❆ ✵✭❊✰✫

♦✱✭✾✲✺ ✯✬✰ ❊✰✱✯✧❡♦✴ ✯✬✱✭✾★✬ ✧✯✫ ❆✭✧✲✯ ✭✷ ❡✭✲✯♦❡✯

✮✧✯✬ ✯✬✰ ★✱✭✾✲✺❇ ✫✮✰✰❆✧✲★ ✭✾✯ ♦ ❡✭✲✰ ♦✫ ✫✬✭✮✲

✧✲ ✦✧★✩ ✼✩⑥❀♦❂✩ ❀❈✬✧✫ ✵✭❊✰✵✰✲✯ ✭✷ ✯✬✰ ♦✿✧✫ ✭✷ ✯✬✰

✯✭❆ ♦✱✭✾✲✺ ✯✬✰ ❊✰✱✯✧❡♦✴ ✧✫ ✯✰✱✵✰✺ ✕✓✑✗✑✎✎✍✙✤✳❂

✐✭✯✰❇ ✯✬✰ ✕✙✍✤✖ ✙✚ ✗✙✤✖❛✗✖ ✙✚ ✖✛✑ ✖✙✕ ❝✍✖✛

⑨✓✙✥✤✢ ✍✎ ✚✍✌✑✢✩ ❈✬✰ ♦✿✧✫ ✭✷ ✱✭✯♦✯✧✭✲ ✭✷ ✯✬✰ ✯✭❆

♦✯ ♦✲✽ ✧✲✫✯♦✲✯ ❆♦✫✫✰✫ ✯✬✱✭✾★✬ ✯✬✰ ❆✭✧✲✯ ✭✷

❡✭✲✯♦❡✯✩ ❏✲✭✯✬✰✱ ✫✧✵❆✴✰ ✰✿♦✵❆✴✰ ✭✷ ✯✬✧✫ ♣✧✲✺ ✭✷

✱✭✯♦✯✧✭✲ ✧✫ ✯✬✰ ✭✫❡✧✴✴♦✯✧✲★ ✯♦✻✴✰ ✷♦✲ ✭✱ ♦ ❆✰✺✰✫✯♦✴

✷♦✲✩ ⑩✭✾ ✵♦✽ ✬♦❊✰ ✭✻✫✰✱❊✰✺ ✯✬♦✯ ✯✬✰ ♦✿✧✫ ✭✷

❑▲▼◆ ❖◆❶ ❱ ❥❨❬❨❧ ①❪❧❷ ❥❪❭❣❭❨❪❩ ❣①❪❦❭ ❭❵❜ ❸❹❣q❨❲

❺❻❣❢❵ ❳❪❨❩❭ ❪❞ ❭❵❜ ①❪❧❷ ❲❦❢❵ ❣❲ ❼❽ ❪❥

❼❾ ❧❜❲❢❥❨①❜❲ ❣ ❢❨❥❢✈❜ ❤❨❭❵ ❨❭❲ ❢❜❩❭❥❜ ❫❿❽❪❥ ❿❾➀ ❪❩ ❭❵❜ ❣q❨❲s ❴❵❜ ❥❣❧❨❦❲ ❪❞ ❭❵❜

❢❨❥❢✈❜ ❺❥❽❪❥ ❥❾➀ ❨❲ ❭❵❜ ❳❜❥❳❜❩❧❨❢❦✈❣❥

❧❨❲❭❣❩❢❜ ❪❞ ❭❵❜ ❳❪❨❩❭ ❺❼❽ ❪❥ ❼❾➀ ❞❥❪➁ ❭❵❜

❣q❨❲s ❱ ❳❪❨❩❭ ❪❩ ❭❵❜ ❣q❨❲ ✈❨➂❜ ❼➃ ❥❜➁❣❨❩❲

❲❭❣❭❨❪❩❣❥❷ts

Page 148: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�� P✁✂✄☎✆✄

r♦✝✞✝✟♦✠ ♦✡ ☛☞✌✍ ✞ ✡✞✠ ✍✞☛ ✞✠ ♦☛✌✟✎✎✞✝✟✠✏

✭☛✟✑✒✓✟☛✒✔ ✕♦✖✒✕✒✠✝ ✟✠ ✞ ✍♦r✟✗♦✠✝✞✎ ✘✎✞✠✒ ✞✙♦☞✝

✝✍✒ ✖✒r✝✟✌✞✎ ✝✍r♦☞✏✍ ✝✍✒ ✘♦✟✠✝ ✞✝ ✓✍✟✌✍ ✝✍✒ ✞✚✟☛

✟☛ ✘✟✖♦✝✒✑ ✭✘♦✟✠✝ ✐ ✟✠ ✛✟✏✜ ✢✜✣✭✙✔✔✜

❲✍✟✎✒ ✝✍✒ ✡✞✠ r♦✝✞✝✒☛ ✞✠✑ ✟✝☛ ✞✚✟☛ ✕♦✖✒☛

☛✟✑✒✓✟☛✒s ✝✍✟☛ ✘♦✟✠✝ ✟☛ ✡✟✚✒✑✜ ✤✍☞☛s ✟✠ ✕♦r✒

✏✒✠✒r✞✎ ✌✞☛✒☛ ♦✡ r♦✝✞✝✟♦✠s ☛☞✌✍ ✞☛ ✝✍✒ r♦✝✞✝✟♦✠

♦✡ ✞ ✝♦✘ ♦r ✞ ✘✒✑✒☛✝✞✎ ✡✞✠s ✥✦✧ ★✥✩✦✪ ✫✦✬ ✦✥✪

✥✦✧ ✮✩✦✧✯ ♦✡ ✝✍✒ r✟✏✟✑ ✙♦✑✰ ✟☛ ✡✟✚✒✑✜ ✱✠ ✝✍✟☛ ✌✞☛✒

✝✍✒ ✞✚✟☛ ✟☛ ✠♦✝ ✡✟✚✒✑s ✝✍♦☞✏✍ ✟✝ ✞✎✓✞✰☛ ✘✞☛☛✒☛

✝✍r♦☞✏✍ ✝✍✒ ✡✟✚✒✑ ✘♦✟✠✝✜ ✱✠ ♦☞r ☛✝☞✑✰s ✍♦✓✒✖✒rs

✓✒ ✕♦☛✝✎✰ ✑✒✞✎ ✓✟✝✍ ✝✍✒ ☛✟✕✘✎✒r ✞✠✑ ☛✘✒✌✟✞✎ ✌✞☛✒

♦✡ r♦✝✞✝✟♦✠ ✟✠ ✓✍✟✌✍ ♦✠✒ ✎✟✠✒ ✭✟✜✒✜ ✝✍✒ ✞✚✟☛✔ ✟☛

✡✟✚✒✑✜ ✤✍☞☛s ✡♦r ☞☛ r♦✝✞✝✟♦✠ ✓✟✎✎ ✙✒ ✞✙♦☞✝ ✞ ✡✟✚✒✑

✞✚✟☛ ♦✠✎✰ ☞✠✎✒☛☛ ☛✝✞✝✒✑ ♦✝✍✒r✓✟☛✒✜

✤✍✒ r♦✎✎✟✠✏ ✕♦✝✟♦✠ ♦✡ ✞ ✌✰✎✟✠✑✒r ✑♦✓✠ ✞✠

✟✠✌✎✟✠✒✑ ✘✎✞✠✒ ✟☛ ✞ ✌♦✕✙✟✠✞✝✟♦✠ ♦✡ r♦✝✞✝✟♦✠ ✞✙♦☞✝

✞ ✡✟✚✒✑ ✞✚✟☛ ✞✠✑ ✝r✞✠☛✎✞✝✟♦✠✜ ✤✍☞☛s ✝✍✒

➅☛♦✕✒✝✍✟✠✏ ✒✎☛✒✲ ✟✠ ✝✍✒ ✌✞☛✒ ♦✡ r♦✎✎✟✠✏ ✕♦✝✟♦✠

✓✍✟✌✍✓✒ r✒✡✒rr✒✑ ✝♦ ✒✞r✎✟✒r ✟☛ r♦✝✞✝✟♦✠✞✎ ✕♦✝✟♦✠✜

❨♦☞ ✓✟✎✎ ✡✟✠✑ ✛✟✏✜ ✢✜✳✭✞✔ ✞✠✑ ✭✙✔ ✟✠☛✝r☞✌✝✟✖✒ ✡r♦✕

✝✍✟☛ ✘♦✟✠✝ ♦✡ ✖✟✒✓✜ t♦✝✍ ✝✍✒☛✒ ✡✟✏☞r✒☛ ☛✍♦✓

✕♦✝✟♦✠ ♦✡ ✝✍✒ ☛✞✕✒ ✙♦✑✰ ✞✎♦✠✏ ✟✑✒✠✝✟✌✞✎

✝r✞✠☛✎✞✝✟♦✠✞✎ ✝r✞✴✒✌✝♦r✰✜ ✱✠ ♦✠✒ ✌✞☛✒s ✛✟✏✜ ✢✜✳✭✞✔s

✝✍✒ ✕♦✝✟♦✠ ✟☛ ✞ ✘☞r✒ ✝r✞✠☛✎✞✝✟♦✠❡ ✟✠ ✝✍✒ ♦✝✍✒r

✌✞☛✒ ❝✛✟✏✜ ✢✜✳✭✙✔✵ ✟✝ ✟☛ ✞ ✌♦✕✙✟✠✞✝✟♦✠ ♦✡

✝r✞✠☛✎✞✝✟♦✠ ✞✠✑ r♦✝✞✝✟♦✠✜ ✭❨♦☞ ✕✞✰ ✝r✰ ✝♦

r✒✘r♦✑☞✌✒ ✝✍✒ ✝✓♦ ✝✰✘✒☛ ♦✡ ✕♦✝✟♦✠ ☛✍♦✓✠ ☞☛✟✠✏

✞ r✟✏✟✑ ♦✙✴✒✌✝ ✎✟❛✒ ✞ ✍✒✞✖✰ ✙♦♦❛✜✔

❲✒ ✠♦✓ r✒✌✞✘✟✝☞✎✞✝✒ ✝✍✒ ✕♦☛✝ ✟✕✘♦r✝✞✠✝

♦✙☛✒r✖✞✝✟♦✠☛ ♦✡ ✝✍✒ ✘r✒☛✒✠✝ ☛✒✌✝✟♦✠✷ ❚✸✧✹✥✪✩✥✦

✥✺ ✫ ✻✩✼✩✬ ✽✥✬✾ ✿✸✩❀✸ ✩❁ ✦✥✪ ★✩❂✥✪✧✬ ✥✻ ✺✩❃✧✬

✩✦ ❁✥✹✧ ✿✫✾ ✩❁ ✧✩✪✸✧✻ ✫ ★❄✻✧ ✪✻✫✦❁✮✫✪✩✥✦ ✥✻ ✫

❀✥✹✽✩✦✫✪✩✥✦ ✥✺ ✪✻✫✦❁✮✫✪✩✥✦ ✫✦✬ ✻✥✪✫✪✩✥✦❅ ❚✸✧

✹✥✪✩✥✦ ✥✺ ✫ ✻✩✼✩✬ ✽✥✬✾ ✿✸✩❀✸ ✩❁ ★✩❂✥✪✧✬ ✥✻

✺✩❃✧✬ ✩✦ ❁✥✹✧ ✿✫✾ ✩❁ ✻✥✪✫✪✩✥✦❅ ✤✍✒ r♦✝✞✝✟♦✠

✕✞✰ ✙✒ ✞✙♦☞✝ ✞✠ ✞✚✟☛ ✝✍✞✝ ✟☛ ✡✟✚✒✑ ✭✒✜✏✜ ✞ ✌✒✟✎✟✠✏

✡✞✠✔ ♦r ✕♦✖✟✠✏ ✭✒✜✏✜ ✞✠ ♦☛✌✟✎✎✞✝✟✠✏ ✝✞✙✎✒ ✡✞✠✔✜ ❲✒

☛✍✞✎✎s ✟✠ ✝✍✒ ✘r✒☛✒✠✝ ✌✍✞✘✝✒rs ✌♦✠☛✟✑✒r r♦✝✞✝✟♦✠✞✎

✕♦✝✟♦✠ ✞✙♦☞✝ ✞ ✡✟✚✒✑ ✞✚✟☛ ♦✠✎✰✜

❆❅❇ ❈❉❊❚❋❉ ●❍ ■❏❑❑

❲✒ ☛✍✞✎✎ ✡✟r☛✝ ☛✒✒ ✓✍✞✝ ✝✍✒ ✌✒✠✝r✒ ♦✡ ✕✞☛☛ ♦✡ ✞

☛✰☛✝✒✕ ♦✡ ✘✞r✝✟✌✎✒☛ ✟☛ ✞✠✑ ✝✍✒✠ ✑✟☛✌☞☛☛ ✟✝☛

☛✟✏✠✟✡✟✌✞✠✌✒✜ ✛♦r ☛✟✕✘✎✟✌✟✝✰ ✓✒ ☛✍✞✎✎ ☛✝✞r✝ ✓✟✝✍

✞ ✝✓♦ ✘✞r✝✟✌✎✒ ☛✰☛✝✒✕✜ ❲✒ ☛✍✞✎✎ ✝✞❛✒ ✝✍✒ ✎✟✠✒

✴♦✟✠✟✠✏ ✝✍✒ ✝✓♦ ✘✞r✝✟✌✎✒☛ ✝♦ ✙✒ ✝✍✒ ①▲ ✞✚✟☛✜

▼◆❖◗ ❘◗❘

❙✒✝ ✝✍✒ ✑✟☛✝✞✠✌✒☛ ♦✡ ✝✍✒ ✝✓♦ ✘✞r✝✟✌✎✒☛ ✙✒ ①❯✞✠✑ ①❱ r✒☛✘✒✌✝✟✖✒✎✰ ✡r♦✕ ☛♦✕✒ ♦r✟✏✟✠ ✐✜ ❙✒✝ ♠❯✞✠✑ ♠❱ ✙✒ r✒☛✘✒✌✝✟✖✒✎✰ ✝✍✒ ✕✞☛☛✒☛ ♦✡ ✝✍✒ ✝✓♦

▼◆❖◗ ❘◗❳❩❬❭ ❪❫❴❵❫❜ ❫❞ ❢ ❣❵❤❵❥ ❦❫❥❧ ♥♣❵q♣ ❵✉ ✈✇❣②

❴❣❢❜✉③❢❴❵❫❜④

▼◆❖◗ ❘◗❳❩⑤❭ ❪❫❴❵❫❜ ❫❞ ❢ ❣❵❤❵❥ ❦❫❥❧ ♥♣❵q♣ ❵✉ ❢

q❫⑥❦❵❜❢❴❵❫❜ ❫❞ ❴❣❢❜✉③❢❴❵❫❜ ❢❜❥

❣❫❴❢❴❵❫❜④

⑦❵❤ ⑧④⑨ ⑩❢❶ ❢❜❥ ⑧④⑨ ⑩❦❶ ❵③③✇✉❴❣❢❴② ❥❵❞❞②❣②❜❴ ⑥❫❴❵❫❜✉ ❫❞

❴♣② ✉❢⑥② ❦❫❥❧④ ❷❫❴② ❸ ❵✉ ❢❜ ❢❣❦❵❴❣❢❣❧ ✈❫❵❜❴ ❫❞ ❴♣②

❦❫❥❧❹ ❺ ❵✉ ❴♣② q②❜❴❣② ❫❞ ⑥❢✉✉ ❫❞ ❴♣② ❦❫❥❧❻ ♥♣❵q♣ ❵✉

❥②❞❵❜②❥ ❵❜ ❴♣② ❜②❼❴ ✉②q❴❵❫❜④ ❽✇❞❞❵q② ❴❫ ✉❢❧ ♣②❣② ❴♣❢❴

❴♣② ❴❣❢❾②q❴❫❣❵②✉ ❫❞ ❺ ❢❣② ❴♣② ❴❣❢❜✉③❢❴❵❫❜❢③ ❴❣❢❾②q❴❫❣❵②✉

❿❣➀ ❢❜❥ ❿❣➁ ❫❞ ❴♣② ❦❫❥❧④ ❿♣② ✈❫✉❵❴❵❫❜✉ ❺ ❢❜❥ ❸ ❢❴

❴♣❣②② ❥❵❞❞②❣②❜❴ ❵❜✉❴❢❜❴✉ ❫❞ ❴❵⑥② ❢❣② ✉♣❫♥❜ ❦❧ ❺➀❻ ❺➁❻

❢❜❥ ❺➂❻ ❢❜❥ ❸➀❻ ❸➁ ❢❜❥ ❸➂ ❣②✉✈②q❴❵➃②③❧ ❵❜ ⑦❵❤④ ⑧④⑨ ⑩❢❶

❢❜❥ ⑩❦❶ ❦❫❴♣④ ➄✉ ✉②②❜ ❞❣❫⑥ ⑦❵❤④ ⑧④⑨⑩❢❶❻ ❢❴ ❢❜❧ ❵❜✉❴❢❜❴

❴♣② ➃②③❫q❵❴❵②✉ ❫❞ ❢❜❧ ✈❢❣❴❵q③②✉ ③❵➆② ❺ ❢❜❥ ❸ ❫❞ ❴♣② ❦❫❥❧

❢❣② ❴♣② ✉❢⑥② ❵❜ ✈✇❣② ❴❣❢❜✉③❢❴❵❫❜④ ❷❫❴❵q②❻ ❵❜ ❴♣❵✉ q❢✉②

❴♣② ❫❣❵②❜❴❢❴❵❫❜ ❫❞ ❺❸❻ ❵④②④ ❴♣② ❢❜❤③② ❺❸ ⑥❢➆②✉ ♥❵❴♣ ❢

❞❵❼②❥ ❥❵❣②q❴❵❫❜❻ ✉❢❧ ❴♣② ♣❫❣❵➇❫❜❴❢③❻ ❣②⑥❢❵❜✉ ❴♣② ✉❢⑥②❻

❵④②④ ➈➀ ➉ ➈➁ ➉ ➈➂④ ⑦❵❤④ ⑧④⑨ ⑩❦❶ ❵③③✇✉❴❣❢❴②✉ ❢ q❢✉② ❫❞

q❫⑥❦❵❜❢❴❵❫❜ ❫❞ ❴❣❢❜✉③❢❴❵❫❜ ❢❜❥ ❣❫❴❢❴❵❫❜④ ➊❜ ❴♣❵✉ q❢✉②❻

❢❴ ❢❜❧ ❵❜✉❴❢❜❴✉ ❴♣② ➃②③❫q❵❴❵②✉ ❫❞ ❺ ❢❜❥ ❸ ❥❵❞❞②❣④ ➄③✉❫❻

➈➀❻ ➈➁ ❢❜❥ ➈➂ ⑥❢❧ ❢③③ ❦② ❥❵❞❞②❣②❜❴④

Page 149: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✹✺

♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✕ ✖✗✓ ✑✓✘✎✍✓ ❡✙ ✚✌✔✔ ❡✙ ✎✗✓ ✔✛✔✎✓✚ ✏✔✎✗✌✎ ♣❡✏✘✎ t ✜✗✏✑✗ ✏✔ ✌✎ ✌ ✢✏✔✎✌✘✑✓ ❳ ✙✍❡✚ ♦✣✜✗✓✍✓ ❳ ✏✔ ✥✏✤✓✘ ✦✛

✧ ✧ ✷ ✷✧ ✷

♠ ★ ♠ ★✩

♠ ♠✰

❂✰ ✭✪✕✫✬

■✘ ✮✯✕ ✭✪✕✫✬✣ ❳ ✑✌✘ ✦✓ ✍✓✥✌✍✢✓✢ ✌✔ ✎✗✓ ✚✌✔✔❞✜✓✏✥✗✎✓✢ ✚✓✌✘ ❡✙ ①✱✌✘✢ ①✲✕ ■✙ ✎✗✓ ✎✜❡ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✗✌✤✓ ✎✗✓ ✔✌✚✓ ✚✌✔✔ ✳✱ ✴ ✳✲ ✴ ✳✵ ✎✗✓✘

✸ ✻ ✸ ✻✼ ✼

✽✾ ✽✾ ✾ ✾✿

✽❀ ❀

❁ ❁

✖✗❃✔✣ ✙❡✍ ✎✜❡ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ❡✙ ✓✯❃✌✒ ✚✌✔✔ ✎✗✓✑✓✘✎✍✓ ❡✙ ✚✌✔✔ ✒✏✓✔ ✓❄✌✑✎✒✛ ✚✏✢✜✌✛ ✦✓✎✜✓✓✘✎✗✓✚✕

■✙ ✜✓ ✗✌✤✓ ♥ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ❡✙ ✚✌✔✔✓✔ ✳✱✣ ✳✲✣✕✕✕✳❅ ✍✓✔♣✓✑✎✏✤✓✒✛✣ ✌✒❡✘✥ ✌ ✔✎✍✌✏✥✗✎ ✒✏✘✓ ✎✌❆✓✘ ✌✔✎✗✓ ①❞ ✌❄✏✔✣ ✎✗✓✘ ✦✛ ✢✓✙✏✘✏✎✏❡✘ ✎✗✓ ♣❡✔✏✎✏❡✘ ❡✙✎✗✓ ✑✓✘✎✍✓ ❡✙ ✎✗✓ ✚✌✔✔ ❡✙ ✎✗✓ ✔✛✔✎✓✚ ❡✙ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✏✔ ✥✏✤✓✘ ✦✛

✸ ✸ ✻ ✻✸ ✻

❇❇❇❇❇❇❇❇

✐ ✐❈ ❈❈ ✐

✽ ✾✽ ✾ ✽ ✾ ✽ ✾✿

✽ ✽ ✽ ✽❀ ❀ ❀

❁ ❁❀ ❀ ❀

✭✪✕❊✬✜✗✓✍✓ ①✱✣ ①✲✣✕✕✕①❋ ✌✍✓ ✎✗✓ ✢✏✔✎✌✘✑✓✔ ❡✙ ✎✗✓♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✙✍❡✚ ✎✗✓ ❡✍✏✥✏✘● ❳ ✏✔ ✌✒✔❡ ✚✓✌✔❃✍✓✢

✙✍❡✚ ✎✗✓ ✔✌✚✓ ❡✍✏✥✏✘✕ ✖✗✓ ✔✛✚✦❡✒ ❍ ✭✎✗✓ ❏✍✓✓❆

✒✓✎✎✓✍ ✔✏✥✚✌✬ ✢✓✘❡✎✓✔ ✔❃✚✚✌✎✏❡✘✣ ✏✘ ✎✗✏✔ ✑✌✔✓❡✤✓✍ ♥ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✕ ✖✗✓ ✔❃✚

❑▲ ▼◆❖✏✔ ✎✗✓ ✎❡✎✌✒ ✚✌✔✔ ❡✙ ✎✗✓ ✔✛✔✎✓✚✕

P❃♣♣❡✔✓ ✎✗✌✎ ✜✓ ✗✌✤✓ ✎✗✍✓✓ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✣ ✘❡✎✒✛✏✘✥ ✏✘ ✌ ✔✎✍✌✏✥✗✎ ✒✏✘✓✕ ❧✓ ✚✌✛ ✢✓✙✏✘✓ ① ✌✘✢ ②❞✌❄✓✔ ✏✘ ✎✗✓ ♣✒✌✘✓ ✏✘ ✜✗✏✑✗ ✎✗✓ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✒✏✓ ✌✘✢✍✓♣✍✓✔✓✘✎ ✎✗✓ ♣❡✔✏✎✏❡✘✔ ❡✙ ✎✗✓ ✎✗✍✓✓ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✦✛✑❡❡✍✢✏✘✌✎✓✔ ✭①✱✣②✱✬✣ ✭①✲✣②✲✬ ✌✘✢ ✭①◗✣②◗✬ ✍✓✔♣✓✑✎✏✤✓✒✛✕❘✓✎ ✎✗✓ ✚✌✔✔✓✔ ❡✙ ✎✗✓ ✎✗✍✓✓ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✦✓ ✳✱✣ ✳✲✌✘✢ ✳◗ ✍✓✔♣✓✑✎✏✤✓✒✛✕ ✖✗✓ ✑✓✘✎✍✓ ❡✙ ✚✌✔✔ t ❡✙✎✗✓ ✔✛✔✎✓✚ ❡✙ ✎✗✓ ✎✗✍✓✓ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✏✔ ✢✓✙✏✘✓✢ ✌✘✢✒❡✑✌✎✓✢ ✦✛ ✎✗✓ ✑❡❡✍✢✏✘✌✎✓✔ ✭❳❯ ❱❲ ✥✏✤✓✘ ✦✛

✸ ✸ ✻ ✻ ❨ ❨✸ ✻ ❨

✽ ✾ ✽ ✾ ✽ ✾✿

✽ ✽ ✽❀ ❀

❁❀ ❀ ✭✪✕❩✌✬

✸ ✸ ✻ ✻ ❨ ❨✸ ✻ ❨

✽ ❬ ✽ ❬ ✽ ❬❭

✽ ✽ ✽❀ ❀

❁❀ ❀ ✭✪✕❩✦✬

❪❡✍ ✎✗✓ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ❡✙ ✓✯❃✌✒ ✚✌✔✔ ✳ ✴ ✳✱ ✴ ✳✲✴ ✳◗✣

❫ ❴ ❵ ❫ ❴ ❵❛ ❜❝ ❝

❢ ❣ ❣ ❣ ❣ ❣ ❣❤

❢❥ ❥ ❥ ❥

❦ ❦

❫ ❴ ❵ ❫ ❴ ❵❛ ❜❝ ❝

❢ q q q q q qr

❢❥ ❥ ❥ ❥

❦ ❦

✖✗❃✔✣ ✙❡✍ ✎✗✍✓✓ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ❡✙ ✓✯❃✌✒ ✚✌✔✔✣ ✎✗✓✑✓✘✎✍✓ ❡✙ ✚✌✔✔ ✑❡✏✘✑✏✢✓✔ ✜✏✎✗ ✎✗✓ ✑✓✘✎✍❡✏✢ ❡✙✎✗✓ ✎✍✏✌✘✥✒✓ ✙❡✍✚✓✢ ✦✛ ✎✗✓ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✕

s✓✔❃✒✎✔ ❡✙ ✮✯✔✕ ✭✪✕❩✌✬ ✌✘✢ ✭✪✕❩✦✬ ✌✍✓✥✓✘✓✍✌✒✏✔✓✢ ✓✌✔✏✒✛ ✎❡ ✌ ✔✛✔✎✓✚ ❡✙ ♥ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✣ ✘❡✎✘✓✑✓✔✔✌✍✏✒✛ ✒✛✏✘✥ ✏✘ ✌ ♣✒✌✘✓✣ ✦❃✎ ✢✏✔✎✍✏✦❃✎✓✢ ✏✘✔♣✌✑✓✕ ✖✗✓ ✑✓✘✎✍✓ ❡✙ ✚✌✔✔ ❡✙ ✔❃✑✗ ✌ ✔✛✔✎✓✚ ✏✔✌✎ ✭❳❯ ❱❯ ✉ ✬✣ ✜✗✓✍✓

✈ ✈✇ ③④

⑤⑥ ⑦ ✭✪✕⑧✌✬

✈ ✈✇ ⑨⑩

⑤⑥ ⑦ ✭✪✕⑧✦✬

✌✘✢ ❶ ❶♠ ❷❸

❹❂ ❺ ✭✪✕⑧✑✬

❻✓✍✓ ❼ ✴ ❽❾❍ ✏✔ ✎✗✓ ✎❡✎✌✒ ✚✌✔✔ ❡✙ ✎✗✓

✔✛✔✎✓✚✕ ✖✗✓ ✏✘✢✓❄ ❿ ✍❃✘✔ ✙✍❡✚ ✫ ✎❡ ♥➀ ✳➁ ✏✔ ✎✗✓✚✌✔✔ ❡✙ ✎✗✓ ❿➂➃ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓ ✌✘✢ ✎✗✓ ♣❡✔✏✎✏❡✘ ❡✙ ✎✗✓❿➂➃ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓ ✏✔ ✥✏✤✓✘ ✦✛ ✭①➄✣ ②➄✣ ➅➄✬✕

✮✯✔✕ ✭✪✕⑧✌✬✣ ✭✪✕⑧✦✬ ✌✘✢ ✭✪✕⑧✑✬ ✑✌✘ ✦✓✑❡✚✦✏✘✓✢ ✏✘✎❡ ❡✘✓ ✓✯❃✌✎✏❡✘ ❃✔✏✘✥ ✎✗✓ ✘❡✎✌✎✏❡✘

❡✙ ♣❡✔✏✎✏❡✘ ✤✓✑✎❡✍✔✕ ❘✓✎ ✐➆ ✦✓ ✎✗✓ ♣❡✔✏✎✏❡✘ ✤✓✑✎❡✍❡✙ ✎✗✓ ❿➂➃ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓ ✌✘✢ ➇ ✦✓ ✎✗✓ ♣❡✔✏✎✏❡✘ ✤✓✑✎❡✍ ❡✙✎✗✓ ✑✓✘✎✍✓ ❡✙ ✚✌✔✔➈

µ❽ ❽ ❽ ❽➉ ➊ ➋➌ ➍ ➍➎ ➏ ➐ ➑$ $

✌✘✢ µ➒ ➓ ➔◆ → →➣ ↔ ↕ ➙$ $

✖✗✓✘❶ ❶♠

❹❂ ❺ ➛

➜ ✭✪✕⑧✢✬

✖✗✓ ✔❃✚ ❡✘ ✎✗✓ ✍✏✥✗✎ ✗✌✘✢ ✔✏✢✓ ✏✔ ✌ ✤✓✑✎❡✍✔❃✚✕

➝❡✎✓ ✎✗✓ ✓✑❡✘❡✚✛ ❡✙ ✓❄♣✍✓✔✔✏❡✘✔ ✜✓ ✌✑✗✏✓✤✓✦✛ ❃✔✓ ❡✙ ✤✓✑✎❡✍✔✕ ■✙ ✎✗✓ ❡✍✏✥✏✘ ❡✙ ✎✗✓ ✙✍✌✚✓ ❡✙✍✓✙✓✍✓✘✑✓ ✭✎✗✓ ✑❡❡✍✢✏✘✌✎✓ ✔✛✔✎✓✚✬ ✏✔ ✑✗❡✔✓✘ ✎❡

✦✓ ✎✗✓ ✑✓✘✎✍✓ ❡✙ ✚✌✔✔ ✎✗✓✘ ➞❽ ❽❾ ➌❍ ➎ ✙❡✍ ✎✗✓

✥✏✤✓✘ ✔✛✔✎✓✚ ❡✙ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✕➟ ✍✏✥✏✢ ✦❡✢✛✣ ✔❃✑✗ ✌✔ ✌ ✚✓✎✍✓ ✔✎✏✑❆ ❡✍ ✌

✙✒✛✜✗✓✓✒✣ ✏✔ ✌ ✔✛✔✎✓✚ ❡✙ ✑✒❡✔✓✒✛ ♣✌✑❆✓✢ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔●✮✯✔✕ ✭✪✕⑧✌✬✣ ✭✪✕⑧✦✬✣ ✭✪✕⑧✑✬ ✌✘✢ ✭✪✕⑧✢✬ ✌✍✓✎✗✓✍✓✙❡✍✓✣ ✌♣♣✒✏✑✌✦✒✓ ✎❡ ✌ ✍✏✥✏✢ ✦❡✢✛✕ ✖✗✓ ✘❃✚✦✓✍❡✙ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✭✌✎❡✚✔ ❡✍ ✚❡✒✓✑❃✒✓✔✬ ✏✘ ✔❃✑✗ ✌ ✦❡✢✛✏✔ ✔❡ ✒✌✍✥✓ ✎✗✌✎ ✏✎ ✏✔ ✏✚♣❡✔✔✏✦✒✓ ✎❡ ✑✌✍✍✛ ❡❃✎ ✎✗✓✔❃✚✚✌✎✏❡✘✔ ❡✤✓✍ ✏✘✢✏✤✏✢❃✌✒ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✏✘ ✎✗✓✔✓✓✯❃✌✎✏❡✘✔✕ P✏✘✑✓ ✎✗✓ ✔♣✌✑✏✘✥ ❡✙ ✎✗✓ ♣✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✏✔

Page 150: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

s✞✟✠✠✡ ☛☞ ✌✟✍ ✎✏☞✟✎ ✎❡☞ ✑✒✓✔ ✟s ✟ ✌✒✍✎✕✍✖✒✖s✓✕s✎✏✕✑✖✎✕✒✍ ✒❞ ✞✟ss✗ ✘☞ s✖✑✓✕✙✕✓☞ ✎❡☞ ✑✒✓✔ ✕✍✎✒♥ s✞✟✠✠ ☞✠☞✞☞✍✎s ✒❞ ✞✟ss✚ ✛♠✜✡ ✛♠✷✗✗✗ ✛♠✢✚ ✎❡☞✐t✣ ☞✠☞✞☞✍✎ ✛♠✤ ✕s ✎✟✥☞✍ ✎✒ ✑☞ ✠✒✌✟✎☞✓ ✟✑✒✖✎ ✎❡☞♣✒✕✍✎ ✦①✧✡ ②✧✡ ③✧✮✗ ★❡☞ ✌✒✒✏✓✕✍✟✎☞s ✒❞ ✎❡☞ ✌☞✍✎✏☞ ✒❞✞✟ss ✟✏☞ ✎❡☞✍ ✟♣♣✏✒♦✕✞✟✎☞✠✔ ✩✕✙☞✍ ✑✔

✭ ✪ ✭ ✪ ✭ ✪✱ ✱✫ ✫ ✫ ✫ ✫ ✫

✫ ✫ ✫✬ ✯ ✬ ✰ ✬ ✲

❳ ✳ ❩✬ ✬ ✬

✴ ✴ ✴❂ ❂ ❂

✴ ✴ ✴✵ ✵ ✵✵ ✵ ✵

❆s ☛☞ ✞✟✥☞ ♥ ✑✕✩✩☞✏ ✟✍✓ ✑✕✩✩☞✏ ✟✍✓ ☞✟✌❡✛♠✤ s✞✟✠✠☞✏ ✟✍✓ s✞✟✠✠☞✏✡ ✎❡☞s☞ ☞♦♣✏☞ss✕✒✍s✑☞✌✒✞☞ ☞♦✟✌✎✗ ❜✍ ✎❡✟✎ ✌✟s☞✡ ☛☞ ✓☞✍✒✎☞ ✎❡☞ s✖✞s✒✙☞✏ ✐ ✑✔ ✕✍✎☞✩✏✟✠s✗ ★❡✖s✡

✸ ✹✺✻ ✻ ▼✼ ✽ ✾✿ ❀

❁ ❃ ❄ ❅❇ ❇❈ ❉ ❉ ❈❊ ❋● ❍

❁ ❃ ❄ ❅❇ ❇❈ ■ ■ ❈❊ ❋● ❍

✟✍✓ ( ❏ ✸✺ ✺✻ ❑ ❑ ✻✼ ✽✿ ❀▲☞✏☞ ◆ ✕s ✎❡☞ ✎✒✎✟✠ ✞✟ss ✒❞ ✎❡☞ ✑✒✓✔✗ ★❡☞

✌✒✒✏✓✕✍✟✎☞s ✒❞ ✎❡☞ ✌☞✍✎✏☞ ✒❞ ✞✟ss ✍✒☛ ✟✏☞

and❖ ❖ ❖◗ ❘ ◗ ◗❙ ❚ ❯ ❨ ❱ ❯ ❲ ❬ ❯❭ ❭ ❭❪ ❪ ❪❫ ❫ ❫ ✦❴✗❵✟✮

★❡☞ ✙☞✌✎✒✏ ☞♦♣✏☞ss✕✒✍ ☞❛✖✕✙✟✠☞✍✎ ✎✒ ✎❡☞s☞✎❡✏☞☞ s✌✟✠✟✏ ☞♦♣✏☞ss✕✒✍s ✕s

❝ ❢✬❣

❂ ❤❥ ❦ ✦❴✗❵✑✮

❜❞ ☛☞ ✌❡✒✒s☞✡ ✎❡☞ ✌☞✍✎✏☞ ✒❞ ✞✟ss ✟s ✎❡☞ ✒✏✕✩✕✍✒❞ ✒✖✏ ✌✒✒✏✓✕✍✟✎☞ s✔s✎☞✞✡

✭ ✱ ✱ ✪✯ ✰ ✲ ❂❥ ❧

✕✗☞✗✡ ❄❈ q❍ r ✉

✒✏ ✸ ✸ ✸ ✈✇ ✻ ④ ✻ ❑ ✻✾ ✾ ✾❀ ❀ ❀ ✦❴✗⑤✮⑥❞✎☞✍ ☛☞ ❡✟✙☞ ✎✒ ✌✟✠✌✖✠✟✎☞ ✎❡☞ ✌☞✍✎✏☞ ✒❞ ✞✟ss✒❞ ❡✒✞✒✩☞✍☞✒✖s ✑✒✓✕☞s ✒❞ ✏☞✩✖✠✟✏ s❡✟♣☞s ✠✕✥☞✏✕✍✩s✡ ✓✕s✌s✡ s♣❡☞✏☞s✡ ✏✒✓s ☞✎✌✗ ✦⑦✔ ✟❡✒✞✒✩☞✍☞✒✖s ✑✒✓✔ ☛☞ ✞☞✟✍ ✟ ✑✒✓✔ ☛✕✎❡✖✍✕❞✒✏✞✠✔ ✓✕s✎✏✕✑✖✎☞✓ ✞✟ss✗✮ ⑦✔ ✖s✕✍✩ s✔✞✞☞✎✏✔✌✒✍s✕✓☞✏✟✎✕✒✍✡ ☛☞ ✌✟✍ ☞✟s✕✠✔ s❡✒☛ ✎❡✟✎ ✎❡☞✌☞✍✎✏☞s ✒❞ ✞✟ss ✒❞ ✎❡☞s☞ ✑✒✓✕☞s ✠✕☞ ✟✎ ✎❡☞✕✏✩☞✒✞☞✎✏✕✌ ✌☞✍✎✏☞s✗

⑧☞✎ ✖s ✌✒✍s✕✓☞✏ ✟ ✎❡✕✍ ✏✒✓✡ ☛❡✒s☞ ☛✕✓✎❡ ✟✍✓✑✏☞✟✎❡ ✦✕✍ ✌✟s☞ ✎❡☞ ✌✏✒ss s☞✌✎✕✒✍ ✒❞ ✎❡☞ ✏✒✓ ✕s✏☞✌✎✟✍✩✖✠✟✏✮ ✒✏ ✏✟✓✕✖s ✦✕✍ ✌✟s☞ ✎❡☞ ✌✏✒ss s☞✌✎✕✒✍✒❞ ✎❡☞ ✏✒✓ ✕s ✌✔✠✕✍✓✏✕✌✟✠✮ ✕s ✞✖✌❡ s✞✟✠✠☞✏ ✎❡✟✍✕✎s ✠☞✍✩✎❡✗ ★✟✥✕✍✩ ✎❡☞ ✒✏✕✩✕✍ ✎✒ ✑☞ ✟✎ ✎❡☞✩☞✒✞☞✎✏✕✌ ✌☞✍✎✏☞ ✒❞ ✎❡☞ ✏✒✓ ✟✍✓ ①⑨✟♦✕s ✎✒ ✑☞✟✠✒✍✩ ✎❡☞ ✠☞✍✩✎❡ ✒❞ ✎❡☞ ✏✒✓✡ ☛☞ ✌✟✍ s✟✔ ✎❡✟✎ ✒✍✟✌✌✒✖✍✎ ✒❞ ✏☞❞✠☞✌✎✕✒✍ s✔✞✞☞✎✏✔✡ ❞✒✏ ☞✙☞✏✔☞✠☞✞☞✍✎ ⑩♠ ✒❞ ✎❡☞ ✏✒✓ ✟✎ ①✡ ✎❡☞✏☞ ✕s ✟✍ ☞✠☞✞☞✍✎✒❞ ✎❡☞ s✟✞☞ ✞✟ss ⑩♠ ✠✒✌✟✎☞✓ ✟✎ ❶① ✦❷✕✩✗ ❴✗❸✮✗

★❡☞ ✍☞✎ ✌✒✍✎✏✕✑✖✎✕✒✍ ✒❞ ☞✙☞✏✔ s✖✌❡ ♣✟✕✏ ✎✒

✎❡☞ ✕✍✎☞✩✏✟✠ ✟✍✓ ❡☞✍✌☞ ✎❡☞ ✕✍✎☞✩✏✟✠ ✸✇ ✻❀ ✕✎s☞✠❞✕s ❹☞✏✒✗ ❷✏✒✞ ❺❛✗ ✦❴✗⑤✮✡ ✎❡☞ ♣✒✕✍✎ ❞✒✏ ☛❡✕✌❡ ✎❡☞✕✍✎☞✩✏✟✠ ✕✎s☞✠❞ ✕s ❹☞✏✒✡ ✕s ✎❡☞ ✌☞✍✎✏☞ ✒❞ ✞✟ss✗★❡✖s✡ ✎❡☞ ✌☞✍✎✏☞ ✒❞ ✞✟ss ✒❞ ✟ ❡✒✞✒✩☞✍✒✖s ✎❡✕✍✏✒✓ ✌✒✕✍✌✕✓☞s ☛✕✎❡ ✕✎s ✩☞✒✞☞✎✏✕✌ ✌☞✍✎✏☞✗ ★❡✕s ✌✟✍✑☞✖✍✓☞✏s✎✒✒✓ ✒✍ ✎❡☞ ✑✟s✕s ✒❞ ✏☞❞✠☞✌✎✕✒✍ s✔✞✞☞✎✏✔✗

★❡☞ s✟✞☞ s✔✞✞☞✎✏✔ ✟✏✩✖✞☞✍✎ ☛✕✠✠ ✟♣♣✠✔ ✎✒❡✒✞✒✩☞✍☞✒✖s ✏✕✍✩s✡ ✓✕s✌s✡ s♣❡☞✏☞s✡ ✒✏ ☞✙☞✍✎❡✕✌✥ ✏✒✓s ✒❞ ✌✕✏✌✖✠✟✏ ✒✏ ✏☞✌✎✟✍✩✖✠✟✏ ✌✏✒sss☞✌✎✕✒✍✗ ❷✒✏ ✟✠✠ s✖✌❡ ✑✒✓✕☞s ✔✒✖ ☛✕✠✠ ✏☞✟✠✕s☞ ✎❡✟✎❞✒✏ ☞✙☞✏✔ ☞✠☞✞☞✍✎ ⑩♠ ✟✎ ✟ ♣✒✕✍✎ ✦①❻②❻③ ✮ ✒✍☞ ✌✟✍✟✠☛✟✔s ✎✟✥☞ ✟✍ ☞✠☞✞☞✍✎ ✒❞ ✎❡☞ s✟✞☞ ✞✟ss ✟✎✎❡☞ ♣✒✕✍✎ ✦⑨①❻❼②❻❼③✮✗ ✦❜✍ ✒✎❡☞✏ ☛✒✏✓s✡ ✎❡☞ ✒✏✕✩✕✍✕s ✟ ♣✒✕✍✎ ✒❞ ✏☞❞✠☞✌✎✕✒✍ s✔✞✞☞✎✏✔ ❞✒✏ ✎❡☞s☞✑✒✓✕☞s✗✮ ❆s ✟ ✏☞s✖✠✎✡ ✎❡☞ ✕✍✎☞✩✏✟✠s ✕✍ ❺❛✗ ✦❴✗❵ ✟✮✟✠✠ ✟✏☞ ❹☞✏✒✗ ★❡✕s ✞☞✟✍s ✎❡✟✎ ❞✒✏ ✟✠✠ ✎❡☞ ✟✑✒✙☞✑✒✓✕☞s✡ ✎❡☞✕✏ ✌☞✍✎✏☞ ✒❞ ✞✟ss ✌✒✕✍✌✕✓☞s ☛✕✎❡ ✎❡☞✕✏✩☞✒✞☞✎✏✕✌ ✌☞✍✎✏☞✗

❽❾❿➀➁➂➃ ➄➅➆ ❷✕✍✓ ✎❡☞ ✌☞✍✎✏☞ ✒❞ ✞✟ss ✒❞✎❡✏☞☞ ♣✟✏✎✕✌✠☞s ✟✎ ✎❡☞ ✙☞✏✎✕✌☞s ✒❞ ✟✍☞❛✖✕✠✟✎☞✏✟✠ ✎✏✕✟✍✩✠☞✗ ★❡☞ ✞✟ss☞s ✒❞ ✎❡☞♣✟✏✎✕✌✠☞s ✟✏☞ ➇➈➈✩✡ ➇❵➈✩✡ ✟✍✓ ➉➈➈✩✏☞s♣☞✌✎✕✙☞✠✔✗ ❺✟✌❡ s✕✓☞ ✒❞ ✎❡☞ ☞❛✖✕✠✟✎☞✏✟✠✎✏✕✟✍✩✠☞ ✕s ➈✗❵✞ ✠✒✍✩✗

➊➋➌➍➃➎

➏➐➑➒ ➓➒➔➏➐➑➒ ➓➒→ ➣↔↕↔➙➛➜➝➜➝➞ ↕➟↔ ➠➡ ➢➤ ➥ ↕➟➜➝ ➙➢➦➧

Page 151: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✹✼

❲✐✍✎ ✍✎✏ ❳ ✥✑✒ ❨ ✥✓✏✔ ✕✎✖✔✏✑ ✥✔ ✔✎✖✗✑ ✐✑ ✘✐✙✚✛✚✜✢ ✍✎✏ ✕✖✖✣✒✐✑✥✍✏✔ ✖❞ ✤✖✐✑✍✔ ✦✢ ✧ ✥✑✒★ ❞✖✣♠✐✑✙✍✎✏ ✏t✩✐✪✥✍✏✣✥✪ ✍✣✐✥✑✙✪✏ ✥✣✏ ✣✏✔✤✏✕✍✐❡✏✪✫ ✬✭✢✭✮✢

✬✭✚✯✢✭✮✢ ✬✭✚✰✯✢✭✚✰✯ ✸ ✮✚ ✱✏✍ ✍✎✏ ♠✥✔✔✏✔ ✲✭✭ ✙✢

✲✯✭✙ ✥✑✒ ✰✭✭✙ ✳✏ ✪✖✕✥✍✏✒ ✥✍ ✦✢ ✧ ✥✑✒ ★ ✳✏✣✏✔✤✏✕✍✐❡✏✪✫✚ r✎✏✑✢

✴ ✴ ✷ ✷ ✵ ✵

✴ ✷ ✵

✺ ① ✺ ① ✺ ①✻

✺ ✺ ✺

✽ ✽❂

✽ ✽

✾ ✿❀❁❁ ❁ ❀❃❁❄❁❅❃❆ ❇❁❁❄❁❅❇❃❆ ❣❈

❄❀❁❁ ❀❃❁ ❇❁❁❆ ❣

✽ ✽❉ ❊❋ ●❂✽ ✽

❍❃ ❃❁ ❀❇❃ ❃❈ ❈ ❈

■❃❁ ■❃❁ ❀❏

✽❂ ❂ ❂

❑▲▲▼▲◆ ❑❖▲▼▲◆ P▲▲▼▲◗P❖ ❘◆ ❯❱

❩❖▲ ❯❬

❭ ❪❫ ❫❴ ❵❛

❜❝ ❢ ❢ ❤❥ ❥ ❥

❦❜❝ ❧ ❢ ❢♥ ♥ ♥

r✎✏ ✕✏✑✍✣✏ ✖❞ ♠✥✔✔ ♦ ✐✔ ✔✎✖✗✑ ✐✑ ✍✎✏ ❞✐✙✩✣✏✚♣✖✍✏ ✍✎✥✍ ✐✍ ✐✔ ✑✖✍ ✍✎✏ ✙✏✖♠✏✍✣✐✕ ✕✏✑✍✣✏ ✖❞ ✍✎✏✍✣✐✥✑✙✪✏ ✦✧★✚ ❲✎✫q s

✉✈✇②③④⑤ ⑥⑦⑧ ✘✐✑✒ ✍✎✏ ✕✏✑✍✣✏ ✖❞ ♠✥✔✔ ✖❞ ✥✍✣✐✥✑✙✩✪✥✣ ✪✥♠✐✑✥✚

⑨⑩❶❷⑤❸ r✎✏ ✪✥♠✐✑✥ ✬❹❺❻❼✮ ♠✥✫ ✳✏ ✔✩✳✒✐❡✐✒✏✒✐✑✍✖ ✑✥✣✣✖✗ ✔✍✣✐✤✔ ✏✥✕✎ ✤✥✣✥✪✪✏✪ ✍✖ ✍✎✏ ✳✥✔✏ ❽❻❼❾✥✔ ✔✎✖✗✑ ✐✑ ✘✐✙✚ ✛✚✲✭

❿➀➁➂ ➃➂➄➅

★✫ ✔✫♠♠✏✍✣✫ ✏✥✕✎ ✔✍✣✐✤ ✎✥✔ ✐✍✔ ✕✏✑✍✣✏ ✖❞♠✥✔✔ ✥✍ ✐✍✔ ♠✐✒✤✖✐✑✍✚ ➆❞ ✗✏ ➇✖✐✑ ✍✎✏ ♠✐✒✤✖✐✑✍ ✖❞✥✪✪ ✍✎✏ ✔✍✣✐✤✔ ✗✏ ✙✏✍ ✍✎✏ ♠✏✒✐✥✑ ✱➈✚ r✎✏ ✕✏✑✍✣✏✖❞ ♠✥✔✔ ✖❞ ✍✎✏ ✍✣✐✥✑✙✪✏ ✥✔ ✥ ✗✎✖✪✏ ✍✎✏✣✏❞✖✣✏✢✎✥✔ ✍✖ ✪✐✏ ✖✑ ✍✎✏ ♠✏✒✐✥✑ ✱➈✚ ➉✐♠✐✪✥✣✪✫✢ ✗✏ ✕✥✑✥✣✙✩✏ ✍✎✥✍ ✐✍ ✪✐✏✔ ✖✑ ✍✎✏ ♠✏✒✐✥✑ ➊➋ ✥✑✒ ♣➌✚r✎✐✔ ♠✏✥✑✔ ✍✎✏ ✕✏✑✍✣✏ ✖❞ ♠✥✔✔ ✪✐✏✔ ✖✑ ✍✎✏ ✤✖✐✑✍

✖❞ ✕✖✑✕✩✣✣✏✑✕✏ ✖❞ ✍✎✏ ♠✏✒✐✥✑✔✢ ✐✚✏✚ ✖✑ ✍✎✏✕✏✑✍✣✖✐✒ ➍ ✖❞ ✍✎✏ ✍✣✐✥✑✙✪✏✚ s

✉✈✇②③④⑤ ⑥⑦➎ ✘✐✑✒ ✍✎✏ ✕✏✑✍✣✏ ✖❞ ♠✥✔✔ ✖❞ ✥✩✑✐❞✖✣♠ ✱➏✔✎✥✤✏✒ ✪✥♠✐✑✥ ✬✥ ✍✎✐✑ ❞✪✥✍ ✤✪✥✍✏✮✗✐✍✎ ✒✐♠✏✑✔✐✖✑✔ ✥✔ ✔✎✖✗✑✚ r✎✏ ♠✥✔✔ ✖❞✍✎✏ ✪✥♠✐✑✥ ✐✔ ➐ ➑✙✚

⑨⑩❶❷⑤❸ ♦✎✖✖✔✐✑✙ ✍✎✏ ❳ ✥✑✒ ❨ ✥✓✏✔ ✥✔ ✔✎✖✗✑✐✑ ✘✐✙✚ ✛✚✲✲ ✗✏ ✎✥❡✏ ✍✎✏ ✕✖✖✣✒✐✑✥✍✏✔ ✖❞ ✍✎✏❡✏✣✍✐✕✏✔ ✖❞ ✍✎✏ ✱➏✔✎✥✤✏✒ ✪✥♠✐✑✥ ✥✔ ✙✐❡✏✑ ✐✑ ✍✎✏❞✐✙✩✣✏✚ ❲✏ ✕✥✑ ✍✎✐✑➑ ✖❞ ✍✎✏✱➏✔✎✥✤✏ ✍✖ ✕✖✑✔✐✔✍ ✖❞ ➐ ✔t✩✥✣✏✔ ✏✥✕✎ ✖❞ ✪✏✑✙✍✎✲♠✚ r✎✏ ♠✥✔✔ ✖❞ ✏✥✕✎ ✔t✩✥✣✏ ✐✔ ✲➑✙✢ ✔✐✑✕✏ ✍✎✏✪✥♠✐✑✥ ✐✔ ✩✑✐❞✖✣♠✚ r✎✏ ✕✏✑✍✣✏✔ ✖❞ ♠✥✔✔ ♦➒✢ ♦➓✥✑✒ ♦➔ ✖❞ ✍✎✏ ✔t✩✥✣✏✔ ✥✣✏✢ ✳✫ ✔✫♠♠✏✍✣✫✢ ✍✎✏✐✣✙✏✖♠✏✍✣✐✕ ✕✏✑✍✣✏✔ ✥✑✒ ✎✥❡✏ ✕✖✖✣✒✐✑✥✍✏✔ ✬✲→✰✢✲→✰✮✢✬➐→✰✢✲→✰✮✢ ✬✲→✰✢➐→✰✮ ✣✏✔✤✏✕✍✐❡✏✪✫✚ ❲✏ ✍✥➑✏ ✍✎✏♠✥✔✔✏✔ ✖❞ ✍✎✏ ✔t✩✥✣✏✔ ✍✖ ✳✏ ✕✖✑✕✏✑✍✣✥✍✏✒ ✥✍✍✎✏✔✏ ✤✖✐✑✍✔✚ r✎✏ ✕✏✑✍✣✏ ✖❞ ♠✥✔✔ ✖❞ ✍✎✏ ✗✎✖✪✏✱ ✔✎✥✤✏ ✬❳✢ ❨✮ ✐✔ ✍✎✏ ✕✏✑✍✣✏ ✖❞ ♠✥✔✔ ✖❞ ✍✎✏✔✏♠✥✔✔ ✤✖✐✑✍✔✚

❿➀➁➂ ➃➂➄➄

➣✏✑✕✏

↔ ↕

➙ ➛

➜➝➜➞➟➠ ➜➝➡➞➟➠ ➜➝➜➞➟➠ ➢➤➥

➜ ➜ ➜ ➢➤➦

➧ ➧➨

➧ ➧

❃❈

➩❂

➫ ➭

➯ ➲

❀❄❀➳❇❆ ❀❄❀➳❇❆ ❀❄✸➳❇❆ ➵❣❈ ❃❈

❀ ❀ ❀ ➵❣ ➩➸

❉ ❊✽ ✽❋ ●❂ ❂✽ ✽

r✎✏ ✕✏✑✍✣✏ ✖❞ ♠✥✔✔ ✖❞ ✍✎✏ ✱➏✔✎✥✤✏ ✪✐✏✔ ✖✑✍✎✏ ✪✐✑✏ ✦➺✚ ❲✏ ✕✖✩✪✒ ✎✥❡✏ ✙✩✏✔✔✏✒ ✍✎✐✔ ✗✐✍✎✖✩✍✕✥✪✕✩✪✥✍✐✖✑✔✚ ♦✥✑ ✫✖✩ ✍✏✪✪ ✗✎✫q ➉✩✤✤✖✔✏✢ ✍✎✏✍✎✣✏✏ ✔t✩✥✣✏✔ ✍✎✥✍♠✥➑✏ ✩✤ ✍✎✏ ✱ ✔✎✥✤✏✒ ✪✥♠✐✑✥

Page 152: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

♦✞ ✟✠✡☛ ☞☛✌✌ ✍✎✏ ✏✠✞✞❢✑❢✒✓ ✔✎✕✕❢✕☛ ✖♦✗ ✗✠✘✘ ✙♦✚✓✍❢✒ ✏❢✓❢✑✔✠✒❢ ✓✍❢ ♠❢✒✓✑❢ ♦✞ ✔✎✕✕ ♦✞ ✓✍❢✘✎✔✠✒✎❧ ✛

✼✜✢ ✥✣✤✦✣✧ ✣★ ✩✪✧✤✫✪ ✣★ ✥✬✭✭

❊✮✚✠✯✯❢✏ ✗✠✓✍ ✓✍❢ ✏❢✞✠✒✠✓✠♦✒ ♦✞ ✓✍❢ ♠❢✒✓✑❢ ♦✞✔✎✕✕✰ ✗❢ ✎✑❢ ✒♦✗ ✠✒ ✎ ✯♦✕✠✓✠♦✒ ✓♦ ✏✠✕♠✚✕✕ ✠✓✕✯✍✙✕✠♠✎✘ ✠✔✯♦✑✓✎✒♠❢ ✞♦✑ ✎ ✕✙✕✓❢✔ ♦✞ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕☛❲❢ ✔✎✙ ✑❢✗✑✠✓❢ ❊✮☛❡☞☛✱✏✲ ✎✕

✳ ✳ ✷ ✷ ✴✴✴✐ ✐ ♥ ♥▼ ✵ ✵ ✵ ✵❂ ❂ ✸ ✸ ✸✹❘ ✺ ✺ ✺ ✺ ❡☞☛☞✲

❉✠✞✞❢✑❢✒✓✠✎✓✠✒✡ ✓✍❢ ✓✗♦ ✕✠✏❢✕ ♦✞ ✓✍❢ ❢✮✚✎✓✠♦✒✗✠✓✍ ✑❢✕✯❢♠✓ ✓♦ ✓✠✔❢ ✗❢ ✡❢✓

✻ ✽✻ ✽

❞❞ ❞❞✾✾✾

❞ ❞ ❞✿

✿❀ ❁ ❁ ❁t t t ❃t❄ ❅ ❅ ❅

rr r❆

♦✑

✻ ✻ ✽ ✽ ✾✾✾ ✿ ✿❀ ❁ ❁ ❁❄ ❅ ❅ ❅❱ ❇ ❇ ❇ ❡☞☛❈✲

✗✍❢✑❢ ❋ ●❍ ❍■ ❏■❑▲✈ ◆ ✠✕ ✓✍❢ ❖❢✘♦♠✠✓✙ ♦✞ ✓✍❢ ✞✠✑✕✓

✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢ ◗ ❙❚ ❚❯ ❯❳❂❨ ✺ ✠✕ ✓✍❢ ❖❢✘♦♠✠✓✙ ♦✞ ✓✍❢

✕❢♠♦✒✏ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢ ❢✓♠☛ ✎✒✏ ❞ ❩❞t❄❱ ❆ ✠✕ ✓✍❢❖❢✘♦♠✠✓✙ ♦✞ ✓✍❢ ♠❢✒✓✑❢ ♦✞ ✔✎✕✕☛ ❬♦✓❢ ✓✍✎✓ ✗❢✎✕✕✚✔❢✏ ✓✍❢ ✔✎✕✕❢✕ ❭❪✰ ❭❫✰ ☛☛☛ ❢✓♠☛ ✏♦ ✒♦✓♠✍✎✒✡❢ ✠✒ ✓✠✔❢☛ ❲❢ ✍✎❖❢ ✓✍❢✑❢✞♦✑❢✰ ✓✑❢✎✓❢✏ ✓✍❢✔✎✕ ♠♦✒✕✓✎✒✓✕ ✠✒ ✏✠✞✞❢✑❢✒✓✠✎✓✠✒✡ ✓✍❢ ❢✮✚✎✓✠♦✒✕✗✠✓✍ ✑❢✕✯❢♠✓ ✓♦ ✓✠✔❢☛❉✠✞✞❢✑❢✒✓✠✎✓✠✒✡ ❊✮☛❡☞☛❈✲ ✗✠✓✍ ✑❢✕✯❢♠✓ ✓♦ ✓✠✔❢✰

✗❢ ♦✇✓✎✠✒

❴ ❵❴ ❵

❞❞ ❞❞✾✾✾

❞ ❞ ❞ ❞❛

❛❀ ❁ ❁ ❁t t t t❄ ❅ ❅ ❅

❇❇ ❇❱

♦✑

✻ ✻ ✽ ✽ ✾✾✾ ✿ ✿❀ ❁ ❁ ❁❄ ❅ ❅ ❅❜ ❝ ❝ ❝ ❡☞☛❣✲

✗✍❢✑❢ ❤ ❥❍ ❍■ ❏■❑▲❦ ✈ ✠✕ ✓✍❢ ✎♠♠❢✘❢✑✎✓✠♦✒ ♦✞ ✓✍❢

✞✠✑✕✓ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✰ ♣ qs s■ ❏■❑▲❦ ✈ ✠✕ ✓✍❢ ✎♠♠❢✘❢✑✎✓✠♦✒

♦✞ ✓✍❢ ✕❢♠♦✒✏ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢ ❢✓♠☛ ✎✒✏ ✉ ①② ③②④⑤⑥ ⑦ ✠✕

✓✍❢ ✎♠♠❢✘❢✑✎✓✠♦✒ ♦✞ ✓✍❢ ♠❢✒✓✑❢ ♦✞ ✔✎✕✕ ♦✞ ✓✍❢✕✙✕✓❢✔ ♦✞ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕☛❬♦✗✰ ✞✑♦✔ ❬❢✗✓♦✒⑧✕ ✕❢♠♦✒✏ ✘✎✗✰ ✓✍❢ ✞♦✑♠❢

✎♠✓✠✒✡ ♦✒ ✓✍❢ ✞✠✑✕✓ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢ ✠✕ ✡✠❖❢✒ ✇✙ ❴ ❴ ❴❁❄⑨ ❝ ☛⑩✍❢ ✞♦✑♠❢ ✎♠✓✠✒✡ ♦✒ ✓✍❢ ✕❢♠♦✒✏ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢ ✠✕ ✡✠❖❢✒

✇✙ ❵ ❵ ❵❁❄⑨ ❝ ✎✒✏ ✕♦ ♦✒☛ ❊✮☛ ❡☞☛❣✲✔✎✙ ✇❢ ✗✑✠✓✓❢✒✎✕

❴ ❵ ✾✾✾ ❛❀ ❄ ❅ ❅ ❅❜ ⑨ ⑨ ⑨ ❡☞☛✌❶✲

⑩✍✚✕✰ ✓✍❢ ✓♦✓✎✘ ✔✎✕✕ ♦✞ ✎ ✕✙✕✓❢✔ ♦✞ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕✓✠✔❢✕ ✓✍❢ ✎♠♠❢✘❢✑✎✓✠♦✒ ♦✞ ✠✓✕ ♠❢✒✓✑❢ ♦✞ ✔✎✕✕ ✠✕✓✍❢ ❖❢♠✓♦✑ ✕✚✔ ♦✞ ✎✘✘ ✓✍❢ ✞♦✑♠❢✕ ✎♠✓✠✒✡ ♦✒ ✓✍❢✕✙✕✓❢✔ ♦✞ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕☛

❬♦✓❢ ✗✍❢✒ ✗❢ ✓✎✘❷ ♦✞ ✓✍❢ ✞♦✑♠❢ ❴⑨ ♦✒ ✓✍❢ ✞✠✑✕✓✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✰ ✠✓ ✠✕ ✒♦✓ ✎ ✕✠✒✡✘❢ ✞♦✑♠❢✰ ✇✚✓ ✓✍❢ ❖❢♠✓♦✑✕✚✔ ♦✞ ✎✘✘ ✓✍❢ ✞♦✑♠❢✕ ♦✒ ✓✍❢ ✞✠✑✕✓ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢❸ ✘✠❷❢✗✠✕❢✞♦✑ ✓✍❢ ✕❢♠♦✒✏ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢ ❢✓♠☛ ❹✔♦✒✡ ✓✍❢✕❢ ✞♦✑♠❢✕♦✒ ❢✎♠✍ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢ ✓✍❢✑❢ ✗✠✘✘ ✇❢ ❺❻❼❺❽❾❿➀ ✞♦✑♠❢✕❢➁❢✑✓❢✏ ✇✙ ✇♦✏✠❢✕ ♦✚✓✕✠✏❢ ✓✍❢ ✕✙✕✓❢✔ ✎✒✏ ✎✘✕♦➂❾❼❺❽❾❿➀ ✞♦✑♠❢✕ ❢➁❢✑✓❢✏ ✇✙ ✓✍❢ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕ ♦✒ ♦✒❢✎✒♦✓✍❢✑☛ ❲❢ ❷✒♦✗ ✞✑♦✔ ❬❢✗✓♦✒⑧✕ ✓✍✠✑✏ ✘✎✗ ✓✍✎✓✓✍❢✕❢ ✠✒✓❢✑✒✎✘ ✞♦✑♠❢✕ ♦♠♠✚✑ ✠✒ ❢✮✚✎✘ ✎✒✏ ♦✯✯♦✕✠✓❢✯✎✠✑✕ ✎✒✏ ✠✒ ✓✍❢ ✕✚✔ ♦✞ ✞♦✑♠❢✕ ♦✞ ❊✮☛ ❡☞☛✌❶✲✰✓✍❢✠✑ ♠♦✒✓✑✠✇✚✓✠♦✒ ✠✕ ➃❢✑♦☛ ➄✒✘✙ ✓✍❢ ❢➁✓❢✑✒✎✘✞♦✑♠❢✕ ♠♦✒✓✑✠✇✚✓❢ ✓♦ ✓✍❢ ❢✮✚✎✓✠♦✒☛ ❲❢ ♠✎✒ ✓✍❢✒✑❢✗✑✠✓❢ ❊✮☛ ❡☞☛✌❶✲ ✎✕

➅➆➇❀ ❄❜ ⑨ ❡☞☛✌✌✲

✗✍❢✑❢ ➅➆➇⑨ ✑❢✯✑❢✕❢✒✓✕ ✓✍❢ ✕✚✔ ♦✞ ✎✘✘ ❢➁✓❢✑✒✎✘✞♦✑♠❢✕ ✎♠✓✠✒✡ ♦✒ ✓✍❢ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕ ♦✞ ✓✍❢ ✕✙✕✓❢✔☛❊✮☛ ❡☞☛✌✌✲ ✕✓✎✓❢✕ ✓✍✎✓ ❼➈❺ ➉❺❾❼❽❺ ➊➋ ➌❿➍➍

➊➋ ❿ ➍➎➍❼❺➌ ➊➋ ➏❿❽❼➂➉➀❺➍ ➌➊➐❺➍ ❿➍ ➂➋ ❿➀➀ ❼➈❺➌❿➍➍ ➊➋ ❼➈❺ ➍➎➍❼❺➌ ➑❿➍ ➉➊❾➉❺❾❼❽❿❼❺➒ ❿❼ ❼➈❺➉❺❾❼❽❺ ➊➋ ➌❿➍➍ ❿❾➒ ❿➀➀ ❼➈❺ ❺❻❼❺❽❾❿➀ ➋➊❽➉❺➍➑❺❽❺ ❿➏➏➀➂❺➒ ❿❼ ❼➈❿❼ ➏➊➂❾❼✜❬♦✓✠♠❢✰ ✓♦ ✏❢✓❢✑✔✠✒❢ ✓✍❢✔♦✓✠♦✒ ♦✞ ✓✍❢ ♠❢✒✓✑❢

♦✞ ✔✎✕✕ ✒♦ ❷✒♦✗✘❢✏✡❢ ♦✞ ✠✒✓❢✑✒✎✘ ✞♦✑♠❢✕ ♦✞ ✓✍❢✕✙✕✓❢✔ ♦✞ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕ ✠✕ ✑❢✮✚✠✑❢✏❸ ✞♦✑ ✓✍✠✕ ✯✚✑✯♦✕❢✗❢ ✒❢❢✏ ✓♦ ❷✒♦✗ ♦✒✘✙ ✓✍❢ ❢➁✓❢✑✒✎✘ ✞♦✑♠❢✕☛⑩♦ ♦✇✓✎✠✒ ❊✮☛ ❡☞☛✌✌✲ ✗❢ ✏✠✏ ✒♦✓ ✒❢❢✏ ✓♦

✕✯❢♠✠✞✙ ✓✍❢ ✒✎✓✚✑❢ ♦✞ ✓✍❢ ✕✙✕✓❢✔ ♦✞ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕☛⑩✍❢ ✕✙✕✓❢✔ ✔✎✙ ✇❢ ✎ ♠♦✘✘❢♠✓✠♦✒ ♦✞ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕ ✠✒✗✍✠♠✍ ✓✍❢✑❢ ✔✎✙ ✇❢ ✎✘✘ ❷✠✒✏✕ ♦✞ ✠✒✓❢✑✒✎✘✔♦✓✠♦✒✕✰ ♦✑ ✠✓ ✔✎✙ ✇❢ ✎ ✑✠✡✠✏ ✇♦✏✙ ✗✍✠♠✍ ✍✎✕❢✠✓✍❢✑ ✯✚✑❢ ✓✑✎✒✕✘✎✓✠♦✒✎✘ ✔♦✓✠♦✒ ♦✑ ✎♠♦✔✇✠✒✎✓✠♦✒ ♦✞ ✓✑✎✒✕✘✎✓✠♦✒✎✘ ✎✒✏ ✑♦✓✎✓✠♦✒✎✘✔♦✓✠♦✒☛ ❲✍✎✓❢❖❢✑ ✠✕ ✓✍❢ ✕✙✕✓❢✔ ✎✒✏ ✓✍❢ ✔♦✓✠♦✒♦✞ ✠✓✕ ✠✒✏✠❖✠✏✚✎✘ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕✰ ✓✍❢ ♠❢✒✓✑❢ ♦✞ ✔✎✕✕✔♦❖❢✕ ✎♠♠♦✑✏✠✒✡ ✓♦ ❊✮☛ ❡☞☛✌✌✲☛➓✒✕✓❢✎✏ ♦✞ ✓✑❢✎✓✠✒✡ ❢➁✓❢✒✏❢✏ ✇♦✏✠❢✕ ✎✕ ✕✠✒✡✘❢

✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕ ✎✕ ✗❢ ✍✎❖❢ ✏♦✒❢ ✠✒ ❢✎✑✘✠❢✑ ♠✍✎✯✓❢✑✕✰✗❢ ♠✎✒ ✒♦✗ ✓✑❢✎✓ ✓✍❢✔ ✎✕ ✕✙✕✓❢✔✕ ♦✞ ✯✎✑✓✠♠✘❢✕☛❲❢ ♠✎✒ ♦✇✓✎✠✒ ✓✍❢ ✓✑✎✒✕✘✎✓✠♦✒✎✘ ♠♦✔✯♦✒❢✒✓ ♦✞✓✍❢✠✑ ✔♦✓✠♦✒✰ ✠☛❢☛ ✓✍❢ ✔♦✓✠♦✒ ♠❢✒✓✑❢ ♦✞ ✔✎✕✕ ♦✞✓✍❢ ✕✙✕✓❢✔✰ ✇✙ ✓✎❷✠✒✡ ✓✍❢ ✔✎✕✕ ♦✞ ✓✍❢ ✗✍♦✘❢✕✙✕✓❢✔ ✓♦ ✇❢ ♠♦✒♠❢✒✓✑✎✓❢✏ ✎✓ ✓✍❢ ♠❢✒✓✑❢ ♦✞ ✔✎✕✕✎✒✏ ✎✘✘ ✓✍❢ ❢➁✓❢✑✒✎✘ ✞♦✑♠❢✕ ♦✒ ✓✍❢ ✕✙✕✓❢✔ ✓♦ ✇❢✎♠✓✠✒✡ ✎✓ ✓✍❢ ♠❢✒✓✑❢ ♦✞ ✔✎✕✕☛⑩✍✠✕ ✠✕ ✓✍❢ ✯✑♦♠❢✏✚✑❢ ✓✍✎✓ ✗❢ ✞♦✘✘♦✗❢✏ ❢✎✑✘✠❢✑

✠✒ ✎✒✎✘✙✕✠✒✡ ✞♦✑♠❢✕ ♦✒ ✇♦✏✠❢✕ ✎✒✏ ✕♦✘❖✠✒✡

Page 153: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✹✾

♣✌♦✍✎✏✑✒ ✓✔✕✖♦✗✕ ✏✘♣✎✔✙✔✕✎✚ ♦✗✕✎✔✛✔✛✜ ✢✛✣

❥✗✒✕✔✤✚✔✛✜ ✕✖✏ ♣✌♦✙✏✣✗✌✏❡ ✥✏ ✛♦✓ ✌✏✢✎✔✒✏ ✕✖✢✕ ✔✛

✏✢✌✎✔✏✌ ✒✕✗✣✔✏✒ ✓✏ ✢✒✒✗✑✏✣✦ ✓✔✕✖♦✗✕ ✒✢✚✔✛✜ ✒♦✦

✕✖✢✕ ✌♦✕✢✕✔♦✛✢✎ ✑♦✕✔♦✛ ✢✛✣✧♦✌ ✔✛✕✏✌✛✢✎ ✑♦✕✔♦✛

♦✤ ✕✖✏ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒ ✓✏✌✏ ✏✔✕✖✏✌ ✢✍✒✏✛✕ ♦✌ ✛✏✜✎✔✜✔✍✎✏❡

✥✏ ✛♦ ✎♦✛✜✏✌ ✛✏✏✣ ✕♦ ✣♦ ✕✖✔✒❡ ✥✏ ✖✢★✏ ✛♦✕ ♦✛✎✚

✤♦✗✛✣ ✕✖✏ ❥✗✒✕✔✤✔✙✢✕✔♦✛ ♦✤ ✕✖✏ ♣✌♦✙✏✣✗✌✏ ✓✏

✤♦✎✎♦✓✏✣ ✏✢✌✎✔✏✌❢ ✍✗✕ ✓✏ ✢✎✒♦ ✖✢★✏ ✤♦✗✛✣ ✖♦✓ ✕♦

✣✏✒✙✌✔✍✏ ✢✛✣ ✒✏♣✢✌✢✕✏ ✕✖✏ ✕✌✢✛✒✎✢✕✔♦✛✢✎ ✑♦✕✔♦✛

♦✤ ✩✪✫ ✢ ✌✔✜✔✣ ✍♦✣✚ ✓✖✔✙✖ ✑✢✚ ✍✏ ✌♦✕✢✕✔✛✜ ✢✒

✓✏✎✎✦ ♦✌ ✩✇✫ ✢ ✒✚✒✕✏✑ ♦✤ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒ ✓✔✕✖ ✢✎✎ ✬✔✛✣✒

♦✤ ✔✛✕✏✌✛✢✎ ✑♦✕✔♦✛❡

❋✭✮✯ ✰✯✱✲ ✳✴✵ ✷✵✸✺✻✵ ✼✽ ✿❀❁❁ ✼✽ ✺✴✵ ✽✻❀❂✿✵✸✺❁

✼✽ ✺✴✵ ❃✻✼❄✵✷✺❅❆✵ ✷✼✸✺❅✸❇✵❁ ❀❆✼✸❂ ✺✴✵

❁❀✿✵ ❃❀✻❀s✼❆❅✷ ❃❀✺✴ ❈✴❅✷✴ ❅✺ ❈✼❇❆❉

✴❀❤✵ ✽✼❆❆✼❈✵❉ ❅✽ ✺✴✵✻✵ ❈✵✻✵ ✸✼

✵❊❃❆✼❁❅✼✸●

❍✔✜✗✌✏ ■❡✪✇ ✔✒ ✢ ✜♦♦✣ ✔✎✎✗✒✕✌✢✕✔♦✛ ♦✤ ❏❑❡

✩■❡✪✪✫❡ ▲ ♣✌♦❥✏✙✕✔✎✏✦ ✤♦✎✎♦✓✔✛✜ ✕✖✏ ✗✒✗✢✎ ♣✢✌✢✍♦✎✔✙

✕✌✢❥✏✙✕♦✌✚✦ ✏✘♣✎♦✣✏✒ ✔✛✕♦ ✤✌✢✜✑✏✛✕✒ ✑✔✣✓✢✚ ✔✛

✢✔✌❡ ▼✖✏ ✤♦✌✙✏✒ ✎✏✢✣✔✛✜ ✕♦ ✕✖✏ ✏✘♣✎♦✒✔♦✛ ✢✌✏

✔✛✕✏✌✛✢✎ ✤♦✌✙✏✒❡ ▼✖✏✚ ✙♦✛✕✌✔✍✗✕✏ ✛♦✕✖✔✛✜ ✕♦ ✕✖✏

✑♦✕✔♦✛ ♦✤ ✕✖✏ ✙✏✛✕✌✏ ♦✤ ✑✢✒✒❡ ▼✖✏ ✕♦✕✢✎ ✏✘✕✏✌✛✢✎

✤♦✌✙✏✦ ✛✢✑✏✎✚✦ ✕✖✏ ✤♦✌✙✏ ♦✤ ✜✌✢★✔✕✚ ✢✙✕✔✛✜ ♦✛ ✕✖✏

✍♦✣✚✦ ✔✒ ✕✖✏ ✒✢✑✏ ✍✏✤♦✌✏ ✢✛✣ ✢✤✕✏✌ ✕✖✏ ✏✘♣✎♦✒✔♦✛❡

▼✖✏ ✙✏✛✕✌✏ ♦✤ ✑✢✒✒ ✗✛✣✏✌ ✕✖✏ ✔✛✤✎✗✏✛✙✏ ♦✤ ✕✖✏

✏✘✕✏✌✛✢✎ ✤♦✌✙✏ ✙♦✛✕✔✛✗✏✒✦ ✕✖✏✌✏✤♦✌✏✦ ✢✎♦✛✜ ✕✖✏

✒✢✑✏ ♣✢✌✢✍♦✎✔✙ ✕✌✢❥✏✙✕♦✌✚ ✢✒ ✔✕ ✓♦✗✎✣ ✖✢★✏

✤♦✎✎♦✓✏✣ ✔✤ ✕✖✏✌✏ ✓✏✌✏ ✛♦ ✏✘♣✎♦✒✔♦✛❡

◆❖P ◗❘❯❱❲❳ ❨❩❨❱❯❬❭❨ ❩❪ ❲ ❫❴❫❬❱❨ ❩❪

❵❲❳❬❘❛◗❱❫

❜✏✕ ✗✒ ✌✏✙✢✎✎ ✕✖✢✕ ✕✖✏ ✎✔✛✏✢✌ ✑♦✑✏✛✕✗✑ ♦✤ ✢

♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏ ✔✒ ✣✏✤✔✛✏✣ ✢✒

♠❝❞ ❣ ✩■❡✪✇✫

❜✏✕ ✗✒ ✢✎✒♦ ✌✏✙✢✎✎ ✕✖✢✕ ✐✏✓✕♦✛❦✒ ✒✏✙♦✛✣ ✎✢✓

✓✌✔✕✕✏✛ ✔✛ ✒✚✑✍♦✎✔✙ ✤♦✌✑ ✤♦✌ ✢ ✒✔✛✜✎✏ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏ ✔✒

❧t♥q

r ✩■❡✪✉✫

✓✖✏✌✏ ❪ ✔✒ ✕✖✏ ✤♦✌✙✏ ♦✛ ✕✖✏ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏❡ ❜✏✕ ✗✒

✙♦✛✒✔✣✏✌ ✢ ✒✚✒✕✏✑ ♦✤ ✈ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒ ✓✔✕✖ ✑✢✒✒✏✒

①②✦ ①③✦❡❡❡①④ ✌✏✒♣✏✙✕ ✔★✏✎✚ ✢✛✣ ★✏✎♦✙✔✕ ✔✏✒

⑤ ⑥⑦ ⑦⑧⑧⑧⑧⑧⑧⑧ ⑨⑩ ⑩ ⑩ ✌✏✒♣✏✙✕✔★✏✎✚❡ ▼✖✏ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒✑✢✚ ✍✏

✔✛✕✏✌✢✙✕✔✛✜ ✢✛✣ ✖✢★✏ ✏✘✕✏✌✛✢✎ ✤♦✌✙✏✒ ✢✙✕✔✛✜ ♦✛

✕✖✏✑❡ ▼✖✏ ✎✔✛✏✢✌ ✑♦✑✏✛✕✗✑ ♦✤ ✕✖✏ ✤✔✌✒✕ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏

✔✒ ⑤ ⑤❶ ⑩ ✦ ♦✤ ✕✖✏ ✒✏✙♦✛✣ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏ ✔✒ ⑥ ⑥❶ ⑩ ✢✛✣ ✒♦

♦✛❡

❍♦✌ ✕✖✏ ✒✚✒✕✏✑ ♦✤ ✈ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒✦ ✕✖✏ ✎✔✛✏✢✌

✑♦✑✏✛✕✗✑ ♦✤ ✕✖✏ ✒✚✒✕✏✑ ✔✒ ✣✏✤✔✛✏✣ ✕♦ ✍✏ ✕✖✏

★✏✙✕♦✌ ✒✗✑ ♦✤ ✢✎✎ ✔✛✣✔★✔✣✗✢✎ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒ ♦✤ ✕✖✏

✒✚✒✕✏✑✦

❷ ❸ ⑧⑧⑧ ❹♥ ❺ ❺ ❺❻ q q q

❷ ❷ ❸ ❸ ⑧⑧⑧ ❹ ❹❶ ❶ ❶♥ ❺ ❺ ❺⑩ ⑩ ⑩ ❼■❡✪❽✫

❾♦✑♣✢✌✔✛✜ ✕✖✔✒ ✓✔✕✖ ❏❑❡ ✩■❡❿✫

➀➁➂ ➃ ✩■❡✪➄✫

▼✖✗✒✦ ➅➆➇ ➅➈➅➉➊ ➋➈➋➇➌➅➍➋ ➈➎ ➉ ➏➐➏➅➇➋

➈➎ ➑➉➒➅➓➔➊➇➏ ➓➏ ➇→➍➉➊ ➅➈ ➅➆➇ ➑➒➈➣➍➔➅ ➈➎ ➅➆➇

➅➈➅➉➊ ➋➉➏➏ ➈➎ ➅➆➇ ➏➐➏➅➇➋ ➉➌➣ ➅➆➇ ↔➇➊➈➔➓➅➐ ➈➎

➓➅➏ ➔➇➌➅➒➇ ➈➎ ➋➉➏➏↕ ➙✔✤✤✏✌✏✛✕✔✢✕✔✛✜ ❏❑❡ ✩■❡✪➄✫

✓✔✕✖ ✌✏✒♣✏✙✕ ✕♦ ✕✔✑✏✦

❧ ❧

❧ ❧➛ ➛

t t♥ ♥

❻ ➜➝ ✩■❡✪➞✫

❾♦✑♣✢✌✔✛✜ ❏❑❡✩■❡✪➞✫ ✢✛✣ ❏❑❡ ✩■❡✪✪✫✦

❧➟➠➡

t♥

❻r ✩■❡✪■✫

▼✖✔✒ ✔✒ ✕✖✏ ✒✕✢✕✏✑✏✛✕ ♦✤ ❯➇➢➅➈➌➤➏ ➏➇➔➈➌➣

➊➉➢ ➇➥➅➇➌➣➇➣ ➅➈ ➉ ➏➐➏➅➇➋ ➈➎ ➑➉➒➅➓➔➊➇➏❖

➦✗♣♣♦✒✏ ✛♦✓✦ ✕✖✢✕ ✕✖✏ ✒✗✑ ♦✤ ✏✘✕✏✌✛✢✎

✤♦✌✙✏✒ ✢✙✕✔✛✜ ♦✛ ✢ ✒✚✒✕✏✑ ♦✤ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒ ✔✒ ➧✏✌♦❡

▼✖✏✛ ✤✌♦✑ ❏❑❡✩■❡✪■✫

or❧

➨❧t♥

❻❻ ➩ ❾♦✛✒✕✢✛✕ ✩■❡✪❿✢✫

▼✖✗✒✦ ✓✖✏✛ ✕✖✏ ✕♦✕✢✎ ✏✘✕✏✌✛✢✎ ✤♦✌✙✏ ✢✙✕✔✛✜

♦✛ ✢ ✒✚✒✕✏✑ ♦✤ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒ ✔✒ ➧✏✌♦✦ ✕✖✏ ✕♦✕✢✎ ✎✔✛✏✢✌

✑♦✑✏✛✕✗✑ ♦✤ ✕✖✏ ✒✚✒✕✏✑ ✔✒ ✙♦✛✒✕✢✛✕❡ ▼✖✔✒ ✔✒

✕✖✏ ✎✢✓ ♦✤ ✙♦✛✒✏✌★✢✕✔♦✛ ♦✤ ✕✖✏ ✕♦✕✢✎ ✎✔✛✏✢✌

✑♦✑✏✛✕✗✑ ♦✤ ✢ ✒✚✒✕✏✑ ♦✤ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒❡ ➫✏✙✢✗✒✏ ♦✤

❏❑❡ ✩■❡✪➄✫✦ ✕✖✔✒ ✢✎✒♦ ✑✏✢✛✒ ✕✖✢✕ ✓✖✏✛ ✕✖✏

✕♦✕✢✎ ✏✘✕✏✌✛✢✎ ✤♦✌✙✏ ♦✛ ✕✖✏ ✒✚✒✕✏✑ ✔✒ ➧✏✌♦

✕✖✏ ★✏✎♦✙✔✕✚ ♦✤ ✕✖✏ ✙✏✛✕✌✏ ♦✤ ✑✢✒✒ ✌✏✑✢✔✛✒

✙♦✛✒✕✢✛✕❡ ✩✥✏ ✢✒✒✗✑✏ ✕✖✌♦✗✜✖♦✗✕ ✕✖✏

✣✔✒✙✗✒✒✔♦✛ ♦✛ ✒✚✒✕✏✑✒ ♦✤ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒ ✔✛ ✕✖✔✒

✙✖✢♣✕✏✌ ✕✖✢✕ ✕✖✏ ✕♦✕✢✎ ✑✢✒✒ ♦✤ ✕✖✏ ✒✚✒✕✏✑

✌✏✑✢✔✛✒ ✙♦✛✒✕✢✛✕❡✫

✐♦✕✏ ✕✖✢✕ ♦✛ ✢✙✙♦✗✛✕ ♦✤ ✕✖✏ ✔✛✕✏✌✛✢✎ ✤♦✌✙✏✒✦

✔❡✏❡ ✕✖✏ ✤♦✌✙✏✒ ✏✘✏✌✕✏✣ ✍✚ ✕✖✏ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒ ♦✛ ♦✛✏

✢✛♦✕✖✏✌✦ ✕✖✏ ✔✛✣✔★✔✣✗✢✎ ♣✢✌✕✔✙✎✏✒ ✑✢✚ ✖✢★✏

Page 154: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❝✞✟✠✡☛❝☞✌✍✎ ✌✏☞✑✍❝✌✞✏☛✍✒✓ ✔✍✌❡ ☛✕ ✌✖✍ ✌✞✌☞✡ ✍✗✌✍✏♥☞✡

✕✞✏❝✍ ☞❝✌☛♥✘ ✞♥ ✌✖✍ ✒✙✒✌✍✟ ☛✒ ✚✍✏✞❡ ✌✖✍ ❝✍♥✌✏✍ ✞✕

✟☞✒✒✟✞♠✍✒ ✛☛✌✖ ❛ ❝✞♥✒✌☞♥✌ ♠✍✡✞❝☛✌✙❡ ☛✓✍✓❡ ✟✞♠✍✒

✉♥☛✕✞✏✟✡✙ ☛♥ ☞ ✒✌✏☞☛✘✖✌ ✡☛♥✍ ✡☛✜✍ ☞ ✕✏✍✍ ✠☞✏✌☛❝✡✍✓

❚✖✍ ♠✍❝✌✞✏ ✢✣✓ ✤✥✓✦✧☞★ ☛✒ ✍✣✉☛♠☞✡✍♥✌ ✌✞ ✌✖✏✍✍

✒❝☞✡☞✏ ✍✣✉☞✌☛✞♥✒❡

✩① ✪ ✫✬❡ ✩② ✪ ✫✷ ☞♥✎ ✩③ ✪ ✫✸ ✤✥✓✦✧ ✭★

❍✍✏✍ ✩①❡ ✩② ☞♥✎ ✩③ ☞✏✍ ✌✖✍ ❝✞✟✠✞♥✍♥✌✒ ✞✕

✌✖✍ ✌✞✌☞✡ ✡☛♥✍☞✏ ✟✞✟✍♥✌✉✟ ♠✍❝✌✞✏ ✮ ☞✡✞♥✘ ✌✖✍

✯✰ ✱ ☞♥✎ ✲ ☞✗✍✒ ✏✍✒✠✍❝✌☛♠✍✡✙✳ ✫✬❡ ✫✷ ☞♥✎ ✫✸ ☞✏✍

❝✞♥✒✌☞♥✌✒✓

✴❛✵ ✴✹✵

❋✺✻✼ ✽✼✾✿ ❀❁❂ ❆ ❃❄❅❇❈ ❉❊●■❄❊❏ ❑▲❅▼ ❏◆■❖◗❏ ❖❉◗❘ ❅

■❖❧❃◗❄❙ ❉❊●■❄❊❏ ❑▲❉▼ ❅❉❯ ❅❉ ❅■◆❃❅

◆❅❙◗❖●■❄ ❑♣❄▼❱ ❲❃❄ ❳❨ ❘❩ ◗❃❄ ❏❈❏◗❄❬ ❖❏

❖❉ ❊❉❖❩❘❙❬ ❬❘◗❖❘❉❱

❀❭❂ ❲❃❄ ❏❅❬❄ ❏◆■❖◗❖❉❧ ❘❩ ◗❃❄ ❃❄❅❇❈ ❉❊●■❄❊❏

❑▲❅▼ ❪❖◗❃ ◗❃❄ ●❄❉◗❙❄ ❘❩ ❬❅❏❏ ❅◗ ❙❄❏◗❱

❲❃❄ ◗❪❘ ◆❙❘❯❊●◗ ◆❅❙◗❖●■❄❏ ❩■❈ ♦❅●❫ ◗❘

♦❅●❫❱

❴✒ ☞♥ ✍✗☞✟✠✡✍❡ ✡✍✌ ✉✒ ❝✞♥✒☛✎✍✏ ✌✖✍

✏☞✎☛✞☞❝✌☛♠✍ ✎✍❝☞✙ ✞✕ ☞ ✟✞♠☛♥✘ ✉♥✒✌☞✭✡✍ ✠☞✏✌☛❝✡✍❡

✡☛✜✍ ✌✖✍ ♥✉❝✡✍✉✒ ✞✕ ✏☞✎☛✉✟✓ ❴ ✏☞✎☛✉✟ ♥✉❝✡✍✉✒

✎☛✒☛♥✌✍✘✏☞✌✍✒ ☛♥✌✞ ☞ ♥✉❝✡✍✉✒ ✞✕ ✏☞✎✞♥ ☞♥✎ ☞♥

☞✡✠✖☞ ✠☞✏✌☛❝✡✍✓ ❚✖✍ ✕✞✏❝✍✒ ✡✍☞✎☛♥✘ ✌✞ ✌✖✍ ✎✍❝☞✙

☞✏✍ ☛♥✌✍✏♥☞✡ ✌✞ ✌✖✍ ✒✙✒✌✍✟ ☞♥✎ ✌✖✍ ✍✗✌✍✏♥☞✡

✕✞✏❝✍✒ ✞♥ ✌✖✍ ✒✙✒✌✍✟ ☞✏✍ ♥✍✘✡☛✘☛✭✡✍✓ ❵✞ ✌✖✍ ✌✞✌☞✡

✡☛♥✍☞✏ ✟✞✟✍♥✌✉✟ ✞✕ ✌✖✍ ✒✙✒✌✍✟ ☛✒ ✌✖✍ ✒☞✟✍

✭✍✕✞✏✍ ☞♥✎ ☞✕✌✍✏ ✎✍❝☞✙✓ ❚✖✍ ✌✛✞ ✠☞✏✌☛❝✡✍✒

✠✏✞✎✉❝✍✎ ☛♥ ✌✖✍ ✎✍❝☞✙❡ ✌✖✍ ✏☞✎✞♥ ♥✉❝✡✍✉✒ ☞♥✎

✌✖✍ ☞✡✠✖☞ ✠☞✏✌☛❝✡✍❡ ✟✞♠✍ ☛♥ ✎☛✕✕✍✏✍♥✌ ✎☛✏✍❝✌☛✞♥✒

☛♥ ✒✉❝✖ ☞ ✛☞✙ ✌✖☞✌ ✌✖✍☛✏ ❝✍♥✌✏✍ ✞✕ ✟☞✒✒ ✟✞♠✍✒

☞✡✞♥✘ ✌✖✍ ✒☞✟✍ ✠☞✌✖ ☞✡✞♥✘ ✛✖☛❝✖ ✌✖✍ ✞✏☛✘☛♥☞✡

✎✍❝☞✙☛♥✘ ✏☞✎☛✉✟ ♥✉❝✡✍✉✒ ✛☞✒ ✟✞♠☛♥✘

❜❞☛✘✓ ✥✓✦❢✤☞★❣✓

❤✕ ✛✍ ✞✭✒✍✏♠✍ ✌✖✍ ✎✍❝☞✙ ✕✏✞✟ ✌✖✍ ✕✏☞✟✍ ✞✕

✏✍✕✍✏✍♥❝✍ ☛♥ ✛✖☛❝✖ ✌✖✍ ❝✍♥✌✏✍ ✞✕ ✟☞✒✒ ☛✒ ☞✌ ✏✍✒✌❡

✌✖✍ ✟✞✌☛✞♥ ✞✕ ✌✖✍ ✠☞✏✌☛❝✡✍✒ ☛♥♠✞✡♠✍✎ ☛♥ ✌✖✍ ✎✍❝☞✙

✡✞✞✜✒ ✠☞✏✌☛❝✉✡☞✏✡✙ ✒☛✟✠✡✍✳ ✌✖✍ ✠✏✞✎✉❝✌ ✠☞✏✌☛❝✡✍✒

✟✞♠✍ ✭☞❝✜ ✌✞ ✭☞❝✜ ✛☛✌✖ ✌✖✍☛✏ ❝✍♥✌✏✍ ✞✕ ✟☞✒✒

✏✍✟☞☛♥☛♥✘ ☞✌ ✏✍✒✌ ☞✒ ✒✖✞✛♥ ☛♥ ❞☛✘✓✥✓✦❢ ✤✭★✓

❤♥ ✟☞♥✙ ✠✏✞✭✡✍✟✒ ✞♥ ✌✖✍ ✒✙✒✌✍✟ ✞✕

✠☞✏✌☛❝✡✍✒ ☞✒ ☛♥ ✌✖✍ ☞✭✞♠✍ ✏☞✎☛✞☞❝✌☛♠✍ ✎✍❝☞✙

✠✏✞✭✡✍✟❡ ☛✌ ☛✒ ❝✞♥♠✍♥☛✍♥✌ ✌✞ ✛✞✏✜ ☛♥ ✌✖✍ ❝✍♥✌✏✍

✞✕ ✟☞✒✒ ✕✏☞✟✍ ✏☞✌✖✍✏ ✌✖☞♥ ☛♥ ✌✖✍ ✡☞✭✞✏☞✌✞✏✙

✕✏☞✟✍ ✞✕ ✏✍✕✍✏✍♥❝✍✓

❤♥ ☞✒✌✏✞♥✞✟✙❡ ✭☛♥☞✏✙ ✤✎✞✉✭✡✍★ ✒✌☞✏✒ ☛✒ ☞

❝✞✟✟✞♥ ✞❝❝✉✏✏✍♥❝✍✓ ❤✕ ✌✖✍✏✍ ☞✏✍ ♥✞ ✍✗✌✍✏♥☞✡

✕✞✏❝✍✒❡ ✌✖✍ ❝✍♥✌✏✍ ✞✕ ✟☞✒✒ ✞✕ ☞ ✎✞✉✭✡✍ ✒✌☞✏

✟✞♠✍✒ ✡☛✜✍ ☞ ✕✏✍✍ ✠☞✏✌☛❝✡✍❡ ☞✒ ✒✖✞✛♥ ☛♥ ❞☛✘✓✥✓✦✐

✤☞★✓ ❚✖✍ ✌✏☞✑✍❝✌✞✏☛✍✒ ✞✕ ✌✖✍ ✌✛✞ ✒✌☞✏✒ ✞✕ ✍✣✉☞✡

✟☞✒✒ ☞✏✍ ☞✡✒✞ ✒✖✞✛♥ ☛♥ ✌✖✍ ✕☛✘✉✏✍✳ ✌✖✍✙ ✡✞✞✜

❝✞✟✠✡☛❝☞✌✍✎✓ ❤✕ ✛✍ ✘✞ ✌✞ ✌✖✍ ❝✍♥✌✏✍ ✞✕ ✟☞✒✒

✕✏☞✟✍❡ ✌✖✍♥ ✛✍ ✕☛♥✎ ✌✖☞✌ ✌✖✍✏✍ ✌✖✍ ✌✛✞ ✒✌☞✏✒

☞✏✍ ✟✞♠☛♥✘ ☛♥ ☞ ❝☛✏❝✡✍❡ ☞✭✞✉✌ ✌✖✍ ❝✍♥✌✏✍ ✞✕

✟☞✒✒❡ ✛✖☛❝✖ ☛✒ ☞✌ ✏✍✒✌✓ ❥✞✌✍ ✌✖☞✌ ✌✖✍ ✠✞✒☛✌☛✞♥

✞✕ ✌✖✍ ✒✌☞✏✒ ✖☞♠✍ ✌✞ ✭✍ ✎☛☞✟✍✌✏☛❝☞✡✡✙ ✞✠✠✞✒☛✌✍

✌✞ ✍☞❝✖ ✞✌✖✍✏ ❜❞☛✘✓ ✥✓✦✐✤✭★❣✓ ❚✖✉✒ ☛♥ ✞✉✏ ✕✏☞✟✍

✞✕ ✏✍✕✍✏✍♥❝✍❡ ✌✖✍ ✌✏☞✑✍❝✌✞✏☛✍✒ ✞✕ ✌✖✍ ✒✌☞✏✒ ☞✏✍ ☞

❝✞✟✭☛♥☞✌☛✞♥ ✞✕ ✤☛★ ✉♥☛✕✞✏✟ ✟✞✌☛✞♥ ☛♥ ☞ ✒✌✏☞☛✘✖✌

✡☛♥✍ ✞✕ ✌✖✍ ❝✍♥✌✏✍ ✞✕ ✟☞✒✒ ☞♥✎ ✤☛☛★ ❝☛✏❝✉✡☞✏

✞✏✭☛✌✒ ✞✕ ✌✖✍ ✒✌☞✏✒ ☞✭✞✉✌ ✌✖✍ ❝✍♥✌✏✍ ✞✕ ✟☞✒✒✓

❴✒ ❝☞♥ ✭✍ ✒✍✍♥ ✕✏✞✟ ✌✖✍ ✌✛✞ ✍✗☞✟✠✡✍✒❡

s❦qrtr✈✇④⑤ ✌✖✍ ✟✞✌☛✞♥ ✞✕ ✎☛✕✕✍✏✍♥✌ ✠☞✏✌✒ ✞✕ ☞

✒✙✒✌✍✟ ☛♥✌✞ ✟✞✌☛✞♥ ⑥⑦ ✈⑧❦ ⑨❦④✈t❦ ⑥⑦ ⑩rss r④❶

⑩⑥✈✇⑥④ r❷⑥❸✈ ✈⑧❦ ⑨❦④✈t❦ ⑥⑦ ⑩rss ☛✒ ☞ ♠✍✏✙

✉✒✍✕✉✡ ✌✍❝✖♥☛✣✉✍ ✌✖☞✌ ✖✍✡✠✒ ☛♥ ✉♥✎✍✏✒✌☞♥✎☛♥✘

✌✖✍ ✟✞✌☛✞♥ ✞✕ ✌✖✍ ✒✙✒✌✍✟✓

❹❺❻ ❼❽❾❿➀➁ ✮➁➀➂➃❾❿ ➀➄ ❿➅➀ ❼❽❾❿➀➁➆

➇✍ ☞✏✍ ☞✡✏✍☞✎✙ ✕☞✟☛✡☛☞✏ ✛☛✌✖ ♠✍❝✌✞✏✒ ☞♥✎ ✌✖✍☛✏

✉✒✍ ☛♥ ✠✖✙✒☛❝✒✓ ❤♥ ❝✖☞✠✌✍✏ ➈ ✤➇✞✏✜❡ ✢♥✍✏✘✙❡

✩✞✛✍✏★ ✛✍ ✎✍✕☛♥✍✎ ✌✖✍ ✒❝☞✡☞✏ ✠✏✞✎✉❝✌ ✞✕ ✌✛✞

♠✍❝✌✞✏✒✓ ❴♥ ☛✟✠✞✏✌☞♥✌ ✠✖✙✒☛❝☞✡ ✣✉☞♥✌☛✌✙❡ ✛✞✏✜❡

☛✒ ✎✍✕☛♥✍✎ ☞✒ ☞ ✒❝☞✡☞✏ ✠✏✞✎✉❝✌ ✞✕ ✌✛✞ ♠✍❝✌✞✏

✣✉☞♥✌☛✌☛✍✒❡ ✕✞✏❝✍ ☞♥✎ ✎☛✒✠✡☞❝✍✟✍♥✌✓

❑❅▼ ❑♦▼

❋✺✻✼ ✽✼✾➉ ❀❁❂ ❲❙❅➊❄●◗❘❙❖❄❏ ❘❩ ◗❪❘ ❏◗❅❙❏➋ ➌➍ ❑❯❘◗◗❄❯

■❖❉❄▼ ❅❉❯ ➌➎ ❑❏❘■❖❯ ■❖❉❄▼ ❩❘❙❬❖❉❧ ❅

♦❖❉❅❙❈ ❏❈❏◗❄❬ ❪❖◗❃ ◗❃❄❖❙ ●❄❉◗❙❄ ❘❩

❬❅❏❏ ❳ ❖❉ ❊❉❖❩❘❙❬ ❬❘◗❖❘❉❱

❀❭❂ ❲❃❄ ❏❅❬❄ ♦❖❉❅❙❈ ❏❈❏◗❄❬➋ ❪❖◗❃ ◗❃❄

●❄❉◗❙❄ ❘❩ ❬❅❏❏ ❳ ❅◗ ❙❄❏◗❱

Page 155: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✺✶

❲❡ ✌✍✎✏✏ ✑✒✓ ✔❡✕✖✑❡ ✎✑✒✗✍❡✘ ✙✘✒✔♦✚✗ ✒✕ ✗✓✒

✈❡✚✗✒✘✌✛ ✜✍✖✌ ✙✘✒✔♦✚✗ ✖✌ ✎ ✈❡✚✗✒✘✛ ✜✓✒ ✖✳✙✒✘✗✎✑✗

q♦✎✑✗✖✗✖❡✌ ✖✑ ✗✍❡ ✌✗♦✔✢ ✒✕ ✘✒✗✎✗✖✒✑✎✏ ✳✒✗✖✒✑✣

✑✎✳❡✏✢✣ ✳✒✳❡✑✗ ✒✕ ✎ ✕✒✘✚❡ ✎✑✔ ✎✑❝♦✏✎✘

✳✒✳❡✑✗♦✳✣ ✎✘❡ ✔❡✕✖✑❡✔ ✎✌ ✈❡✚✗✒✘ ✙✘✒✔♦✚✗✌✛

❉✤✥✦✧✦★✦✩✧ ✩✥ ✪✤✫★✩✬ ✭✬✩✮✯✫★

❆ ✈❡✚✗✒✘ ✙✘✒✔♦✚✗ ✒✕ ✗✓✒ ✈❡✚✗✒✘✌ ❛ ✎✑✔ ❜ ✖✌ ✎

✈❡✚✗✒✘ ✫ ✌♦✚✍ ✗✍✎✗

✰✖✱ ✳✎❝✑✖✗♦✔❡ ✒✕ ✫ ❂ ✲ s✴✵✷✸ ✹✻ ✓✍❡✘❡ ✎ ✎✑✔ ✼

✎✘❡ ✳✎❝✑✖✗♦✔❡✌ ✒✕ ❛ ✎✑✔ ❜ ✎✑✔ ✽ ✖✌ ✗✍❡

✎✑❝✏❡ ✼❡✗✓❡❡✑ ✗✍❡ ✗✓✒ ✈❡✚✗✒✘✌✛

✰✖✖✱ ✫ ✖✌ ✙❡✘✙❡✑✔✖✚♦✏✎✘ ✗✒ ✗✍❡ ✙✏✎✑❡ ✚✒✑✗✎✖✑✖✑❝

❛ ✎✑✔ ❜✛

✰✖✖✖✱ ✖✕ ✓❡ ✗✎✇❡ ✎ ✘✖❝✍✗ ✍✎✑✔❡✔ ✌✚✘❡✓ ✓✖✗✍ ✖✗✌ ✍❡✎✔

✏✢✖✑❝ ✖✑ ✗✍❡ ✙✏✎✑❡ ✒✕ ❛ ✎✑✔ ❜ ✎✑✔ ✗✍❡ ✌✚✘❡✓

✙❡✘✙❡✑✔✖✚♦✏✎✘ ✗✒ ✗✍✖✌ ✙✏✎✑❡✣ ✎✑✔ ✖✕ ✓❡ ✗♦✘✑

✗✍❡ ✍❡✎✔ ✖✑ ✗✍❡ ✔✖✘❡✚✗✖✒✑ ✕✘✒✳ ❛ ✗✒ ❜✣ ✗✍❡✑

✗✍❡ ✗✖✙ ✒✕ ✗✍❡ ✌✚✘❡✓ ✎✔✈✎✑✚❡✌ ✖✑ ✗✍❡ ✔✖✘❡✚✗✖✒✑

✒✕ ✫✛ ✜✍✖✌ ✘✖❝✍✗ ✍✎✑✔❡✔ ✌✚✘❡✓ ✘♦✏❡ ✖✌

✖✏✏♦✌✗✘✎✗❡✔ ✖✑ ✐✖❝✛ ✾✛✿❀✎✛

❆✏✗❡✘✑✎✗❡✏✢✣ ✖✕ ✒✑❡ ✚♦✘✏✌ ♦✙ ✗✍❡ ✕✖✑❝❡✘✌ ✒✕

✘✖❝✍✗ ✍✎✑✔ ✎✘✒♦✑✔ ✎ ✏✖✑❡ ✙❡✘✙❡✑✔✖✚♦✏✎✘ ✗✒ ✗✍❡

✙✏✎✑❡ ✒✕ ✗✍❡ ✈❡✚✗✒✘✌ ❛ ✎✑✔ ❜ ✎✑✔ ✖✕ ✗✍❡ ✕✖✑❝❡✘✌

✎✘❡ ✚♦✘✏❡✔ ♦✙ ✖✑ ✗✍❡ ✔✖✘❡✚✗✖✒✑ ✕✘✒✳ ❛ ✗✒ ❜✣ ✗✍❡✑

✗✍❡ ✌✗✘❡✗✚✍❡✔ ✗✍♦✳✼ ✙✒✖✑✗✌ ✖✑ ✗✍❡ ✔✖✘❡✚✗✖✒✑ ✒✕

✫✣ ✎✌ ✌✍✒✓✑ ✖✑ ✐✖❝✛ ✾✛✿❀✼✛

✰✎✱ ✰✼✱

❋❁❃❄ ❅❄❇❈ ❊●❍ ❘■❏❑ ▲▼ ◆❖❑ P◗❯❖◆ ❖❱❳❨❑❨ ❩❬P❑❭ ▼▲P

❨❑▼◗❳◗❳❯ ◆❖❑ ❨◗P❑❬◆◗▲❳ ▲▼ ◆❖❑ ❪❑❬◆▲P

♣P▲❨■❬◆ ▲▼ ◆❭▲ ❪❑❬◆▲P❩❫

❊❴❍ ❘■❏❑ ▲▼ ◆❖❑ P◗❯❖◆ ❖❱❳❨ ▼▲P ❨❑▼◗❳◗❳❯ ◆❖❑

❨◗P❑❬◆◗▲❳ ▲▼ ◆❖❑ ❪❑❬◆▲P ♣P▲❨■❬◆❫

❆ ✌✖✳✙✏❡✘ ✈❡✘✌✖✒✑ ✒✕ ✗✍❡ ✘✖❝✍✗ ✍✎✑✔ ✘♦✏❡ ✖✌

✗✍❡ ✕✒✏✏✒✓✖✑❝ t ❵✙❡✑ ♦✙ ✢✒♦✘ ✘✖❝✍✗ ✍✎✑✔ ✙✎✏✳

✎✑✔ ✚♦✘✏ ✗✍❡ ✕✖✑❝❡✘✌ ✙✒✖✑✗✖✑❝ ✕✘✒✳ ❛ ✗✒ ❜✛ ❞✒♦✘

✌✗✘❡✗✚✍❡✔ ✗✍♦✳✼ ✙✒✖✑✗✌ ✖✑ ✗✍❡ ✔✖✘❡✚✗✖✒✑ ✒✕ ✫✛

❢✗ ✌✍✒♦✏✔ ✼❡ ✘❡✳❡✳✼❡✘❡✔ ✗✍✎✗ ✗✍❡✘❡ ✎✘❡ ✗✓✒

✎✑❝✏❡✌ ✼❡✗✓❡❡✑ ✎✑✢ ✗✓✒ ✈❡✚✗✒✘✌ ❛ ✎✑✔ ❜ ✛ ❢✑

✐✖❝✛ ✾✛✿❀ ✰✎✱ ✒✘ ✰✼✱ ✗✍❡✢ ✚✒✘✘❡✌✙✒✑✔ ✗✒ ❣ ✰✎✌

✌✍✒✓✑✱ ✎✑✔ ✰❤❥❦❧➊ ❣✱✛ ❲✍✖✏❡ ✎✙✙✏✢✖✑❝ ❡✖✗✍❡✘ ✒✕

✗✍❡ ✎✼✒✈❡ ✘♦✏❡✌✣ ✗✍❡ ✘✒✗✎✗✖✒✑ ✌✍✒♦✏✔ ✼❡ ✗✎✇❡✑

✗✍✘✒♦❝✍ ✗✍❡ ✌✳✎✏✏❡✘ ✎✑❝✏❡ ✰♠✿♥❦❧✱ ✼❡✗✓❡❡✑ ❛

✎✑✔ ❜✛ ❢✗ ✖✌ ❣ ✍❡✘❡✛

r❡✚✎♦✌❡ ✒✕ ✗✍❡ ✚✘✒✌✌ ♦✌❡✔ ✗✒ ✔❡✑✒✗❡ ✗✍❡

✈❡✚✗✒✘ ✙✘✒✔♦✚✗✣ ✖✗ ✖✌ ✎✏✌✒ ✘❡✕❡✘✘❡✔ ✗✒ ✎✌ ✚✘✒✌✌

✙✘✒✔♦✚✗✛

⑨ ✉✒✗❡ ✗✍✎✗ ✌✚✎✏✎✘ ✙✘✒✔♦✚✗ ✒✕ ✗✓✒ ✈❡✚✗✒✘✌ ✖✌

✚✒✳✳♦✗✎✗✖✈❡ ✎✌ ✌✎✖✔ ❡✎✘✏✖❡✘✣ ❛✛❜ ❂ ❜①❛

✜✍❡ ✈❡✚✗✒✘ ✙✘✒✔♦✚✗✣ ✍✒✓❡✈❡✘✣ ✖✌ ✑✒✗

✚✒✳✳♦✗✎✗✖✈❡✣ ✖✛❡✛ ❛ ② ❜ ③ ❜ ② ❛

✜✍❡ ✳✎❝✑✖✗♦✔❡ ✒✕ ✼✒✗✍ ❛ ② ❜ ✎✑✔ ❜ ② ❛ ✖✌ ✗✍❡

✌✎✳❡ ✰ s✴✵✷✸ ✹ ✱④ ✎✏✌✒✣ ✼✒✗✍ ✒✕ ✗✍❡✳ ✎✘❡

✙❡✘✙❡✑✔✖✚♦✏✎✘ ✗✒ ✗✍❡ ✙✏✎✑❡ ✒✕ ❛ ✎✑✔ ❜✛ r♦✗ ✗✍❡

✘✒✗✎✗✖✒✑ ✒✕ ✗✍❡ ✘✖❝✍✗⑤✍✎✑✔❡✔ ✌✚✘❡✓ ✖✑ ✚✎✌❡ ✒✕

❛ ② ❜ ✖✌ ✕✘✒✳ ❛ ✗✒ ❜✣ ✓✍❡✘❡✎✌ ✖✑ ✚✎✌❡ ✒✕ ❜ ② ❛ ✖✗

✖✌ ✕✘✒✳ ❜ ✗✒ ❛✛ ✜✍✖✌ ✳❡✎✑✌ ✗✍❡ ✗✓✒ ✈❡✚✗✒✘✌ ✎✘❡

✖✑ ✒✙✙✒✌✖✗❡ ✔✖✘❡✚✗✖✒✑✌✛ ❲❡ ✍✎✈❡

× ✻ ❾ ×⑥ ⑦ ⑦ ⑥

⑨ ❆✑✒✗✍❡✘ ✖✑✗❡✘❡✌✗✖✑❝ ✙✘✒✙❡✘✗✢ ✒✕ ✎ ✈❡✚✗✒✘

✙✘✒✔♦✚✗ ✖✌ ✖✗✌ ✼❡✍✎✈✖✒♦✘ ♦✑✔❡✘ ✘❡✕✏❡✚✗✖✒✑✛

⑧✑✔❡✘ ✘❡✕✏❡✚✗✖✒✑ ✰✖✛❡✛ ✒✑ ✗✎✇✖✑❝ ✗✍❡ ✳✖✘✘✒✘

✖✳✎❝❡✱ ✓❡ ✍✎✈❡ and ⑩❶ ❶ ❷ ❷ ❸ ❸❹ ❺ ❹ ❺ ❹ ❺ ✛

❆✌ ✎ ✘❡✌♦✏✗ ✎✏✏ ✗✍❡ ✚✒✳✙✒✑❡✑✗✌ ✒✕ ✎ ✈❡✚✗✒✘

✚✍✎✑❝❡ ✌✖❝✑ ✎✑✔ ✗✍♦✌ ⑩❻ ❻❹ ❺ ❼ ❼❽ ❿ ✛

❲✍✎✗ ✍✎✙✙❡✑✌ ✗✒ ❛ ② ❜ ♦✑✔❡✘ ✘❡✕✏❡✚✗✖✒✑➀

❛ ② ❜ ➁ ➂ ➁ ➂➃ ➄ ➅ ➄ ➆ ➅➇ ➈ ➇ ➈

✜✍♦✌✣ ❛ ② ❜ ✔✒❡✌ ✑✒✗ ✚✍✎✑❝❡ ✌✖❝✑ ♦✑✔❡✘

✘❡✕✏❡✚✗✖✒✑✛

⑨ r✒✗✍ ✌✚✎✏✎✘ ✎✑✔ ✈❡✚✗✒✘ ✙✘✒✔♦✚✗✌ ✎✘❡

✔✖✌✗✘✖✼♦✗✖✈❡ ✓✖✗✍ ✘❡✌✙❡✚✗ ✗✒ ✈❡✚✗✒✘ ✎✔✔✖✗✖✒✑✛

✜✍♦✌✣

➉➁ ➂ ➉ ➉➋ ➆ ➋➇ ➈ ➌ ➇ ➈ ➇ ➌

➍ ➎➏ ➐ ➑ ➏ ➐ ➏➒ ➓ ➔ ➒ ➓ ➒ ➔

⑨ ❲❡ ✳✎✢ ✓✘✖✗❡ ✫ ❂ ❛ ② ❜ ✖✑ ✗✍❡ ✚✒✳✙✒✑❡✑✗

✕✒✘✳✛ ✐✒✘ ✗✍✖✌ ✓❡ ✕✖✘✌✗ ✑❡❡✔ ✗✒ ✒✼✗✎✖✑ ✌✒✳❡

❡✏❡✳❡✑✗✎✘✢ ✚✘✒✌✌ ✙✘✒✔♦✚✗✌t

✰✖✱ ❛ ② ❛ ❂ → ✰→ ✖✌ ✎ ✑♦✏✏ ✈❡✚✗✒✘✣ ✖✛❡✛ ✎ ✈❡✚✗✒✘

✓✖✗✍ ➣❡✘✒ ✳✎❝✑✖✗♦✔❡✱

✜✍✖✌ ✕✒✏✏✒✓✌ ✌✖✑✚❡ ✳✎❝✑✖✗♦✔❡ ✒✕ ❛ ② ❛ ✖✌

↔↕➙➛➜ ➜❻ ➦ ➝ ✛

Page 156: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❋✟♦✠ ✡☛☞✌ ✍♦✎✎♦✏ ✡☛✑ ✟✑✌❡✎✡✌

❼ ❼ ❼ ❼ ❼ ❼✱ ✱× ✒ × ✒ × ✒✐ ✐ ✵ ❥ ❥ ✵ ❦ ❦ ✵

✭☞☞✓ ✔ ✔ ✔✕ ✖✗ ✘ ✙

◆♦✡✑ ✡☛✚✡ ✡☛✑ ✠✚✛✜☞✡❡✢✑ ♦✍ ✔ ✔✕✗ ✘ ☞✌ ✌☞✜✥✣✤

♦✟ ✦✧ ✌ ☞✜★✑ ✩✪ ✚✜✢ ❼❥ ✫♦✡☛ ☛✚✬✑ ❡✜☞✡

✠✚✛✜☞✡❡✢✑ ✚✜✢ ✡☛✑ ✚✜✛✎✑ ✫✑✡✏✑✑✜ ✡☛✑✠ ☞✌ ✥✣✤✳

❚☛❡✌✧ ✔ ✔✕✗ ✘ ☞✌ ✚ ❡✜☞✡ ✬✑★✡♦✟✳ ✮ ❡✜☞✡ ✬✑★✡♦✟

♣✑✟♣✑✜✢☞★❡✎✚✟ ✡♦ ✡☛✑ ♣✎✚✜✑ ♦✍ ✩✪ ✚✜✢ ✔✘ ✚✜✢

✟✑✎✚✡✑✢ ✡♦ ✡☛✑✠ ✫✯ ✡☛✑ ✟☞✛☛✡ ☛✚✜✢ ✌★✟✑✏ ✟❡✎✑ ☞✌

✰✲ ✳ ✴✑✜★✑✧ ✡☛✑ ✚✫♦✬✑ ✟✑✌❡✎✡✳ ✷♦❡ ✠✚✯ ✬✑✟☞✍✯

✌☞✠☞✎✚✟✎✯✧

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔❛✸✹✕ ✖ ✕ ✖✘ ✙ ✗ ✙ ✗ ✘

❋✟♦✠ ✡☛✑ ✟❡✎✑ ✍♦✟ ★♦✠✠❡✡✚✡☞♦✜ ♦✍ ✡☛✑ ★✟♦✌✌

♣✟♦✢❡★✡✧ ☞✡ ✍♦✎✎♦✏✌✺

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔✻ ✻✕ ✖ ❾ ✕ ✖ ❾ ✕ ✖ ❾✘ ✗ ✙ ✙ ✘ ✗ ✗ ✙ ✘

◆♦✡✑ ☞✍ ❼ ❼ ❼✱ ✱✐ ❥ ❦ ♦★★❡✟ ★✯★✎☞★✚✎✎✯ ☞✜ ✡☛✑ ✚✫♦✬✑

✬✑★✡♦✟ ♣✟♦✢❡★✡ ✟✑✎✚✡☞♦✜✧ ✡☛✑ ✬✑★✡♦✟ ♣✟♦✢❡★✡ ☞✌

♣♦✌☞✡☞✬✑✳ ✼✍ ✔ ✔ ✔✻ ✻✗ ✘ ✙ ✢♦ ✜♦✡ ♦★★❡✟ ☞✜ ★✯★✎☞★ ♦✟✢✑✟✧

✡☛✑ ✬✑★✡♦✟ ♣✟♦✢❡★✡ ☞✌ ✜✑✛✚✡☞✬✑✳

◆♦✏✧

✽ ✽ ✽ ✽ ✽ ✽✾ ✿ ✾ ✿① ❀ ③ ① ❀ ③❁ ❁ ❁ ❜ ❜ ❜❂ ❃ ❄ ❄ ❂ ❄ ❄❅ ❆ ❇ ❈ ❉ ❇ ❈ ❉

✽ ✽ ✽ ✽ ✽ ✽① ❀ ① ③ ❀ ① ❀ ③ ③ ① ③ ❀❁ ❜ ❁ ❜ ❁ ❜ ❁ ❜ ❁ ❜ ❁ ❜❃ ❊ ❊ ❄ ❄ ❊❉ ❈ ❉ ❇ ❈ ❇

● ● ●❍ ■ ❍ ■ ❍ ■② ❏ ❏ ❑ ❏ ❑ ❑ ❏ ❑ ② ② ❑▲ ▼ ▲ ▼ ▲ ▼ ▲ ▼ ▲ ▼ ▲ ▼❖ ◗ ❘ ◗ ❘ ◗❙ ❯ ❱

❲✑ ☛✚✬✑ ❡✌✑✢ ✡☛✑ ✑✎✑✠✑✜✡✚✟✯ ★✟♦✌✌ ♣✟♦✢❡★✡✌

☞✜ ♦✫✡✚☞✜☞✜✛ ✡☛✑ ✚✫♦✬✑ ✟✑✎✚✡☞♦✜✳ ❚☛✑ ✑❳♣✟✑✌✌☞♦✜

✍♦✟ ❨ ❩ ❬ ★✚✜ ✫✑ ♣❡✡ ☞✜ ✚ ✢✑✡✑✟✠☞✜✚✜✡ ✍♦✟✠

✏☛☞★☛ ☞✌ ✑✚✌✯ ✡♦ ✟✑✠✑✠✫✑✟✳

✽ ✽ ✽

① ❀ ③

① ❀ ③

❁ ❁ ❁

❜ ❜ ❜

❂ ❃

❇ ❈ ❉

❅ ❆

❭❪❫❴❵❝❞ ❢❣❤ ❧♠♥q rst ✉✈✇④✇⑤ ✇♥q ⑥t✈r⑦⑤

⑧⑤⑦q⑨✈r✉ ⑦⑩ r❶⑦ ⑥t✈r⑦⑤✉❷ ❨ ❸ ✭❹❺❻ ➊ ❽❿❻ ➀ ➁➂❻ ✓

✇♥q ❬ ➃ ➄➅ ➆❺❻ ➇ ❿❻ ➅ ➈➂❻ ➉

➋➌➍➎❞➏

➐ ➐ ➐ ➐ ➐ ➐➑➒ ➓ ➔ → ➑ ➣ ➒ →

↔ ➓ ↕➔

➣➔

➙ ➛ ➜ ➛ ➜ ➛

➙ ➛ ➛ ➛

➙ ➛

➝ ➞ ➟ ➠ ➡ ➟ ➠ ➡g g

✽ ✽ ✽

✽ ✽ ✽➢ ➤ ➥ ➦ ➥

➧ ➨ ➢

❂ ❃ ❊ ❃ ❊ ❊

❊ ❊

❇ ❈ ❉

❅ ❆ ❇ ❈ ❉

◆♦✡✑ ❼ ❼ ❼➩ ➫× ✒ ➭ ➯ ➯➲ ➳ ✐ ❥ ❦ ➵

➸➺➻ ➼➽➾➚➪➼➶ ➹➘➪➴➷➬➮➱ ➼➽✃ ➬➮❐

➶➘➪➼➮➬➴➽ ❒➬➮❮ ➪➬➽➘➼➶ ➹➘➪➴➷➬➮➱

✼✜ ✡☛☞✌ ✌✑★✡☞♦✜ ✏✑ ✌☛✚✎✎ ✌✡❡✢✯ ✏☛✚✡ ☞✌ ✚✜✛❡✎✚✟

✬✑✎♦★☞✡✯ ✚✜✢ ☞✡✌ ✟♦✎✑ ☞✜ ✟♦✡✚✡☞♦✜✚✎ ✠♦✡☞♦✜✳ ❲✑

☛✚✬✑ ✌✑✑✜ ✡☛✚✡ ✑✬✑✟✯ ♣✚✟✡☞★✎✑ ♦✍ ✚ ✟♦✡✚✡☞✜✛ ✫♦✢✯

✠♦✬✑✌ ☞✜ ✚ ★☞✟★✎✑✳ ❚☛✑ ✎☞✜✑✚✟ ✬✑✎♦★☞✡✯ ♦✍ ✡☛✑

♣✚✟✡☞★✎✑ ☞✌ ✟✑✎✚✡✑✢ ✡♦ ✡☛✑ ✚✜✛❡✎✚✟ ✬✑✎♦★☞✡✯✳ ❚☛✑

✟✑✎✚✡☞♦✜ ✫✑✡✏✑✑✜ ✡☛✑✌✑ ✡✏♦ ❰❡✚✜✡☞✡☞✑✌ ☞✜✬♦✎✬✑✌

✚ ✬✑★✡♦✟ ♣✟♦✢❡★✡ ✏☛☞★☛ ✏✑ ✎✑✚✟✜✡ ✚✫♦❡✡ ☞✜ ✡☛✑

✎✚✌✡ ✌✑★✡☞♦✜✳

Ï✑✡ ❡✌ ✛♦ ✫✚★Ð ✡♦ ❋☞✛✳ Ñ✳❽✳ ✮✌ ✌✚☞✢ ✚✫♦✬✑✧ ☞✜

✟♦✡✚✡☞♦✜✚✎ ✠♦✡☞♦✜ ♦✍ ✚ ✟☞✛☞✢ ✫♦✢✯ ✚✫♦❡✡ ✚ ✍☞❳✑✢

✚❳☞✌✧ ✑✬✑✟✯ ♣✚✟✡☞★✎✑ ♦✍ ✡☛✑ ✫♦✢✯ ✠♦✬✑✌ ☞✜ ✚ ★☞✟★✎✑✧

ÒÓÔÕ ÖÕØÙ ÚÛÜÝÜÞÛß ÝàÛáÜ Ý âÞãäå ÝãÞæç èé êÝëÜÞìíä èîï

Ûâ Üðä ëÞñÞå àÛåò ëÛÜÝÜÞßñ ÝàÛáÜ Üðä âÞãäå

èóôï ÝãÞæ õÛöäæ Þß Ý ìÞëìíä ÷ÞÜð ìäßÜëä èøï

Ûß Üðä ÝãÞæçï

✏☛☞★☛ ✎☞✑✌ ☞✜ ✚ ♣✎✚✜✑ ♣✑✟♣✑✜✢☞★❡✎✚✟ ✡♦ ✡☛✑ ✚❳☞✌

✚✜✢ ☛✚✌ ☞✡✌ ★✑✜✡✟✑ ♦✜ ✡☛✑ ✚❳☞✌✳ ✼✜ ❋☞✛✳ Ñ✳✦ù ✏✑

✟✑✢✟✚✏ ❋☞✛✳ Ñ✳❽✧ ✌☛♦✏☞✜✛ ✚ ✡✯♣☞★✚✎ ♣✚✟✡☞★✎✑ ✭✚✡ ✚

♣♦☞✜✡ ú✓ ♦✍ ✡☛✑ ✟☞✛☞✢ ✫♦✢✯ ✟♦✡✚✡☞✜✛ ✚✫♦❡✡ ✚ ✍☞❳✑✢

✚❳☞✌ ✭✡✚Ð✑✜ ✚✌ ✡☛✑ ûü✚❳☞✌✓✳ ❚☛✑ ♣✚✟✡☞★✎✑ ✢✑✌★✟☞✫✑✌

Page 157: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✺✸

❛ ✌✍✎✌❝✏ ✑✍✒✓ ❛ ✌✏✔✒✎✏ ❡ ✕✔ ✒✓✏ ❛✖✍✗✘ ✙✓✏ ✎❛✚✍✛✗

✕♦ ✒✓✏ ✌✍✎✌❝✏ ✍✗ r✱ ✒✓✏ ✜✏✎✜✏✔✚✍✌✛❝❛✎ ✚✍✗✒❛✔✌✏ ✕♦

✒✓✏ ✜✕✍✔✒ t ♦✎✕✢ ✒✓✏ ❛✖✍✗✘ ✣✏ ❛❝✗✕ ✗✓✕✑ ✒✓✏

❝✍✔✏❛✎ ❧✏❝✕✌✍✒✤ ❧✏✌✒✕✎ ✈ ✕♦ ✒✓✏ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏ ❛✒ t✘ ✥✒ ✍✗

❛❝✕✔✦ ✒✓✏ ✒❛✔✦✏✔✒ ❛✒ t ✒✕ ✒✓✏ ✌✍✎✌❝✏✘

▲✏✒ t✧ ★✏ ✒✓✏ ✜✕✗✍✒✍✕✔ ✕♦ ✒✓✏ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏ ❛♦✒✏✎ ❛✔

✍✔✒✏✎❧❛❝ ✕♦ ✒✍✢✏ ✩✪ ✭✫✍✦✘ ✬✘✮✯✰✘ ✙✓✏ ❛✔✦❝✏ t❡t✧

✚✏✗✌✎✍★✏✗ ✒✓✏ ❛✔✦✛❝❛✎ ✚✍✗✜❝❛✌✏✢✏✔✒ ✩✲ ✕♦ ✒✓✏

✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏ ✍✔ ✒✍✢✏ ✩✪✘ ✙✓✏ ❛❧✏✎❛✦✏ ❛✔✦✛❝❛✎ ❧✏❝✕✌✍✒✤

✕♦ ✒✓✏ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏ ✕❧✏✎ ✒✓✏ ✍✔✒✏✎❧❛❝ ✩✪ ✍✗ ✩✲✴✩✪✳ ✵✗

✩✪ ✒✏✔✚✗ ✒✕ ✷✏✎✕ ✭✍✘✏✘ ✒❛✹✏✗ ✗✢❛❝❝✏✎ ❛✔✚ ✗✢❛❝❝✏✎

❧❛❝✛✏✗✰✱ ✒✓✏ ✎❛✒✍✕ ✩✲✴✩✪ ❛✜✜✎✕❛✌✓✏✗ ❛ ❝✍✢✍✒ ✑✓✍✌✓

✍✗ ✒✓✏ ✍✔✗✒❛✔✒❛✔✏✕✛✗ ❛✔✦✛❝❛✎ ❧✏❝✕✌✍✒✤ ✚✲✴✚✪ ✕♦

✒✓✏ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏ ❛✒ ✒✓✏ ✜✕✗✍✒✍✕✔ t✘ ✣✏ ✚✏✔✕✒✏ ✒✓✏

✐✻✼✽✾✻✽✾✻✿❀❁✼ ✾✻❂❁❃✾❄ ✈✿❃❀❅✐✽❆ ★✤ ❇ ✭✒✓✏

●✎✏✏✹ ❝✏✒✒✏✎ ✕✢✏✦❛✰✘ ✣✏ ✹✔✕✑ ♦✎✕✢ ✕✛✎ ✗✒✛✚✤

✕♦ ✌✍✎✌✛❝❛✎ ✢✕✒✍✕✔ ✒✓❛✒ ✒✓✏ ✢❛✦✔✍✒✛✚✏ ✕♦ ❝✍✔✏❛✎

❧✏❝✕✌✍✒✤ ❈ ✕♦ ❛ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏ ✢✕❧✍✔✦ ✍✔ ❛ ✌✍✎✌❝✏ ✍✗

✎✏❝❛✒✏✚ ✒✕ ✒✓✏ ❛✔✦✛❝❛✎ ❧✏❝✕✌✍✒✤ ✕♦ ✒✓✏ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏ ❇

★✤ ✒✓✏ ✗✍✢✜❝✏ ✎✏❝❛✒✍✕✔ ❉❊ ❋❍ ✱ ✑✓✏✎✏ r ✍✗ ✒✓✏

✎❛✚✍✛✗ ✕♦ ✒✓✏ ✌✍✎✌❝✏✘

✣✏ ✕★✗✏✎❧✏ ✒✓❛✒ ❛✒ ❛✔✤ ✦✍❧✏✔ ✍✔✗✒❛✔✒ ✒✓✏

✎✏❝❛✒✍✕✔ ■ ❉❋❍ ❛✜✜❝✍✏✗ ✒✕ ❛❝❝ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏✗ ✕♦ ✒✓✏

✎✍✦✍✚ ★✕✚✤✘ ✙✓✛✗ ♦✕✎ ❛ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏ ❛✒ ❛ ✜✏✎✜✏✔✚✍✌✛❝❛✎

✚✍✗✒❛✔✌✏ r❏ ♦✎✕✢ ✒✓✏ ♦✍✖✏✚ ❛✖✍✗✱ ✒✓✏ ❝✍✔✏❛✎ ❧✏❝✕✌✍✒✤

❛✒ ❛ ✦✍❧✏✔ ✍✔✗✒❛✔✒ ❈❏ ✍✗ ✦✍❧✏✔ ★✤

❑ ❑■ ❉❋❍ ✭✬✘✮▼✰

✙✓✏ ✍✔✚✏✖ ◆ ✎✛✔✗ ♦✎✕✢ ✮ ✒✕ ♥✱ ✑✓✏✎✏ ♥ ✍✗ ✒✓✏

✒✕✒❛❝ ✔✛✢★✏✎ ✕♦ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏✗ ✕♦ ✒✓✏ ★✕✚✤✘

✫✕✎ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏✗ ✕✔ ✒✓✏ ❛✖✍✗✱ 0❖r ✱ ❛✔✚ ✓✏✔✌✏

❈ P ❇ r P ◗✘ ✙✓✛✗✱ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏✗ ✕✔ ✒✓✏ ❛✖✍✗ ❛✎✏

✗✒❛✒✍✕✔❛✎✤✘ ✙✓✍✗ ❧✏✎✍♦✍✏✗ ✒✓❛✒ ✒✓✏ ❛✖✍✗ ✍✗ ❢◆❘❯❱✘

❲✕✒✏ ✒✓❛✒ ✑✏ ✛✗✏ ✒✓✏ ✗❛✢✏ ❛✔✦✛❝❛✎ ❧✏❝✕✌✍✒✤

❳ ♦✕✎ ❛❝❝ ✒✓✏ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏✗✘ ❨✿ ✽❩✿❄✿❬❀❄✿❭ ❄✿❬✿❄ ✽❀

❪❪ ✾✼ ✽❩✿ ✾✻❂❁❃✾❄ ✈✿❃❀❅✐✽❆ ❀❬ ✽❩✿ ❫❩❀❃✿ ❴❀❵❆✳

❨✿ ❩✾✈✿ ❅❩✾❄✾❅✽✿❄✐✼✿❵ ❜❁❄✿ ✽❄✾✻✼❃✾✽✐❀✻ ❀❬

✾ ❴❀❵❆ ❴❆ ✾❃❃ ❜✾❄✽✼ ❀❬ ✽❩✿ ❴❀❵❆ ❩✾✈✐✻❂ ✽❩✿ ✼✾❞✿

✈✿❃❀❅✐✽❆ ✾✽ ✾✻❆ ✐✻✼✽✾✻✽ ❀❬ ✽✐❞✿❣ ❤✐❞✐❃✾❄❃❆❭ ❫✿

❞✾❆ ❅❩✾❄✾❅✽✿❄✐✼✿ ❜❁❄✿ ❄❀✽✾✽✐❀✻ ❴❆ ✾❃❃ ❜✾❄✽✼ ❀❬

✽❩✿ ❴❀❵❆ ❩✾✈✐✻❂ ✽❩✿ ✼✾❞✿ ✾✻❂❁❃✾❄ ✈✿❃❀❅✐✽❆ ✾✽

✾✻❆ ✐✻✼✽✾✻✽ ❀❬ ✽✐❞✿✳ ❲✕✒✏ ✒✓❛✒ ✒✓✍✗

✌✓❛✎❛✌✒✏✎✍✗❛✒✍✕✔ ✕♦ ✒✓✏ ✎✕✒❛✒✍✕✔ ✕♦ ❛ ✎✍✦✍✚ ★✕✚✤

❛★✕✛✒ ❛ ♦✍✖✏✚ ❛✖✍✗ ✍✗ ❥❁✼✽ ✾✻❀✽❩✿❄ ❫✾❆ ✕♦ ✗❛✤✍✔✦

❛✗ ✍✔ ❦✏✌✘ ✬✘✮ ✒✓❛✒ ✏❛✌✓ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏ ✕♦ ✒✓✏ ★✕✚✤ ✢✕❧✏✗

✍✔ ❛ ✌✍✎✌❝✏✱ ✑✓✍✌✓ ❝✍✏✗ ✍✔ ❛ ✜❝❛✔✏ ✜✏✎✜✏✔✚✍✌✛❝❛✎

✒✕ ✒✓✏ ❛✖✍✗ ❛✔✚ ✓❛✗ ✒✓✏ ✌✏✔✒✎✏ ✕✔ ✒✓✏ ❛✖✍✗✘

✥✔ ✕✛✎ ✚✍✗✌✛✗✗✍✕✔ ✗✕ ♦❛✎ ✒✓✏ ❛✔✦✛❝❛✎ ❧✏❝✕✌✍✒✤

❛✜✜✏❛✎✗ ✒✕ ★✏ ❛ ✗✌❛❝❛✎✘ ✥✔ ♦❛✌✒✱ ✍✒ ✍✗ ❛ ❧✏✌✒✕✎✘ ✣✏

✗✓❛❝❝ ✔✕✒ s✛✗✒✍♦✤ ✒✓✍✗ ♦❛✌✒✱ ★✛✒ ✑✏ ✗✓❛❝❝ ❛✌✌✏✜✒

✍✒✘ ✫✕✎ ✎✕✒❛✒✍✕✔ ❛★✕✛✒ ❛ ♦✍✖✏✚ ❛✖✍✗✱ ✒✓✏ ❛✔✦✛❝❛✎

❧✏❝✕✌✍✒✤ ❧✏✌✒✕✎ ❝✍✏✗ ❛❝✕✔✦ ✒✓✏ ❛✖✍✗ ✕♦ ✎✕✒❛✒✍✕✔✱

❛✔✚ ✜✕✍✔✒✗ ✕✛✒ ✍✔ ✒✓✏ ✚✍✎✏✌✒✍✕✔ ✍✔ ✑✓✍✌✓ ❛ ✎✍✦✓✒

✓❛✔✚✏✚ ✗✌✎✏✑ ✑✕✛❝✚ ❛✚❧❛✔✌✏✱ ✍♦ ✒✓✏ ✓✏❛✚ ✕♦ ✒✓✏

✗✌✎✏✑ ✍✗ ✎✕✒❛✒✏✚ ✑✍✒✓ ✒✓✏ ★✕✚✤✘ ✭❦✏✏ ✫✍✦✘ ✬✘✮✬❛✰✘

✙✓✏ ✢❛✦✔✍✒✛✚✏ ✕♦ ✒✓✍✗ ❧✏✌✒✕✎ ✍✗

♠ ♠♣❋ q❍

✎✏♦✏✎✎✏✚ ❛✗ ❛★✕❧✏✘

✉✇①② ③②④③ ⑤⑥⑦ ⑧⑨ ⑩❶❷ ❶❷❸❹ ❺⑨ ❸ ❻❼❽❶⑩ ❶❸❾❹❷❹ ❿➀❻❷➁

❻❺⑩❸⑩❷❿ ➁❼⑩❶ ⑩❶❷ ➂❺❹➃➄ ⑩❶❷ ❿➀❻❷➁

❸❹➅❸❾➀❷❿ ❼❾ ⑩❶❷ ❹❼❻❷➀⑩❼❺❾ ❺⑨ ⑩❶❷ ❸❾❽➆➇❸❻

➅❷➇❺➀❼⑩➃ ➈➉ ⑧⑨ ⑩❶❷ ❿❷❾❿❷ ➊➀➇❺➀➋➁❼❿❷ ❺❻

❸❾⑩❼➀➇❺➀➋➁❼❿❷➌ ❺⑨ ❻❺⑩❸⑩❼❺❾ ❺⑨ ⑩❶❷ ➂❺❹➃

➀❶❸❾❽❷❿➄ ❿❺ ❹❺❷❿ ⑩❶❷ ❹❼❻❷➀⑩❼❺❾ ❺⑨ ➈➈➉

✉✇①② ③②④③ ⑤➍⑦ ➎❶❷ ❸❾❽➆➇❸❻ ➅❷➇❺➀ ❼⑩➃ ➅❷➀⑩❺❻ ➈ ❼❿

❹❼❻❷➀⑩❷❹ ❸➇❺❾❽ ⑩❶❷ ⑨❼➏❷❹ ❸➏❼❿ ❸❿ ❿❶❺➁❾➉

➎❶❷ ➇❼❾❷❸❻ ➅❷➇❺➀❼⑩➃ ❺⑨ ⑩❶❷ ➐❸❻⑩❼➀➇❷ ❸⑩ ➑

❼❿ ➒ ➓ ➈➈× ➔→ ⑧⑩ ❼❿ ➐❷❻➐❷❾❹❼➀➆➇❸❻ ⑩❺ ➂❺⑩❶

➈➈ ❸❾❹ ➔ ❸❾❹ ❼❿ ❹❼❻❷➀⑩❷❹ ❸➇❺❾❽ ⑩❶❷

⑩❸❾❽❷❾⑩ ⑩❺ ⑩❶❷ ➀❼❻➀➇❷ ❹❷❿➀❻❼➂❷❹ ➂➃ ⑩❶❷

➐❸❻⑩❼➀➇❷➉

✣✏ ✗✓❛❝❝ ✔✕✑ ❝✕✕✹ ❛✒ ✑✓❛✒ ✒✓✏ ❧✏✌✒✕✎ ✜✎✕✚✛✌✒

❪❪➣ ❄ ✌✕✎✎✏✗✜✕✔✚✗ ✒✕✘ ↔✏♦✏✎ ✒✕ ✫✍✦✘ ✬✘✮✬✭★✰ ✑✓✍✌✓

✍✗ ❛ ✜❛✎✒ ✕♦ ✫✍✦✘ ✬✘✮✯ ✎✏✜✎✕✚✛✌✏✚ ✒✕ ✗✓✕✑ ✒✓✏

✜❛✒✓ ✕♦ ✒✓✏ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏ t✘ ✙✓✏ ♦✍✦✛✎✏ ✗✓✕✑✗ ✒✓✏

❧✏✌✒✕✎ ❪❪ ✚✍✎✏✌✒✏✚ ❛❝✕✔✦ ✒✓✏ ♦✍✖✏✚ ✭↕➙✰ ❛✖✍✗ ❛✔✚

❛❝✗✕ ✒✓✏ ✜✕✗✍✒✍✕✔ ❧✏✌✒✕✎ ❄ P ➛➜ ✕♦ ✒✓✏ ✜❛✎✒✍✌❝✏

❛✒ t ✕♦ ✒✓✏ ✎✍✦✍✚ ★✕✚✤ ✑✍✒✓ ✎✏✗✜✏✌✒ ✒✕ ✒✓✏ ✕✎✍✦✍✔

➝✘ ❲✕✒✏ ✒✓❛✒ ✒✓✏ ✕✎✍✦✍✔ ✍✗ ✌✓✕✗✏✔ ✒✕ ★✏ ✕✔ ✒✓✏

❛✖✍✗ ✕♦ ✎✕✒❛✒✍✕✔✘

Page 158: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

◆✞✟ ✭ ✠× × × ✰r ✡ ❖☛ ✡ ❖❈ ❈☛

❇☞✌ ✐✍ ❛✎✏✑❣✒✓× ✔❖❈ ✵ ❖❈

❍✕✖✗✕ × ✔ ×r ❈☛

❚✘✕ ✙✕✗✌✞✚ ✛ ✜✢ ✥✣ ✤✕✚✤✕✖✦✥✗☞✧★✚ ✌✞ ✩✱ ✥✪✕✪

✌✞ ✫✬✱ ✌✘✕ ③✲★✮✥✣ ★✖✦ ★✧✣✞ ✌✞ ✌✘✕ ✚★✦✥☞✣ ✞✯ ✌✘✕

✗✥✚✗✧✕ ✦✕✣✗✚✥❝✕✦ ❝✳ ✌✘✕ ✤★✚✌✥✗✧✕ ★✌ ✴✪ ✷✌ ✥✣

✌✘✕✚✕✯✞✚✕✱ ★✧✞✖❡ ✌✘✕ ✌★✖❡✕✖✌ ✌✞ ✌✘✕ ✗✥✚✗✧✕ ★✌ ✴✪

❆✧✣✞✱ ✌✘✕ ✸★❡✖✥✌☞✦✕ ✞✯ ✹ ✺ ✫✬ ✥✣ ✻ ✼✽✴✾ ✣✥✖✗✕

✩✩ ★✖✦ ✫✬ ★✚✕ ✤✕✚✤✕✖✦✥✗☞✧★✚ ✌✞ ✕★✗✘ ✞✌✘✕✚✪ ✿✕

✣✘★✧✧ ✦✕✖✞✌✕ ✫✬ ❝✳ ❀r ★✖✦ ✖✞✌ ❝✳ ❁✱ ★✣ ✟✕ ✦✥✦

✕★✚✧✥✕✚✪

❚✘☞✣✱ ✩ ✺ ❁ ✥✣ ★ ✙✕✗✌✞✚ ✞✯ ✸★❡✖✥✌☞✦✕ ✩❂❀

★✖✦ ✥✣ ★✧✞✖❡ ✌✘✕ ✌★✖❡✕✖✌ ✌✞ ✌✘✕ ✗✥✚✗✧✕ ✦✕✣✗✚✥❝✕✦

❝✳ ✌✘✕ ✤★✚✌✥✗✧✕ ★✌ ✴✪ ❚✘✕ ✧✥✖✕★✚ ✙✕✧✞✗✥✌✳ ✙✕✗✌✞✚ ✈

★✌ ✴ ✘★✣ ✌✘✕ ✣★✸✕ ✸★❡✖✥✌☞✦✕ ★✖✦ ✦✥✚✕✗✌✥✞✖✪

❚✘☞✣✱

❃ ❄❅ ❉ ✼❊✪❋●✾

✷✖ ✯★✗✌✱ ✌✘✕ ✚✕✧★✌✥✞✖✱ ■❏✪ ✼❊✪❋●✾✱ ✘✞✧✦✣ ❡✞✞✦

✕✙✕✖ ✯✞✚ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖ ✞✯ ★ ✚✥❡✥✦ ❝✞✦✳ ✟✥✌✘ ✞✖✕ ✤✞✥✖✌

✯✥✮✕✦✱ ✣☞✗✘ ★✣ ✌✘✕ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖ ✞✯ ✌✘✕ ✌✞✤ ♦❑✥❡✪ ❊✪▲✼★✾▼✪

✷✖ ✌✘✥✣ ✗★✣✕ ❁ ✚✕✤✚✕✣✕✖✌✣ ✌✘✕ ✤✞✣✥✌✥✞✖ ✙✕✗✌✞✚ ✞✯

✌✘✕ ✤★✚✌✥✗✧✕ ✟✥✌✘ ✚✕✣✤✕✗✌ ✌✞ ✌✘✕ ✯✥✮✕✦ ✤✞✥✖✌ ✌★◗✕✖

★✣ ✌✘✕ ✞✚✥❡✥✖✪

✿✕ ✖✞✌✕ ✌✘★✌ ❢❘❁ ❁❘❙❯❙❱❘❲ ❯❳❘❨❙ ❯ ❢❱❩❬❭

❯❩❱❪❫ ❙❴❬ ❭❱❁❬❵❙❱❘❲ ❘❢ ❙❴❬ ✈❬❵❙❘❁ ✹ ❭❘❬❪ ❲❘❙

❵❴❯❲❜❬ ❞❱❙❴ ❙❱❤❬❥ ❦❙❪ ❤❯❜❲❱❙❨❭❬ ❤❯❧❫

❴❘❞❬✈❬❁❫ ❵❴❯❲❜❬ ❢❁❘❤ ❱❲❪❙❯❲❙ ❙❘ ❱❲❪❙❯❲❙❥ ♠❘❁

❙❴❬ ❤❘❁❬ ❜❬❲❬❁❯♥ ❁❘❙❯❙❱❘❲❫ ❳❘❙❴ ❙❴❬

❤❯❜❲❱❙❨❭❬ ❯❲❭ ❙❴❬ ❭❱❁❬❵❙❱❘❲ ❘❢ ✹❤❯❧ ❵❴❯❲❜❬

❢❁❘❤ ❱❲❪❙❯❲❙ ❙❘ ❱❲❪❙❯❲❙❥

♣❥q❥s t❲❜❨♥❯❁ ❯❵❵❬♥❬❁❯❙❱❘❲

✉✞☞ ✸★✳ ✘★✙✕ ✖✞✌✥✗✕✦ ✌✘★✌ ✟✕ ★✚✕ ✦✕✙✕✧✞✤✥✖❡

✌✘✕ ✣✌☞✦✳ ✞✯ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖★✧ ✸✞✌✥✞✖ ★✧✞✖❡ ✌✘✕ ✧✥✖✕✣

✞✯ ✌✘✕ ✣✌☞✦✳ ✞✯ ✌✚★✖✣✧★✌✥✞✖★✧ ✸✞✌✥✞✖ ✟✥✌✘ ✟✘✥✗✘

✟✕ ★✚✕ ★✧✚✕★✦✳ ✯★✸✥✧✥★✚✪ ❆✖★✧✞❡✞☞✣ ✌✞ ✌✘✕ ◗✥✖✕✌✥✗

✙★✚✥★❝✧✕✣ ✞✯ ✧✥✖✕★✚ ✦✥✣✤✧★✗✕✸✕✖✌ ★✖✦ ✙✕✧✞✗✥✌✳ ✼✈✾

✥✖ ✌✚★✖✣✧★✌✥✞✖★✧ ✸✞✌✥✞✖✱ ✟✕ ✘★✙✕ ★✖❡☞✧★✚

✦✥✣✤✧★✗✕✸✕✖✌ ★✖✦ ★✖❡☞✧★✚ ✙✕✧✞✗✥✌✳ ✼✩✩✩✩✾ ✥✖

✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖★✧ ✸✞✌✥✞✖✪ ✷✌ ✥✣ ✌✘✕✖ ✖★✌☞✚★✧ ✌✞ ✦✕✯✥✖✕

✥✖ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖★✧ ✸✞✌✥✞✖ ✌✘✕ ✗✞✖✗✕✤✌ ✞✯ ★✖❡☞✧★✚

★✗✗✕✧✕✚★✌✥✞✖ ✥✖ ★✖★✧✞❡✳ ✟✥✌✘ ✧✥✖✕★✚ ★✗✗✕✧✕✚★✌✥✞✖

✦✕✯✥✖✕✦ ★✣ ✌✘✕ ✌✥✸✕ ✚★✌✕ ✞✯ ✗✘★✖❡✕ ✞✯ ✙✕✧✞✗✥✌✳ ✥✖

✌✚★✖✣✧★✌✥✞✖★✧ ✸✞✌✥✞✖✪ ✿✕ ✦✕✯✥✖✕ ★✖❡☞✧★✚

★✗✗✕✧✕✚★✌✥✞✖ ✇✇ ★✣ ✌✘✕ ✌✥✸✕ ✚★✌✕ ✞✯ ✗✘★✖❡✕ ✞✯

★✖❡☞✧★✚ ✙✕✧✞✗✥✌✳① ❚✘☞✣✱

②④✔ ✼❊✪❋⑤✾

✷✯ ✌✘✕ ★✮✥✣ ✞✯ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖ ✥✣ ✯✥✮✕✦✱ ✌✘✕ ✦✥✚✕✗✌✥✞✖

✞✯ ✹✹ ★✖✦ ✘✕✖✗✕✱ ✌✘★✌ ✞✯ ✇✇ ✥✣ ✯✥✮✕✦✪ ✷✖ ✌✘✥✣ ✗★✣✕

✌✘✕ ✙✕✗✌✞✚ ✕❏☞★✌✥✞✖ ✚✕✦☞✗✕✣ ✌✞ ★ ✣✗★✧★✚ ✕❏☞★✌✥✞✖

②④

⑥⑦ ✔ ✼❊✪❋❋✾

♣❥♣ ⑧⑨⑩❶❷❸ t❹❺ t❹❻❷❼t⑩ ❽⑨❽❸❹⑧❷❽

✷✖ ✌✘✥✣ ✣✕✗✌✥✞✖✱ ✟✕ ✣✘★✧✧ ★✗❏☞★✥✖✌ ✞☞✚✣✕✧✙✕✣ ✟✥✌✘

✌✟✞ ✤✘✳✣✥✗★✧ ❏☞★✖✌✥✌✥✕✣ ✟✘✥✗✘ ★✚✕ ✦✕✯✥✖✕✦ ★✣

✙✕✗✌✞✚ ✤✚✞✦☞✗✌✣ ✞✯ ✌✟✞ ✙✕✗✌✞✚✣✪ ❚✘✕✣✕ ★✣ ✟✕ ✣✘★✧✧

✣✕✕✱ ★✚✕ ✕✣✤✕✗✥★✧✧✳ ✥✸✤✞✚✌★✖✌ ✥✖ ✌✘✕ ✦✥✣✗☞✣✣✥✞✖

✞✯ ✸✞✌✥✞✖ ✞✯ ✣✳✣✌✕✸✣ ✞✯ ✤★✚✌✥✗✧✕✣✱ ✤★✚✌✥✗☞✧★✚✧✳

✚✥❡✥✦ ❝✞✦✥✕✣✪

♣❥♣❥s ❽❘❤❬❲❙ ❘❢ ❢❘❁❵❬ ❾⑧❘❁❿❨❬➀

✿✕ ✘★✙✕ ✧✕★✚✖✌ ✌✘★✌ ✌✘✕ ✸✞✌✥✞✖ ✞✯ ★ ✚✥❡✥✦ ❝✞✦✳

✥✖ ❡✕✖✕✚★✧ ✥✣ ★ ✗✞✸❝✥✖★✌✥✞✖ ✞✯ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖ ★✖✦

✌✚★✖✣✧★✌✥✞✖✪ ✷✯ ✌✘✕ ❝✞✦✳ ✥✣ ✯✥✮✕✦ ★✌ ★ ✤✞✥✖✌ ✞✚

★✧✞✖❡ ★ ✧✥✖✕✱ ✥✌ ✘★✣ ✞✖✧✳ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖★✧ ✸✞✌✥✞✖✪ ✿✕

◗✖✞✟ ✌✘★✌ ✯✞✚✗✕ ✥✣ ✖✕✕✦✕✦ ✌✞ ✗✘★✖❡✕ ✌✘✕

✌✚★✖✣✧★✌✥✞✖★✧ ✣✌★✌✕ ✞✯ ★ ❝✞✦✳✱ ✥✪✕✪ ✌✞ ✤✚✞✦☞✗✕

✧✥✖✕★✚ ★✗✗✕✧✕✚★✌✥✞✖✪ ✿✕ ✸★✳ ✌✘✕✖ ★✣◗✱ ✟✘★✌ ✥✣

✌✘✕ ★✖★✧✞❡☞✕ ✞✯ ✯✞✚✗✕ ✥✖ ✌✘✕ ✗★✣✕ ✞✯ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖★✧

✸✞✌✥✞✖➁ ❚✞ ✧✞✞◗ ✥✖✌✞ ✌✘✕ ❏☞✕✣✌✥✞✖ ✥✖ ★ ✗✞✖✗✚✕✌✕

✣✥✌☞★✌✥✞✖ ✧✕✌ ☞✣ ✌★◗✕ ✌✘✕ ✕✮★✸✤✧✕ ✞✯ ✞✤✕✖✥✖❡ ✞✚

✗✧✞✣✥✖❡ ✞✯ ★ ✦✞✞✚✪ ❆ ✦✞✞✚ ✥✣ ★ ✚✥❡✥✦ ❝✞✦✳ ✟✘✥✗✘

✗★✖ ✚✞✌★✌✕ ★❝✞☞✌ ★ ✯✥✮✕✦ ✙✕✚✌✥✗★✧ ★✮✥✣ ✤★✣✣✥✖❡

✌✘✚✞☞❡✘ ✌✘✕ ✘✥✖❡✕✣✪ ✿✘★✌ ✸★◗✕✣ ✌✘✕ ✦✞✞✚

✚✞✌★✌✕➁ ✷✌ ✥✣ ✗✧✕★✚ ✌✘★✌ ☞✖✧✕✣✣ ★ ✯✞✚✗✕ ✥✣ ★✤✤✧✥✕✦

✌✘✕ ✦✞✞✚ ✦✞✕✣ ✖✞✌ ✚✞✌★✌✕✪ ❇☞✌ ★✖✳ ✯✞✚✗✕ ✦✞✕✣

✖✞✌ ✦✞ ✌✘✕ ➂✞❝✪ ❆ ✯✞✚✗✕ ★✤✤✧✥✕✦ ✌✞ ✌✘✕ ✘✥✖❡✕ ✧✥✖✕

✗★✖✖✞✌ ✤✚✞✦☞✗✕ ★✖✳ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖ ★✌ ★✧✧✱ ✟✘✕✚✕★✣ ★

✯✞✚✗✕ ✞✯ ❡✥✙✕✖ ✸★❡✖✥✌☞✦✕ ★✤✤✧✥✕✦ ★✌ ✚✥❡✘✌ ★✖❡✧✕✣

✌✞ ✌✘✕ ✦✞✞✚ ★✌ ✥✌✣ ✞☞✌✕✚ ✕✦❡✕ ✥✣ ✸✞✣✌ ✕✯✯✕✗✌✥✙✕ ✥✖

✤✚✞✦☞✗✥✖❡ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖✪ ✷✌ ✥✣ ✖✞✌ ✌✘✕ ✯✞✚✗✕ ★✧✞✖✕✱ ❝☞✌

✘✞✟ ★✖✦ ✟✘✕✚✕ ✌✘✕ ✯✞✚✗✕ ✥✣ ★✤✤✧✥✕✦ ✥✣ ✥✸✤✞✚✌★✖✌

✥✖ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖★✧ ✸✞✌✥✞✖✪

❚✘✕ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖★✧ ★✖★✧✞❡☞✕ ✞✯ ✯✞✚✗✕ ✥✣ ❤❘❤❬❲❙

❘❢ ❢❘❁❵❬✪ ✷✌ ✥✣ ★✧✣✞ ✚✕✯✕✚✚✕✦ ✌✞ ★✣ ❙❘❁❿❨❬➃ ✼✿✕

✣✘★✧✧ ☞✣✕ ✌✘✕ ✟✞✚✦✣ ✸✞✸✕✖✌ ✞✯ ✯✞✚✗✕ ★✖✦ ✌✞✚❏☞✕

✥✖✌✕✚✗✘★✖❡✕★❝✧✳✪✾ ✿✕ ✣✘★✧✧ ✯✥✚✣✌ ✦✕✯✥✖✕ ✌✘✕

✸✞✸✕✖✌ ✞✯ ✯✞✚✗✕ ✯✞✚ ✌✘✕ ✣✤✕✗✥★✧ ✗★✣✕ ✞✯ ★ ✣✥✖❡✧✕

✤★✚✌✥✗✧✕✪ ➄★✌✕✚ ✞✖ ✟✕ ✣✘★✧✧ ✕✮✌✕✖✦ ✌✘✕ ✗✞✖✗✕✤✌

✌✞ ✣✳✣✌✕✸✣ ✞✯ ✤★✚✌✥✗✧✕✣ ✥✖✗✧☞✦✥✖❡ ✚✥❡✥✦ ❝✞✦✥✕✣✪

✿✕ ✣✘★✧✧ ★✧✣✞ ✚✕✧★✌✕ ✥✌ ✌✞ ★ ✗✘★✖❡✕ ✥✖ ✌✘✕ ✣✌★✌✕

✞✯ ✚✞✌★✌✥✞✖★✧ ✸✞✌✥✞✖✱ ✥✪✕✪ ✥✣ ★✖❡☞✧★✚ ★✗✗✕✧✕✚★✌✥✞✖

✞✯ ★ ✚✥❡✥✦ ❝✞✦✳✪

Page 159: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✺✺

❋✌✍✎ ✏✎✑✒ ❂ ✓r ✔ ✱ ✕✕ ✐✖ ✗✘✙✗✘✚✛✐✜✢✣✤✙ ✥✦ ✥✧✘

✗✣✤✚✘ ✜✦✚✥✤✐✚✐✚♣ ★ ✤✚✛ ❋✱ ✤✚✛ ✐✥✖✛✐✙✘✜✥✐✦✚ ✐✖ ♣✐❡✘✚ ✩✪ ✥✧✘ ✙✐♣✧✥ ✧✤✚✛✘✛

✖✜✙✘✫ ✙✢✣✘✬

■✭ ✮ ✭✯✰❝✲ ✮❝✳✴ ✯✵ ✮ ✴✷✵✸✹✲ ✻✮✰✳✷❝✹✲ ✮✳ ✮ ✻✯✷✵✳

P ✼✽✯✴✲ ✻✯✴✷✳✷✯✵ ✼✷✳✽ ✰✲✴✻✲❝✳ ✳✯ ✳✽✲ ✯✰✷✸✷✵ ✾ ✷✴

✸✷❣✲✵ ✿❀ ✳✽✲ ✻✯✴✷✳✷✯✵ ❣✲❝✳✯✰ ❁ ❃❄✷✸❅ ❆❅❇❈❉❊ ✳✽✲

♠✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ✳✽✲ ✭✯✰❝✲ ✮❝✳✷✵✸ ✯✵ ✳✽✲ ✻✮✰✳✷❝✹✲ ✼✷✳✽

✰✲✴✻✲❝✳ ✳✯ ✳✽✲ ✯✰✷✸✷✵ ✾ ✷✴ ●✲✭✷✵✲● ✮✴ ✳✽✲ ❣✲❝✳✯✰

✻✰✯●♦❝✳

❍❍❍❍ ❏ ❁ × ❑ ❃❆❅▲▼❉

◆✽✲ ♠✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ✭✯✰❝✲ ❃✯✰ ✳✯✰q♦✲❉ ✷✴ ✮ ❣✲❝✳✯✰

q♦✮✵✳✷✳❀❅ ◆✽✲ ✴❀♠✿✯✹ ❍❍ ✴✳✮✵●✴ ✭✯✰ ✳✽✲ s✰✲✲❖

✹✲✳✳✲✰ t◗❘❅ ◆✽✲ ♠✮✸✵✷✳♦●✲ ✯✭ ❍❍ ✷✴

❯ ❏ ❱❲ ✴✷✵❳ ❃❆❅▲❨✮❉

✼✽✲✰✲ ❱ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ♠✮✸✵✷✳♦●✲ ✯✭ ✳✽✲ ✻✯✴✷✳✷✯✵ ❣✲❝✳✯✰

❁❊ ✷❅✲❅ ✳✽✲ ✹✲✵✸✳✽ ✾P❊ ❲ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ♠✮✸✵✷✳♦●✲ ✯✭ ✭✯✰❝✲

❑ ✮✵● ❳ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ✮✵✸✹✲ ✿✲✳✼✲✲✵ ❁ ✮✵● ❑ ✮✴

✴✽✯✼✵❅

❩✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ✭✯✰❝✲ ✽✮✴ ●✷♠✲✵✴✷✯✵✴ ❩ ❬❭ ◆ ❪❭❅

■✳✴ ●✷♠✲✵✴✷✯✵✴ ✮✰✲ ✳✽✲ ✴✮♠✲ ✮✴ ✳✽✯✴✲ ✯✭ ✼✯✰❖

✯✰ ✲✵✲✰✸❀❅ ■✳ ✷✴❊ ✽✯✼✲❣✲✰❊ ✮ ❣✲✰❀ ●✷✭✭✲✰✲✵✳ ✻✽❀✴✷❝✮✹

q♦✮✵✳✷✳❀ ✳✽✮✵ ✼✯✰❖❅ ❩✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ✮ ✭✯✰❝✲ ✷✴ ✮

❣✲❝✳✯✰❊ ✼✽✷✹✲ ✼✯✰❖ ✷✴ ✮ ✴❝✮✹✮✰❅ ◆✽✲ ❫■ ♦✵✷✳ ✯✭

♠✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ✭✯✰❝✲ ✷✴ ❴✲✼✳✯✵❵♠✲✳✰✲ ❃❴♠❉❅ ◆✽✲

♠✮✸✵✷✳♦●✲ ✯✭ ✳✽✲ ♠✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ✭✯✰❝✲ ♠✮❀ ✿✲

✼✰✷✳✳✲✵

❛ ❜❞❢ ❤❥ ❦ ❥ ❦❧ ♥ ✉✈ ✈ ❃❆❅▲❨✿❉

✯✰ ❜❞❢❥❦ ❥❦❧ ♥ ✉✈ ✈ ❃❆❅▲❨❝❉

✼✽✲✰✲ ❥✉ ❏ ❱ ✴✷✵❳ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ✻✲✰✻✲✵●✷❝♦✹✮✰ ●✷✴✳✮✵❝✲

✯✭ ✳✽✲ ✹✷✵✲ ✯✭ ✮❝✳✷✯✵ ✯✭ ❑ ✭✯✰♠ ✳✽✲ ✯✰✷✸✷✵ ✮✵●

❛ ❜❞❢ ❤❦ ❦ ♥✉ ✈ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ❝✯♠✻✯✵✲✵✳ ✯✭ ❑ ✷✵ ✳✽✲

●✷✰✲❝✳✷✯✵ ✻✲✰✻✲✵●✷❝♦✹✮✰ ✳✯ ❁❅ ❴✯✳✲ ✳✽✮✳ ❯ ❏ ✇ ✷✭

❱ ❏ ✇❊ ❲ ❏ ✇ ✯✰ ❳ ❏ ✇① ✯✰ ❇❈✇① ❅ ◆✽♦✴❊ ✳✽✲ ♠✯♠✲✵✳

✯✭ ✮ ✭✯✰❝✲ ❣✮✵✷✴✽✲✴ ✷✭ ✲✷✳✽✲✰ ✳✽✲ ♠✮✸✵✷✳♦●✲ ✯✭

✳✽✲ ✭✯✰❝✲ ✷✴ ②✲✰✯❊ ✯✰ ✷✭ ✳✽✲ ✹✷✵✲ ✯✭ ✮❝✳✷✯✵ ✯✭ ✳✽✲

✭✯✰❝✲ ✻✮✴✴✲✴ ✳✽✰✯♦✸✽ ✳✽✲ ✯✰✷✸✷✵❅

✾✵✲ ♠✮❀ ✵✯✳✲ ✳✽✮✳ ✴✷✵❝✲ ❁ × ❑ ✷✴ ✮ ❣✲❝✳✯✰

✻✰✯●♦❝✳❊ ✻✰✯✻✲✰✳✷✲✴ ✯✭ ✮ ❣✲❝✳✯✰ ✻✰✯●♦❝✳ ✯✭ ✳✼✯

❣✲❝✳✯✰✴ ✮✻✻✹❀ ✳✯ ✷✳❅ ■✭ ✳✽✲ ●✷✰✲❝✳✷✯✵ ✯✭ ❑ ✷✴

✰✲❣✲✰✴✲●❊ ✳✽✲ ●✷✰✲❝✳✷✯✵ ✯✭ ✳✽✲ ♠✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ✭✯✰❝✲

✷✴ ✰✲❣✲✰✴✲●❅ ■✭ ●✷✰✲❝✳✷✯✵✴ ✯✭ ✿✯✳✽ ❁ ✮✵● ❑ ✮✰✲

✰✲❣✲✰✴✲●❊ ✳✽✲ ●✷✰✲❝✳✷✯✵ ✯✭ ✳✽✲ ♠✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ✭✯✰❝✲

✰✲♠✮✷✵✴ ✳✽✲ ✴✮♠✲❅

③④③④⑤ ⑥⑦⑧❘⑨◗❁ ⑩❶⑩❷⑦t❘⑩ ❶❸ ◗ ❹◗❁t❺❻⑨❷

❼♦✴✳ ✮✴ ✳✽✲ ♠✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ✮ ✭✯✰❝✲ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ✰✯✳✮✳✷✯✵✮✹

✮✵✮✹✯✸♦✲ ✯✭ ✭✯✰❝✲❊ ✳✽✲ q♦✮✵✳✷✳❀ ✮✵✸♦✹✮✰

♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ✰✯✳✮✳✷✯✵✮✹ ✮✵✮✹✯✸♦✲ ✯✭ ✹✷✵✲✮✰

♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠❅ ❽✲ ✴✽✮✹✹ ✭✷✰✴✳ ●✲✭✷✵✲ ✮✵✸♦✹✮✰

♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠ ✭✯✰ ✳✽✲ ✴✻✲❝✷✮✹ ❝✮✴✲ ✯✭ ✮ ✴✷✵✸✹✲

✻✮✰✳✷❝✹✲ ✮✵● ✹✯✯❖ ✮✳ ✷✳✴ ♦✴✲✭♦✹✵✲✴✴ ✷✵ ✳✽✲ ❝✯✵✳✲❾✳

✯✭ ✴✷✵✸✹✲ ✻✮✰✳✷❝✹✲ ♠✯✳✷✯✵❅ ❽✲ ✴✽✮✹✹ ✳✽✲✵ ✲❾✳✲✵●

✳✽✲ ●✲✭✷✵✷✳✷✯✵ ✯✭ ✮✵✸♦✹✮✰ ♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠ ✳✯ ✴❀✴✳✲♠✴

✯✭ ✻✮✰✳✷❝✹✲✴ ✷✵❝✹♦●✷✵✸ ✰✷✸✷● ✿✯●✷✲✴❅

❬✷❖✲ ♠✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ✮ ✭✯✰❝✲❊ ✮✵✸♦✹✮✰ ♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠

✷✴ ✮✹✴✯ ✮ ❣✲❝✳✯✰ ✻✰✯●♦❝✳❅ ■✳ ❝✯♦✹● ✮✹✴✯ ✿✲ ✰✲✭✲✰✰✲●

✳✯ ✮✴ ♠✯♠✲✵✳ ✯✭ ❃✹✷✵✲✮✰❉ ♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠❅ ❄✰✯♠ ✳✽✷✴

✳✲✰♠ ✯✵✲ ❝✯♦✹● ✸♦✲✴✴ ✽✯✼ ✮✵✸♦✹✮✰ ♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠

✷✴ ●✲✭✷✵✲●❅

❿✯✵✴✷●✲✰ ✮ ✻✮✰✳✷❝✹✲ ✯✭ ♠✮✴✴ ➀ ✮✵● ✹✷✵✲✮✰

♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠ ❹ ✮✳ ✮ ✻✯✴✷✳✷✯✵ ❁ ✰✲✹✮✳✷❣✲ ✳✯ ✳✽✲ ✯✰✷✸✷✵

✾❅ ◆✽✲ ✮✵✸♦✹✮✰ ♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠ ⑨ ✯✭ ✳✽✲ ✻✮✰✳✷❝✹✲ ✼✷✳✽

✰✲✴✻✲❝✳ ✳✯ ✳✽✲ ✯✰✷✸✷✵ ✾ ✷✴ ●✲✭✷✵✲● ✳✯ ✿✲

⑨ ❏ ❁ × ❹ ❃❆❅▲➁✮❉

◆✽✲ ♠✮✸✵✷✳♦●✲ ✯✭ ✳✽✲ ✮✵✸♦✹✮✰ ♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠

❣✲❝✳✯✰ ✷✴

➂sinprl ➃ ❃❆❅▲➄✮❉

✼✽✲✰✲ ➅ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ♠✮✸✵✷✳♦●✲ ✯✭ ❹ ✮✵● ❳ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ✮✵✸✹✲

✿✲✳✼✲✲✵ ❁ ✮✵● ❹❅ ❽✲ ♠✮❀ ✼✰✷✳✲

➆ ❥ ➇✉✈

✯✰ ❥ ➇✉ ❃❆❅▲➄✿❉

✼✽✲✰✲ ❥✉ ❃❏ ❱ ✴✷✵➈❉ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ✻✲✰✻✲✵●✷❝♦✹✮✰ ●✷✴✳✮✵❝✲

✯✭ ✳✽✲ ●✷✰✲❝✳✷✯✵✮✹ ✹✷✵✲ ✯✭ ❹ ✭✰✯♠ ✳✽✲ ✯✰✷✸✷✵ ✮✵●

❛ ❜❞❢ ❤➇ ➇ ♥✉ ✈ ✷✴ ✳✽✲ ❝✯♠✻✯✵✲✵✳ ✯✭ ❹ ✷✵ ✮ ●✷✰✲❝✳✷✯✵

✻✲✰✻✲✵●✷❝♦✹✮✰ ✳✯ ❁❅ ❽✲ ✲❾✻✲❝✳ ✳✽✲ ✮✵✸♦✹✮✰

♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠ ✳✯ ✿✲ ②✲✰✯ ❃➉ ❏ ✇❉❊ ✷✭ ✳✽✲ ✹✷✵✲✮✰

♠✯♠✲✵✳♦♠ ❣✮✵✷✴✽✲✴ ❃➅ ❏ ✇❉❊ ✷✭ ✳✽✲ ✻✮✰✳✷❝✹✲ ✷✴ ✮✳

✳✽✲ ✯✰✷✸✷✵ ❃❱ ❏ ✇❉❊ ✯✰ ✷✭ ✳✽✲ ●✷✰✲❝✳✷✯✵✮✹ ✹✷✵✲ ✯✭ ❹

✻✮✴✴✲✴ ✳✽✰✯♦✸✽ ✳✽✲ ✯✰✷✸✷✵ ❳ ❏ ✇① ✯✰ ❇❈✇①❅

Page 160: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❚✞✟ ✠✞✡☛☞✌✍✎ ✏✑✍✒✓☞✓☞✟☛✔ ✕✖✕✟✒✓ ✖✗ ✍ ✗✖✘✌✟✍✒❛ ✍✒✙✑✎✍✘ ✕✖✕✟✒✓✑✕✔ ✞✍✚✟ ✍✒ ☞✕✠✖✘✓✍✒✓✘✟✎✍✓☞✖✒ r✟✓✛✟✟✒ ✓✞✟✕✜ ✢✓ ☞☛ ✓✞✟ ✘✖✓✍✓☞✖✒✍✎✍✒✍✎✖✙✑✟ ✖✗ ✓✞✟ ✘✟✎✍✓☞✖✒ r✟✓✛✟✟✒ ✗✖✘✌✟ ✍✒❛ ✎☞✒✟✍✘✕✖✕✟✒✓✑✕✜ ♠✖✘ ❛✟✘☞✚☞✒✙ ✓✞✟ ✘✟✎✍✓☞✖✒ ☞✒ ✓✞✟✌✖✒✓✟❝✓ ✖✗ ✍ ☛☞✒✙✎✟ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟✔ ✛✟ ❛☞✗✗✟✘✟✒✓☞✍✓✟❧ ✥ ✣ ✤ ♣ ✛☞✓✞ ✘✟☛✠✟✌✓ ✓✖ ✓☞✕✟✔

❞ ❞✭ ✦

❞ ❞t t❂ ✧

★✩ ✪

❆✠✠✎✡☞✒✙ ✓✞✟ ✠✘✖❛✑✌✓ ✘✑✎✟ ✗✖✘ ❛☞✗✗✟✘✟✒✓☞✍✓☞✖✒✓✖ ✓✞✟ ✘☞✙✞✓ ✞✍✒❛ ☛☞❛✟✔

❞ ❞ ❞✭ ✦

❞ ❞ ❞t t t✧ ❂ ✧ ✰ ✧

✩ ✪✩ ✪ ✪ ✩

◆✖✛✔ ✓✞✟ ✚✟✎✖✌☞✓✡ ✖✗ ✓✞✟ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟ ☞☛ ✈ ✥ ✫✣✴✫✬✍✒❛ ♣ ✥ ✮ ✈

❇✟✌✍✑☛✟ ✖✗ ✓✞☞☛✯

✵✱✯

✲✳× ✷ × ✷

✸✹ ✺ ✺

✍☛ ✓✞✟ ✚✟✌✓✖✘ ✠✘✖❛✑✌✓ ✖✗ ✓✛✖ ✠✍✘✍✎✎✟✎ ✚✟✌✓✖✘☛✚✍✒☞☛✞✟☛✜ ♠✑✘✓✞✟✘✔ ☛☞✒✌✟ ❛♣ ✴ ❛✬ ✥ ❋✔

❞❞t

✧ ❂ ✧ ❂✪

✩ ✩ ✻

❍✟✒✌✟❞✭ ✦

❞t✼ ✽✩ ✪

✖✘❞❞t

✾★

✿❀✜❁❀❃

❚✞✑☛✔ ✓✞✟ ✓☞✕✟ ✘✍✓✟ ✖✗ ✌✞✍✒✙✟ ✖✗ ✓✞✟ ✍✒✙✑✎✍✘✕✖✕✟✒✓✑✕ ✖✗ ✍ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟ ☞☛ ✟✏✑✍✎ ✓✖ ✓✞✟ ✓✖✘✏✑✟✍✌✓☞✒✙ ✖✒ ☞✓✜ ❚✞☞☛ ☞☛ ✓✞✟ ✘✖✓✍✓☞✖✒✍✎ ✍✒✍✎✖✙✑✟ ✖✗✓✞✟ ✟✏✑✍✓☞✖✒ ❋ ✥ ❛♣✴❛✬✔ ✛✞☞✌✞ ✟❝✠✘✟☛☛✟☛◆✟✛✓✖✒❄☛ ☛✟✌✖✒❛ ✎✍✛ ✗✖✘ ✓✞✟ ✓✘✍✒☛✎✍✓☞✖✒✍✎ ✕✖✓☞✖✒✖✗ ✍ ☛☞✒✙✎✟ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟✜

❅♦✣q❈❉ ❊●■ ❊●❏❈❧❊✣ ❑♦❑❉●▲❈❑ ▼♦✣ ❊ ❖◗❖▲❉❑♦▼ ♣❊✣▲❘❙❧❉❖

❚✖ ✙✟✓ ✓✞✟ ✓✖✓✍✎ ✍✒✙✑✎✍✘ ✕✖✕✟✒✓✑✕ ✖✗ ✍ ☛✡☛✓✟✕✖✗ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟☛ ✍r✖✑✓ ✍ ✙☞✚✟✒ ✠✖☞✒✓ ✛✟ ✒✟✟❛ ✓✖ ✍❛❛✚✟✌✓✖✘☞✍✎✎✡ ✓✞✟ ✍✒✙✑✎✍✘ ✕✖✕✟✒✓✍ ✖✗ ☞✒❛☞✚☞❛✑✍✎✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟☛✜ ❚✞✑☛✔ ✗✖✘ ✍ ☛✡☛✓✟✕ ✖✗ ♥ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟☛✔

❯ ❱❯

❲❲❲❳

❳ ❨❨ ❩

❬ ❭ ❭ ❭ ❬ ❪❫ ❴ ❴ ❴ ❴

❚✞✟ ✍✒✙✑✎✍✘ ✕✖✕✟✒✓✑✕ ✖✗ ✓✞✟ ✐❵❜ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟☞☛ ✙☞✚✟✒ r✡

❧❡ ✥ ✣❡ ✤ ♣❡✛✞✟✘✟ ✣❡ ☞☛ ✓✞✟ ✠✖☛☞✓☞✖✒ ✚✟✌✓✖✘ ✖✗ ✓✞✟ ✐❵❜ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟✛☞✓✞ ✘✟☛✠✟✌✓ ✓✖ ✍ ✙☞✚✟✒ ✖✘☞✙☞✒ ✍✒❛ ♣ ✥ ✿✮❡✈❡❃ ☞☛✓✞✟ ✎☞✒✟✍✘ ✕✖✕✟✒✓✑✕ ✖✗ ✓✞✟ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟✜ ✿❚✞✟

✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟ ✞✍☛ ✕✍☛☛ ✮❡ ✍✒❛ ✚✟✎✖✌☞✓✡ ✈❡ ❃ ❢✟ ✕✍✡✛✘☞✓✟ ✓✞✟ ✓✖✓✍✎ ✍✒✙✑✎✍✘ ✕✖✕✟✒✓✑✕ ✖✗ ✍ ☛✡☛✓✟✕✖✗ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟☛ ✍☛

❣ ❣ ❣❣

❤ ❤ ❥❦ ❦s ★ ✩ ✪ ✿❀✜❁✉r❃

❚✞☞☛ ☞☛ ✍ ✙✟✒✟✘✍✎☞☛✍✓☞✖✒ ✖✗ ✓✞✟ ❛✟✗☞✒☞✓☞✖✒ ✖✗✍✒✙✑✎✍✘ ✕✖✕✟✒✓✑✕ ✿✇✏✜ ❀✜❁✉✍❃ ✗✖✘ ✍ ☛☞✒✙✎✟✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟ ✓✖ ✍ ☛✡☛✓✟✕ ✖✗ ✠✍✘✓☞✌✎✟☛✜

①☛☞✒✙ ✇✏☛✜ ✿❀✜❁②❃ ✍✒❛ ✿❀✜❁✉r❃✔ ✛✟ ✙✟✓

③ ④❞❞ ❞

❞ ❞ ❞⑤

⑤ ⑤⑤ ⑤t t t

❤ ❤ ❤❦ ❦ ❦★s

★ ✿❀✜❁⑥✍❃

⑦⑧ ⑨⑩❶⑨❷❸❹⑨⑧❺ ❻❸❺❼ ❺❼⑨ ❽❸❾❿❾➀⑨ ❷❸❹

➁➂➃➄ ➂➅➆➇➈➇➉➄ ➊➆➋➂➌➍ ➄➎➏➄➌➍➆➏➐ ➂➎➉➄ ➑➌➅➑➏➒ ➐➆➍➄➐➓➁ ➆➄ ➏➔➑➐ ➏ ➊ ➆ ➌ → ➐➂➏ ➅➑➏➒ ➄➌➍➐➣ ➂➌➍ ↔↕➂➐ ➐➒➑➔➌➆➌ ➏➒➄➂ ➍ ➙ ➑ ➆ ➌ ➆ ➌ →➛➆→➜➊➄➓ ➝➑➉➍➅➑➏➒ ➏➒➄➐ ➏ ➊ ➆ ➌ → ➐➏➑→➄➏➒➄➊ ➆➌

➑➌➄ ➒➂➌➍ ➐➜➇➒ ➏➒➂➏ ➏➒➄ ➊➆➋ ➆➐ ➞➄➊➏➆➇➂➉➓ ➟➛ ➈➑➜➉➄➂➞➄ ➑➌➄ ➐➏➊➆➌→↕ ➏➒➄ ➊➆➋ ➔➆➉➉ ➏➆➉➏➓ ➠➑➔ ➃➄➄➡➆➌→➏➒➄ ➊➆➋ ➆➌ ➞➄➊➏➆➇➂➉ ➡➑➐➆➏➆➑➌ ➔➆➏➒ ➅➑➏➒ ➏➒➄ ➐➏➊➆➌→➐➆➌ ➑➌➄ ➒➂➌➍↕ ➡➜➏ ➏➒➄ ➔➒➄➄➉ ➆➌ ➛➂➐➏ ➊➑➏➂➏➆➑➌➂➊➑➜➌➍ ➏➒➄ ➂➎➉➄ ➔➆➏➒ ➏➒➄ ➑➏➒➄➊ ➒➂➌➍➓ ➁➒➄➌ ➉➄➂➞➄➑➌➄ ➐➏➊➆➌→↕ ➐➂➈ ↔↕ ➛➊➑➋ ➈➑➜➊ ➒➂➌➍↕ ➂➌➍ ➑➅➐➄➊➞➄➔➒➂➏ ➒➂➡➡➄➌➐➓

➁➒➄ ➊➆➋ ➃➄➄➡➐ ➊➑➏➂➏➆➌→ ➆➌ ➂ ➞➄➊➏➆➇➂➉ ➡➉➂➌➄➂➌➍ ➏➒➄ ➡➉➂➌➄ ➑➛ ➊➑➏➂➏➆➑➌ ➏➜➊➌➐ ➂➊➑➜➌➍ ➏➒➄➐➏➊➆➌→ ➣ ➔➒➆➇➒ ➈➑➜ ➂➊➄ ➒➑➉➍➆➌→➓ ➢➄ ➐➂➈ ➏➒➂➏ ➏➒➄➂➎➆➐ ➑➛ ➊➑➏➂➏➆➑➌ ➑➛ ➏➒➄ ➊➆➋ ➑➊ ➄➤➜➆➞➂➉➄➌➏➉➈➆➏➐ ➂➌→➜➉➂➊ ➋➑➋➄➌➏➜➋ ➡➊➄➇➄➐➐➄➐ ➂➅➑➜➏ ➏➒➄➐➏➊➆➌→ ➣➓

➁➒➄ ➊➑➏➂➏➆➌→ ➊➆➋ →➆➞➄➐ ➊➆➐➄ ➏➑ ➂➌ ➂➌→➜➉➂➊➋➑➋➄➌➏➜➋➓ ➥➄➏➄➊➋➆➌➄ ➏➒➄ ➍➆➊➄➇➏➆➑➌ ➑➛ ➏➒➆➐➂➌→➜➉➂➊ ➋➑➋➄➌➏➜➋➓ ➢➒➄➌ ➈➑➜ ➂➊➄ ➒➑➉➍➆➌→ ➏➒➄➊➑➏➂➏➆➌→ ➊➆➋ ➔➆➏➒ ➐➏➊➆➌→ ➣↕ ➂ ➏➑➊➤➜➄ ➆➐ →➄➌➄➊➂➏➄➍➓➦➢➄ ➉➄➂➞➄ ➆➏ ➏➑ ➈➑➜ ➏➑ ➛➆➌➍ ➑➜➏ ➒➑➔ ➏➒➄ ➏➑➊➤➜➄ ➆➐→➄➌➄➊➂➏➄➍ ➂➌➍ ➔➒➂➏ ➆➏➐ ➍➆➊➄➇➏➆➑➌ ➆➐➓➧ ➁➒➄ ➄➛➛➄➇➏➑➛ ➏➒➄ ➏➑➊➤➜➄ ➑➌ ➏➒➄ ➂➌→➜➉➂➊ ➋➑➋➄➌➏➜➋ ➆➐ ➏➑➋➂➃➄ ➆➏ ➡➊➄➇➄➐➐ ➂➊➑➜➌➍ ➂➌ ➂➎➆➐ ➡➄➊➡➄➌➍➆➇➜➉➂➊➏➑ ➅➑➏➒ ➏➒➄ ➂➌→➜➉➂➊ ➋➑➋➄➌➏➜➋ ➂➌➍ ➏➒➄ ➏➑➊➤➜➄➓➨➄➊➆➛➈ ➂➉➉ ➏➒➄➐➄ ➐➏➂➏➄➋➄➌➏➐➓

➩➫➭➯➭➲➳➳➵ ➸➺➯➻➼

Page 161: Ncert class 11 physics part 1
Page 162: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❆✞✟✠✡☛ ▲☞✌ ✌✍☞ ✎✏✑✌✒✓✔☞ ✕✒✌✍ ✖☞✔✗✓✒✌✘ ✈ ✥☞ ✏✌✎✗✒♣✌ ✙ ✏✌ ✚✗✛☞ ✒♣✚✌✏♣✌ t✜ ✢☞ ✕✏♣✌ ✌✗ ✓✏✔✓❡✔✏✌☞✌✍☞ ✏♣✣❡✔✏✑ ✛✗✛☞♣✌❡✛ ✗✤ ✌✍☞ ✎✏✑✌✒✓✔☞ ✏✥✗❡✌✏♣ ✏✑✥✒✌✑✏✑✘ ✎✗✒♣✌ ❛✦

❋✧★ ✩✪✫✬

❚✍☞ ✏♣✣❡✔✏✑ ✛✗✛☞♣✌❡✛ ✒✚ ❧ ✭ r ✮ ♠✈✦ ✳✌✚✛✏✣♣✒✌❡✯☞ ✒✚ ♠✰✱ ✚✒♣✲✴ ✕✍☞✑☞ ✲ ✒✚ ✌✍☞ ✏♣✣✔☞✥☞✌✕☞☞♣ r ✏♣✯ ✈ ✏✚ ✚✍✗✕♣ ✒♣ ✵✒✣✦ ✷✦✸✹✦ ✺✔✌✍✗❡✣✍✌✍☞ ✎✏✑✌✒✓✔☞ ✓✍✏♣✣☞✚ ✎✗✚✒✌✒✗♣ ✕✒✌✍ ✌✒✛☞✴ ✌✍☞ ✔✒♣☞✗✤ ✯✒✑☞✓✌✒✗♣ ✗✤ ✈ ✑☞✛✏✒♣✚ ✌✍☞ ✚✏✛☞ ✏♣✯ ✍☞♣✓☞❛❖ ✭ ✱ ✻✼✽ ✾✦ ✒✚ ✏ ✓✗♣✚✌✏♣✌✦

✵❡✑✌✍☞✑✴ ✌✍☞ ✯✒✑☞✓✌✒✗♣ ✗✤ ❧ ✒✚ ✎☞✑✎☞♣✯✒✓❡✔✏✑✌✗ ✌✍☞ ✎✔✏♣☞ ✗✤ r ✏♣✯ ✈✦ ✳✌ ✒✚ ✒♣✌✗ ✌✍☞ ✎✏✣☞ ✗✤ ✌✍☞✤✒✣❡✑☞✦❚✍✒✚ ✯✒✑☞✓✌✒✗♣ ✯✗☞✚ ♣✗✌ ✓✍✏♣✣☞ ✕✒✌✍ ✌✒✛☞✦

❚✍❡✚✴ ❧ ✑☞✛✏✒♣✚ ✌✍☞ ✚✏✛☞ ✒♣ ✛✏✣♣✒✌❡✯☞ ✏♣✯✯✒✑☞✓✌✒✗♣ ✏♣✯ ✒✚ ✌✍☞✑☞✤✗✑☞ ✓✗♣✚☞✑✖☞✯✦ ✳✚ ✌✍☞✑☞✏♣✘ ☞✿✌☞✑♣✏✔ ✌✗✑q❡☞ ✗♣ ✌✍☞ ✎✏✑✌✒✓✔☞❀ ❁

❂❃❄ ❅❇❈❉❊❉●❍❉❈■ ❏❑ ▼ ❍❉◆❉◗ ●❏◗❘

✢☞ ✏✑☞ ♣✗✕ ✣✗✒♣✣ ✌✗ ✓✗♣✓☞♣✌✑✏✌☞ ✗♣ ✌✍☞ ✛✗✌✒✗♣✗✤ ✑✒✣✒✯ ✥✗✯✒☞✚ ✑✏✌✍☞✑ ✌✍✏♣ ✗♣ ✌✍☞ ✛✗✌✒✗♣ ✗✤✣☞♣☞✑✏✔ ✚✘✚✌☞✛✚ ✗✤ ✎✏✑✌✒✓✔☞✚✦

✢☞ ✚✍✏✔✔ ✑☞✓✏✎✒✌❡✔✏✌☞ ✕✍✏✌ ☞✤ ✤☞✓✌ ✌✍☞☞✿✌☞✑♣✏✔ ✤✗✑✓☞✚ ✍✏✖☞ ✗♣ ✏ ✑✒✣✒✯ ✥✗✯✘✦ ♥❙☞♣✓☞✤✗✑✌✍✕☞ ✚✍✏✔✔ ✗✛✒✌ ✌✍☞ ✏✯✇☞✓✌✒✖☞ ❯☞✿✌☞✑♣✏✔➆ ✥☞✓✏❡✚☞❡♣✔☞✚✚ ✚✌✏✌☞✯ ✗✌✍☞✑✕✒✚☞✴ ✕☞ ✚✍✏✔✔ ✯☞✏✔ ✕✒✌✍ ✗♣✔✘☞✿✌☞✑♣✏✔ ✤✗✑✓☞✚ ✏♣✯ ✌✗✑q❡☞✚✦❝ ❚✍☞ ✤✗✑✓☞✚ ✓✍✏♣✣☞✌✍☞ ✌✑✏♣✚✔✏✌✒✗♣✏✔ ✚✌✏✌☞ ✗✤ ✌✍☞ ✛✗✌✒✗♣ ✗✤ ✌✍☞ ✑✒✣✒✯✥✗✯✘✴ ✒✦☞✦ ✌✍☞✘ ✓✍✏♣✣☞ ✒✌✚ ✌✗✌✏✔ ✔✒♣☞✏✑ ✛✗✛☞♣✌❡✛✒♣ ✏✓✓✗✑✯✏♣✓☞ ✕✒✌✍ ❞q✦ ♥✷✦✸✷❝✦ ❱❡✌ ✌✍✒✚ ✒✚ ♣✗✌✌✍☞ ✗♣✔✘ ☞✤✤☞✓✌ ✌✍☞ ✤✗✑✓☞✚ ✍✏✖☞✦ ❚✍☞ ✌✗✌✏✔ ✌✗✑q❡☞✗♣ ✌✍☞ ✥✗✯✘ ✛✏✘ ♣✗✌ ✖✏♣✒✚✍✦ ♦❡✓✍ ✏ ✌✗✑q❡☞✓✍✏♣✣☞✚ ✌✍☞ ✑✗✌✏✌✒✗♣✏✔ ✚✌✏✌☞ ✗✤ ✛✗✌✒✗♣ ✗✤ ✌✍☞✑✒✣✒✯ ✥✗✯✘✴ ✒✦☞✦ ✒✌ ✓✍✏♣✣☞✚ ✌✍☞ ✌✗✌✏✔ ✏♣✣❡✔✏✑✛✗✛☞♣✌❡✛ ✗✤ ✌✍☞ ✥✗✯✘ ✒♣ ✏✓✓✗✑✯✏♣✓☞ ✕✒✌✍ ❞q✦♥✷✦❲❳ ✥❝✦

✺ ✑✒✣✒✯ ✥✗✯✘ ✒✚ ✚✏✒✯ ✌✗ ✥☞ ✒♣ ✛☞✓✍✏♣✒✓✏✔☞q❡✒✔✒✥✑✒❡✛✴ ✒✤ ✥✗✌✍ ✒✌✚ ✔✒♣☞✏✑ ✛✗✛☞♣✌❡✛ ✏♣✯✏♣✣❡✔✏✑ ✛✗✛☞♣✌❡✛ ✏✑☞ ♣✗✌ ✓✍✏♣✣✒♣✣ ✕✒✌✍ ✌✒✛☞✴✗✑ ☞q❡✒✖✏✔☞♣✌✔✘✴ ✌✍☞ ✥✗✯✘ ✍✏✚ ♣☞✒✌✍☞✑ ✔✒♣☞✏✑

✏✓✓☞✔☞✑✏✌✒✗♣ ♣✗✑ ✏♣✣❡✔✏✑ ✏✓✓☞✔☞✑✏✌✒✗♣✦ ❚✍✒✚✛☞✏♣✚♥✸❝ ✌✍☞ ✌✗✌✏✔ ✤✗✑✓☞✴ ✒✦☞✦ ✌✍☞ ✖☞✓✌✗✑ ✚❡✛ ✗✤ ✌✍☞

✤✗✑✓☞✚✴ ✗♣ ✌✍☞ ✑✒✣✒✯ ✥✗✯✘ ✒✚ ❢☞✑✗❨

❩ ❬❩

❭❭❭❪

❪ ❫❫ ❴

❵ ❵ ❵ ❜ ❜❣❤ ❤ ❤ ❤ ✐ ♥✷✦❥❦✏❝

✳✤ ✌✍☞ ✌✗✌✏✔ ✤✗✑✓☞ ✗♣ ✌✍☞ ✥✗✯✘ ✒✚ ❢☞✑✗✴ ✌✍☞♣✌✍☞ ✌✗✌✏✔ ✔✒♣☞✏✑ ✛✗✛☞♣✌❡✛ ✗✤ ✌✍☞ ✥✗✯✘ ✯✗☞✚♣✗✌ ✓✍✏♣✣☞ ✕✒✌✍ ✌✒✛☞✦ ❞q✦ ♥✷✦❥❦✏❝ ✣✒✖☞✚ ✌✍☞✓✗♣✯✒✌✒✗♣ ✤✗✑ ✌✍☞ ✌✑✏♣✚✔✏✌✒✗♣✏✔ ☞q❡✒✔✒✥✑✒❡✛✗✤ ✌✍☞ ✥✗✯✘✦

♥❲❝ ❚✍☞ ✌✗✌✏✔ ✌✗✑q❡☞✴ ✒✦☞✦ ✌✍☞ ✖☞✓✌✗✑ ✚❡✛ ✗✤ ✌✍☞✌✗✑q❡☞✚ ✗♣ ✌✍☞ ✑✒✣✒✯ ✥✗✯✘ ✒✚ ❢☞✑✗✴

❩ ❬❩

❭❭❭❪

❪ ❫❫ ❴

❵ ❵ ❵ ❜ ❜❣ ✐ ♥✷✦❥❦✥❝

✳✤ ✌✍☞ ✌✗✌✏✔ ✌✗✑q❡☞ ✗♣ ✌✍☞ ✑✒✣✒✯ ✥✗✯✘ ✒✚ ❢☞✑✗✴✌✍☞ ✌✗✌✏✔ ✏♣✣❡✔✏✑ ✛✗✛☞♣✌❡✛ ✗✤ ✌✍☞ ✥✗✯✘ ✯✗☞✚♣✗✌ ✓✍✏♣✣☞ ✕✒✌✍ ✌✒✛☞✦ ❞q✦ ♥✷✦❥❦ ✥❝ ✣✒✖☞✚ ✌✍☞✓✗♣✯✒✌✒✗♣ ✤✗✑ ✌✍☞ ✑✗✌✏✌✒✗♣✏✔ ☞q❡✒✔✒✥✑✒❡✛ ✗✤ ✌✍☞✥✗✯✘✦

❛♣☞ ✛✏✘ ✑✏✒✚☞ ✏ q❡☞✚✌✒✗♣✴ ✕✍☞✌✍☞✑ ✌✍☞✑✗✌✏✌✒✗♣✏✔ ☞q❡✒✔✒✥✑✒❡✛ ✓✗♣✯✒✌✒✗♣ s❞q✦ ✷✦❥❦♥✥❝✉✑☞✛✏✒♣✚ ✖✏✔✒✯✴ ✒✤ ✌✍☞ ✗✑✒✣✒♣ ✕✒✌✍ ✑☞✚✎☞✓✌ ✌✗ ✕✍✒✓✍✌✍☞ ✌✗✑q❡☞✚ ✏✑☞ ✌✏①☞♣ ✒✚ ✚✍✒✤✌☞✯✦ ❛♣☞ ✓✏♣ ✚✍✗✕✌✍✏✌ ✒✤ ✌✍☞ ✌✑✏♣✚✔✏✌✒✗♣✏✔ ☞q❡✒✔✒✥✑✒❡✛ ✓✗♣✯✒✌✒✗♣s❞q✦ ✷✦❥❦♥✏❝✉ ✍✗✔✯✚ ✤✗✑ ✏ ✑✒✣✒✯ ✥✗✯✘✴ ✌✍☞♣ ✚❡✓✍ ✏✚✍✒✤✌ ✗✤ ✗✑✒✣✒♣ ✯✗☞✚ ♣✗✌ ✛✏✌✌☞✑✴ ✒✦☞✦ ✌✍☞ ✑✗✌✏✌✒✗♣✏✔☞q❡✒✔✒✥✑✒❡✛ ✓✗♣✯✒✌✒✗♣ ✒✚ ✒♣✯☞✎☞♣✯☞♣✌ ✗✤ ✌✍☞✔✗✓✏✌✒✗♣ ✗✤ ✌✍☞ ✗✑✒✣✒♣ ✏✥✗❡✌ ✕✍✒✓✍ ✌✍☞ ✌✗✑q❡☞✚✏✑☞ ✌✏①☞♣✦ ❞✿✏✛✎✔☞ ✷✦✷ ✣✒✖☞✚ ✏ ✎✑✗✗✤ ✗✤ ✌✍✒✚✑☞✚❡✔✌ ✒♣ ✏ ✚✎☞✓✒✏✔ ✓✏✚☞ ✗✤ ✏ ✓✗❡✎✔☞✴ ✒✦☞✦ ✌✕✗ ✤✗✑✓☞✚✏✓✌✒♣✣ ✗♣ ✏ ✑✒✣✒✯ ✥✗✯✘ ✒♣ ✌✑✏♣✚✔✏✌✒✗♣✏✔☞q❡✒✔✒✥✑✒❡✛✦ ❚✍☞ ✣☞♣☞✑✏✔✒✚✏✌✒✗♣ ✗✤ ✌✍✒✚ ✑☞✚❡✔✌ ✌✗✽ ✤✗✑✓☞✚ ✒✚ ✔☞✤✌ ✏✚ ✏♣ ☞✿☞✑✓✒✚☞✦

❞q✦ ♥✷✦❥❦✏❝ ✏♣✯ ❞q✦ ♥✷✦❥❦✥❝✴ ✥✗✌✍✴ ✏✑☞ ✖☞✓✌✗✑☞q❡✏✌✒✗♣✚✦ ❚✍☞✘ ✏✑☞ ☞q❡✒✖✏✔☞♣✌ ✌✗ ✌✍✑☞☞ ✚✓✏✔✏✑☞q❡✏✌✒✗♣✚ ☞✏✓✍✦ ❞q✦ ♥✷✦❥❦✏❝ ✓✗✑✑☞✚✎✗♣✯✚ ✌✗

②③

④⑤⑥

⑤⑦

⑧⑨⑩ ✴

②③

④⑤❶

⑤⑦

⑧⑨⑩ ✏♣✯

②③

④⑤❷

⑤⑦

⑧⑨⑩ ♥✷✦❥✸✏❝

✕✍☞✑☞ ❸❹❺✴ ❸❹❻ ✏♣✯ ❸❹❼ ✏✑☞ ✑☞✚✎☞✓✌✒✖☞✔✘ ✌✍☞ ❽❾ ❿✏♣✯ ➀ ✓✗✛✎✗♣☞♣✌✚ ✗✤ ✌✍☞ ✤✗✑✓☞✚ ❑❹✦ ♦✒✛✒✔✏✑✔✘✴❞q✦ ♥✷✦❥❦✥❝ ✒✚ ☞q❡✒✖✏✔☞♣✌ ✌✗ ✌✍✑☞☞ ✚✓✏✔✏✑☞q❡✏✌✒✗♣✚

➁➂

➃➄➅

➄➇

➈➉➊ ✴

➁➂

➃➄➋

➄➇

➈➉➊ ✏♣✯

➁➂

➃➄➌

➄➇

➈➉➊ ♥✷✦❥✸✥❝

✕✍☞✑☞ ➍ ❹❺✴ ➍ ❹❻ ✏♣✯ ➍ ❹❼ ✏✑☞ ✑☞✚✎☞✓✌✒✖☞✔✘ ✌✍☞ ❽❾ ❿✏♣✯ ➀ ✓✗✛✎✗♣☞♣✌✚ ✗✤ ✌✍☞ ✌✗✑q❡☞ ➎ ❹ ✦

Page 163: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✺✾

❊✌✍ ✎✏✍✑✒✓✔ ✓✕✖ ✎✏✍✑✒✗✔ ✘✙✚✛ ✜✙✢ ✙✕✖✛✣✛✕✖✛✕✤❝✥✕✖✙✤✙✥✕✜ ✤✥ ✗✛ ✜✓✤✙✜✦✙✛✖ ✦✥✧ ★✛❝✩✓✕✙❝✓✪✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★ ✥✦ ✓ ✧✙✘✙✖ ✗✥✖✫✍ ✬✕ ✓ ✕❡★✗✛✧ ✥✦✣✧✥✗✪✛★✜ ✓✪✪ ✤✩✛ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✓❝✤✙✕✘ ✥✕ ✤✩✛ ✗✥✖✫ ✓✧✛❝✥✣✪✓✕✓✧✍ ✳✩✛✕ ✭✛ ✕✛✛✖ ✥✕✪✫ ✤✩✧✛✛ ❝✥✕✖✙✤✙✥✕✜✤✥ ✗✛ ✜✓✤✙✜✦✙✛✖ ✦✥✧ ★✛❝✩✓✕✙❝✓✪ ✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★✍ ✳✭✥✥✦ ✤✩✛✜✛ ❝✥✕✖✙✤✙✥✕✜ ❝✥✧✧✛✜✣✥✕✖ ✤✥ ✤✧✓✕✜✪✓✤✙✥✕✓✪✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★✮ ✤✩✛ ✜❡★ ✥✦ ✤✩✛ ❝✥★✣✥✕✛✕✤✜ ✥✦ ✤✩✛✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✓✪✥✕✘ ✓✕✫ ✤✭✥ ✣✛✧✣✛✕✖✙❝❡✪✓✧ ✓✢✛✜ ✙✕ ✤✩✛✣✪✓✕✛ ★❡✜✤ ✗✛ ♣✛✧✥✍ ✳✩✛ ✤✩✙✧✖ ❝✥✕✖✙✤✙✥✕❝✥✧✧✛✜✣✥✕✖✜ ✤✥ ✧✥✤✓✤✙✥✕✓✪ ✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★✍ ✳✩✛ ✜❡★✥✦ ✤✩✛ ❝✥★✣✥✕✛✕✤✜ ✥✦ ✤✩✛ ✤✥✧✌❡✛✜ ✓✪✥✕✘ ✓✕✫ ✓✢✙✜✣✛✧✣✛✕✖✙❝❡✪✓✧ ✤✥ ✤✩✛ ✣✪✓✕✛ ✥✦ ✤✩✛ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ★❡✜✤✗✛ ♣✛✧✥✍

✳✩✛ ❝✥✕✖✙✤✙✥✕✜ ✥✦ ✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★ ✥✦ ✓ ✧✙✘✙✖ ✗✥✖✫★✓✫ ✗✛ ❝✥★✣✓✧✛✖ ✭✙✤✩ ✤✩✥✜✛ ✦✥✧ ✓ ✣✓✧✤✙❝✪✛✯✭✩✙❝✩ ✭✛ ❝✥✕✜✙✖✛✧✛✖ ✙✕ ✛✓✧✪✙✛✧ ❝✩✓✣✤✛✧✜✍ ✇✙✕❝✛❝✥✕✜✙✖✛✧✓✤✙✥✕ ✥✦ ✧✥✤✓✤✙✥✕✓✪ ★✥✤✙✥✕ ✖✥✛✜ ✕✥✤✓✣✣✪✫ ✤✥ ✓ ✣✓✧✤✙❝✪✛✯ ✥✕✪✫ ✤✩✛ ❝✥✕✖✙✤✙✥✕✜ ✦✥✧✤✧✓✕✜✪✓✤✙✥✕✓✪ ✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★ ✎❊✌✍ ✏✍✑t ✓✔ ✓✣✣✪✫ ✤✥✓ ✣✓✧✤✙❝✪✛✍ ✳✩❡✜✯ ✦✥✧ ✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★ ✥✦ ✓ ✣✓✧✤✙❝✪✛✤✩✛ ✚✛❝✤✥✧ ✜❡★ ✥✦ ✓✪✪ ✤✩✛ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✥✕ ✙✤ ★❡✜✤ ✗✛♣✛✧✥✍ ✇✙✕❝✛ ✓✪✪ ✤✩✛✜✛ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✓❝✤ ✥✕ ✤✩✛ ✜✙✕✘✪✛✣✓✧✤✙❝✪✛✯ ✤✩✛✫ ★❡✜✤ ✗✛ ❝✥✕❝❡✧✧✛✕✤✍ ❊✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★❡✕✖✛✧ ❝✥✕❝❡✧✧✛✕✤ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✭✓✜ ✖✙✜❝❡✜✜✛✖ ✙✕ ✤✩✛✛✓✧✪✙✛✧ ❝✩✓✣✤✛✧✜✍

❆ ✗✥✖✫ ★✓✫ ✗✛ ✙✕ ✣✓✧✤✙✓✪ ✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★✯ ✙✍✛✍✯ ✙✤★✓✫ ✗✛ ✙✕ ✤✧✓✕✜✪✓✤✙✥✕✓✪ ✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★ ✓✕✖ ✕✥✤ ✙✕✧✥✤✓✤✙✥✕✓✪ ✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★✯ ✥✧ ✙✤ ★✓✫ ✗✛ ✙✕ ✧✥✤✓✤✙✥✕✓✪✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★ ✓✕✖ ✕✥✤ ✙✕ ✤✧✓✕✜✪✓✤✙✥✕✓✪✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★✍

❈✥✕✜✙✖✛✧ ✓ ✪✙✘✩✤ ✎✙✍✛✍ ✥✦ ✕✛✘✪✙✘✙✗✪✛ ★✓✜✜✔ ✧✥✖✎❆✰✔✯ ✓✤ ✤✩✛ ✤✭✥ ✛✕✖✜ ✎❆ ✓✕✖ ✰✔ ✥✦ ✭✩✙❝✩ ✤✭✥✣✓✧✓✪✪✛✪ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✗✥✤✩ ✛✌❡✓✪ ✙✕ ★✓✘✕✙✤❡✖✛ ✓✧✛✓✣✣✪✙✛✖ ✣✛✧✣✛✕✖✙❝❡✪✓✧ ✤✥ ✤✩✛ ✧✥✖ ✓✜ ✜✩✥✭✕ ✙✕❋✙✘✍ ✏✍✱t✎✓✔✍

✲✴✵✷ ✸✷✹✻ ✼✽✿

▲✛✤ ❈ ✗✛ ✤✩✛ ★✙✖✣✥✙✕✤ ✥✦ ❆✰✯ ❈❆ ❀ ❈✰ ❀ ❛✍✤✩✛ ★✥★✛✕✤ ✥✦ ✤✩✛ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✓✤ ❆ ✓✕✖ ✰ ✭✙✪✪ ✗✥✤✩✗✛ ✛✌❡✓✪ ✙✕ ★✓✘✕✙✤❡✖✛ ✎❛❁✔✯ ✗❡✤ ✥✣✣✥✜✙✤✛ ✙✕✜✛✕✜✛ ✓✜ ✜✩✥✭✕✍ ✳✩✛ ✕✛✤ ★✥★✛✕✤ ✥✕ ✤✩✛ ✧✥✖✭✙✪✪ ✗✛ ♣✛✧✥✍ ✳✩✛ ✜✫✜✤✛★ ✭✙✪✪ ✗✛ ✙✕ ✧✥✤✓✤✙✥✕✓✪✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★✯ ✗❡✤ ✙✤ ✭✙✪✪ ✕✥✤ ✗✛ ✙✕ ✤✧✓✕✜✪✓✤✙✥✕✓✪

✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★✮ ❂❃❄ ❅

✲✴✵✷ ✸✷✹✻ ✼❇✿

✳✩✛ ✦✥✧❝✛ ✓✤ ✰ ✙✕ ❋✙✘✍ ✏✍✱t✎✓✔ ✙✜ ✧✛✚✛✧✜✛✖ ✙✕❋✙✘✍ ✏✍✱t✎✗✔✍ ✳✩❡✜✯ ✭✛ ✩✓✚✛ ✤✩✛ ✜✓★✛ ✧✥✖ ✭✙✤✩✤✭✥ ✛✌❡✓✪ ✓✕✖ ✥✣✣✥✜✙ ✤✛ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✓✣✣✪✙✛✖✣✛✧✣✛✕✖✙❝❡✪✓✧ ✤✥ ✤✩✛ ✧✥✖✯ ✥✕✛ ✓✤ ✛✕✖ ❆ ✓✕✖ ✤✩✛✥✤✩✛✧ ✓✤ ✛✕✖ ✰✍ ♦✛✧✛ ✤✩✛ ★✥★✛✕✤✜ ✥✦ ✗✥✤✩ ✤✩✛✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✓✧✛ ✛✌❡✓✪✯ ✗❡✤ ✤✩✛✫ ✓✧✛ ✕✥✤ ✥✣✣✥✜✙✤✛✮ ✤✩✛✫✓❝✤ ✙✕ ✤✩✛ ✜✓★✛ ✜✛✕✜✛ ✓✕✖ ❝✓❡✜✛ ✓✕✤✙❝✪✥❝❉✭✙✜✛✧✥✤✓✤✙✥✕ ✥✦ ✤✩✛ ✧✥✖✍ ✳✩✛ ✤✥✤✓✪ ✦✥✧❝✛ ✥✕ ✤✩✛ ✗✥✖✫✙✜ ♣✛✧✥✮ ✜✥ ✤✩✛ ✗✥✖✫ ✙✜ ✙✕ ✤✧✓✕✜✪✓✤✙✥✕✓✪✛✌❡✙ ✪✙✗✧✙❡★✮ ✗❡✤ ✙✤ ✙✜ ✕✥✤ ✙✕ ✧✥✤✓✤✙✥✕✓ ✪✛✌❡✙✪✙✗✧✙❡★✍ ❆✪✤✩✥❡✘✩ ✤✩✛ ✧✥✖ ✙✜ ✕✥✤ ✦✙✢✛✖ ✙✕✓✕✫ ✭✓✫✯ ✙✤ ❡✕✖✛✧✘✥✛✜ ✣❡✧✛ ✧✥✤✓✤✙✥✕ ✎✙✍✛✍ ✧✥✤✓✤✙✥✕✭✙✤✩✥❡✤ ✤✧✓✕✜✪✓✤✙✥✕✔✍

❆ ✣✓✙✧ ✥✦ ✛✌❡✓✪ ✓✕✖ ✥✣✣✥✜✙✤✛ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✭✙✤✩✖✙✦✦✛✧✛✕✤ ✪✙✕✛✜ ✥✦ ✓❝✤✙✥✕ ✙✜ ❉✕✥✭✕ ✓✜ ✓ ●❍■❏❑▼◆ ❆❝✥❡✣✪✛ ✣✧✥✖❡❝✛✜ ✧✥✤✓✤✙✥✕ ✭✙✤✩✥❡✤ ✤✧✓✕✜✪✓✤✙✥✕✍

❲✩✛✕ ✭✛ ✥✣✛✕ ✤✩✛ ✪✙✖ ✥✦ ✓ ✗✥✤✤✪✛ ✗✫ ✤❡✧✕✙✕✘✙✤✯ ✥❡✧ ✦✙✕✘✛✧✜ ✓✧✛ ✓✣✣✪✫✙✕✘ ✓ ❝✥❡✣✪✛ ✤✥ ✤✩✛ ✪✙✖❬❋✙✘✍ ✏✍✱✒✎✓✔❖✍ ❆✕✥✤✩✛✧ ❉✕✥✭✕ ✛✢✓★✣✪✛ ✙✜ ✓❝✥★✣✓✜✜ ✕✛✛✖✪✛ ✙✕ ✤✩✛ ✛✓✧✤✩P✜ ★✓✘✕✛✤✙❝ ✦✙✛✪✖ ✓✜✜✩✥✭✕ ✙✕ ✤✩✛ ❋✙✘✍ ✏✍✱✒✎✗✔✍ ✳✩✛ ✛✓✧✤✩P✜ ★✓✘✕✛✤✙❝✦✙✛✪✖ ✛✢✛✧✤✜ ✛✌❡✓✪ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✥✕ ✤✩✛ ✕✥✧✤✩ ✓✕✖ ✜✥❡✤✩✣✥✪✛✜✍ ✳✩✛ ✦✥✧❝✛ ✥✕ ✤✩✛ ◗✥✧✤✩ ❘✥✪✛ ✙✜ ✤✥✭✓✧✖✜✤✩✛ ✕✥✧✤✩✯ ✓✕✖ ✤✩✛ ✦✥✧❝✛ ✥✕ ✤✩✛ ✇✥❡✤✩ ❘✥✪✛ ✙✜✤✥✭✓✧✖ ✤✩✛ ✜✥❡✤✩✍ ❊✢❝✛✣✤✭✩✛✕ ✤✩✛ ✕✛✛✖✪✛ ✣✥✙✕✤✜✙✕ ✤✩✛ ✕✥✧✤✩✐✜✥❡✤✩ ✖✙✧✛❝✤✙✥✕✮ ✤✩✛ ✤✭✥ ✦✥✧❝✛✜ ✖✥✕✥✤ ✩✓✚✛ ✤✩✛ ✜✓★✛ ✪✙✕✛ ✥✦ ✓❝✤✙✥✕✍ ✳✩❡✜ ✤✩✛✧✛ ✙✜✓ ●❍■❏❑▼ ✓❝✤✙✕✘ ✥✕ ✤✩✛ ✕✛✛✖✪✛ ✖❡✛ ✤✥ ✤✩✛ ✛✓✧✤✩P✜★✓✘✕✛✤✙❝ ✦✙✛✪✖✍

✲✴✵✷ ✸✷✹❯✼✽✿ ❱❳❨ ❩❭❪❫❴❨❵ ❜❞❞❢❣ ❜ ❤❥❳❞❢❴ ❦❥ ❦❳❨❪ ❦♥❴❢❭❧♠

Page 164: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❋✟✠✡ ☛✡☞✌✍✎✏ ❚✑✒ ✓✔✕✖✑✗✘ ✙✔✚✛✒✖✜✢ ✣✜✒✤✥ ✒✦✒✕✖✘ ✒✧★✔✤

✔✛✥ ❛✩✩❛✘✜✖✒ ✣❛✕✢✒✘ ❛✛ ✖✑✒ ✩❛✤✒✘ ❛✣ ✔

✢❛✙✩✔✘✘ ✛✒✒✥✤✒❝ ❚✑✒✘✒ ✖✪❛ ✣❛✕✢✒✘ ✣❛✕✙

✔ ✢❛★✩✤✒❝

❊✫✬✭✮✯✰ ✱✲✱ ❙✳✴✵ ✷✳✸✷ ✹✴✹✺✻✷ ✴✼ ✸

✽✴✾✿❀✺ ❁✴✺❂ ✻✴✷ ❁✺✿✺✻❁ ✴✻ ✷✳✺ ✿✴❃✻✷ ✸❄✴✾✷

✵✳❃✽✳ ✇✴✾ ✷✸❅✺ ✷✳✺ ✹✴✹✺✻✷❂❆

❇❈❉●✰❍

❋✟✠✡ ☛✡☞☞

■✴✻❂❃❁✺❏ ✸ ✽✴✾✿❀✺ ✸❂ ❂✳✴✵✻ ❃✻ ❑❃▲❆ ▼❆◆◆

✸✽✷❃✻▲ ✴✻ ✸ ❏❃▲❃❁ ❄✴❁✇❆ ❖✳✺ ✼✴❏✽✺❂ ◗ ✸✻❁ ❘◗ ✸✽✷

❏✺❂✿✺✽✷❃❡✺❀✇ ✸✷ ✿✴❃✻✷❂ ❯ ✸✻❁ ❱❆ ❖✳✺❂✺ ✿✴❃✻✷❂ ✳✸❡✺

✿✴❂❃✷❃✴✻ ❡✺✽✷✴❏❂ r❲ ✸✻❁ r❳ ✵❃✷✳ ❏✺❂✿✺✽✷ ✷✴ ✴❏❃▲❃✻

❨❆ ❩✺✷ ✾❂ ✷✸❅✺ ✷✳✺ ✹✴✹✺✻✷❂ ✴✼ ✷✳✺ ✼✴❏✽✺❂ ✸❄✴✾✷

✷✳✺ ✴❏❃▲❃✻❆

❖✳✺ ✹✴✹✺✻✷ ✴✼ ✷✳✺ ✽✴✾✿❀✺ ❬ ❂✾✹ ✴✼ ✷✳✺

✹✴✹✺✻✷❂ ✴✼ ✷✳✺ ✷✵✴ ✼✴❏✽✺❂ ✹✸❅❃✻▲ ✷✳✺ ✽✴✾✿❀✺

❬ r❲ ❭ ❪❫◗❴ ❵ r❳ ❭ ◗

❬ r❳ ❭ ◗ ❫ r❲❭ ◗

❬ ❪r❳❫r❲❜ ❭ ◗

❯✾✷ r❲ ❵ ❞❢ ❬ r❳❣ ✸✻❁ ✳✺✻✽✺ ❞❢ ❬ r❳ ❫ r❲❆

❖✳✺ ✹✴✹✺✻✷ ✴✼ ✷✳✺ ✽✴✾✿❀✺❣ ✷✳✺❏✺✼✴❏✺❣ ❃❂

❞❢ ❭ ◗❤

■❀✺✸❏❀✇ ✷✳❃❂ ❃❂ ❃✻❁✺✿✺✻❁✺✻✷ ✴✼ ✷✳✺ ✴❏❃▲❃✻❣ ✷✳✺

✿✴❃✻✷ ✸❄✴✾✷ ✵✳❃✽✳ ✵✺ ✷✴✴❅ ✷✳✺ ✹✴✹✺✻✷❂ ✴✼ ✷✳✺

✼✴❏✽✺❂❆ ✐

❥❤❦❤❧ ♠r♥♦♣♥qst ✉✈ ①✉①t♦②③

❱✻ ❃❁✺✸❀ ❀✺❡✺❏ ❃❂ ✺❂❂✺✻✷❃✸❀❀✇ ✸ ❀❃▲✳✷ ❪❃❆✺❆ ✴✼

✻✺▲❀❃▲❃❄❀✺ ✹✸❂❂❜ ❏✴❁ ✿❃❡✴✷✺❁ ✸✷ ✸ ✿✴❃✻✷ ✸❀✴✻▲ ❃✷❂

❀✺✻▲✷✳❆ ❖✳❃❂ ✿✴❃✻✷ ❃❂ ✽✸❀❀✺❁ ✷✳✺ ✼✾❀✽❏✾✹❆ ❱ ❂✺✺❘

❂✸✵ ✴✻ ✷✳✺ ✽✳❃❀❁❏✺✻④❂ ✿❀✸✇▲❏✴✾✻❁ ❃❂ ✸ ✷✇✿❃✽✸❀

✺⑤✸✹✿❀✺ ✴✼ ✸ ❀✺❡✺❏❆ ❖✵✴ ✼✴❏✽✺❂ ⑥❲ ✸✻❁ ⑥❳❣ ✿✸❏✸❀❀✺❀

✷✴ ✺✸✽✳ ✴✷✳✺❏ ✸✻❁ ✾❂✾✸❀❀✇ ✿✺❏✿✺✻❁❃✽✾❀✸❏ ✷✴ ✷✳✺

❀✺❡✺❏❣ ✸❂ ❂✳✴✵✻ ✳✺❏✺❣ ✸✽✷ ✴✻ ✷✳✺ ❀✺❡✺❏ ✸✷

❁❃❂✷✸✻✽✺❂ ⑦❲ ✸✻❁ ⑦❳ ❏✺❂✿✺✽✷❃❡✺❀✇ ✼❏✴✹ ✷✳✺

✼✾❀✽❏✾✹ ✸❂ ❂✳✴✵✻ ❃✻ ❑❃▲❆ ▼❆◆⑧❆

❋✟✠✡ ☛✡☞⑨

❖✳✺ ❀✺❡✺❏ ❃❂ ✸ ❂✇❂✷✺✹ ❃✻ ✹✺✽✳✸✻❃✽✸❀

✺⑩✾❃❀❃❄❏❃✾✹❆ ❩✺✷ ❶ ❄✺ ✷✳✺ ❏✺✸✽✷❃✴✻ ✴✼ ✷✳✺ ❂✾✿✿✴❏✷

✸✷ ✷✳✺ ✼✾❀✽❏✾✹❷ ❶ ❃❂ ❁❃❏✺✽✷✺❁ ✴✿✿✴❂❃✷✺ ✷✴ ✷✳✺

✼✴❏✽✺❂ ⑥❲ ✸✻❁ ⑥❳❆ ❑✴❏ ✷❏✸✻❂❀✸✷❃✴✻✸❀ ✺⑩✾❃❀❃❄❏❃✾✹❣

❸ ❫ ⑥❲ ❫ ⑥❳ ❬ ❹ ❪❃❜

❑✴❏ ✽✴✻❂❃❁✺❏❃✻▲ ❏✴✷✸✷❃✴✻✸❀ ✺⑩✾❃❀❃❄❏❃✾✹ ✵✺

✷✸❅✺ ✷✳✺ ✹✴✹✺✻✷❂ ✸❄✴✾✷ ✷✳✺ ✼✾❀✽❏✾✹❷ ✷✳✺ ❂✾✹

✴✼ ✹✴✹✺✻✷❂ ✹✾❂✷ ❄✺ ❺✺❏✴❣

⑦❲⑥❲ ❫ ⑦❳⑥❳ ❬ ❹ ❪❃❃❜

❻✴❏✹✸❀❀✇ ✷✳✺ ✸✻✷❃✽❀✴✽❅✵❃❂✺ ❪✽❀✴✽❅✵❃❂✺❜

✹✴✹✺✻✷❂ ✸❏✺ ✷✸❅✺✻ ✷✴ ❄✺ ✿✴❂❃✷❃❡✺ ❪✻✺▲✸✷❃❡✺❜❆ ❻✴✷✺

❸ ✸✽✷❂ ✸✷ ✷✳✺ ✼✾❀✽❏✾✹ ❃✷❂✺❀✼ ✸✻❁ ✳✸❂ ❺✺❏✴✹✴✹✺✻✷

✸❄✴✾✷ ✷✳✺ ✼✾❀✽❏✾✹❆

❼✻ ✷✳✺ ✽✸❂✺ ✴✼ ✷✳✺ ❀✺❡✺❏ ✼✴❏✽✺ ⑥❲ ❃❂ ✾❂✾✸❀❀✇

❂✴✹✺ ✵✺❃▲✳✷ ✷✴ ❄✺ ❀❃✼✷✺❁❆ ❼✷ ❃❂ ✽✸❀❀✺❁ ✷✳✺ ❽❾❿⑦

✸✻❁ ❃✷❂ ❁❃❂✷✸✻✽✺ ✼❏✴✹ ✷✳✺ ✼✾❀✽❏✾✹ ⑦❲ ❃❂ ✽✸❀❀✺❁

✷✳✺ ❽❾❿⑦ ❿➀➁❆ ❑✴❏✽✺ ⑥❳ ❃❂ ✷✳✺ ➂➃➃❾➀➄ ✸✿✿❀❃✺❁ ✷✴ ❀❃✼✷

✷✳✺ ❀✴✸❁❷ ❁❃❂✷✸✻✽✺ ⑦❳ ✴✼ ✷✳✺ ✺✼✼✴❏✷ ✼❏✴✹ ✷✳✺

✼✾❀✽❏✾✹ ❃❂ ✷✳✺ ➂➃➃❾➀➄ ❿➀➁➅

➆⑩❆ ❪❃❃❜ ✽✸✻ ❄✺ ✵❏❃✷✷✺✻ ✸❂

⑦➇⑥❲❬❁❳⑥❳ ❪▼❆⑧◆✸❜

✴❏ ❀✴✸❁ ✸❏✹ ❭ ❀✴✸❁ ❬ ✺✼✼✴❏✷ ✸❏✹ ❭ ✺✼✼✴❏✷

❖✳✺ ✸❄✴❡✺ ✺⑩✾✸✷❃✴✻ ✺⑤✿❏✺❂❂✺❂ ✷✳✺ ✿❏❃✻✽❃✿❀✺

✴✼ ✹✴✹✺✻✷❂ ✼✴❏ ✸ ❀✺❡✺❏❆ ❼✻✽❃❁✺✻✷✸❀❀✇ ✷✳✺ ❏✸✷❃✴

⑥❲➈⑥❳ ❃❂ ✽✸❀❀✺❁ ✷✳✺ ➉✺✽✳✸✻❃✽✸❀ ❱❁❡✸✻✷✸▲✺ ❪➉❆❱❆❜❷

➉❆❱❆ ❬➊ ➋

➋ ➊

➌ ➍

➌ ➍➎ ❪▼❆⑧◆❄❜

❼✼ ✷✳✺ ✺✼✼✴❏✷ ✸❏✹ ⑦❳ ❃❂ ❀✸❏▲✺❏ ✷✳✸✻ ✷✳✺ ❀✴✸❁

✸❏✹❣ ✷✳✺ ✹✺✽✳✸✻❃✽✸❀ ✸❁❡✸✻✷✸▲✺ ❃❂ ▲❏✺✸✷✺❏ ✷✳✸✻

✴✻✺❆ ➉✺✽✳✸✻❃✽✸❀ ✸❁❡✸✻✷✸▲✺ ▲❏✺✸✷✺❏ ✷✳✸✻ ✴✻✺

✹✺✸✻❂ ✷✳✸✷ ✸ ❂✹✸❀❀ ✺✼✼✴❏✷ ✽✸✻ ❄✺ ✾❂✺❁ ✷✴ ❀❃✼✷ ✸

❀✸❏▲✺ ❀✴✸❁❆ ❖✳✺❏✺ ✸❏✺ ❂✺❡✺❏✸❀ ✺⑤✸✹✿❀✺❂ ✴✼ ✸ ❀✺❡✺❏

✸❏✴✾✻❁ ✇✴✾ ❄✺❂❃❁✺❂ ✷✳✺ ❂✺✺❘❂✸✵❆ ❖✳✺ ❄✺✸✹ ✴✼ ✸

❄✸❀✸✻✽✺ ❃❂ ✸ ❀✺❡✺❏❆ ❖❏✇ ✷✴ ✼❃✻❁ ✹✴❏✺ ❂✾✽✳

Page 165: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✻✶

❡✌✍✎✏✑❡✒ ✍✓✔ ✕✔❡✓✖✕✗✘ ✖✙❡ ✗✚✑✛✜✚✎✢ ✖✙❡ ❡✗✗❢✜✖✍✓✔ ❡✗✗❢✜✖ ✍✜✎✢ ✍✓✔ ✖✙❡ ✑❢✍✔ ✍✓✔ ✖✙❡ ✑❢✍✔ ✍✜✎❢✗ ✖✙❡ ✑❡♦❡✜ ✕✓ ❡✍✛✙ ✛✍✒❡✣

❨❢✚ ✎✍✘ ❡✍✒✕✑✘ ✒✙❢✤ ✖✙✍✖ ✖✙❡ ✏✜✕✓✛✕✏✑❡ ❢✗✎❢✎❡✓✖ ✙❢✑✔✒ ❡♦❡✓ ✤✙❡✓ ✖✙❡ ✏✍✜✍✑✑❡✑ ✗❢✜✛❡✒ ❋✥✍✓✔ ❋✷ ✍✜❡ ✓❢✖ ✏❡✜✏❡✓✔✕✛✚✑✍✜✢ ✱✚✖ ✍✛✖ ✍✖ ✒❢✎❡✍✓❛✑❡✢ ✖❢ ✖✙❡ ✑❡♦❡✜✣

✼✦✧✦★ ✩✪✫✬✭✪ ✮✯ ✰✭✲✳✴✬✵

▼✍✓✘ ❢✗ ✘❢✚ ✎✍✘ ✙✍♦❡ ✖✙❡ ❡✌✏❡✜✕❡✓✛❡ ❢✗✱✍✑✍✓✛✕✓❛ ✘❢✚✜ ✓❢✖❡✱❢❢❜ ❢✓ ✖✙❡ ✖✕✏ ❢✗ ✍ ✗✕✓❛❡✜✣✸✕❛✚✜❡ ✹✣✺✽ ✕✑✑✚✒✖✜✍✖❡✒ ✍ ✒✕✎✕✑✍✜ ❡✌✏❡✜✕✎❡✓✖ ✖✙✍✖✘❢✚ ✛✍✓ ❡✍✒✕✑✘ ✏❡✜✗❢✜✎✣ ♠✍❜❡ ✍✓ ✕✜✜❡❛✚✑✍✜✾✒✙✍✏❡✔ ✛✍✜✔✱❢✍✜✔ ✍✓✔ ✍ ✓✍✜✜❢✤ ✖✕✏✏❡✔ ❢✱✿❡✛✖✑✕❜❡ ✍ ✏❡✓✛✕✑✣ ❨❢✚ ✛✍✓ ✑❢✛✍✖❡ ✱✘ ✖✜✕✍✑ ✍✓✔ ❡✜✜❢✜ ✍✏❢✕✓✖ ♣ ❢✓ ✖✙❡ ✛✍✜✔✱❢✍✜✔ ✤✙❡✜❡ ✕✖ ✛✍✓ ✱❡✱✍✑✍✓✛❡✔ ❢✓ ✖✙❡ ✖✕✏ ❢✗ ✖✙❡ ✏❡✓✛✕✑✣ ❀♠✙❡ ✛✍✜✔✱❢✍✜✔✜❡✎✍✕✓✒ ✙❢✜✕r❢✓✖✍✑ ✕✓ ✖✙✕✒ ✏❢✒✕✖✕❢✓✣❁ ♠✙✕✒ ✏❢✕✓✖❢✗ ✱✍✑✍✓✛❡ ✕✒ ✖✙❡ ✛❡✓✖✜❡ ❢✗ ❛✜✍♦✕✖✘ ❀❂♣❁ ❢✗ ✖✙❡✛✍✜✔✱❢✍✜✔✣ ♠✙❡ ✖✕✏ ❢✗ ✖✙❡ ✏❡✓✛✕✑ ✏✜❢♦✕✔❡✒ ✍♦❡✜✖✕✛✍✑✑✘ ✚✏✤✍✜✔ ✗❢✜✛❡ ✔✚❡ ✖❢ ✤✙✕✛✙ ✖✙❡✛✍✜✔✱❢✍✜✔ ✕✒ ✕✓ ✎❡✛✙✍✓✕✛✍✑ ❡❞✚✕✑✕✱✜✕✚✎✣ ❃✒✒✙❢✤✓ ✕✓ ✖✙❡ ✸✕❛✣ ✹✣✺✽✢ ✖✙❡ ✜❡✍✛✖✕❢✓ ❢✗ ✖✙❡ ✖✕✏ ✕✒❡❞✚✍✑ ✍✓✔ ❢✏✏❢✒✕✖❡ ✖❢ ❄✰✢ ✖✙❡ ✖❢✖✍✑ ✤❡✕❛✙✖ ❢✗❀✕✣❡✣✢ ✖✙❡ ✗❢✜✛❡ ❢✗ ❛✜✍♦✕✖✘ ❢✓❁ ✖✙❡ ✛✍✜✔✱❢✍✜✔ ✍✓✔✙❡✓✛❡ ✖✙❡ ✛✍✜✔✱❢✍✜✔ ✕✒ ✕✓ ✖✜✍✓✒✑✍✖✕❢✓✍✑❡❞✚✕✑✕✱✜✕✚✎✣ ❅✖ ✕✒ ✍✑✒❢ ✕✓ ✜❢✖✍✖✕❢✓✍✑ ❡❞✚✕✑✕✱✜✕✚✎❆✕✗ ✕✖ ✤❡✜❡ ✓❢✖ ✒❢✢ ✔✚❡ ✖❢ ✖✙❡ ✚✓✱✍✑✍✓✛❡✔ ✖❢✜❞✚❡✕✖ ✤❢✚✑✔ ✖✕✑✖ ✍✓✔ ✗✍✑✑✣ ♠✙❡✜❡ ✍✜❡ ✖❢✜❞✚❡✒ ❢✓ ✖✙❡✛✍✜✔ ✱❢✍✜✔ ✔✚❡ ✖❢ ✖✙❡ ✗❢✜✛❡✒ ❢✗ ❛✜✍♦✕✖✘ ✑✕❜❡ ❇✥✰✢❇✷✰ ❈✣ ❡✖✛✢ ✍✛✖✕✓❛ ❢✓ ✖✙❡ ✕✓✔✕♦✕✔✚✍✑ ✏✍✜✖✕✛✑❡✒✖✙✍✖ ✎✍❜❡ ✚✏ ✖✙❡ ✛✍✜✔✱❢✍✜✔✣

❉❊●❍ ■❍❏❑ ▲◆❖◆P◗❘P❯ ◆ ◗◆❱❲❳❩◆❱❲ ❩P ❬❭❪ ❬❘❫ ❩❴ ◆❫❪P◗❘❖❵ ❝❭❪ ❫❩❘P❬ ❩❴ ❣❤❫❫❩❱❬✐ ❥✐ ❘❣ ❬❭❪◗❪P❬❱❪ ❩❴ ❯❱◆❦❘❬❧❵

♠✙❡ ❂♣ ❢✗ ✖✙❡ ✛✍✜✔✱❢✍✜✔ ✕✒ ✒❢ ✑❢✛✍✖❡✔ ✖✙✍✖✖✙❡ ✖❢✖✍✑ ✖❢✜❞✚❡ ❢✓ ✕✖ ✔✚❡ ✖❢ ✖✙❡ ✗❢✜✛❡✒ ❇✥✰✢ ❇✷✰❈✣ ❡✖✛✣ ✕✒ r❡✜❢✣

❅✗ ✭♥ ✕✒ ✖✙❡ ✏❢✒✕✖✕❢✓ ♦❡✛✖❢✜ ❢✗ ✖✙❡ q✖✙ ✏✍✜✖✕✛✑❡❢✗ ✍✓ ❡✌✖❡✓✔❡✔ ✱❢✔✘ ✤✕✖✙ ✜❡✒✏❡✛✖ ✖❢ ✕✖✒ ❂♣✢ ✖✙❡✓✖✙❡ ✖❢✜❞✚❡ ✍✱❢✚✖ ✖✙❡ ❂♣✢ ✔✚❡ ✖❢ ✖✙❡ ✗❢✜✛❡ ❢✗❛✜✍♦✕✖✘ ❢✓ ✖✙❡ ✏✍✜✖✕✛✑❡ ✕✒ ss ♥ t ✭♥ ✉ ❇♥ ✰✣ ♠✙❡ ✖❢✖✍✑❛✜✍♦✕✖✍✖✕❢✓✍✑ ✖❢✜❞✚❡ ✍✱❢✚✖ ✖✙❡ ❂♣ ✕✒ r❡✜❢✢ ✕✣❡✣

✈ ✇ ✇✇ ①② ② × ②③ ③④ ⑤ ⑥ ❀✹✣⑦⑦❁

⑧❡ ✎✍✘ ✖✙❡✜❡✗❢✜❡✢ ✔❡✗✕✓❡ ✖✙❡ ❂♣ ❢✗ ✍ ✱❢✔✘✍✒ ✖✙✍✖ ✏❢✕✓✖ ✤✙❡✜❡ ✖✙❡ ✖❢✖✍✑ ❛✜✍♦✕✖✍✖✕❢✓✍✑ ✖❢✜❞✚❡❢✓ ✖✙❡ ✱❢✔✘ ✕✒ r❡✜❢✣

⑧❡ ✓❢✖✕✛❡ ✖✙✍✖ ✕✓ ⑨❞✣ ❀✹✣⑦⑦❁✢ ✰ ✕✒ ✖✙❡ ✒✍✎❡✗❢✜ ✍✑✑ ✏✍✜✖✕✛✑❡✒✢ ✍✓✔ ✙❡✓✛❡ ✕✖ ✛❢✎❡✒ ❢✚✖ ❢✗ ✖✙❡✒✚✎✎✍✖✕❢✓✣ ♠✙✕✒ ❛✕♦❡✒✢ ✒✕✓✛❡ ✰ ✕✒ ✓❢✓r❡✜❢✢

⑩ ⑩❶❷ ❸ t ❹✣ ❺❡✎❡✎✱❡✜ ✖✙✍✖ ✖✙❡ ✏❢✒✕✖✕❢✓ ♦❡✛✖❢✜✒

❀✭♥❁ ✍✜❡ ✖✍❜❡✓ ✤✕✖✙ ✜❡✒✏❡✛✖ ✖❢ ✖✙❡ ❂♣✣ ❻❢✤✢ ✕✓✍✛✛❢✜✔✍✓✛❡ ✤✕✖✙ ✖✙❡ ✜❡✍✒❢✓✕✓❛ ❛✕♦❡✓ ✱❡✑❢✤⑨❞✣ ❀✹✣✽✍❁ ✕✓ ❼❡✛✣ ✹✣✺✢ ✕✗ ✖✙❡ ✒✚✎ ✕✒ r❡✜❢✢ ✖✙❡❢✜✕❛✕✓ ✎✚✒✖ ✱❡ ✖✙❡ ✛❡✓✖✜❡ ❢✗ ✎✍✒✒ ❢✗ ✖✙❡ ✱❢✔✘✣♠✙✚✒✢ ✖✙❡ ✛❡✓✖✜❡ ❢✗ ❛✜✍♦✕✖✘ ❢✗ ✖✙❡ ✱❢✔✘ ✛❢✕✓✛✕✔❡✒✤✕✖✙ ✖✙❡ ✛❡✓✖✜❡ ❢✗ ✎✍✒✒✣ ⑧❡ ✓❢✖❡ ✖✙✍✖ ✖✙✕✒ ✕✒✖✜✚❡ ✱❡✛✍✚✒❡ ✖✙❡ ✱❢✔✘ ✱❡✕✓❛ ✒✎✍✑✑✢ ✰ ✔❢❡✒ ✓❢✖

❉❊●❍ ■❍❏❽ ❾❪❬❪❱❿❘P❘P❯ ❬❭❪ ◗❪P❬❱❪ ❩❴ ❯❱◆❦❘❬❧ ❩❴ ◆ ❳❩❲❧❩❴ ❘❱❱❪❯❤❖◆❱ ❣❭◆❫❪❵ ❝❭❪ ◗❪P❬❱❪ ❩❴ ❯❱◆❦❘❬❧ ➀❖❘❪❣ ❩P ❬❭❪ ❦❪❱❬❘◗◆❖ ➁➁➂ ❬❭❱❩❤❯❭ ❬❭❪ ❫❩❘P❬❩❴ ❣❤❣❫❪P❣❘❩P ❩❴ ❬❭❪ ❳❩❲❧ ➁❵

Page 166: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

✈✟✠✡ ☛✠♦☞ ♦✌✍ ✎♦✏✌✑ ♦☛ ✑✒✍ ✓♦✔✡ ✑♦ ✑✒✍ ♦✑✒✍✠✳ ✕☛

✑✒✍ ✓♦✔✡ ✏t t♦ ✍✖✑✍✌✔✍✔ ✑✒✟✑ ❣ ✈✟✠✏✍t ☛✠♦☞ ✎✟✠✑

✑♦ ✎✟✠✑ ♦☛ ✑✒✍ ✓♦✔✡✗ ✑✒✍✌ ✑✒✍ ✘✍✌✑✠✍ ♦☛ ❡✠✟✈✏✑✡

✟✌✔ ✘✍✌✑✠✍ ♦☛ ☞✟tt ✙✏✚✚ ✌♦✑ ✘♦✏✌✘✏✔✍✳ ✛✟t✏✘✟✚✚✡✗

✑✒✍ ✑✙♦ ✟✠✍ ✔✏☛☛✍✠✍✌✑ ✘♦✌✘✍✎✑t✳ ✜✒✍ ✘✍✌✑✠✍ ♦☛

☞✟tt ✒✟t ✌♦✑✒✏✌❡ ✑♦ ✔♦ ✙✏✑✒ ❡✠✟✈✏✑✡✳ ✕✑ ✔✍✎✍✌✔t

♦✌✚✡ ♦✌ ✑✒✍ ✔✏t✑✠✏✓✢✑✏♦✌ ♦☛ ☞✟tt ♦☛ ✑✒✍ ✓♦✔✡✳

✕✌ ■✍✘✳ ✣✳✤ ✙✍ ☛♦✢✌✔ ♦✢✑ ✑✒✍ ✎♦t✏✑✏♦✌ ♦☛ ✑✒✍

✘✍✌✑✠✍ ♦☛ ☞✟tt ♦☛ t✍✈✍✠✟✚ ✠✍❡✢✚✟✠✗ ✒♦☞♦❡✍✌✍♦✢t

♦✓✥✍✘✑t✳ ✦✓✈✏♦✢t✚✡ ✑✒✍ ☞✍✑✒♦✔ ✢t✍✔ ✑✒✍✠✍ ❡✏✈✍t

✢t ✟✚t♦ ✑✒✍ ✘✍✌✑✠✍ ♦☛ ❡✠✟✈✏✑✡ ♦☛ ✑✒✍t✍ ✓♦✔✏✍t✗ ✏☛

✑✒✍✡ ✟✠✍ t☞✟✚✚ ✍✌♦✢❡✒✳

❋✏❡✢✠✍ ✣✳✤✧ ✏✚✚✢t✑✠✟✑✍t ✟✌♦✑✒✍✠ ✙✟✡ ♦☛

✔✍✑✍✠☞✏✌✏✌❡ ✑✒✍ ♠★ ♦☛ ✟✌ ✠✍❡✢✚✟✠ t✒✟✎✍✔ ✓♦✔✡

✚✏❧✍ ✟ ✘✟✠✔✓♦✟✠✔✳ ✕☛ ✡♦✢ t✢t✎✍✌✔ ✑✒✍ ✓♦✔✡ ☛✠♦☞

t♦☞✍ ✎♦✏✌✑ ✚✏❧✍ s✗ ✑✒✍ ✈✍✠✑✏✘✟✚ ✚✏✌✍ ✑✒✠♦✢❡✒ s

✎✟tt✍t ✑✒✠♦✢❡✒ ✑✒✍ ♠★✳ ✩✍ ☞✟✠❧ ✑✒✍ ✈✍✠✑✏✘✟✚

ss✪✳ ✩✍ ✑✒✍✌ t✢t✎✍✌✔ ✑✒✍ ✓♦✔✡ ✑✒✠♦✢❡✒ ♦✑✒✍✠

✎♦✏✌✑t ✚✏❧✍ ✛ ✟✌✔ ♠✳ ✜✒✍ ✏✌✑✍✠t✍✘✑✏♦✌ ♦☛ ✑✒✍

✈✍✠✑✏✘✟✚t ❡✏✈✍t ✑✒✍ ♠★✳ ✫✖✎✚✟✏✌ ✙✒✡ ✑✒✍ ☞✍✑✒♦✔

✙♦✠❧t✳ ■✏✌✘✍ ✑✒✍ ✓♦✔✡ ✏t t☞✟✚✚ ✍✌♦✢❡✒✗ ✑✒✍

☞✍✑✒♦✔ ✟✚✚♦✙t ✢t ✑♦ ✔✍✑✍✠☞✏✌✍ ✟✚t♦ ✏✑t ✘✍✌✑✠✍

♦☛ ☞✟tt✳

❊✬✭✮✯✰✱ ✲✴✵ s ☞✍✑✟✚ ✓✟✠ ✣✷ ✘☞ ✚♦✌❡

✟✌✔ ❛✳✷✷ ❧❡ ✏✌ ☞✟tt t✢✎✎♦✠✑✍✔ ♦✌ ✑✙♦

❧✌✏☛✍❦✍✔❡✍t ✎✚✟✘✍✔ ✸✷ ✘☞ ☛✠♦☞ ✍✟✘✒ ✍✌✔✳

s ❆✳✷✷ ❧❡ ✙✍✏❡✒✑ ✏t t✢t✎✍✌✔✍✔ ✟✑ ✹✷ ✘☞

☛✠♦☞ ♦✌✍ ✍✌✔✳ ❋✏✌✔ ✑✒✍ ✠✍✟✘✑✏♦✌t ✟✑ ✑✒✍

❧✌✏☛✍❦✍✔❡✍t✳ ✺stt✢☞✍ ✑✒✍ ✓✟✠ ✑♦ ✓✍ ♦☛

✢✌✏☛♦✠☞ ✘✠♦tt t✍✘✑✏♦✌ ✟✌✔ ✒♦☞♦❡✍✌✍♦✢t✳✻

✼✽✾✿✱❀

❁❂❃❄ ❅❄❇❈

❋✏❡✢✠✍ ✣✳✤❆ t✒♦✙t ✑✒✍ ✠♦✔ s✛✗ ✑✒✍ ✎♦t✏✑✏♦✌t

♦☛ ✑✒✍ ❧✌✏☛✍ ✍✔❡✍t ❉✪ ✟✌✔ ❉● ✗ ✑✒✍ ✘✍✌✑✠✍ ♦☛

❡✠✟✈✏✑✡ ♦☛ ✑✒✍ ✠♦✔ ✟✑ ★ ✟✌✔ ✑✒✍ t✢t✎✍✌✔✍✔ ✙✍✏❡✒✑

✟✑ ❍✳

◆♦✑✍ ✑✒✍ ✙✍✏❡✒✑ ♦☛ ✑✒✍ ✠♦✔ ✩ ✟✘✑t ✟✑ ✏✑t

✘✍✌✑✠✍ ♦☛ ❡✠✟✈✏✑✡ ★✳ ✜✒✍ ✠♦✔ ✏t ✢✌✏☛♦✠☞ ✏✌ ✘✠♦tt

t✍✘✑✏♦✌ ✟✌✔ ✒♦☞♦❡✍✌✍♦✢t❏ ✒✍✌✘✍ ★ ✏t ✟✑ ✑✒✍

✘✍✌✑✠✍ ♦☛ ✑✒✍ ✠♦✔❏ s✛ ❑ ✣✷ ✘☞✳ s★ ❑ ✹✧ ✘☞✗ s❍

❑ ✹✷ ✘☞✗ ❍★ ❑ ✧ ✘☞✗ s❉✪❑ ✛❉●❑ ✸✷ ✘☞ ✟✌✔ ❉✪★

❑ ❉●★ ❑ ✤✧ ✘☞✳ s✚t♦✗ ❲❑ ✙✍✏❡✒✑ ♦☛ ✑✒✍ ✠♦✔ ❑

❛✳✷✷ ❧❡ ✟✌✔ ❲✪❑ t✢t✎✍✌✔✍✔ ✙✍✏❡✒✑ ❑ ❆✳✷✷ ❧❡❏

❘✪ ✟✌✔ ❘● ✟✠✍ ✑✒✍ ✌♦✠☞✟✚ ✠✍✟✘✑✏♦✌t ♦☛ ✑✒✍

t✢✎✎♦✠✑ ✟✑ ✑✒✍ ❧✌✏☛✍ ✍✔❡✍t✳

❋♦✠ ✑✠✟✌t✚✟✑✏♦✌✟✚ ✍▲✢✏✚✏✓✠✏✢☞ ♦☛ ✑✒✍ ✠♦✔✗

❘✪▼❘● ➊❲✪ ➊❲ ❑ ✷ ✺✏✻

◆♦✑✍ ❲✪ ✟✌✔ ❲ ✟✘✑ ✈✍✠✑✏✘✟✚✚✡ ✔♦✙✌ ✟✌✔ ❖✪✟✌✔ ❖● ✟✘✑ ✈✍✠✑✏✘✟✚✚✡ ✢✎✳

❋♦✠ ✘♦✌t✏✔✍✠✏✌❡ ✠♦✑✟✑✏♦✌✟✚ ✍▲✢✏✚✏✓✠✏✢☞✗ ✙✍

✑✟❧✍ ☞♦☞✍✌✑t ♦☛ ✑✒✍ ☛♦✠✘✍t✳ s ✘♦✌✈✍✌✏✍✌✑ ✎♦✏✌✑

✑♦ ✑✟❧✍ ☞♦☞✍✌✑t ✟✓♦✢✑ ✏t ★✳ ✜✒✍ ☞♦☞✍✌✑t ♦☛

❖● ✟✌✔ ✩✪ ✟✠✍ ✟✌✑✏✘✚♦✘❧✙✏t✍ ✺◗✈✍✻✗ ✙✒✍✠✍✟t ✑✒✍

☞♦☞✍✌✑ ♦☛ ❖✪ ✏t ✘✚♦✘❧✙✏t✍ ✺❦✈✍✻✳

❋♦✠ ✠♦✑✟✑✏♦✌✟✚ ✍▲✢✏✚✏✓✠✏✢☞✗

➊❘✪ ✺❉✪★✻ ◗ ❲✪ ✺❍★✻ ◗ ❘● ✺❉●★✻ ❑ ✷ ✺✏✏✻

✕✑ ✏t ❡✏✈✍✌ ✑✒✟✑ ❲ ❑ ❛✳✷✷❙ ◆ ✟✌✔ ❲✪ ❑ ❆✳✷✷❙

◆✗ ✙✒✍✠✍ ❙ ❑ ✟✘✘✍✚✍✠✟✑✏♦✌ ✔✢✍ ✑♦ ❡✠✟✈✏✑✡✳ ✩✍

✑✟❧✍ ❙ ❑ ❚✳❯ ☞❱t●✳

✩✏✑✒ ✌✢☞✍✠✏✘✟✚ ✈✟✚✢✍t ✏✌t✍✠✑✍✔✗ ☛✠♦☞ ✺✏✻

❘✪ ◗ ❘● ❳ ❛✳✷✷❙ ❳ ❆✳✷✷❙ ❑ ✷

♦✠ ❘✪◗ ❘● ❑ ✸✷✳✷✷❙ ◆ ✺✏✏✏✻

❑ ❚❯✳✷✷ ◆

❋✠♦☞ ✺✏✏✻ ❳ ✷✳✤✧ ❘✪ ◗ ✷✳✷✧ ❲✪ ◗ ✷✳✤✧ ❘● ❑ ✷

♦✠ ❘● ❳ ❘✪ ❑ ✸✳✤❙ ◆ ❑ ✸✸✳✣❆ ◆ ✺✏✈✻

❋✠♦☞ ✺✏✏✏✻ ✟✌✔ ✺✏✈✻✗ ❘✪ ❑ ✧❛✳❯❯ ◆✗

❘● ❑ ❛✹✳✸✤ ◆

✜✒✢t ✑✒✍ ✠✍✟✘✑✏♦✌t ♦☛ ✑✒✍ t✢✎✎♦✠✑ ✟✠✍ ✟✓♦✢✑

✧✧ ◆ ✟✑ ❉✪ ✟✌✔ ❛✹ ◆ ✟✑ ❉●✳ ❨

❊✬✭✮✯✰✱ ✲✴❩ s ✹☞ ✚♦✌❡ ✚✟✔✔✍✠ ✙✍✏❡✒✏✌❡

✤✷ ❧❡ ✚✍✟✌t ♦✌ ✟ ☛✠✏✘✑✏♦✌✚✍tt ✙✟✚✚✳ ✕✑t ☛✍✍✑

✠✍t✑ ♦✌ ✑✒✍ ☛✚♦♦✠ ✸ ☞ ☛✠♦☞ ✑✒✍ ✙✟✚✚ ✟t t✒♦✙✌

✏✌ ❋✏❡✳✣✳✤✣✳ ❋✏✌✔ ✑✒✍ ✠✍✟✘✑✏♦✌ ☛♦✠✘✍t ♦☛ ✑✒✍

✙✟✚✚ ✟✌✔ ✑✒✍ ☛✚♦♦✠✳

✼✽✾✿✱❀

❁❂❃❄ ❅❄❇❅

✜✒✍ ✚✟✔✔✍✠ s✛ ✏t ✹ ☞ ✚♦✌❡✗ ✏✑t ☛♦♦✑ s ✏t ✟✑

✔✏t✑✟✌✘✍ s♠ ❑ ✸ ☞ ☛✠♦☞ ✑✒✍ ✙✟✚✚✳ ❋✠♦☞

Page 167: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✻✸

P✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✏✔ ✍✎✕✒✓✕✖✗ ✘✙ ✚ ✷ ✷ ✖✥ ✛✎✕ ✜✒✓✢✕✔✒♦ ✍✎✕ ✣✏✤✤✕✓ ✏✓✕ ✦✍✔ ✧✕✦✑✎✍ ★ ✏✢✍✦♦✑ ✏✍ ✦✍✔ ✢✕♦✍✓✕✒✜ ✑✓✏✩✦✍✌ ✪✗ ✓✕✏✢✍✦✒♦ ✜✒✓✢✕✔ ❋✫✏♦✤ ❋✬✒✜ ✍✎✕ ✧✏✣✣✏♦✤ ✍✎✕ ✜✣✒✒✓ ✓✕✔❡✕✢✍✦✩✕✣✌✥ ✭✒✓✢✕ ❋✫ ✦✔❡✕✓❡✕♦✤✦✢♣✣✏✓ ✍✒ ✍✎✕ ✧✏✣✣✗ ✔✦♦✢✕ ✍✎✕ ✧✏✣✣ ✦✔✜✓✦✢✍✦✒♦✣✕✔✔✥ ✭✒✓✢✕ ❋✬ ✦✔ ✓✕✔✒✣✩✕✤ ✦♦✍✒ ✍✧✒✢✒✖❡✒♦✕♦✍✔✗ ✍✎✕ ♦✒✓✖✏✣ ✓✕✏✢✍✦✒♦ ◆ ✏♦✤ ✍✎✕✜✒✓✢✕ ✒✜ ✜✓✦✢✍✦✒♦ ❋✮ ✯✒✍✕ ✍✎✏✍ ❋ ❡✓✕✩✕♦✍✔ ✍✎✕ ✣✏✤✤✕✓✜✓✒✖ ✔✣✦✤✦♦✑ ✏✧✏✌ ✜✓✒✖ ✍✎✕ ✧✏✣✣ ✏♦✤ ✦✔ ✍✎✕✓✕✜✒✓✕✤✦✓✕✢✍✕✤ ✍✒✧✏✓✤ ✍✎✕ ✧✏✣✣✥

✭✒✓ ✍✓✏♦✔✣✏✍✦✒♦✏✣ ✕✰♣✦✣✦✱✓✦♣✖✗ ✍✏✲✦♦✑ ✍✎✕✜✒✓✢✕✔ ✦♦ ✍✎✕ ✩✕✓✍✦✢✏✣ ✤✦✓✕✢✍✦✒♦✗

◆ ✳ ❲ ✚ ✴ ✵✦✹✛✏✲✦♦✑ ✍✎✕ ✜✒✓✢✕✔ ✦♦ ✍✎✕ ✎✒✓✦❝✒♦✍✏✣ ✤✦✓✕✢✍✦✒♦✗❋ ✺ ❋✫ ✚ ✴ ✵✦✦✹✭✒✓ ✓✒✍✏✍✦✒♦✏✣ ✕✰♣✦✣✦✱✓✦♣✖✗ ✍✏✲✦♦✑ ✍✎✕

✖✒✖✕♦✍✔ ✒✜ ✍✎✕ ✜✒✓✢✕✔ ✏✱✒♣✍ ✼✗

✽✷ ✷ ✾ ❾ ✵✿❀❁✹ ❲ ✚ ✴ ✵✦✦✦✹

✯✒✧ ❲ ✚ ❁✴ ✑ ✚ ❁✴ ❂ ❃✥❄ ✯ ✚ ✿❃❅✥✴ ✯✭✓✒✖ ✵✦✹ ◆ ✚ ✿❃❅✥✴

✭✓✒✖ ✵✦✦✦✹ ❆ ❇ ❈ ❉❊●❍■❏❇ ❈ ❑❇❍● ▲▼ ❖◗ ◗ ◗

✭✓✒✖ ✵✦✦✹ ❘ ❯❱❳❨ ❩❬ ❬❭ ❭

❪ ❪❪ ❫❴❴❵❛❜ ❜ ❞❢ ❣ ❢ ✯

✛✎✕ ✜✒✓✢✕ ❋✬ ✖✏✲✕✔ ✏♦ ✏♦✑✣✕ ❤ ✧✦✍✎ ✍✎✕✎✒✓✦❝✒♦✍✏✣✗

✽t✐❥ ❦ ✷ ❧ t✐❥ ♠❦ ✷♥ qrs ✾✉ ✉ ✈✇ ✇ ✇ ① o ②

③④⑤ ⑥⑦⑥⑧⑨⑩ ⑦❶ ❷⑨⑧❸⑩❷❹

★✕ ✎✏✩✕ ✏✣✓✕✏✤✌ ✖✕♦✍✦✒♦✕✤ ✍✎✏✍ ✧✕ ✏✓✕✤✕✩✕✣✒❡✦♦✑ ✍✎✕ ✔✍♣✤✌ ✒✜ ✓✒✍✏✍✦✒♦✏✣ ✖✒✍✦✒♦❡✏✓✏✣✣✕✣ ✍✒ ✍✎✕ ✔✍♣✤✌ ✒✜ ✍✓✏♦✔✣✏✍✦✒♦✏✣ ✖✒✍✦✒♦ ✧✦✍✎✧✎✦✢✎ ✧✕ ✏✓✕ ✜✏✖✦✣✦✏✓✥ ★✕ ✎✏✩✕ ✌✕✍ ✍✒ ✏♦✔✧✕✓✒♦✕ ✖✏❺✒✓ ✰♣✕✔✍✦✒♦ ✦♦ ✍✎✦✔ ✢✒♦♦✕✢✍✦✒♦✥ ❻❼❽❿ ➀➁❿❼➂ ❽➃❽➄➅➆➇➂ ➅➈ ➉❽➁➁ ➀➃ ➊➅❿❽❿➀➅➃❽➄ ➉➅❿➀➅➃➋★✕ ✔✎✏✣✣ ✏✍✍✕✖❡✍ ✍✒ ✏♦✔✧✕✓ ✍✎✦✔ ✰♣✕✔✍✦✒♦ ✦♦ ✍✎✕❡✓✕✔✕♦✍ ✔✕✢✍✦✒♦✥ ✛✒ ✲✕✕❡ ✍✎✕ ✤✦✔✢♣✔✔✦✒♦ ✔✦✖❡✣✕✗✧✕ ✔✎✏✣✣ ✢✒♦✔✦✤✕✓ ✓✒✍✏✍✦✒♦ ✏✱✒♣✍ ✏ ✜✦➌✕✤ ✏➌✦✔✒♦✣✌✥ ➍✕✍ ♣✔ ✍✓✌ ✍✒ ✑✕✍ ✏♦ ✕➌❡✓✕✔✔✦✒♦ ✜✒✓ ➎➏➐➑➀➃➂❿➀➒ ➂➃➂➊➆➓ ➅➈ ❽ ➊➅❿❽❿➀➃➆ ➔➅→➓✥ ★✕ ✲♦✒✧✍✎✏✍ ✜✒✓ ✏ ✱✒✤✌ ✓✒✍✏✍✦♦✑ ✏✱✒♣✍ ✏ ✜✦➌✕✤ ✏➌✦✔✗ ✕✏✢✎❡✏✓✍✦✢✣✕ ✒✜ ✍✎✕ ✱✒✤✌ ✖✒✩✕✔ ✦♦ ✏ ✢✦✓✢✣✕ ✧✦✍✎ ✣✦♦✕✏✓✩✕✣✒✢✦✍✌ ✑✦✩✕♦ ✱✌ ➣✰✥ ✵↔✥✿❃✹✥ ✵↕✕✜✕✓ ✍✒ ✭✦✑✥ ↔✥✿❅✹✥✭✒✓ ✏ ❡✏✓✍✦✢✣✕ ✏✍ ✏ ✤✦✔✍✏♦✢✕ ✜✓✒✖ ✍✎✕ ✏➌✦✔✗ ✍✎✕

✣✦♦✕✏✓ ✩✕✣✒✢✦✍✌ ✦✔ ➙ ➙➛➜ ➝✇ ✥ ✛✎✕ ✲✦♦✕✍✦✢ ✕♦✕✓✑✌ ✒✜✖✒✍✦✒♦ ✒✜ ✍✎✦✔ ❡✏✓✍✦✢✣✕ ✦✔

➞ ➞ ➞➟ ➟➠ ➠➡ ➡ ➡ ➡ ➡➢ ➤ ➤ ➥➦ ➧➨ ➨

✧✎✕✓✕ ➩➫ ✦✔ ✍✎✕ ✖✏✔✔ ✒✜ ✍✎✕ ❡✏✓✍✦✢✣✕✥ ✛✎✕ ✍✒✍✏✣✲✦♦✕✍✦✢ ✕♦✕✓✑✌ ➭ ✒✜ ✍✎✕ ✱✒✤✌ ✦✔ ✍✎✕♦ ✑✦✩✕♦ ✱✌✍✎✕ ✔♣✖ ✒✜ ✍✎✕ ✲✦♦✕✍✦✢ ✕♦✕✓✑✦✕✔ ✒✜ ✦♦✤✦✩✦✤♣✏✣❡✏✓✍✦✢✣✕✔✗

➯ ➯➲ ➲

➳➵ ➸

➻ ➻➼ ➼ ➼

➼ ➼➽ ➾ ➚ ➪ ➶

➹ ➹➘ ➘➴ ➴

➷✕✓✕ ➬ ✦✔ ✍✎✕ ♦♣✖✱✕✓ ✒✜ ❡✏✓✍✦✢✣✕✔ ✦♦ ✍✎✕ ✱✒✤✌✥✯✒✍✕ ➮✦✔ ✍✎✕ ✔✏✖✕ ✜✒✓ ✏✣✣ ❡✏✓✍✦✢✣✕✔✥ ➷✕♦✢✕✗ ✍✏✲✦♦✑➮✒♣✍ ✒✜ ✍✎✕ ✔♣✖✗

➯ ➯➲

➳➵ ➸

➻➼ ➼

➼➽ ➚ ➪➶

➹➘ ➴

★✕ ✤✕✜✦♦✕ ✏ ♦✕✧ ❡✏✓✏✖✕✍✕✓ ✢✎✏✓✏✢✍✕✓✦✔✦♦✑✍✎✕ ✓✦✑✦✤ ✱✒✤✌✗ ✢✏✣✣✕✤ ✍✎✕ ✖✒✖✕♦✍ ✒✜ ✦♦✕✓✍✦✏ ➱ ✗✑✦✩✕♦ ✱✌

✃❐

❒❮ ❮

❮❰ Ï Ð

ÑÒ Ó ✵↔✥ÔÕ✹

★✦✍✎ ✍✎✦✔ ✤✕✜✦♦✦✍✦✒♦✗

Ö×Ø

Ù ÚÛÜ ✵↔✥ÔÝ✹

✯✒✍✕ ✍✎✏✍ ✍✎✕ ❡✏✓✏✖✕✍✕✓ ➱ ✦✔ ✦♦✤✕❡✕♦✤✕♦✍ ✒✜✍✎✕ ✖✏✑♦✦✍♣✤✕ ✒✜ ✍✎✕ ✏♦✑♣✣✏✓ ✩✕✣✒✢✦✍✌✥ Þ✍ ✦✔ ✏✢✎✏✓✏✢✍✕✓✦✔✍✦✢ ✒✜ ✍✎✕ ✓✦✑✦✤ ✱✒✤✌ ✏♦✤ ✍✎✕ ✏➌✦✔✏✱✒♣✍ ✧✎✦✢✎ ✦✍ ✓✒✍✏✍✕✔✥

✙✒✖❡✏✓✕ ➣✰✥ ✵↔✥ÔÝ✹ ✜✒✓ ✍✎✕ ✲✦♦✕✍✦✢ ✕♦✕✓✑✌ ✒✜✏ ✓✒✍✏✍✦♦✑ ✱✒✤✌ ✧✦✍✎ ✍✎✕ ✕➌❡✓✕✔✔✦✒♦ ✜✒✓ ✍✎✕✲✦♦✕✍✦✢ ✕♦✕✓✑✌ ✒✜ ✏ ✱✒✤✌ ✦♦ ✣✦♦✕✏✓ ✵✍✓✏♦✔✣✏✍✦✒♦✏✣✹✖✒✍✦✒♦✗

ßà✷

á â ➜✇

➷✕✓✕ ➩ ✦✔ ✍✎✕ ✖✏✔✔ ✒✜ ✍✎✕ ✱✒✤✌ ✏♦✤ ã ✦✔ ✦✍✔✩✕✣✒✢✦✍✌✥ ★✕ ✎✏✩✕ ✏✣✓✕✏✤✌ ♦✒✍✕✤ ✍✎✕ ✏♦✏✣✒✑✌✱✕✍✧✕✕♦ ✏♦✑♣✣✏✓ ✩✕✣✒✢✦✍✌ ➮✵✦♦ ✓✕✔❡✕✢✍ ✒✜ ✓✒✍✏✍✦✒♦✏✣✖✒✍✦✒♦ ✏✱✒♣✍ ✏ ✜✦➌✕✤ ✏➌✦✔✹ ✏♦✤ ✣✦♦✕✏✓ ✩✕✣✒✢✦✍✌ ã ✵✦♦✓✕✔❡✕✢✍ ✒✜ ✣✦♦✕✏✓ ✖✒✍✦✒♦✹✥ Þ✍ ✦✔ ✍✎✕♦ ✕✩✦✤✕♦✍ ✍✎✏✍✍✎✕ ❡✏✓✏✖✕✍✕✓✗ ✖✒✖✕♦✍ ✒✜ ✦♦✕✓✍✦✏ ➱✗ ✦✔ ✍✎✕ ✤✕✔✦✓✕✤✓✒✍✏✍✦✒♦✏✣ ✏♦✏✣✒✑♣✕ ✒✜ ✖✏✔✔✥ Þ♦ ✓✒✍✏✍✦✒♦ ✵✏✱✒♣✍ ✏✜✦➌✕✤ ✏➌✦✔✹✗ ✍✎✕ ✖✒✖✕♦✍ ✒✜ ✦♦✕✓✍✦✏ ❡✣✏✌✔ ✏ ✔✦✖✦✣✏✓✓✒✣✕ ✏✔ ✖✏✔✔ ✤✒✕✔ ✦♦ ✣✦♦✕✏✓ ✖✒✍✦✒♦✥

★✕ ♦✒✧ ✏❡❡✣✌ ✍✎✕ ✤✕✜✦♦✦✍✦✒♦ ➣✰✥ ✵↔✥ÔÕ✹✗ ✍✒✢✏✣✢♣✣✏✍✕ ✍✎✕ ✖✒✖✕♦✍ ✒✜ ✦♦✕✓✍✦✏ ✦♦ ✍✧✒ ✔✦✖❡✣✕✢✏✔✕✔✥✵✏✹ ✙✒♦✔✦✤✕✓ ✏ ✍✎✦♦ ✓✦♦✑ ✒✜ ✓✏✤✦♣✔ ä ✏♦✤ ✖✏✔✔

å✗ ✓✒✍✏✍✦♦✑ ✦♦ ✦✍✔ ✒✧♦ ❡✣✏♦✕ ✏✓✒♣♦✤ ✦✍✔

Page 168: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❝✞✟✠✡✞ ❡☛✠☞ ✌✟✍✎✏✌✡ ✑✞✏✒❝☛✠✓ ✔✳ ✕✌❝☞ ✖✌✗✗

✞✏✞✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ✡☛✟✍ ☛✗ ✌✠ ✌ ✙☛✗✠✌✟❝✞ ✚ ✘✡✒✖

✠☞✞ ✌t☛✗✛ ✌✟✙ ✖✒✑✞✗ ❡☛✠☞ ✌ ✗✜✞✞✙ ❘✔✳ ✢☞✞

❦☛✟✞✠☛❝ ✞✟✞✡✍✓ ☛✗ ✠☞✞✡✞✘✒✡✞✛

✷ ✷ ✷✣ ✣

✤ ✤❑ ✥ ✥✦✧ ★❂ ❂

❈✒✖✜✌✡☛✟✍ ❡☛✠☞ ✕✩✳ ✪✫✳✬✭✮ ❡✞ ✍✞✠ ■ ✯ ✰❘✱

✘✒✡ ✠☞✞ ✡☛✟✍✳

❋✲✴✵ ✸✵✹✺ ❆ ✻✼✽✾✿ ❀♦❁ ♦❃ ✻❄❅✽✿✾ ✻ ❇✼✿✾ ❉ ❊❉✼❀ ♦❃ ●❉❍❍❄❍

❀♦✿❉✿✼❅✽ ❉❏♦▲✿ ❉❅ ❉▼✼❍ ✿✾❀♦▲✽✾ ✿✾❄ ◆❄❅✿❀❄ ♦❃

●❉❍❍ ♦❃ ✿✾❄ ❍♠❍✿❄● ❉❅❁ ❊❄❀❊❄❅❁✼◆▲✻❉❀ ✿♦

✿✾❄ ❀♦❁❖ ◗✾❄ ✿♦✿❉✻ ●❉❍❍ ♦❃ ✿✾❄ ❍♠❍✿❄● ✼❍ ❙❖

✪❚✮ ❯✞t✠✛ ✠✌❦✞ ✌ ✡☛✍☛✙ ✖✌✗✗✏✞✗✗ ✡✒✙ ✒✘ ✏✞✟✍✠☞ ❧

❡☛✠☞ ✌ ✜✌☛✡ ✒✘ ✗✖✌✏✏ ✖✌✗✗✞✗✛ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✟✍ ✌❚✒✎✠

✌✟ ✌t☛✗ ✠☞✡✒✎✍☞ ✠☞✞ ❝✞✟✠✡✞ ✒✘ ✖✌✗✗

✜✞✡✜✞✟✙☛❝✎✏✌✡ ✠✒ ✠☞✞ ✡✒✙ ✪❱☛✍✳ ✫✳❲❳✮✳ ✕✌❝☞

✖✌✗✗ ✰❨❲ ☛✗ ✌✠ ✌ ✙☛✗✠✌✟❝✞ ❧❨❲ ✘✡✒✖ ✠☞✞ ✌t☛✗✳

✢☞✞ ✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ✖✌✗✗✞✗ ☛✗

✠☞✞✡✞✘✒✡✞ ✍☛✑✞✟ ❚✓

✪✰❨❲✮ ✪❧❨❲✮✱ ❩ ✪✰❨❲✮✪❧❨❲✮✱

✢☞✎✗✛ ✘✒✡ ✠☞✞ ✜✌☛✡ ✒✘ ✖✌✗✗✞✗✛ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✟✍ ✌❚✒✎✠

✠☞✞ ✌t☛✗ ✠☞✡✒✎✍☞ ✠☞✞ ❝✞✟✠✡✞ ✒✘ ✖✌✗✗

✜✞✡✜✞✟✙☛❝✎✏✌✡ ✠✒ ✠☞✞ ✡✒✙

■ ❬ ✰❧✱ ❨ ❭

✢✌❚✏✞ ✫✳❛ ✍☛✑✞✗ ✠☞✞ ✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌ ✒✘ ✑✌✡☛✒✎✗

✘✌✖☛✏☛✌✡ ✡✞✍✎✏✌✡ ✗☞✌✜✞✙ ✗✒✏☛✙✗ ✌❚✒✎✠ ✗✜✞❝☛✘☛❝

✌t✞✗✳

❪✗ ✠☞✞ ✖✌✗✗ ✒✘ ✌ ❚✒✙✓ ✡✞✗☛✗✠✗ ✌ ❝☞✌✟✍✞ ☛✟

☛✠✗ ✗✠✌✠✞ ✒✘ ✏☛✟✞✌✡ ✖✒✠☛✒✟✛ ☛✠ ☛✗ ✌ ✖✞✌✗✎✡✞ ✒✘ ☛✠✗

☛✟✞✡✠☛✌ ☛✟ ✏☛✟✞✌✡ ✖✒✠☛✒✟✳ ✐☛✖☛✏✌✡✏✓✛ ✌✗ ✠☞✞

✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌ ✌❚✒✎✠ ✌ ✍☛✑✞✟ ✌t☛✗ ✒✘ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✒✟

✡✞✗☛✗✠✗ ✌ ❝☞✌✟✍✞ ☛✟ ☛✠✗ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✒✟✌✏ ✖✒✠☛✒✟✛ ☛✠ ❝✌✟

❚✞ ✡✞✍✌✡✙✞✙ ✌✗ ✌ ✖✞✌✗✎✡✞ ✒✘ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✒✟✌✏ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌

✒✘ ✠☞✞ ❚✒✙✓❫ ☛✠ ☛✗ ✌ ✖✞✌✗✎✡✞ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ❡✌✓ ☛✟ ❡☞☛❝☞

✙☛✘✘✞✡✞✟✠ ✜✌✡✠✗ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ❚✒✙✓ ✌✡✞ ✙☛✗✠✡☛❚✎✠✞✙ ✌✠

✙☛✘✘✞✡✞✟✠ ✙☛✗✠✌✟❝✞✗ ✘✡✒✖ ✠☞✞ ✌t☛✗✳ ❴✟✏☛❦✞ ✠☞✞

✖✌✗✗ ✒✘ ✌ ❚✒✙✓✛ ✠☞✞ ✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌ ☛✗ ✟✒✠ ✌

✘☛t✞✙ ✩✎✌✟✠☛✠✓ ❚✎✠ ✙✞✜✞✟✙✗ ✒✟ ✠☞✞ ✒✡☛✞✟✠✌✠☛✒✟

✌✟✙ ✜✒✗☛✠☛✒✟ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ✌t☛✗ ✒✘ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✒✟ ❡☛✠☞ ✡✞✗✜✞❝✠

✠✒ ✠☞✞ ❚✒✙✓ ✌✗ ✌ ❡☞✒✏✞✳ ❪✗ ✌ ✖✞✌✗✎✡✞ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ❡✌✓

☛✟ ❡☞☛❝☞ ✠☞✞ ✖✌✗✗ ✒✘ ✌ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✟✍ ✡☛✍☛✙ ❚✒✙✓ ☛✗

✙☛✗✠✡☛❚✎✠✞✙ ❡☛✠☞ ✡✞✗✜✞❝✠ ✠✒ ✠☞✞ ✌t☛✗ ✒✘ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✒✟✛

❡✞ ❝✌✟ ✙✞✘☛✟✞ ✌ ✟✞❡ ✜✌✡✌✖✞✠✞✡✛ ✠☞✞ r❵❜❞❢❣ ❤❥

♥♣r❵q❞❤s✉ ✈✠ ☛✗ ✡✞✏✌✠✞✙ ✠✒ ✠☞✞ ✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌

✌✟✙ ✠☞✞ ✠✒✠✌✏ ✖✌✗✗ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ❚✒✙✓✳

❯✒✠☛❝✞ ✘✡✒✖ ✠☞✞ ✢✌❚✏✞ ✫✳❛ ✠☞✌✠ ☛✟ ✌✏✏ ❝✌✗✞✗✛

❡✞ ❝✌✟ ❡✡☛✠✞ ✈ ✯ ✰✇✱✛ ❡☞✞✡✞ ✇ ☞✌✗ ✠☞✞ ✙☛✖✞✟✗☛✒✟

✒✘ ✏✞✟✍✠☞✳ ❱✒✡ ✌ ✡✒✙✛ ✌❚✒✎✠ ✠☞✞ ✜✞✡✜✞✟✙☛❝✎✏✌✡

✌t☛✗ ✌✠ ☛✠✗ ✖☛✙✜✒☛✟✠✛ i.e.① ①②③④⑤ ⑥⑦

⑧⑨⑩❶ ❷❸ ✳ ✐☛✖☛✏✌✡✏✓✛ ✇ ❬ ❘❨❲ ✘✒✡ ✠☞✞ ❝☛✡❝✎✏✌✡

✙☛✗❝ ✌❚✒✎✠ ☛✠✗ ✙☛✌✖✞✠✞✡✳ ✢☞✞ ✏✞✟✍✠☞ ✇ ☛✗ ✌

✍✞✒✖✞✠✡☛❝ ✜✡✒✜✞✡✠✓ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ❚✒✙✓ ✌✟✙ ✌t☛✗ ✒✘

✡✒✠✌✠☛✒✟✳ ✈✠ ☛✗ ❝✌✏✏✞✙ ✠☞✞ r❵❜❞❢❣ ❤❥ ♥♣r❵q❞❤s✳ ❹❺❻

r❵❜❞❢❣ ❤❥ ♥♣r❵q❞❤s ❤❥ ❵ ❼❤❜♣ ❵❼❤❢q ❵s ❵❽❞❣

✖✌✓ ❚✞ ✙✞✘☛✟✞✙ ✌✗ ✠☞✞ ✙☛✗✠✌✟❝✞ ✘✡✒✖ ✠☞✞ ✌t☛✗ ✒✘

✌ ✖✌✗✗ ✜✒☛✟✠ ❡☞✒✗✞ ✖✌✗✗ ☛✗ ✞✩✎✌✏ ✠✒ ✠☞✞ ✖✌✗✗

✒✘ ✠☞✞ ❡☞✒✏✞ ❚✒✙✓ ✌✟✙ ❡☞✒✗✞ ✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌

☛✗ ✞✩✎✌✏ ✠✒ ✠☞✞ ✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ❚✒✙✓

✌❚✒✎✠ ✠☞✞ ✌t☛✗✳

✢☞✎✗✛ ✠☞✞ ✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌ ✒✘ ✌ ✡☛✍☛✙ ❚✒✙✓

✙✞✜✞✟✙✗ ✒✟ ✠☞✞ ✖✌✗✗ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ❚✒✙✓✛ ☛✠✗ ✗☞✌✜✞ ✌✟✙

✗☛❾✞❫ ✙☛✗✠✡☛❚✎✠☛✒✟ ✒✘ ✖✌✗✗ ✌❚✒✎✠ ✠☞✞ ✌t☛✗ ✒✘

✡✒✠✌✠☛✒✟✛ ✌✟✙ ✠☞✞ ✜✒✗☛✠☛✒✟ ✌✟✙ ✒✡☛✞✟✠✌✠☛✒✟ ✒✘ ✠☞✞

✌t☛✗ ✒✘ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✒✟✳

❱✡✒✖ ✠☞✞ ✙✞✘☛✟☛✠☛✒✟✛ ✕✩✳ ✪✫✳✬❭✮✛ ❡✞ ❝✌✟ ☛✟✘✞✡

✠☞✌✠ ✠☞✞ ✙☛✖✞✟✗☛✒✟✗ ✒✘ ✖✒✖✞✟✠✗ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌ ❡✞

❿➀➁ ✌✟✙ ☛✠✗ ✐✈ ✎✟☛✠✗ ✌✡✞ ❦✍ ✖✱✳

✢☞✞ ✜✡✒✜✞✡✠✓ ✒✘ ✠☞☛✗ ✞t✠✡✞✖✞✏✓ ☛✖✜✒✡✠✌✟✠

✩✎✌✟✠☛✠✓ ■ ✌✗ ✌ ✖✞✌✗✎✡✞ ✒✘ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✒✟✌✏ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌ ✒✘

✠☞✞ ❚✒✙✓ ☞✌✗ ❚✞✞✟ ✜✎✠ ✠✒ ✌ ✍✡✞✌✠ ✜✡✌❝✠☛❝✌✏ ✎✗✞✳

✢☞✞ ✖✌❝☞☛✟✞✗✛ ✗✎❝☞ ✌✗ ✗✠✞✌✖ ✞✟✍☛✟✞ ✌✟✙ ✠☞✞

✌✎✠✒✖✒❚☛✏✞ ✞✟✍☛✟✞✛ ✞✠❝✳✛ ✠☞✌✠ ✜✡✒✙✎❝✞ ✡✒✠✌✠☛✒✟✌✏

✖✒✠☛✒✟ ☞✌✑✞ ✌ ✙☛✗❝ ❡☛✠☞ ✌ ✏✌✡✍✞ ✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘

☛✟✞✡✠☛✌✛ ❝✌✏✏✞✙ ✌ ❥➂♣➃❺❻❻➂✳ ➄✞❝✌✎✗✞ ✒✘ ☛✠✗ ✏✌✡✍✞

✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌✛ ✠☞✞ ✘✏✓❡☞✞✞✏ ✡✞✗☛✗✠✗ ✠☞✞

✗✎✙✙✞✟ ☛✟❝✡✞✌✗✞ ✒✡ ✙✞❝✡✞✌✗✞ ✒✘ ✠☞✞ ✗✜✞✞✙ ✒✘ ✠☞✞

✑✞☞☛❝✏✞✳ ✈✠ ✌✏✏✒❡✗ ✌ ✍✡✌✙✎✌✏ ❝☞✌✟✍✞ ☛✟ ✠☞✞ ✗✜✞✞✙

✌✟✙ ✜✡✞✑✞✟✠✗ ➅✞✡❦✓ ✖✒✠☛✒✟✗✛ ✠☞✞✡✞❚✓ ✞✟✗✎✡☛✟✍

✌ ✗✖✒✒✠☞ ✡☛✙✞ ✘✒✡ ✠☞✞ ✜✌✗✗✞✟✍✞✡✗ ✒✟ ✠☞✞ ✑✞☞☛❝✏✞✳

➆➇➈➉ ❹➊➋➌➍➋➎➏➌➐ ➑➋➍➑➋➒➓➔→➣↔↕➍ ↕➒➓

➑↕➍↕↔↔➋↔ ↕➙➋➏

✢☞✞✗✞ ✌✡✞ ✠❡✒ ✎✗✞✘✎✏ ✠☞✞✒✡✞✖✗ ✡✞✏✌✠☛✟✍ ✠✒

✖✒✖✞✟✠ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌✳ ➛✞ ✗☞✌✏✏ ✘☛✡✗✠ ✙☛✗❝✎✗✗ ✠☞✞

✠☞✞✒✡✞✖ ✒✘ ✜✞✡✜✞✟✙☛❝✎✏✌✡ ✌t✞✗ ✌✟✙ ☛✠✗ ✗☛✖✜✏✞

✓✞✠ ☛✟✗✠✡✎❝✠☛✑✞ ✌✜✜✏☛❝✌✠☛✒✟ ☛✟ ❡✒✡❦☛✟✍ ✒✎✠ ✠☞✞

✖✒✖✞✟✠✗ ✒✘ ☛✟✞✡✠☛✌ ✒✘ ✗✒✖✞ ✡✞✍✎✏✌✡➜✗☞✌✜✞✙

❚✒✙☛✞✗✳

Page 169: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✻✺

✌❛✍✎✏ ✑✒✓ ✥✔✕✏✖✗✘ ✔✙ ✚✖✏✛✗✜❛ ✔✙ ✘✔✕✏ ✛✏❡✢✎❛✛ ✘✣❛✤✏✦ ✍✔✦✜✏✘ ❛✍✔✢✗ ✘✤✏✧✜✙✜✧ ❛★✏✘

❩ ❇✩✪✫ ❆✬✭✮ ❋✭✯✰✱✲ ■

✳✴✵ ✷✸✹✼ ✽✹✾✽❝✿❀✾ P❁✾❂❁✼❃✹✽❝✿❀✾ t❄ ▼ ❅ ❈

✾✹✼r❉ ✾❀❃✹❝❊ ❅ ❂✿❀✼❁❉ ❀t ✽❁✼t✾❁

✳●✵ ✷✸✹✼ ✽✹✾✽❝✿❀✾ ❍✹❀❏❁t❁✾ ▼ ❅❑▲◆

✾✹✼r❉ ✾❀❃✹❝❊ ❅

✳❖✵ ✷✸✹✼ ✾❄❃❉ P❁✾❂❁✼❃✹✽❝✿❀✾ t❄ ▼ ◗❑▲❘◆

✿❁✼rt✸ ❯ ✾❄❃❉ ❀t ❏✹❃ ❂❄✹✼t

✳❱✵ ❲✹✾✽❝✿❀✾ ❃✹❊✽❉ P❁✾❂❁✼❃✹✽❝✿❀✾ t❄ ▼ ❅❑▲◆

✾❀❃✹❝❊ ❅ ❃✹❊✽ ❀t ✽❁✼t✾❁

✳❳✵ ❲✹✾✽❝✿❀✾ ❃✹❊✽❉ ❍✹❀❏❁t❁✾ ▼ ❅❑▲❨

✾❀❃✹❝❊ ❅

✳❬✵ ❭❄✿✿❄❪ ✽❫✿✹✼❃❁✾❉ ❴❵✹❊ ❄❜ ✽❫✿✹✼❃❁✾ ▼ ❅❞

✾❀❃✹❝❊ ❅

✳❢✵ ❣❄✿✹❃ ✽❫✿✹✼❃❁✾❉ ❴❵✹❊ ❄❜ ✽❫✿✹✼❃❁✾ ▼ ❅❑▲◆

✾❀❃✹❝❊ ❅

✳❤✵ ❣❄✿✹❃ ❊❂✸❁✾❁❉ ❍✹❀❏❁t❁✾ ◆ ▼ ❅❑▲✐

✾❀❃✹❝❊ ❅

❥❦✲✩✱✲❧ ✩♠ ♥✲✱♥✲♦✪✭♣✰qs✱ s✬✲✮

✷✸✹❊ t✸❁❄✾❁❏ ✹❊ ❀❂❂✿✹✽❀✉✿❁ t❄ ✉❄❃✹❁❊ ❪✸✹✽✸ ❀✾❁

❂✿❀✼❀✾✈ ✇✼ ❂✾❀✽t✹✽❁ t✸✹❊ ❏❁❀✼❊ t✸❁ t✸❁❄✾❁❏

❀❂❂✿✹❁❊ t❄ ❜✿❀t ✉❄❃✹❁❊ ❪✸❄❊❁ t✸✹✽①✼❁❊❊ ✹❊ ②❁✾❫

❊❏❀✿✿ ✽❄❏❂❀✾❁❃ t❄ t✸❁✹✾ ❄t✸❁✾ ❃✹❏❁✼❊✹❄✼❊ ✳❁✈r✈

✿❁✼rt✸❉ ✉✾❁❀❃t✸ ❄✾ ✾❀❃✹❝❊✵✈ ③✹r✈ ❢✈●④ ✹✿✿❝❊t✾❀t❁❊

t✸❁ t✸❁❄✾❁❏✈ ✇t ❊t❀t❁❊ t✸❀t ⑤❦✲ ❧✩❧✲♦⑤ ✩♠

✭♦✲✱⑤✭s ✩♠ s ♥qs♦s✱ ⑥✩✪✫ ⑦qs❧✭♦s⑧ s⑥✩✰⑤ s♦ s✬✭✮

♥✲✱♥✲♦✪✭♣✰qs✱ ⑤✩ ✭⑤✮ ♥qs♦✲ ✭✮ ✲⑨✰sq ⑤✩ ⑤❦✲ ✮✰❧

✩♠ ✭⑤✮ ❧✩❧✲♦⑤✮ ✩♠ ✭♦✲✱⑤✭s s⑥✩✰⑤ ⑤⑩✩

♥✲✱♥✲♦✪✭♣✰qs✱ s✬✲✮ ♣✩♦♣✰✱✱✲♦⑤ ⑩✭⑤❦

♥✲✱♥✲♦✪✭♣✰qs✱ s✬✭✮ s♦✪ q✫✭♦✯ ✭♦ ⑤❦✲ ♥qs♦✲ ✩♠

⑤❦✲ ⑥✩✪✫❶

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✶�� P✁✂✄☎✆✄

❋✞✟✠ ✡✠☛☞ ❚✌✍✎✏✍❡ ✎✑ ✒✍✏✒✍✓✔✕✖✗✘✙✏ ✙✚✍✛

✙✒✒✘✕✖✙❛✘✍ ✜✎ ✙ ✒✘✙✓✙✏ ❛✎✔✢✣ ✚ ✙✓✔ ✢ ✙✚✍✛

✙✏✍ ✜✤✎ ✒✍✏✒✍✓✔✕✖✗✘✙✏ ✙✚✍✛ ✕✓ ✜✌✍ ✒✘✙✓✍

✙✓✔ ✜✌✍ ✥✦✙✚✕✛ ✕✛ ✒✍✏✒✍✓✔✕✖✗✘✙✏ ✜✎ ✜✌✍

✒✘✙✓✍♣

✧★✩ ✪✫✬✭✮✩ ✯★✰✱✯ ✲ ✳✴✲✵✲✮ ✷✰✸✹✺ ✻✵ ✲✼✫✯

✳✩✮✳✩✵✸✫✽✭✴✲✮ ✾✰ ✾★✩ ✷✰✸✹ ✾★✮✰✭✬★ ✲ ✳✰✫✵✾ ♦ ✫✯

✾✲t✩✵ ✲✯ ✾★✩ ③✿✲✼✫✯✺ ✧✱✰ ❀✭✾✭✲✴✴✹ ✳✩✮✳✩✵✸✫✽✭✴✲✮

✲✼✩✯ ✴✹✫✵✬ ✫✵ ✾★✩ ✳✴✲✵✩ ✰✪ ✾★✩ ✷✰✸✹ ✲✵✸

✽✰✵✽✭✮✮✩✵✾ ✱✫✾★ ③✿✲✼✫✯❁ ✫✺✩✺ ✳✲✯✯✫✵✬ ✾★✮✰✭✬★ ♦❁

✲✮✩ ✾✲t✩✵ ✲✯ ✾★✩ ① ✲✵✸ ②✿✲✼✩✯✺ ✧★✩ ✾★✩✰✮✩❀

✯✾✲✾✩✯ ✾★✲✾

❂ ❃ ❄■ ■ ■❅ ❆ ❇❈✺❉❊●

▲✩✾ ✭✯ ✴✰✰t ✲✾ ✾★✩ ✭✯✩✪✭✴✵✩✯✯ ✰✪ ✾★✩ ✾★✩✰✮✩❀

✾★✮✰✭✬★ ✲✵ ✩✼✲❀✳✴✩✺

❍❏❑▼◆❖◗ ❘❙❯❱ ❲★✲✾ ✫✯ ✾★✩ ❀✰❀✩✵✾ ✰✪

✫✵✩✮✾✫✲ ✰✪ ✲ ✸✫✯✽ ✲✷✰✭✾ ✰✵✩ ✰✪ ✫✾✯ ✸✫✲❀✩✾✩✮✯✐

❋✞✟✠ ✡✠❳❨ ❩♣❬♣ ✎✑ ✙ ✔✕✛✖ ✙❛✎✗✜ ✙ ✔✕✙❡✍✜✍✏❭ ❪✕❫✍✓ ✕✜✛

❩♣❬♣ ✙❛✎✗✜ ✜✌✍ ✒✍✏✒✍✓✔✕✖✗✘✙✏ ✙✚✕✛ ✜✌✏✎✗❪✌

✕✜✛ ✖✍✓✜✏✍♣

❴❵❜❝◗❞ ❲✩ ✲✯✯✭❀✩ ✾★✩ ❀✰❀✩✵✾ ✰✪ ✫✵✩✮✾✫✲ ✰✪

✾★✩ ✸✫✯✽ ✲✷✰✭✾ ✲✵ ✲✼✫✯ ✳✩✮✳✩✵✸✫✽✭✴✲✮ ✾✰ ✫✾ ✲✵✸

✾★✮✰✭✬★ ✫✾✯ ✽✩✵✾✮✩ ✾✰ ✷✩ t✵✰✱✵❢ ✫✾ ✫✯ ❣❤❥❦❧❁

✱★✩✮✩ ♠ ✫✯ ✾★✩ ❀✲✯✯ ✰✪ ✾★✩ ✸✫✯✽ ✲✵✸ ❤ ✫✯ ✫✾✯

✮✲✸✫✭✯ ❇✧✲✷✴✩ ❈✺♥●

✧★✩ ✸✫✯✽ ✽✲✵ ✷✩ ✽✰✵✯✫✸✩✮✩✸ ✾✰ ✷✩ ✲ ✳✴✲✵✲✮

✷✰✸✹✺ q✩✵✽✩ ✾★✩ ✾★✩✰✮✩❀ ✰✪ ✳✩✮✳✩✵✸✫✽✭✴✲✮ ✲✼✩✯

✫✯ ✲✳✳✴✫✽✲✷✴✩ ✾✰ ✫✾✺ ✻✯ ✯★✰✱✵ ✫✵ r✫✬✺ ❈✺❉s❁ ✱✩

✾✲t✩ ✾★✮✩✩ ✽✰✵✽✭✮✮✩✵✾ ✲✼✩✯ ✾★✮✰✭✬★ ✾★✩ ✽✩✵✾✮✩

✰✪ ✾★✩ ✸✫✯✽❁ ♦ ✲✯ ✾★✩ ①✉②✉③ ✲✼✩✯❢ ① ✲✵✸ ②✿✲✼✩✯ ✴✫✩

✫✵ ✾★✩ ✳✴✲✵✩ ✰✪ ✾★✩ ✸✫✯✽ ✲✵✸ ③ ✫✯ ✳✩✮✳✩✵✸✫✽✭✴✲✮

✾✰ ✫✾✺ ✈✹ ✾★✩ ✾★✩✰✮✩❀ ✰✪ ✳✩✮✳✩✵✸✫✽✭✴✲✮ ✲✼✩✯❁

❂ ❃ ❄■ ■ ■❅ ❆

✇✰✱❁ ① ✲✵✸ ② ✲✼✩✯ ✲✮✩ ✲✴✰✵✬ ✾✱✰ ✸✫✲❀✩✾✩✮✯

✰✪ ✾★✩ ✸✫✯✽❁ ✲✵✸ ✷✹ ✯✹❀❀✩✾✮✹ ✾★✩ ❀✰❀✩✵✾ ✰✪

✫✵✩✮✾✫✲ ✰✪ ✾★✩ ✸✫✯✽ ✫✯ ✾★✩ ✯✲❀✩ ✲✷✰✭✾ ✲✵✹

✸✫✲❀✩✾✩✮✺ q✩✵✽✩

④⑤ ⑥ ④⑦

✲✵✸ ④⑧ ⑥ ❧④⑤

✈✭✾ ④⑧ ⑥ ❣❤❥❦❧

⑨✰ ✪✫✵✲✴✴✹❁ ④⑤ ⑥ ④⑧❦❧ ⑥ ❣❤❥❦⑩

✧★✭✯ ✾★✩ ❀✰❀✩✵✾ ✰✪ ✫✵✩✮✾✫✲ ✰✪ ✲ ✸✫✯✽ ✲✷✰✭✾

✲✵✹ ✰✪ ✫✾✯ ✸✫✲❀✩✾✩✮ ✫✯ ❣❤❥❦⑩ ✺ ❶

r✫✵✸ ✯✫❀✫✴✲✮✴✹ ✾★✩ ❀✰❀✩✵✾ ✰✪ ✫✵✩✮✾✫✲ ✰✪ ✲

✮✫✵✬ ✲✷✰✭✾ ✲✵✹ ✰✪ ✫✾✯ ✸✫✲❀✩✾✩✮✺ ❲✫✴✴ ✾★✩ ✾★✩✰✮✩❀

✷✩ ✲✳✳✴✫✽✲✷✴✩ ✾✰ ✲ ✯✰✴✫✸ ✽✹✴✫✵✸✩✮✐

❋✞✟✠✡✠❳❷ ❚✌✍ ✜✌✍✎✏✍❡ ✎✑ ✒✙✏✙✘✘✍✘ ✙✚✍✛ ❚✌✍ ✥ ✙✓✔ ✥❸

✙✚✍✛ ✙✏✍ ✜✤✎ ✒✙✏✙✘✘✍✘ ✙✚✍✛ ✛✍✒✙✏✙✜✍✔ ❛✢

✙ ✔✕✛✜✙✓✖✍ ✙✣ ❹ ✕✛ ✜✌✍ ✖✍✓✜✏✍ ✎✑ ❡✙✛✛ ✎✑

✜✌✍ ❛✎✔✢❭ ❺❺➆ ❻ ✙♣

Page 171: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✻✼

✍✎✏✑✎✏ ✒✓✔✕✖✔❡ ✕✗ ✘✙✖✙✚✚✔✚ ✙✛✔✜

✢✣✤✥ ✦✣✧★✩✧✪ ✤✥ ✫✬✬✭✤✮✫✯✭✧ ✦★ ✫ ✯★✰✱ ★✲ ✫✳✱

✥✣✫✬✧s ✴✦ ✫✭✭★✵✥ ✦★ ✲✤✳✰ ✦✣✧ ✪★✪✧✳✦ ★✲ ✤✳✧✩✦✤✫ ★✲

✫ ✯★✰✱ ✫✯★❛✦ ✫✳✱ ✫✷✤✥✸ ✹✤✺✧✳ ✦✣✧ ✪★✪✧✳✦ ★✲

✤✳✧✩✦✤✫ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✯★✰✱ ✫✯★❛✦ ✫ ✬✫✩✫✭✭✧✭ ✫✷✤✥ ✦✣✩★❛✹✣

✦✣✧ ✮✧✳✦✩✧ ★✲ ✪✫✥✥ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✯★✰✱s ✽✧ ✥✣✫✭✭ ★✳✭✱

✥✦✫✦✧ ✦✣✤✥ ✦✣✧★✩✧✪ ✫✳✰ ✳★✦ ✹✤✺✧ ✤✦✥ ✬✩★★✲s ✽✧

✥✣✫✭✭✸ ✣★✵✧✺✧✩✸ ✫✬✬✭✱ ✤✦ ✦★ ✫ ✲✧✵ ✥✤✪✬✭✧ ✥✤✦❛✫✦✤★✳✥

✵✣✤✮✣ ✵✤✭✭ ✯✧ ✧✳★❛✹✣ ✦★ ✮★✳✺✤✳✮✧ ❛✥ ✫✯★❛✦ ✦✣✧

❛✥✧✲❛✭✳✧✥✥ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✦✣✧★✩✧✪s ✢✣✧ ✦✣✧★✩✧✪ ✪✫✱

✯✧ ✥✦✫✦✧✰ ✫✥ ✲★✭✭★✵✥❜

✒✓✔ ❡✕❡✔✾✿ ✕✗ ❀✾✔✖✿❀✙ ✕✗ ✙ ❁✕❂❃ ✙❁✕❄✿ ✙✾❃

✙✛❀✜ ❀✜ ✔❅❄✙✚ ✿✕ ✿✓✔ ✜❄❡ ✕✗ ✿✓✔ ❡✕❡✔✾✿ ✕✗❀✾✔✖✿❀✙ ✕✗ ✿✓✔ ❁✕❂❃ ✙❁✕❄✿ ✙ ✘✙✖✙✚✚✔✚ ✙✛❀✜ ✘✙✜✜❀✾✐

✿✓✖✕❄✐✓ ❀✿✜ t✔✾✿✖✔ ✕✗ ❡✙✜✜ ✙✾❂ ✿✓✔ ✘✖✕❂❄t✿ ✕✗❀✿✜ ❡✙✜✜ ✙✾❂ ✿✓✔ ✜❅❄✙✖✔ ✕✗ ✿✓✔ ❂❀✜✿✙✾t✔❁✔✿❆✔✔✾ ✿✓✔ ✿❆✕ ✘✙✖✙✚✚✔✚ ✙✛✔✜✎ ❇✥ ✥✣★✵✳ ✤✳

✦✣✧ ❈✤✹s ❉s❊❋✸ ③ ✫✳✰ ●❍ ✫✩✧ ✦✵★ ✬✫✩✫✭✭✧✭ ✫✷✧✥

✥✧✬✫✩✫✦✧✰ ✯✱ ✫ ✰✤✥✦✫✳✮✧ ■s ✢✣✧ ③❏✫✷✤✥ ✬✫✥✥✧✥

✦✣✩★❛✹✣ ✦✣✧ ✮✧✳✦✩✧ ★✲ ✪✫✥✥ ♦ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✩✤✹✤✰ ✯★✰✱s

✢✣✧✳ ✫✮✮★✩✰✤✳✹ ✦★ ✦✣✧ ✦✣✧★✩✧✪ ★✲ ✬✫✩✫✭✭✧✭ ✫✷✧✥

❑▲▼ ◆ ❑▲ ❖P■◗ ❘❉s❊❉❯✵✣✧✩✧ ❑▲ ✫✳✰ ❑▲▼ ✫✩✧ ✦✣✧ ✪★✪✧✳✦✥ ★✲ ✤✳✧✩✦✤✫ ★✲ ✦✣✧

✯★✰✱ ✫✯★❛✦ ✦✣✧ ③ ✫✳✰ ③❱ ✫✷✧✥ ✩✧✥✬✧✮✦✤✺✧✭✱✸ P ✤✥ ✦✣✧

✦★✦✫✭ ✪✫✥✥ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✯★✰✱ ✫✳✰ ■ ✤✥ ✦✣✧ ✬✧✩✬✧✳✰✤✮❛✭✫✩

✰✤✥✦✫✳✮✧ ✯✧✦✵✧✧✳ ✦✣✧ ✦✵★ ✬✫✩✫✭✭✧✭ ✫✷✧✥s

❲❳❨❩❬❭❪ ❫❴❵❵ ✽✣✫✦ ✤✥ ✦✣✧ ✪★✪✧✳✦ ★✲

✤✳✧✩✦✤✫ ★✲ ✫ ✩★✰ ★✲ ✪✫✥✥ P❝ ✭✧✳✹✦✣ ❧ ✫✯★❛✦

✫✳ ✫✷✤✥ ✬✧✩✬✧✳✰✤✮❛✭✫✩ ✦★ ✤✦ ✦✣✩★❛✹✣ ★✳✧

✧✳✰❞

❢❣❤❥❪❦ ❈★✩ ✦✣✧ ✩★✰ ★✲ ✪✫✥✥ P ✫✳✰ ✭✧✳✹✦✣ ❧✸

❑ ♠ P❧◗♥❋♣s q✥✤✳✹ ✦✣✧ ✬✫✩✫✭✭✧✭ ✫✷✧✥ ✦✣✧★✩✧✪✸

❑❱ ♠ ❑ ❖ P■◗ ✵✤✦✣ ■ ♠ ❧r✉ ✵✧ ✹✧✦✸

✈✈ ✈

✇① ① ②

④ ④ ⑤④⑥ ⑤ ⑤

⑦ ⑧⑨ ⑩ ❶ ⑩❷ ❸

❹ ❺

✽✧ ✮✫✳ ✮✣✧✮❻ ✦✣✤✥ ✤✳✰✧✬✧✳✰✧✳✦✭✱ ✥✤✳✮✧ ❑ ✤✥

✣✫✭✲ ✦✣✧ ✪★✪✧✳✦ ★✲ ✤✳✧✩✦✤✫ ★✲ ✫ ✩★✰ ★✲ ✪✫✥✥ ♣P✫✳✰ ✭✧✳✹✦✣ ♣❧ ✫✯★❛✦ ✤✦✥ ✪✤✰✬★✤✳✦✸

❼ ❼❽ ❾❿ ➀

❾❿ ❿ ➁

➂ ➃➂➄ ➃➅ ➆ ➇ ➆ ➈

❲❳❨❩❬❭❪ ❫❴❵➉ ✽✣✫✦ ✤✥ ✦✣✧ ✪★✪✧✳✦ ★✲

✤✳✧✩✦✤✫ ★✲ ✫ ✩✤✳✹ ✫✯★❛✦ ✫ ✦✫✳✹✧✳✦ ✦★ ✦✣✧

✮✤✩✮✭✧ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✩✤✳✹❞

❢❣❤❥❪❦

✢✣✧ ✦✫✳✹✧✳✦ ✦★ ✦✣✧ ✩✤✳✹ ✤✳ ✦✣✧ ✬✭✫✳✧ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✩✤✳✹

✤✥ ✬✫✩✫✭✭✧✭ ✦★ ★✳✧ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✰✤✫✪✧✦✧✩✥ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✩✤✳✹s

✢✣✧ ✰✤✥✦✫✳✮✧ ✯✧✦✵✧✧✳ ✦✣✧✥✧ ✦✵★ ✬✫✩✫✭✭✧✭ ✫✷✧✥ ✤✥

➊✸ ✦✣✧ ✩✫✰✤❛✥ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✩✤✳✹s q✥✤✳✹ ✦✣✧ ✬✫✩✫✭✭✧✭ ✫✷✧✥

✦✣✧★✩✧✪✸

➋➌➍➎ ➏➎➐➑

➒➒ ➒ ➒

➓➔→➣↔→➓↕

➙ ➙➛➜➝

➞➟➠ ➠ ➞➟ ➞➟ ➞➟➡ ➢ ➡ ➢ ➡ s ➈

✍✎✏✏ ➤➥➦➧➨➩✒➥➫➭ ➯➲➳➯✒➩✒➥➯➦➩➵➨➯✒➥➯➦

➩➸➯➺✒ ➩ ➲➥➻➧➼ ➩➻➥➭

✽✧ ✣✫✺✧ ✫✭✩✧✫✰✱ ✤✳✰✤✮✫✦✧✰ ✦✣✧ ✫✳✫✭★✹✱ ✯✧✦✵✧✧✳

✩★✦✫✦✤★✳✫✭ ✪★✦✤★✳ ✫✳✰ ✦✩✫✳✥✭✫✦✤★✳✫✭ ✪★✦✤★✳s ❈★✩

✧✷✫✪✬✭✧✸ ✦✣✧ ✫✳✹❛✭✫✩ ✺✧✭★✮✤✦✱ ➽✬✭✫✱✥ ✦✣✧ ✥✫✪✧

✩★✭✧ ✤✳ ✩★✦✫✦✤★✳ ✫✥ ✦✣✧ ✭✤✳✧✫✩ ✺✧✭★✮✤✦✱ ➾ ✤✳

✦✩✫✳✥✭✫✦✤★✳s ✽✧ ✵✤✥✣ ✦★ ✦✫❻✧ ✦✣✤✥ ✫✳✫✭★✹✱

✲❛✩✦✣✧✩s ✴✳ ✰★✤✳✹ ✥★ ✵✧ ✥✣✫✭✭ ✩✧✥✦✩✤✮✦ ✦✣✧

✰✤✥✮❛✥✥✤★✳ ★✳✭✱ ✦★ ✩★✦✫✦✤★✳ ✫✯★❛✦ ✲✤✷✧✰ ✫✷✤✥s ✢✣✤✥

✮✫✥✧ ★✲ ✪★✦✤★✳ ✤✳✺★✭✺✧✥ ★✳✭✱ ★✳✧ ✰✧✹✩✧✧ ★✲

✲✩✧✧✰★✪✸ ✤s✧s✸ ✳✧✧✰✥ ★✳✭✱ ★✳✧ ✤✳✰✧✬✧✳✰✧✳✦

✺✫✩✤✫✯✭✧ ✦★ ✰✧✥✮✩✤✯✧ ✦✣✧ ✪★✦✤★✳s ✢✣✤✥ ✤✳

✦✩✫✳✥✭✫✦✤★✳ ✮★✩✩✧✥✬★✳✰✥ ✦★ ✭✤✳✧✫✩ ✪★✦✤★✳s ✢✣✤✥

✥✧✮✦✤★✳ ✤✥ ✭✤✪✤✦✧✰ ★✳✭✱ ✦★ ❻✤✳✧✪✫✦✤✮✥s ✽✧ ✥✣✫✭✭

✦❛✩✳ ✦★ ✰✱✳✫✪✤✮✥ ✤✳ ✭✫✦✧✩ ✥✧✮✦✤★✳✥s

✽✧ ✩✧✮✫✭✭ ✦✣✫✦ ✲★✩ ✥✬✧✮✤✲✱✤✳✹ ✦✣✧ ✫✳✹❛✭✫✩

✰✤✥✬✭✫✮✧✪✧✳✦ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✩★✦✫✦✤✳✹ ✯★✰✱ ✵✧ ✦✫❻✧ ✫✳✱

✬✫✩✦✤✮✭✧ ✭✤❻✧ ➚ ❘❈✤✹s❉s❊❊❯ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✯★✰✱s ✴✦✥ ✫✳✹❛✭✫✩

✰✤✥✬✭✫✮✧✪✧✳✦ ➪ ✤✳ ✦✣✧ ✬✭✫✳✧ ✤✦ ✪★✺✧✥ ✤✥ ✦✣✧

✫✳✹❛✭✫✩ ✰✤✥✬✭✫✮✧✪✧✳✦ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✵✣★✭✧ ✯★✰✱➶ ➪ ✤✥

✪✧✫✥❛✩✧✰ ✲✩★✪ ✫ ✲✤✷✧✰ ✰✤✩✧✮✦✤★✳ ✤✳ ✦✣✧ ✬✭✫✳✧ ★✲

✪★✦✤★✳ ★✲ ➚✸ ✵✣✤✮✣ ✵✧ ✦✫❻✧ ✦★ ✯✧ ✦✣✧ ➹➘ ❏ ✫✷✤✥✸

✮✣★✥✧✳ ✬✫✩✫✭✭✧✭ ✦★ ✦✣✧ ➹❏✫✷✤✥s ➴★✦✧✸ ✫✥ ✥✣★✵✳✸

✦✣✧ ✫✷✤✥ ★✲ ✩★✦✫✦✤★✳ ✤✥ ✦✣✧ ③ ➷ ✫✷✤✥ ✫✳✰ ✦✣✧ ✬✭✫✳✧

★✲ ✦✣✧ ✪★✦✤★✳ ★✲ ✦✣✧ ✬✫✩✦✤✮✭✧ ✤✥ ✦✣✧ ➹ ❏ ➬ ✬✭✫✳✧s

❈✤✹s ❉s❊❊ ✫✭✥★ ✥✣★✵✥ ➮➱✸ ✦✣✧ ✫✳✹❛✭✫✩

✰✤✥✬✭✫✮✧✪✧✳✦ ✫✦ ✃ ♠ ❐s

✽✧ ✫✭✥★ ✩✧✮✫✭✭ ✦✣✫✦ ✦✣✧ ✫✳✹❛✭✫✩ ✺✧✭★✮✤✦✱ ✤✥

✦✣✧ ✦✤✪✧ ✩✫✦✧ ★✲ ✮✣✫✳✹✧ ★✲ ✫✳✹❛✭✫✩ ✰✤✥✬✭✫✮✧✪✧✳✦✸

❒❒ ♠ ✰❮❮♥✰✃s ➴★✦✧ ✥✤✳✮✧ ✦✣✧ ✫✷✤✥ ★✲ ✩★✦✫✦✤★✳ ✤✥

Page 172: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

✞❢✟✠✡☛☞ ✌✍✡✎✡ ✟❡ ✏✑ ✏✡✡☛ ✌✑ ✌✎✡✒✌ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ✖✡✕✑✗✟✌✘✒❡ ✒ ✖✡✗✌✑✎✳ ✙✔✎✌✍✡✎☞ ✌✍✡ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ✒✗✗✡✕✡✎✒✌✟✑✏☞✚✚ ✥ ☛✛✛✴☛t✳

❚✍✡ ✜✟✏✡✢✒✌✟✗✒✕ ✣✔✒✏✌✟✌✟✡❡ ✟✏ ✎✑✌✒✌✟✑✏✒✕✢✑✌✟✑✏☞ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ☛✟❡♠✕✒✗✡✢✡✏✌ ✤✦✮☞ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎✖✡✕✑✗✟✌✘ ✤✧✧✮ ✒✏☛ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ✒✗✗✡✕✡✎✒✌✟✑✏ ✤★✮✎✡❡♠✡✗✌✟✖✡✕✘ ✗✑✎✎✡❡♠✑✏☛ ✌✑ ✜✟✏✡✢✒✌✟✗ ✣✔✒✏✌✟✌✟✡❡✟✏ ✕✟✏✡✒✎ ✢✑✌✟✑✏☞ ☛✟❡♠✕✒✗✡✢✡✏✌ ✤① ✮☞ ✖✡✕✑✗✟✌✘ ✤✈✮✒✏☛ ✒✗✗✡✕✡✎✒✌✟✑✏ ✤❛✮✳ ✩✡ ✜✏✑✪ ✌✍✡ ✜✟✏✡✢✒✌✟✗✒✕✡✣✔✒✌✟✑✏❡ ✑❢ ✕✟✏✡✒✎ ✢✑✌✟✑✏ ✪✟✌✍ ✔✏✟❢✑✎✢ ✤✟✳✡✳✗✑✏❡✌✒✏✌✮ ✒✗✗✡✕✡✎✒✌✟✑✏❝

✈ ✥ ✈✵ ✫ ❛t ✤✒✮

✷✬ ✬

✭✯

✰ ✰ ✱ ✲✱✸❂ ✹ ✹ ✤✺✮

✻ ✻✼ ✽✾✿❀ ❀❁ ❃ ✤✗✮

✪✍✡✎✡ ①✵ ✥ ✟✏✟✌✟✒✕ ☛✟❡♠✕✒✗✡✢✡✏✌ ✒✏☛ ✈✵✥ ✟✏✟✌✟✒✕✖✡✕✑✗✟✌✘✳ ❚✍✡ ✪✑✎☛ ❞✟✏✟✌✟✒✕❄ ✎✡❢✡✎❡ ✌✑ ✖✒✕✔✡❡ ✑❢ ✌✍✡✣✔✒✏✌✟✌✟✡❡ ✒✌ t ✥ ❅

❚✍✡ ✗✑✎✎✡❡♠✑✏☛✟✏✓ ✜✟✏✡✢✒✌✟✗ ✡✣✔✒✌✟✑✏❡ ❢✑✎✎✑✌✒✌✟✑✏✒✕ ✢✑✌✟✑✏ ✪✟✌✍ ✔✏✟❢✑✎✢ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎✒✗✗✡✕✡✎✒✌✟✑✏ ✒✎✡❝

0❆ ❆ ❇❈ ❉ t ✤❊✳❋●✮

✷✬ ✬

✭✯

✱ ✱❍ ❍ ■ ❏❂ ✹ ✹ ✤❊✳❋❑✮

✒✏☛ 2 20 02 ( – )▲ ▲ ▼ ◆ ◆❖ ◗ ✤❊✳❘❅✮

✪✍✡✎✡ ❙✵✥ ✟✏✟✌✟✒✕ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ☛✟❡♠✕✒✗✡✢✡✏✌ ✑❢ ✌✍✡✎✑✌✒✌✟✏✓ ✺✑☛✘☞ ✒✏☛ ❯✵ ✥ ✟✏✟✌✟✒✕ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ✖✡✕✑✗✟✌✘✑❢ ✌✍✡ ✺✑☛✘✳

❱❲❳❨❩❨❬❬ ❭❪❫❴❵❜❣❵❤✐ ❥❦❫ ❧❤✐♥♦❧♣ ❪qr❵❥❵q❤ q❜ ❧ ♣❵✐❵s✉qs❣✇

②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧ ⑨⑩❶❷ ❸✺✌✒✟✏ ❹✣✳ ✤❊✳❋●✮ ❢✎✑✢ ❢✟✎❡✌♠✎✟✏✗✟♠✕✡❡✳

❺❻❼❽⑧❾ ❚✍✡ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ✒✗✗✡✕✡✎✒✌✟✑✏ ✟❡ ✔✏✟❢✑✎✢☞✍✡✏✗✡

❿❿

➀➁➂➃➄➅➂➄➄➆ ➇➈ ➈ ✤✟✮

➉✏✌✡✓✎✒✌✟✏✓ ✌✍✟❡ ✡✣✔✒✌✟✑✏☞

➊➋ ➌➍ ➎➏ ➐➑➒➓➔ →➔ ➣↔↕➔➙➓↕➙➛➄ ➀➇ ➇➈ ➜

➝✌ t ➞ ➟☞ ❯ ✥ ❯✵ ✤✓✟✖✡✏✮✙✎✑✢ ✤✟✮ ✪✡ ✓✡✌ ✒✌ t ➞ ➟➠ ❯ ✥ ➡ ✥ ❯✵❚✍✔❡☞ ❯ ✥ ➢t ✫ ❯✵ ✒❡ ✎✡✣✔✟✎✡☛✳✩✟✌✍ ✌✍✡ ☛✡❢✟✏✟✌✟✑✏ ✑❢ ➤ ✥ ☛➥✴☛t ✪✡ ✢✒✘

✟✏✌✡✓✎✒✌✡ ❹✣✳ ✤❊✳❋●✮ ✌✑ ✓✡✌ ❹✣✳ ✤❊✳❋❑✮✳ ❚✍✟❡☛✡✎✟✖✒✌✟✑✏ ✒✏☛ ✌✍✡ ☛✡✎✟✖✒✌✟✑✏ ✑❢ ❹✣✳ ✤❊✳❘❅✮ ✟❡✕✡❢✌ ✒❡ ✒✏ ✡✠✡✎✗✟❡✡✳

②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧ ⑨⑩❶➦ ❚✍✡ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ❡♠✡✡☛ ✑❢ ✒✢✑✌✑✎ ✪✍✡✡✕ ✟❡ ✟✏✗✎✡✒❡✡☛ ❢✎✑✢ ➧➨❅❅ ✎♠✢✌✑ ❋➧➨❅ ✎♠✢ ✟✏ ➧➩ ❡✡✗✑✏☛❡✳ ✤✟✮ ✩✍✒✌ ✟❡ ✟✌❡✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ✒✗✗✡✕✡✎✒✌✟✑✏☞ ✒❡❡✔✢✟✏✓ ✌✍✡✒✗✗✡✕✡✎✒✌✟✑✏ ✌✑ ✺✡ ✔✏✟❢✑✎✢➫ ✤✟✟✮ ➭✑✪ ✢✒✏✘✎✡✖✑✕✔✌✟✑✏❡ ☛✑✡❡ ✌✍✡ ✡✏✓✟✏✡ ✢✒✜✡ ☛✔✎✟✏✓✌✍✟❡ ✌✟✢✡➫

❺❻❼❽⑧❾✤✟✮ ✩✡ ❡✍✒✕✕ ✔❡✡ ❯ ✥ ❯✵ ✫ ➢t

❯✵ ✥ ✟✏✟✌✟✒✕ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ❡♠✡✡☛ ✟✏ ✎✒☛✴❡✥ ➨➯ ➲ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ❡♠✡✡☛ ✟✏ ✎✡✖✴❡

✥➳ ➵➸➺➻➼➵➽ ➾➚➪➪➶ ➹➸ ➽➪➘➴➷➹➸

➬➮ ➾➴➷➹➸➱ ×

✥✃ ❐✃❒❒ ❮➓❿❰➔

Ï❒Ð Ñ

✥ ❘❅➯ ✎✒☛✴❡Ò✟✢✟✕✒✎✕✘ ❯✥ ❢✟✏✒✕ ✒✏✓✔✕✒✎ ❡♠✡✡☛ ✟✏ ✎✒☛✴❡

✥✃ Ó❐✃❒ ❮➓❿❰➔

Ï❒Ð Ñ

✥ ➨➯ ➲ Ô➨ ✎✒☛✴❡✥ ➧❅❘ ➯ ✎✒☛✴❡

Õ ➝✏✓✔✕✒✎ ✒✗✗✡✕✡✎✒✌✟✑✏

ÖØ

Ù ÙÚ ÛÜ ✥ ❘ ➯ ✎✒☛✴❡Ý

Page 173: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✻✾

✌✍✎ ✏✑✒✓✔✏✕ ✏✖✖✎✔✎✕✏✗✘✙✑ ✙✚ ✗✍✎ ✎✑✒✘✑✎ ✛

✹✜ ✕✏✥✢✣✷

✭✘✘✤ ✌✍✎ ✏✑✒✓✔✏✕ ✥✘✣✦✔✏✖✎✧✎✑✗ ✘✑ ✗✘✧✎ t ✘✣

✒✘❣✎✑ ★✩

✪✵

✬✮ ✮✯ ✰ ✱❂ ✲

✳✴✸✺✼ ✴✽ ✺ ✴✽ ✿

❀❁ ❁❃ ❄ ❅ ❄ ❄ ✕✏✥

❆❇❈❉ ❊❋● ❍■ ■❏ ❑ ✕✏✥

✛ ▲▲▼◆❖ ✕✏✥

P✓✧★✎✕ ✙✚ ✕✎❣✙✔✓✗✘✙✑✣ ✛✫✫◗✬

◗❘❯✬

❱❂ ❲

❳❨❩❬ ❭❪❫❴❵❛❜❝ ❞❡ ❢❞❤❴❤❛❞❫❴✐ ❵❞❤❛❞❫

❴❥❞❦❤ ❴ ❡❛❧♠❭ ❴❧❛❝

✌✏★✔✎ ♥♦◆ ✔✘✣✗✣ ♣✓✏✑✗✘✗✘✎✣ ✏✣✣✙✖✘✏✗✎✥ q✘✗✍ ✔✘✑✎✏✕

✧✙✗✘✙✑ ✏✑✥ ✗✍✎✘✕ ✏✑✏✔✙✒✓✎✣ ✘✑ ✕✙✗✏✗✘✙✑✏✔ ✧✙✗✘✙✑♦

r✎ ✍✏❣✎ ✏✔✕✎✏✥✩ ✖✙✧✦✏✕✎✥ s✘✑✎✧✏✗✘✖✣ ✙✚ ✗✍✎

✗q✙ ✧✙✗✘✙✑✣♦ ✉✔✣✙✈ q✎ s✑✙q ✗✍✏✗ ✘✑ ✕✙✗✏✗✘✙✑✏✔

✧✙✗✘✙✑ ✧✙✧✎✑✗ ✙✚ ✘✑✎✕✗✘✏ ✏✑✥ ✗✙✕♣✓✎ ✦✔✏✩ ✗✍✎

✣✏✧✎ ✕✙✔✎ ✏✣ ✧✏✣✣ ✏✑✥ ✚✙✕✖✎ ✕✎✣✦✎✖✗✘❣✎✔✩ ✘✑

✔✘✑✎✏✕ ✧✙✗✘✙✑♦ ✇✘❣✎✑ ✗✍✘✣ q✎ ✣✍✙✓✔✥ ★✎ ✏★✔✎ ✗✙

✒✓✎✣✣ q✍✏✗ ✗✍✎ ✙✗✍✎✕ ✏✑✏✔✙✒✓✎✣ ✘✑✥✘✖✏✗✎✥ ✘✑ ✗✍✎

✗✏★✔✎ ✏✕✎♦ ①✙✕ ✎②✏✧✦✔✎✈ q✎ s✑✙q ✗✍✏✗ ✘✑ ✔✘✑✎✏✕

✧✙✗✘✙✑✈ q✙✕s ✥✙✑✎ ✘✣ ✒✘❣✎✑ ★✩ ③ ④⑤✈ ✘✑ ✕✙✗✏✗✘✙✑✏✔

✧✙✗✘✙✑ ✏★✙✓✗ ✏ ✚✘②✎✥ ✏②✘✣ ✘✗ ✣✍✙✓✔✥ ★✎ ⑥⑦ ⑧ ✈

✣✘✑✖✎ q✎ ✏✔✕✎✏✥✩ s✑✙q ✗✍✎ ✖✙✕✕✎✣✦✙✑✥✎✑✖✎

⑨ ⑨⑩ ⑧❶ ✏✑✥ ❷ ❸❹ ♦ ❺✗ ✘✣✈ ✍✙q✎❣✎✕✈ ✑✎✖✎✣✣✏✕✩

✗✍✏✗ ✗✍✎✣✎ ✖✙✕✕✎✣✦✙✑✥✎✑✖✎✣ ✏✕✎ ✎✣✗✏★✔✘✣✍✎✥ ✙✑

✣✙✓✑✥ ✥✩✑✏✧✘✖✏✔ ✖✙✑✣✘✥✎✕✏✗✘✙✑✣♦ ✌✍✘✣ ✘✣ q✍✏✗

q✎ ✑✙q ✗✓✕✑ ✗✙♦

❻✎✚✙✕✎ q✎ ★✎✒✘✑✈ q✎ ✑✙✗✎ ❼ ❽❾❿➀➁❾➂❾➃➄➅❾➆➇

➅➈➄➅ ➄➉❾❽➊❽ ❾➇ ➅➈➊ ➃➄❽➊ ➆➂ ➉➆➅➄➅❾➆➇➄➁ ❿➆➅❾➆➇

➄➋➆➌➅ ➄ ➂❾➍➊➎ ➄➍❾❽➏ ➐✘✑✖✎ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣ ✘✣ ✚✘②✎✥✈ ✙✑✔✩

✗✍✙✣✎ ✖✙✧✦✙✑✎✑✗✣ ✙✚ ✗✙✕♣✓✎✣✈ q✍✘✖✍ ✏✕✎ ✏✔✙✑✒

✗✍✎ ✥✘✕✎✖✗✘✙✑ ✙✚ ✗✍✎ ✚✘②✎✥ ✏②✘✣ ✑✎✎✥ ✗✙ ★✎

✖✙✑✣✘✥✎✕✎✥ ✘✑ ✙✓✕ ✥✘✣✖✓✣✣✘✙✑♦ ➑✑✔✩ ✗✍✎✣✎

✖✙✧✦✙✑✎✑✗✣ ✖✏✑ ✖✏✓✣✎ ✗✍✎ ★✙✥✩ ✗✙ ✕✙✗✏✗✎ ✏★✙✓✗

✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣♦ ✉ ✖✙✧✦✙✑✎✑✗ ✙✚ ✗✍✎ ✗✙✕♣✓✎

✦✎✕✦✎✑✥✘✖✓✔✏✕ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣ ✙✚ ✕✙✗✏✗✘✙✑ q✘✔✔ ✗✎✑✥

✗✙ ✗✓✕✑ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣ ✚✕✙✧ ✘✗✣ ✦✙✣✘✗✘✙✑♦ r✎ ✣✦✎✖✘✚✘✖✏✔✔✩

✏✣✣✓✧✎ ✗✍✏✗ ✗✍✎✕✎ q✘✔✔ ✏✕✘✣✎ ✑✎✖✎✣✣✏✕✩ ✚✙✕✖✎✣ ✙✚

✖✙✑✣✗✕✏✘✑✗ ✗✙ ✖✏✑✖✎✔ ✗✍✎ ✎✚ ✚✎✖✗ ✙✚ ✗✍✎

✦✎✕✦✎✑✥✘✖✓✔✏✕ ✖✙✧✦✙✑✎✑✗✣ ✙✚ ✗✍✎ ✭✎②✗✎✕✑✏✔✤

✗✙✕♣✓✎✣✈ ✣✙ ✗✍✏✗ ✗✍✎ ✚✘②✎✥ ✦✙✣✘✗✘✙✑ ✙✚ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣

q✘✔✔ ★✎ ✧✏✘✑✗✏✘✑✎✥♦ ✌✍✎ ✦✎✕✦✎✑✥✘✖✓✔✏✕

✖✙✧✦✙✑✎✑✗✣ ✙✚ ✗✍✎ ✗✙✕♣✓✎✣✈ ✗✍✎✕✎✚✙✕✎ ✑✎✎✥ ✑✙✗

★✎ ✗✏s✎✑ ✘✑✗✙ ✏✖✖✙✓✑✗♦ ✌✍✘✣ ✧✎✏✑✣ ✗✍✏✗ ✚✙✕ ✙✓✕

✖✏✔✖✓✔✏✗✘✙✑ ✙✚ ✗✙✕♣✓✎✣ ✙✑ ✏ ✕✘✒✘✥ ★✙✥✩➒

✭▲✤ r✎ ✑✎✎✥ ✗✙ ✖✙✑✣✘✥✎✕ ✙✑✔✩ ✗✍✙✣✎ ✚✙✕✖✎✣ ✗✍✏✗

✔✘✎ ✘✑ ✦✔✏✑✎✣ ✦✎✕✦✎✑✥✘✖✓✔✏✕ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣♦

①✙✕✖✎✣ q✍✘✖✍ ✏✕✎ ✦✏✕✏✔✔✎✔ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣ q✘✔✔

✒✘❣✎ ✗✙✕♣✓✎✣ ✦✎✕✦✎✑✥✘✖✓✔✏✕ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣ ✏✑✥

✑✎✎✥ ✑✙✗ ★✎ ✗✏s✎✑ ✘✑✗✙ ✏✖✖✙✓✑✗♦

✭◆✤ r✎ ✑✎✎✥ ✗✙ ✖✙✑✣✘✥✎✕ ✙✑✔✩ ✗✍✙✣✎ ✖✙✧✦✙✑✎✑✗✣

✙✚ ✗✍✎ ✦✙✣✘✗✘✙✑ ❣✎✖✗✙✕✣ q✍✘✖✍ ✏✕✎

✦✎✕✦✎✑✥✘✖✓✔✏✕ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣♦ ➓✙✧✦✙✑✎✑✗✣ ✙✚

✦✙✣✘✗✘✙✑ ❣✎✖✗✙✕✣ ✏✔✙✑✒ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣ q✘✔✔ ✕✎✣✓✔✗ ✘✑

✗✙✕♣✓✎✣ ✦✎✕✦✎✑✥✘✖✓✔✏✕ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣ ✏✑✥ ✑✎✎✥

✑✙✗ ★✎ ✗✏s✎✑ ✘✑✗✙ ✏✖✖✙✓✑✗♦

➔➆➉→ ➎➆➇➊ ➋➣ ➄ ➅➆➉↔➌➊

↕➙➛➜ ➝➜➞➟ ➠➡➢➤ ➥➡➦➧ ➨➩ ➫ ➭➡➢➯➧ ➲➳➫➯➵➸➦➺ ➡➦➫ ➻➫➢➵➸➯➼➧➡➭ ➫ ➨➡➥➩ ➢➡➵➫➵➸➦➺ ➫➨➡➽➵ ➫ ➭➸➾➧➥ ➫➾➸➚➪ ➵➶➧➻➫➢➵➸➯➼➧ ➥➧➚➯➢➸➨➧➚ ➫ ➯➸➢➯➽➼➫➢ ➻➫➵➶ ➹➸➵➶➯➧➦➵➢➧ ➘ ➡➦ ➵➶➧ ➫➾➸➚➪ ➫➢➯ ➴➳➴➷ ➳➬➮➚➳➱ ➺➸✃➧➚

➵➶➧ ➥➸➚➻➼➫➯➧❐➧➦➵ ➡➭ ➵➶➧ ➻➫➢➵➸➯➼➧❒

①✘✒✓✕✎ ♥♦❮✹ ✣✍✙q✣ ✏ ✖✕✙✣✣❰✣✎✖✗✘✙✑ ✙✚ ✏ ✕✘✒✘✥

★✙✥✩ ✕✙✗✏✗✘✑✒ ✏★✙✓✗ ✏ ✚✘②✎✥ ✏②✘✣✈ q✍✘✖✍ ✘✣ ✗✏s✎✑

✏✣ ✗✍✎ Ï❰✏②✘✣ ✭✦✎✕✦✎✑✥✘✖✓✔✏✕ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✦✔✏✑✎ ✙✚ ✗✍✎

✦✏✒✎Ð ✣✎✎ ①✘✒♦ ♥♦❮❮✤♦ ✉✣ ✣✏✘✥ ✏★✙❣✎ q✎ ✑✎✎✥ ✗✙

✖✙✑✣✘✥✎✕ ✙✑✔✩ ✗✍✙✣✎ ✚✙✕✖✎✣ q✍✘✖✍ ✔✘✎ ✘✑ ✦✔✏✑✎✣

✦✎✕✦✎✑✥✘✖✓✔✏✕ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣♦ Ñ✎✗ ❡Ò ★✎ ✙✑✎ ✣✓✖✍

✗✩✦✘✖✏✔ ✚✙✕✖✎ ✏✖✗✘✑✒ ✏✣ ✣✍✙q✑ ✙✑ ✏ ✦✏✕✗✘✖✔✎ ✙✚

✗✍✎ ★✙✥✩ ✏✗ ✦✙✘✑✗ ÓÒ q✘✗✍ ✘✗✣ ✔✘✑✎ ✙✚ ✏✖✗✘✙✑ ✘✑ ✏

✦✔✏✑✎ ✦✎✕✦✎✑✥✘✖✓✔✏✕ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣♦ ①✙✕ ✖✙✑❣✎✑✘✎✑✖✎

q✎ ✖✏✔✔ ✗✍✘✣ ✗✙ ★✎ ✗✍✎ ⑤Ô ÕÖÔ ✦✔✏✑✎ ✭✖✙✘✑✖✘✥✎✑✗

q✘✗✍ ✗✍✎ ✦✔✏✑✎ ✙✚ ✗✍✎ ✦✏✒✎✤♦ ✌✍✎ ✦✏✕✗✘✖✔✎ ✏✗ ÓÒ✥✎✣✖✕✘★✎✣ ✏ ✖✘✕✖✓✔✏✕ ✦✏✗✍ ✙✚ ✕✏✥✘✓✣ ×Ò q✘✗✍ ✖✎✑✗✕✎

➓ ✙✑ ✗✍✎ ✏②✘✣Ð ➓ÓÒ Ø ×Ò➏

❺✑ ✗✘✧✎ Ùt✈ ✗✍✎ ✦✙✘✑✗ ✧✙❣✎✣ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✦✙✣✘✗✘✙✑

ÓÒÚ ♦ ✌✍✎ ✥✘✣✦✔✏✖✎✧✎✑✗ ✙✚ ✗✍✎ ✦✏✕✗✘✖✔✎ ④❽Ò✈

✗✍✎✕✎✚✙✕✎✈ ✍✏✣ ✧✏✒✑✘✗✓✥✎ ✥ÛÒ ✛ ×Ò✥Ü ✏✑✥

✥✘✕✎✖✗✘✙✑ ✗✏✑✒✎✑✗✘✏✔ ✏✗ ÓÒ ✗✙ ✗✍✎ ✖✘✕✖✓✔✏✕ ✦✏✗✍

✏✣ ✣✍✙q✑♦ Ý✎✕✎ ✥Ü ✘✣ ✗✍✎ ✏✑✒✓✔✏✕ ✥✘✣✦✔✏✖✎✧✎✑✗

✙✚ ✗✍✎ ✦✏✕✗✘✖✔✎✈ ✥Ü ✛ Þ Þß àßá â ♦✌✍✎ q✙✕s ✥✙✑✎ ★✩

✗✍✎ ✚✙✕✖✎ ✙✑ ✗✍✎ ✦✏✕✗✘✖✔✎ ✘✣

✥ãÒ Ø ❡ä➏ ✥❽Ò✛ ③Ò✥ÛÒ ✖✙✣åÒ✛ ③Ò✭×Ò ✥æ✤✣✘✑çÒ

q✍✎✕✎ åÒ ✘✣ ✗✍✎ ✏✑✒✔✎ ★✎✗q✎✎✑ ❡Ò ✏✑✥ ✗✍✎ ✗✏✑✒✎✑✗

Page 174: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❛✞ ✟✠✡ ❛✥☛ ☞✠ ✌✍ ✞✎✏ ❛✥✑✒✏ ✓✏✞✔✏✏✥ ❋✠ ❛✥☛ ✞✎✏

r❛☛✌✕✍ ✖✏✗✞✘r ❖✙✠❀ ✚✠ ✛ ☞✠ ✜ ✢✣➦ ✳

❚✎✏ ✞✘rq✕✏ ☛✕✏ ✞✘ ❋✠ ❛✓✘✕✞ ✞✎✏ ✘r✌✑✌✥ ✌✍❖✙✠ × ❋✠✳ ✤✘✔ ❖✙✠ ✜ ❖✦ ✛ ❖✙✠✳ ✧❘✏★✏r ✞✘✩✌✑✳ ✪✳✫✪✬✓✭✳✮ ✯✌✥✗✏ ❖✦ ✌✍ ❛✒✘✥✑ ✞✎✏ ❛✰✌✍✱ ✞✎✏✞✘rq✕✏ r✏✍✕✒✞✌✥✑ ★r✘♦ ✌✞ ✌✍ ✏✰✗✒✕☛✏☛ ★r✘♦ ✘✕r✗✘✥✍✌☛✏r❛✞✌✘✥✳ ❚✎✏ ✏★★✏✗✞✌✖✏ ✞✘rq✕✏ ☛✕✏ ✞✘ ❋✠ ✌✍✲✲✠✜ ✦✙×❋✠❀ ✌✞ ✌✍ ☛✌r✏✗✞✏☛ ❛✒✘✥✑ ✞✎✏ ❛✰✌✍ ✘★ r✘✞❛✞✌✘✥❛✥☛ ✎❛✍ ❛ ♦❛✑✥✌✞✕☛✏ ✴✠✜ ✵✠✷✠ ✍✌✥✸ ✱ ❚✎✏r✏★✘r✏✱

☛❲✠ ✹ ✴ ✠☛✺

■★ ✞✎✏r✏ ❛r✏ ♦✘r✏ ✞✎❛✥ ✘✥✏ ★✘r✗✏✍ ❛✗✞✌✥✑ ✘✥✞✎✏ ✓✘☛t✱ ✞✎✏ ✔✘r✻ ☛✘✥✏ ✓t ❛✒✒ ✘★ ✞✎✏♦ ✗❛✥ ✓✏❛☛☛✏☛ ✞✘ ✑✌✖✏ ✞✎✏ ✞✘✞❛✒ ✔✘r✻ ☛✘✥✏ ✘✥ ✞✎✏ ✓✘☛t✳❉✏✥✘✞✌✥✑ ✞✎✏ ♦❛✑✥✌✞✕☛✏✍ ✘★ ✞✎✏ ✞✘rq✕✏✍ ☛✕✏ ✞✘✞✎✏ ☛✌★★✏r✏✥✞ ★✘r✗✏✍ ❛✍ ✴ ✠✼ ✴ ✽✱✾ ✏✞✗✱

✿ ❁❞ ❂ ❃❃❃❄❞❅ ❆ ❆ ❇❈ ❊ ❊

❘✏♦✏♦✓✏r✱ ✞✎✏ ★✘r✗✏✍ ✑✌✖✌✥✑ r✌✍✏ ✞✘ ✞✎✏✞✘rq✕✏✍ ❛✗✞ ✘✥ ☛✌★★✏r✏✥✞ ❢❛r✞✌✗✒✏✍✱ ✓✕✞ ✞✎✏

❛✥✑✕✒❛r ☛✌✍❢✒❛✗✏♦✏✥✞ ☛● ✌✍ ✞✎✏ ✍❛♦✏ ★✘r ❛✒✒

❢❛r✞✌✗✒✏✍✳ ✯✌✥✗✏ ❛✒✒ ✞✎✏ ✞✘rq✕✏✍ ✗✘✥✍✌☛✏r✏☛ ❛r✏❢❛r❛✒✒✏✒ ✞✘ ✞✎✏ ★✌✰✏☛ ❛✰✌✍✱ ✞✎✏ ♦❛✑✥✌✞✕☛✏ ✴ ✘★ ✞✎✏✞✘✞❛✒ ✞✘rq✕✏ ✌✍ ❍✕✍✞ ✞✎✏ ❛✒✑✏✓r❛✌✗ ✍✕♦ ✘★ ✞✎✏♦❛✑✥✌✞✕☛✏✍ ✘★ ✞✎✏ ✞✘rq✕✏✍✱ ✌✳✏✳✱ ✴ ✜ ✴ ❏✛ ✴ ❑ ✛ ✳✳✳✳✳▲✏✱ ✞✎✏r✏★✘r✏✱ ✎❛✖✏

▼ ▼◆ ◗ ❙❯ ✬✪✳❱✫✭

❚✎✌✍ ✏✰❢r✏✍✍✌✘✥ ✑✌✖✏✍ ✞✎✏ ✔✘r✻ ☛✘✥✏ ✓t ✞✎✏✞✘✞❛✒ ✬✏✰✞✏r✥❛✒✭ ✞✘rq✕✏ ✲ ✔✎✌✗✎ ❛✗✞✍ ✘✥ ✞✎✏ ✓✘☛tr✘✞❛✞✌✥✑ ❛✓✘✕✞ ❛ ★✌✰✏☛ ❛✰✌✍✳ ■✞✍ ✍✌♦✌✒❛r✌✞t ✔✌✞✎✞✎✏ ✗✘rr✏✍❢✘✥☛✌✥✑ ✏✰❢r✏✍✍✌✘✥

☛❲✹ ✷ ☛s★✘r ✒✌✥✏❛r ✬✞r❛✥✍✒❛✞✌✘✥❛✒✭ ♦✘✞✌✘✥ ✌✍ ✘✓✖✌✘✕✍✳

❉✌✖✌☛✌✥✑ ✓✘✞✎ ✍✌☛✏✍ ✘★ ❳q✳ ✬✪✳❱✫✭ ✓t ☛❨ ✑✌✖✏✍

❞ ❞

❞ ❞

❅❩

❬ ❬

❇❆ ❆❭❈ ❈ ❈

✘r ❩ ❆❭❈ ✬✪✳❱❪✭

❚✎✌✍ ✌✍ ✞✎✏ ✌✥✍✞❛✥✞❛✥✏✘✕✍ ❢✘✔✏r✳ ❫✘♦❢❛r✏✞✎✌✍ ✏✰❢r✏✍✍✌✘✥ ★✘r ❢✘✔✏r ✌✥ ✞✎✏ ✗❛✍✏ ✘★r✘✞❛✞✌✘✥❛✒ ♦✘✞✌✘✥ ❛✓✘✕✞ ❛ ★✌✰✏☛ ❛✰✌✍ ✔✌✞✎ ✞✎✏✏✰❢r✏✍✍✌✘✥ ★✘r ❢✘✔✏r ✌✥ ✞✎✏ ✗❛✍✏ ✘★ ✒✌✥✏❛r ♦✘✞✌✘✥✱

❴ ✹ ✷❵■✥ ❛ ❢✏r★✏✗✞✒t r✌✑✌☛ ✓✘☛t ✞✎✏r✏ ✌✍ ✥✘ ✌✥✞✏r✥❛✒

♦✘✞✌✘✥✳ ❚✎✏ ✔✘r✻ ☛✘✥✏ ✓t ✏✰✞✏r✥❛✒ ✞✘rq✕✏✍ ✌✍✞✎✏r✏★✘r✏✱ ✥✘✞ ☛✌✍✍✌❢❛✞✏☛ ❛✥☛ ✑✘✏✍ ✘✥ ✞✘ ✌✥✗r✏❛✍✏✞✎✏ ✻✌✥✏✞✌✗ ✏✥✏r✑t ✘★ ✞✎✏ ✓✘☛t✳ ❚✎✏ r❛✞✏ ❛✞ ✔✎✌✗✎✔✘r✻ ✌✍ ☛✘✥✏ ✘✥ ✞✎✏ ✓✘☛t ✌✍ ✑✌✖✏✥ ✓t ❳q✳ ✬✪✳❱❪✭✳❚✎✌✍ ✌✍ ✞✘ ✓✏ ✏q✕❛✞✏☛ ✞✘ ✞✎✏ r❛✞✏ ❛✞ ✔✎✌✗✎ ✻✌✥✏✞✌✗✏✥✏r✑t ✌✥✗r✏❛✍✏✍✳ ❚✎✏ r❛✞✏ ✘★ ✌✥✗r✏❛✍✏ ✘★ ✻✌✥✏✞✌✗✏✥✏r✑t ✌✍

❁❞ ❂❜ ❄ ❞

❞ ❜ ❜ ❞

❝❝

❬ ❬

❭ ❭ ❭❡ ❣❈❤ ✐❥ ❦

▲✏ ❛✍✍✕♦✏ ✞✎❛✞ ✞✎✏ ♦✘♦✏✥✞ ✘★ ✌✥✏r✞✌❛ ☛✘✏✍✥✘✞ ✗✎❛✥✑✏ ✔✌✞✎ ✞✌♦✏✳ ❚✎✌✍ ♦✏❛✥✍ ✞✎❛✞ ✞✎✏ ♦❛✍✍✘★ ✞✎✏ ✓✘☛t ☛✘✏✍ ✥✘✞ ✗✎❛✥✑✏✱ ✞✎✏ ✓✘☛t r✏♦❛✌✥✍r✌✑✌☛ ❛✥☛ ❛✒✍✘ ✞✎✏ ❛✰✌✍ ☛✘✏✍ ✥✘✞ ✗✎❛✥✑✏ ✌✞✍❢✘✍✌✞✌✘✥ ✔✌✞✎ r✏✍❢✏✗✞ ✞✘ ✞✎✏ ✓✘☛t✳

✯✌✥✗✏ ❧ ♠❧ ♥♣✉ ✈✇ ✔✏ ✑✏✞

❁❞

❞ ❜

❝❝

❭❭①

❡ ❣❈❤ ✐❥ ❦

❳q✕❛✞✌✥✑ r❛✞✏✍ ✘★ ✔✘r✻ ☛✘✥✏ ❛✥☛ ✘★ ✌✥✗r✏❛✍✏✌✥ ✻✌✥✏✞✌✗ ✏✥✏r✑t✱

②③✈ ✈ ✉✇

④⑤⑥⑦⑧ ⑨⑩❶ ❷❸❹❺⑤❻❼❽❸❾ ❸❿ ④❻⑤❾❽⑦⑤➀❼❸❾⑤⑦ ⑤❾➁ ➂❸➀⑤➀❼❸❾⑤⑦ ➃❸➀❼❸❾

➄➅➆➇➈➉ ➊➋➌➅➋➆ ➍➋➌➈➌➅➋➆➈➎ ➊➋➌➅➋➆ ➈➏➋➐➌ ➈ ❋➅➑➇➒ ➓➑➅➔

✫ ❉✌✍❢✒❛✗✏♦✏✥✞ → ➣✥✑✕✒❛r ☛✌✍❢✒❛✗✏♦✏✥✞ ✺

❪ ↔✏✒✘✗✌✞t ❵ ✜ ☛→↕☛❨ ➣✥✑✕✒❛r ✖✏✒✘✗✌✞t ➙ ✜ ☛✺↕☛❨

➛ ➣✗✗✏✒✏r❛✞✌✘✥ ➜ ✜ ☛❵↕☛❨ ➣✥✑✕✒❛r ❛✗✗✏✒✏r❛✞✌✘✥ ➝ ✜ ☛➙➞☛❨

❱ ➟❛✍✍ ➠ ➟✘♦✏✥✞ ✘★ ✌✥✏r✞✌❛ ➡

➢ ✩✘r✗✏ ✷ ✜ ➠➜ ❚✘rq✕✏ ✴ ✜ ➡ ➝

➤ ▲✘r✻ ➥❲ ✜ ✷ ☛s ▲✘r✻ ❲ ✜ ✴ ➥✺

✪ ➧✌✥✏✞✌✗ ✏✥✏r✑t ➨ ✜ ➠❵✽↕❪ ➧✌✥✏✞✌✗ ✏✥✏r✑t ➨ ✜ ➡➙✽↕❪

➩ ✟✘✔✏r ❴ ✜ ✷ ❵ ✟✘✔✏r ❴ ✜ ✴➙

✢ ➫✌✥✏❛r ♦✘♦✏✥✞✕♦ ➭ ✜ ➠❵ ➣✥✑✕✒❛r ♦✘♦✏✥✞✕♦ ➯ ✜ ➡➙

Page 175: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✼✶

■✍ ✎❂ ✭✏✑✒✓✔❊✕✑ ✭✏✑✒✓✔ ✖✗ ✗✖✘✖✙✚✛ ✜✢ ✣✤✥✜✢✦✧✗ ✗✤★✢✦✩ ✙✚✥

❢✢✛ ✙✖✦✤✚✛ ✘✢✜✖✢✦ ✤✪✫✛✤✗✗✤✩ ✗❡✘✬✢✙✖★✚✙✙❡ ✚✗❋ ✮ ✯✰❏✱✗✜ ✚✗ ❢✢✛★✤ ✫✛✢✩✱★✤✗ ✚★★✤✙✤✛✚✜✖✢✦♦ ✜✢✛✕✱✤

✫✛✢✩✱★✤✗ ✚✦✲✱✙✚✛ ✚★★✤✙✤✛✚✜✖✢✦ ✖✦ ✚ ✬✢✩❡✑ ✳✴✤✚✦✲✱✙✚✛ ✚★★✤✙✤✛✚✜✖✢✦ ✖✗ ✩✖✛✤★✜✙❡ ✫✛✢✫✢✛✜✖✢✦✚✙ ✜✢✜✴✤ ✚✫✫✙✖✤✩ ✜✢✛✕✱✤ ✚✦✩ ✖✗ ✖✦q✤✛✗✤✙❡ ✫✛✢✫✢✛✜✖✢✦✚✙✜✢ ✜✴✤ ✘✢✘✤✦✜ ✢❢ ✖✦✤✛✜✖✚ ✢❢ ✜✴✤ ✬✢✩❡✑ ❊✕✑✭✏✑✒✓✔★✚✦ ✬✤ ★✚✙✙✤✩ ✣✤✥✜✢✦✧✗ ✗✤★✢✦✩ ✙✚✥ ❢✢✛ ✛✢✜✚✜✖✢✦✚✬✢✱✜ ✚ ❢✖✪✤✩ ✚✪✖✗✑

✵✷✸✹✺✻✽ ✾✿❀❁ ❃ ★✢✛✩ ✢❢ ✦✤✲✙✖✲✖✬✙✤ ✘✚✗✗✖✗ ✥✢✱✦✩ ✛✢✱✦✩ ✜✴✤ ✛✖✘ ✢❢ ✚ ❢✙❡ ✥✴✤✤✙ ✢❢✘✚✗✗ ♠❄ ❅✲ ✚✦✩ ✛✚✩✖✱✗ ♠❄ ★✘✑ ❃ ✗✜✤✚✩❡✫✱✙✙ ✢❢ ♠♣ ✣ ✖✗ ✚✫✫✙✖✤✩ ✢✦ ✜✴✤ ★✢✛✩ ✚✗ ✗✴✢✥✦✖✦ ✐✖✲✑ ✏✑✓♣✑ ✳✴✤ ❢✙❡✥✴✤✤✙ ✖✗ ✘✢✱✦✜✤✩ ✢✦ ✚✴✢✛✖❤✢✦✜✚✙ ✚✪✙✤ ✥✖✜✴ ❢✛✖★✜✖✢✦✙✤✗✗ ✬✤✚✛✖✦✲✗✑

✭✚✔ ❈✢✘✫✱✜✤ ✜✴✤ ✚✦✲✱✙✚✛ ✚★★✤✙✤✛✚✜✖✢✦ ✢❢✜✴✤ ✥✴✤✤✙✑

✭✬✔ ✐✖✦✩ ✜✴✤ ✥✢✛❅ ✩✢✦✤ ✬❡ ✜✴✤ ✫✱✙✙♦ ✥✴✤✦♠✘ ✢❢ ✜✴✤ ★✢✛✩ ✖✗ ✱✦✥✢✱✦✩✑

✭★✔ ✐✖✦✩ ✚✙✗✢ ✜✴✤ ❅✖✦✤✜✖★ ✤✦✤✛✲❡ ✢❢ ✜✴✤✥✴✤✤✙ ✚✜ ✜✴✖✗ ✫✢✖✦✜✑ ❃✗✗✱✘✤ ✜✴✚✜ ✜✴✤✥✴✤✤✙ ✗✜✚✛✜✗ ❢✛✢✘ ✛✤✗✜✑

✭✩✔ ❈✢✘✫✚✛✤ ✚✦✗✥✤✛✗ ✜✢ ✫✚✛✜✗ ✭✬✔ ✚✦✩ ✭★✔✑

❆❇❉●✽❍

❑▲▼◆ ❖◆P◗

✭✚✔ ❲✤ ✱✗✤ ❘ ❯✮ ❱✜✴✤ ✜✢✛✕✱✤ ❱ ✮ ❋ ❳

❨ ♠♣ × ❄✑♠❄ ✣✘ ✭✚✗ ❳ ❨ ❄✑♠❄✘✔❨ ♣✑❄ ✣✘

❘ ❨ ❩✑ ❬✑ ✢❢ ❢✙❡✥✴✤✤✙ ✚✬✢✱✜ ✖✜✗ ✚✪✖✗❭

❪❫❴

❨❭❪❛❜❛ ❝❛❜❪❞

❪❣

❨ ❄✑✒ ❅✲ ✘❥

❦ ❨ ✚✦✲✱✙✚✛ ✚★★✤✙✤✛✚✜✖✢✦❨ ♣✑❄ ✣ ✘❧❄✑✒ ❅✲ ✘❥ ❨ ♥♠✑✓♣ ✗➊❥

✭✬✔ ❲✢✛❅ ✩✢✦✤ ✬❡ ✜✴✤ ✫✱✙✙ ✱✦✥✖✦✩✖✦✲ ♠✘ ✢❢ ✜✴✤★✢✛✩❨ ♠♣ ✣ × ♠✘ ❨ ♣❄ ❏

✭★✔ r✤✜ s ✬✤ ✜✴✤ ❢✖✦✚✙ ✚✦✲✱✙✚✛ q✤✙✢★✖✜❡✑ ✳✴✤

❅✖✦✤✜✖★ ✤✦✤✛✲❡ ✲✚✖✦✤✩ ❨ t✉✈✇① ♦

✗✖✦★✤ ✜✴✤ ✥✴✤✤✙ ✗✜✚✛✜✗ ❢✛✢✘ ✛✤✗✜✑ ✣✢✥♦② ②

③ ③④ ⑤ ⑥⑦ ⑦ ⑧⑨ ⑦⑩ ❶ ⑩

✳✴✤ ✚✦✲✱✙✚✛ ✩✖✗✫✙✚★✤✘✤✦✜ ❷ ❨ ✙✤✦✲✜✴ ✢❢✱✦✥✢✱✦✩ ✗✜✛✖✦✲ ❧ ✛✚✩✖✱✗ ✢❢ ✥✴✤✤✙❨ ♠✘❧❄✑♠ ✘ ❨ ♥❄ ✛✚✩② ②④ ❸④❹❺ ❸⑥❹⑥ ④❺⑥❻❼❽❾❿➀➁⑦ ⑩ ➂ ➂ ⑩

J➃

➄ ➄ ➅➆➇➈➉➋ ➌➄➍ ➎➏➌ ➏➌➎

➐ ➑➒ ❂ ➓ ➓ ❂

✭✩✔ ✳✴✤ ✚✦✗✥✤✛✗ ✚✛✤ ✜✴✤ ✗✚✘✤♦ ✖✑✤✑ ✜✴✤ ❅✖✦✤✜✖★✤✦✤✛✲❡ ✲✚✖✦✤✩ ✬❡ ✜✴✤ ✥✴✤✤✙ ❨ ✥✢✛❅ ✩✢✦✤✬❡ ✜✴✤ ❢✢✛★✤✑ ✳✴✤✛✤ ✖✗ ✦✢ ✙✢✗✗ ✢❢ ✤✦✤✛✲❡ ✩✱✤✜✢ ❢✛✖★✜✖✢✦✑ ➔

→➣↔↕ ➙➛➜➝➞➙➟ ➠➡➠➢➛➤➝➠ ➥➛ ➦➙➧➢ ➡➨➟➡➤➙➤➥➡➛ ➙➩➡➝➤ ➙ ➨➥➫➢➭ ➙➫➥➧

❲✤ ✴✚q✤ ✗✜✱✩✖✤✩ ✖✦ ✗✤★✜✖✢✦ ✏✑✏♦ ✜✴✤ ✚✦✲✱✙✚✛✘✢✘✤✦✜✱✘ ✢❢ ✚ ✗❡✗✜✤✘ ✢❢ ✫✚✛✜✖★✙✤✗✑ ❲✤ ✚✙✛✤✚✩❡❅✦✢✥ ❢✛✢✘ ✜✴✤✛✤ ✜✴✚✜ ✜✴✤ ✜✖✘✤ ✛✚✜✤ ✢❢ ✜✢✜✚✙✚✦✲✱✙✚✛ ✘✢✘✤✦✜✱✘ ✢❢ ✚ ✗❡✗✜✤✘ ✢❢ ✫✚✛✜✖★✙✤✗✚✬✢✱✜ ✚ ✫✢✖✦✜ ✖✗ ✤✕✱✚✙ ✜✢ ✜✴✤ ✜✢✜✚✙ ✤✪✜✤✛✦✚✙ ✜✢✛✕✱✤✢✦ ✜✴✤ ✗❡✗✜✤✘ ✜✚❅✤✦ ✚✬✢✱✜ ✜✴✤ ✗✚✘✤ ✫✢✖✦✜✑❲✴✤✦ ✜✴✤ ✜✢✜✚✙ ✤✪✜✤✛✦✚✙ ✜✢✛✕✱✤ ✖✗ ❤✤✛✢♦ ✜✴✤ ✜✢✜✚✙✚✦✲✱✙✚✛ ✘✢✘✤✦✜✱✘ ✢❢ ✜✴✤ ✗❡✗✜✤✘ ✖✗ ★✢✦✗✤✛q✤✩✑

❲✤ ✦✢✥ ✥✖✗✴ ✜✢ ✗✜✱✩❡ ✜✴✤ ✚✦✲✱✙✚✛✘✢✘✤✦✜✱✘ ✖✦ ✜✴✤ ✗✫✤★✖✚✙ ★✚✗✤ ✢❢ ✛✢✜✚✜✖✢✦ ✚✬✢✱✜✚ ❢✖✪✤✩ ✚✪✖✗✑ ✳✴✤ ✲✤✦✤✛✚✙ ✤✪✫✛✤✗✗✖✢✦ ❢✢✛ ✜✴✤ ✜✢✜✚✙✚✦✲✱✙✚✛ ✘✢✘✤✦✜✱✘ ✢❢ ✜✴✤ ✗❡✗✜✤✘ ✖✗

➲➳ ➳

➳ ➵➸ ➺➻➼ ➽ ➾ ✭✏✑♠♣✬✔

❲✤ ❢✖✛✗✜ ★✢✦✗✖✩✤✛ ✜✴✤ ✚✦✲✱✙✚✛ ✘✢✘✤✦✜✱✘ ✢❢✚ ✜❡✫✖★✚✙ ✫✚✛✜✖★✙✤ ✢❢ ✜✴✤ ✛✢✜✚✜✖✦✲ ✛✖✲✖✩ ✬✢✩❡✑ ❲✤✜✴✤✦ ✗✱✘ ✱✫ ✜✴✤ ★✢✦✜✛✖✬✱✜✖✢✦✗ ✢❢ ✖✦✩✖q✖✩✱✚✙✫✚✛✜✖★✙✤✗ ✜✢ ✲✤✜ ➞ ✢❢ ✜✴✤ ✥✴✢✙✤ ✬✢✩❡✑

✐✢✛ ✚ ✜❡✫✖★✚✙ ✫✚✛✜✖★✙✤ ➚ ❨ ➪ ➶ ➹✑ ❃✗ ✗✤✤✦ ✖✦✜✴✤ ✙✚✗✜ ✗✤★✜✖✢✦ ➪ ❨ ➡➘ ❨ ➡➦ ➴ ➦➘ ➷✐✖✲✑ ✏✑♥✏✭✬✔➬✑

Page 176: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❲✐✞✟ ♣ ✥ ✠ ✈ ✡

✭ ✮ ✭ ✮♠ ♠❂ ☛ ✰ ☛❧ ☞❈ ✌ ❈✍ ✌

❚✟✎ ✠✏✑✒✐✞✓✔✎ ✕✖ ✞✟✎ ✗✐✒✎✏✘ ✙✎✗✕✚✐✞✛ ✈ ✕✖ ✞✟✎✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎ ✏✞ ✢ ✐✣ ✑✐✙✎✒ ✤✛ ✦ ✥ ✧r★ ✩✟✎✘✎ r★ ✐✣ ✞✟✎✗✎✒✑✞✟ ✕✖ ✪✢ ✕✘ ✞✟✎ ✜✎✘✜✎✒✔✐✚✓✗✏✘ ✔✐✣✞✏✒✚✎ ✕✖ ✢✖✘✕✠ ✞✟✎ ✏♦✐✣ ✕✖ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒✫ ✬✓✘✞✟✎✘✡ ✈ ✐✣ ✞✏✒✑✎✒✞✐✏✗✏✞ ✢ ✞✕ ✞✟✎ ✚✐✘✚✗✎ ✩✟✐✚✟ ✞✟✎ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎ ✔✎✣✚✘✐✤✎✣✫❯✣✐✒✑ ✞✟✎ ✘✐✑✟✞✯✟✏✒✔ ✘✓✗✎ ✕✒✎ ✚✏✒ ✚✟✎✚✱ ✞✟✏✞✲✳ ✴ ✈ ✐✣ ✜✏✘✏✗✗✎✗ ✞✕ ✞✟✎ ✖✐♦✎✔ ✏♦✐✣✫ ❚✟✎ ✓✒✐✞✙✎✚✞✕✘ ✏✗✕✒✑ ✞✟✎ ✖✐♦✎✔ ✏♦✐✣ ✵✚✟✕✣✎✒ ✏✣ ✞✟✎ ③✯✏♦✐✣✷✐✣ µ❦ ✫ ✸✎✒✚✎

✹ ✺ µ♠ ✻ ♠✼✽☛ ❂❈✍ ✌ ✾

✥ µ✿❀❁ ❃❄ ❅ ✵✣✐✒✚✎ ❆ ❇❁❄❉ ✷

❙✐✠✐✗✏✘✗✛✡ ✩✎ ✚✏✒ ✚✟✎✚✱ ✞✟✏✞ ❖✲ ✴ ✈ ✐✣✜✎✘✜✎✒✔✐✚✓✗✏✘ ✞✕ ✞✟✎ ✖✐♦✎✔ ✏♦✐✣✫ ❊✎✞ ✓✣ ✔✎✒✕✞✎✞✟✎ ✜✏✘✞ ✕✖ ❋ ✏✗✕✒✑ ✞✟✎ ✖✐♦✎✔ ✏♦✐✣ ✵✐✫✎✫ ✞✟✎ ③✯✏♦✐✣✷✤✛ ❋●✡ ✞✟✎✒

❍ ❀❉ ■❏ ❑▲ ▼ ✥ µ◆◗❘ ❱❳ ❨

✏✒✔ ❩ ❀❉ ❬ ■❏ ❏ ❭❑ ▼

❲✎ ✒✕✞✎ ✞✟✏✞ ❋● ✐✣ ✜✏✘✏✗✗✎✗ ✞✕ ✞✟✎ ✖✐♦✎✔ ✏♦✐✣✡✤✓✞ ❋ ✐✣ ✒✕✞✫ ❪✒ ✑✎✒✎✘✏✗✡ ✖✕✘ ✏ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎✡ ✞✟✎ ✏✒✑✓✗✏✘✠✕✠✎✒✞✓✠ ❋ ✐✣ ✒✕✞ ✏✗✕✒✑ ✞✟✎ ✏♦✐✣ ✕✖ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒✡✐✫✎✫ ✖✕✘ ✏ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎✡ ❋ ✏✒✔ ❫ ✏✘✎ ✒✕✞ ✒✎✚✎✣✣✏✘✐✗✛✜✏✘✏✗✗✎✗✫ ✪✕✠✜✏✘✎ ✞✟✐✣ ✩✐✞✟ ✞✟✎ ✚✕✘✘✎✣✜✕✒✔✐✒✑✖✏✚✞ ✐✒ ✞✘✏✒✣✗✏✞✐✕✒✫ ✬✕✘ ✏ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎✡ ♣ ✏✒✔ ✈ ✏✘✎✏✗✩✏✛✣ ✜✏✘✏✗✗✎✗ ✞✕ ✎✏✚✟ ✕✞✟✎✘✫

✬✕✘ ✚✕✠✜✓✞✐✒✑ ✞✟✎ ✞✕✞✏✗ ✏✒✑✓✗✏✘ ✠✕✠✎✒✞✓✠✕✖ ✞✟✎ ✩✟✕✗✎ ✘✐✑✐✔ ✤✕✔✛✡ ✩✎ ✏✔✔ ✓✜ ✞✟✎✚✕✒✞✘✐✤✓✞✐✕✒ ✕✖ ✎✏✚✟ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎ ✕✖ ✞✟✎ ✤✕✔✛✫

❚✟✓✣ ❴ ❴❵ ❴ ❴❴❛ ❜❝ ❝ ❞ ×❡ ❡ ❡❢ ❣ ❤❥ ♥

❲✎ ✔✎✒✕✞✎ ✤✛ ❄q ✏✒✔ ❩q ✞✟✎ ✚✕✠✜✕✒✎✒✞✣

✕✖ s ✘✎✣✜✎✚✞✐✙✎✗✛ ✜✎✘✜✎✒✔✐✚✓✗✏✘ ✞✕ ✞✟✎ ③✯✏♦✐✣✏✒✔ ✏✗✕✒✑ ✞✟✎ ③✯✏♦✐✣t

✉ ✉ ✉❀❄ ❉ ■✇q ❭❑ ▼ ✵①✫②②✏✷

✩✟✎✘✎ ④⑤ ✏✒✔ ✈⑥ ✏✘✎ ✘✎✣✜✎✚✞✐✙✎✗✛ ✞✟✎ ✠✏✣✣ ✏✒✔✞✟✎ ✙✎✗✕✚✐✞✛ ✕✖ ✞✟✎ ⑦⑧⑨ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎ ✏✒✔ ✪⑥ ✐✣ ✞✟✎ ✚✎✒✞✘✎✕✖ ✞✟✎ ✚✐✘✚✗✎ ✔✎✣✚✘✐✤✎✔ ✤✛ ✞✟✎ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎t

✏✒✔ µ⑩❶ ❷❶ ❷ ❷

❷❸ ❹ ❺

❻ ❼❽ ❽ ❾ ❿➀ ➁➂ ➂➃ ➄ ➅

✕✘ µ➆ ➇➈❂➉ ✾ ✵①✫②②✤✷

❚✟✎ ✗✏✣✞ ✣✞✎✜ ✖✕✗✗✕✩✣ ✣✐✒✚✎ ✞✟✎ ✜✎✘✜✎✒✔✐✚✓✗✏✘✔✐✣✞✏✒✚✎ ✕✖ ✞✟✎ ⑦⑧⑨ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎ ✖✘✕✠ ✞✟✎ ✏♦✐✣ ✐✣ r⑥t✏✒✔ ✤✛ ✔✎✖✐✒✐✞✐✕✒ ✞✟✎ ✠✕✠✎✒✞ ✕✖ ✐✒✎✘✞✐✏ ✕✖ ✞✟✎

✤✕✔✛ ✏✤✕✓✞ ✞✟✎ ✏♦✐✣ ✕✖ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒ ✐✣ ✿✉ ✉➊ ❀ ❁❉✇ ✫

➋✕✞✎ ❩ ❄❉ ❬q q q ✵①✫②②✚✷

❚✟✎ ✘✐✑✐✔ ✤✕✔✐✎✣ ✩✟✐✚✟ ✩✎ ✟✏✙✎ ✠✏✐✒✗✛✚✕✒✣✐✔✎✘✎✔ ✐✒ ✞✟✐✣ ✚✟✏✜✞✎✘ ✏✘✎ ✣✛✠✠✎✞✘✐✚ ✏✤✕✓✞✞✟✎ ✏♦✐✣ ✕✖ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒✡ ✐✫✎✫ ✞✟✎ ✏♦✐✣ ✕✖ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒ ✐✣✕✒✎ ✕✖ ✞✟✎✐✘ ✣✛✠✠✎✞✘✛ ✏♦✎✣✫ ✬✕✘ ✣✓✚✟ ✤✕✔✐✎✣✡✖✕✘ ✏ ✑✐✙✎✒ ❖✲⑤✡ ✖✕✘ ✎✙✎✘✛ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎ ✩✟✐✚✟ ✟✏✣ ✏✙✎✗✕✚✐✞✛ ✈⑤ ✡ ✞✟✎✘✎ ✐✣ ✏✒✕✞✟✎✘ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎ ✕✖ ✙✎✗✕✚✐✞✛➌✈⑤ ✗✕✚✏✞✎✔ ✔✐✏✠✎✞✘✐✚✏✗✗✛ ✕✜✜✕✣✐✞✎ ✕✒ ✞✟✎ ✚✐✘✚✗✎✩✐✞✟ ✚✎✒✞✘✎ ✪⑤ ✔✎✣✚✘✐✤✎✔ ✤✛ ✞✟✎ ✜✏✘✞✐✚✗✎✫ ❚✕✑✎✞✟✎✘

✣✓✚✟ ✜✏✐✘✣ ✩✐✗✗ ✚✕✒✞✘✐✤✓✞✎ ➍✎✘✕ ✞✕ ❄q ✏✒✔ ✏✣ ✏

✘✎✣✓✗✞ ✖✕✘ ✣✛✠✠✎✞✘✐✚ ✤✕✔✐✎✣ ❄q ✐✣ ➍✎✘✕✡ ✏✒✔

✟✎✒✚✎

µ➆ ➇➈❂ ❂➉ ➉ ✾ ✵①✫②②✔✷

✬✕✘ ✤✕✔✐✎✣✡ ✩✟✐✚✟ ✏✘✎ ✒✕✞ ✣✛✠✠✎✞✘✐✚ ✏✤✕✓✞✞✟✎ ✏♦✐✣ ✕✖ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒✡ ➎ ✐✣ ✒✕✞ ✎➏✓✏✗ ✞✕ ➎● ✏✒✔✟✎✒✚✎ ➎ ✔✕✎✣ ✒✕✞ ✗✐✎ ✏✗✕✒✑ ✞✟✎ ✏♦✐✣ ✕✖ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒✫

➐✎✖✎✘✘✐✒✑ ✞✕ ✞✏✤✗✎ ①✫➑✡ ✚✏✒ ✛✕✓ ✞✎✗✗ ✐✒ ✩✟✐✚✟✚✏✣✎✣ ➎ ✥ ➎●✩✐✗✗ ✒✕✞ ✏✜✜✗✛➒

❊✎✞ ✓✣ ✔✐✖✖✎✘✎✒✞✐✏✞✎ ➓➏✫ ✵①✫②②✤✷✫ ❙✐✒✚✎ µ➔ ✐✣ ✏✖✐♦✎✔ ✵✚✕✒✣✞✏✒✞✷ ✙✎✚✞✕✘✡ ✩✎ ✑✎✞

→ ➣ → ➣ µ↔ ↔↔ ↔↕ ➙➛ ➛

➜➝ ➞➟ ➠ ➡➢ ➤➥ ➦

➋✕✩✡ ➓➏✫ ✵①✫➧➨✤✷ ✣✞✏✞✎✣

➩➩➫

❉q

➭✣ ✩✎ ✟✏✙✎ ✣✎✎✒ ✐✒ ✞✟✎ ✗✏✣✞ ✣✎✚✞✐✕✒✡ ✕✒✗✛✞✟✕✣✎ ✚✕✠✜✕✒✎✒✞✣ ✕✖ ✞✟✎ ✎♦✞✎✘✒✏✗ ✞✕✘➏✓✎✣✩✟✐✚✟✏✘✎ ✏✗✕✒✑ ✞✟✎ ✏♦✐✣ ✕✖ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒✡ ✒✎✎✔ ✞✕ ✤✎ ✞✏✱✎✒✐✒✞✕ ✏✚✚✕✓✒✞✡ ✩✟✎✒ ✩✎ ✔✐✣✚✓✣✣ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒ ✏✤✕✓✞ ✏

✖✐♦✎✔ ✏♦✐✣✫ ❚✟✐✣ ✠✎✏✒✣ ✩✎ ✚✏✒ ✞✏✱✎ µ➯❂ ✾ ✫

❙✐✒✚✎ ❩ ❄➲ ➳q q q ✏✒✔ ✞✟✎ ✔✐✘✎✚✞✐✕✒ ✕✖ ➎● ✵✙✎✚✞✕✘

µ➔ ✷ ✐✣ ✖✐♦✎✔✡ ✐✞ ✖✕✗✗✕✩✣ ✞✟✏✞ ✖✕✘ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒ ✏✤✕✓✞ ✏✖✐♦✎✔ ✏♦✐✣✡

µ➩

➩❩➫

➵➲q

❅ ✵①✫②➸✏✷

✏✒✔➩

➺➩➫❄ ➲

q✵①✫②➸✤✷

❚✟✓✣✡ ✖✕✘ ✘✕✞✏✞✐✕✒ ✏✤✕✓✞ ✏ ✖✐♦✎✔ ✏♦✐✣✡ ✞✟✎✚✕✠✜✕✒✎✒✞ ✕ ✖ ✏✒✑✓✗✏✘ ✠✕✠✎✒✞✓✠✜✎✘✜✎✒✔✐✚✓✗✏✘ ✞✕ ✞✟✎ ✖✐♦✎✔ ✏♦✐✣ ✐✣ ✚✕✒✣✞✏✒✞✫ ➭✣

µ➻ ➼❱➽➾ ❨ ✡ ✩✎ ✑✎✞ ✖✘✕✠ ➓➏✫ ✵①✫②➸✏✷✡

➚ ➪➩➩

➊➫

❃ ➵➲ ✵①✫②➸✚✷

Page 177: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✼✸

■✌ ✍✎✏ ✑✒✑✏✓✍ ✒✌ ✔✓✏✕✍✔✖ ✗ ✥✒✏✘ ✓✒✍ ✙✎✖✓✚✏ ✛✔✍✎

✍✔✑✏t

✭ ✮❞ ❞

❞ ❞✜ ✜ ✜

✢ ✢

✣✣ ✤❂ ❂

✖✓✥ ✛✏ ✚✏✍ ✌✕✒✑ ♦✦✧ ★✩✧✪✫✙✬t

✜✯ ✤❂ ★✩✧✪✰✬

❲✏ ✎✖❡✏ ✖✱✕✏✖✥✲ ✥✏✕✔❡✏✥ ✍✎✔✘ ✏✦✳✖✍✔✒✓ ✳✘✔✓✚

✍✎✏ ✛✒✕✴ ✵ ✴✔✓✏✍✔✙ ✏✓✏✕✚✲ ✕✒✳✍✏✧

✷✹✺✻✹✺ ✽✾✿❀❁❃❄❅❆❇✾✿ ✾❈ ❅✿❉❊❋❅❃ ●✾●❁✿❆❊●

❲✏ ✖✕✏ ✓✒✛ ✔✓ ✖ ❍✒✘✔✍✔✒✓ ✍✒ ✕✏❡✔✘✔✍ ✍✎✏ ❍✕✔✓✙✔❍✱✏

✒✌ ✙✒✓✘✏✕❡✖✍✔✒✓ ✒✌ ✖✓✚✳✱✖✕ ✑✒✑✏✓✍✳✑ ✔✓ ✍✎✏

✙✒✓✍✏❝✍ ✒✌ ✕✒✍✖✍✔✒✓ ✖❏✒✳✍ ✖ ✌✔❝✏✥ ✖❝✔✘✧ ❑✕✒✑ ♦✦✧

★✩✧✪✫✙✬t ✔✌ ✍✎✏ ✏❝✍✏✕✓✖✱ ✍✒✕✦✳✏ ✔✘ q✏✕✒t

▲③ ▼ ✗◆ ▼ ✙✒✓✘✍✖✓✍ ★✩✧✪❖✬

❑✒✕ ✘✲✑✑✏✍✕✔✙ ❏✒✥✔✏✘t ✌✕✒✑ ♦✦✧ ★✩✧✪✪✥✬t ▲P✑✖✲ ❏✏ ✕✏❍✱✖✙✏✥ ❏✲ ▲ ◗★▲ ✖✓✥ ▲P ✖✕✏ ✕✏✘❍✏✙✍✔❡✏✱✲

✍✎✏ ✑✖✚✓✔✍✳✥✏✘ ✒✌ ❘ ✖✓✥ ❘P✧✬

❯✎✔✘ ✍✎✏✓ ✔✘ ✍✎✏ ✕✏✦✳✔✕✏✥ ✌✒✕✑t ✌✒✕ ✌✔❝✏✥ ✖❝✔✘

✕✒✍✖✍✔✒✓t ✒✌ ♦✦✧ ★✩✧❱❳✖✬t ✛✎✔✙✎ ✏❝❍✕✏✘✘✏✘ ✍✎✏

✚✏✓✏✕✖✱ ✱✖✛ ✒✌ ✙✒✓✘✏✕❡✖✍✔✒✓ ✒✌ ✖✓✚✳✱✖✕

✑✒✑✏✓✍✳✑ ✒✌ ✖ ✘✲✘✍✏✑ ✒✌ ❍✖✕✍✔✙✱✏✘✧ ♦✦✧ ★✩✧✪❖✬

✖❍❍✱✔✏✘ ✍✒ ✑✖✓✲ ✘✔✍✳✖✍✔✒✓✘ ✍✎✖✍ ✛✏ ✙✒✑✏ ✖✙✕✒✘✘

✔✓ ✥✖✔✱✲ ✱✔✌✏✧ ✐✒✳ ✑✖✲ ✥✒ ✍✎✔✘ ✏❝❍✏✕✔✑✏✓✍ ✛✔✍✎

✲✒✳✕ ✌✕✔✏✓✥✧ ②✔✍ ✒✓ ✖ ✘✛✔❡✏✱ ✙✎✖✔✕ ✛✔✍✎ ✲✒✳✕

✖✕✑✘ ✌✒✱✥✏✥ ✖✓✥ ✌✏✏✍ ✓✒✍ ✕✏✘✍✔✓✚ ✒✓t ✔✧✏✧t ✖✛✖✲

✌✕✒✑t ✍✎✏ ✚✕✒✳✓✥✧ ❨✘✴ ✲✒✳✕ ✌✕✔✏✓✥ ✍✒ ✕✒✍✖✍✏ ✍✎✏

✙✎✖✔✕ ✕✖❍✔✥✱✲✧ ❲✎✔✱✏ ✍✎✏ ✙✎✖✔✕ ✔✘ ✕✒✍✖✍✔✓✚ ✛✔✍✎

✙✒✓✘✔✥✏✕✖❏✱✏ ✖✓✚✳✱✖✕ ✘❍✏✏✥ ✘✍✕✏✍✙✎ ✲✒✳✕ ✖✕✑✘

✎✒✕✔q✒✓✍✖✱✱✲✧ ❲✎✖✍ ✎✖❍❍✏✓✘❤ ✐✒✳✕ ✖✓✚✳✱✖✕

✘❍✏✏✥ ✔✘ ✕✏✥✳✙✏✥✧ ■✌ ✲✒✳ ❏✕✔✓✚ ❏✖✙✴ ✲✒✳✕ ✖✕✑✘

✙✱✒✘✏✕ ✍✒ ✲✒✳✕ ❏✒✥✲t ✍✎✏ ✖✓✚✳✱✖✕ ✘❍✏✏✥ ✔✓✙✕✏✖✘✏✘

✖✚✖✔✓✧ ❯✎✔✘ ✔✘ ✖ ✘✔✍✳✖✍✔✒✓ ✛✎✏✕✏ ✍✎✏ ❍✕✔✓✙✔❍✱✏

✒✌ ✙✒✓✘✏✕❡✖✍✔✒✓ ✒✌ ✖✓✚✳✱✖✕ ✑✒✑✏✓✍✳✑ ✔✘

✖❍❍✱✔✙✖❏✱✏✧ ■✌ ✌✕✔✙✍✔✒✓ ✔✓ ✍✎✏ ✕✒✍✖✍✔✒✓✖✱

✑✏✙✎✖✓✔✘✑ ✔✘ ✓✏✚✱✏✙✍✏✥t ✍✎✏✕✏ ✔✘ ✓✒ ✏❝✍✏✕✓✖✱

✍✒✕✦✳✏ ✖❏✒✳✍ ✍✎✏ ✖❝✔✘ ✒✌ ✕✒✍✖✍✔✒✓ ✒✌ ✍✎✏ ✙✎✖✔✕

✖✓✥ ✎✏✓✙✏ ✗❩ ✔✘ ✙✒✓✘✍✖✓✍✧ ②✍✕✏✍✙✎✔✓✚ ✍✎✏ ✖✕✑✘

✔✓✙✕✏✖✘✏✘ ✗ ✖❏✒✳✍ ✍✎✏ ✖❝✔✘ ✒✌ ✕✒✍✖✍✔✒✓t ✕✏✘✳✱✍✔✓✚

✔✓ ✥✏✙✕✏✖✘✔✓✚ ✍✎✏ ✖✓✚✳✱✖✕ ✘❍✏✏✥❩ ✧ ❬✕✔✓✚✔✓✚

✍✎✏ ✖✕✑✘ ✙✱✒✘✏✕ ✍✒ ✍✎✏ ❏✒✥✲ ✎✖✘ ✍✎✏ ✒❍❍✒✘✔✍✏

✏✌✌✏✙✍✧

❨ ✙✔✕✙✳✘ ✖✙✕✒❏✖✍ ✖✓✥ ✖ ✥✔❡✏✕ ✍✖✴✏ ✖✥❡✖✓✍✖✚✏

✒✌ ✍✎✔✘ ❍✕✔✓✙✔❍✱✏✧ ❨✱✘✒t ✘✴✖✍✏✕✘ ✖✓✥ ✙✱✖✘✘✔✙✖✱t

■✓✥✔✖✓ ✒✕ ✛✏✘✍✏✕✓t ✥✖✓✙✏✕✘ ❍✏✕✌✒✕✑✔✓✚ ✖

❍✔✕✒✳✏✍✍✏ ✒✓ ✍✎✏ ✍✒✏✘ ✒✌ ✒✓✏ ✌✒✒✍ ✥✔✘❍✱✖✲ ❭✑✖✘✍✏✕✲❪

✒❡✏✕ ✍✎✔✘ ❍✕✔✓✙✔❍✱✏✧ ❫✖✓ ✲✒✳ ✏❝❍✱✖✔✓❤

✷✹✺❴ ❵❛❘❘❜❢❣ ❥❛❦❜❛❢

❧✓✏ ✒✌ ✍✎✏ ✑✒✘✍ ✙✒✑✑✒✓ ✑✒✍✔✒✓✘ ✒❏✘✏✕❡✏✥ ✔✓

✥✖✔✱✲ ✱✔✌✏ ✔✘ ✍✎✏ ✕✒✱✱✔✓✚ ✑✒✍✔✒✓✧ ❨✱✱ ✛✎✏✏✱✘ ✳✘✏✥

✔✓ ✍✕✖✓✘❍✒✕✍✖✍✔✒✓ ✎✖❡✏ ✕✒✱✱✔✓✚ ✑✒✍✔✒✓✧ ❑✒✕

✘❍✏✙✔✌✔✙✓✏✘✘ ✛✏ ✘✎✖✱✱ ❏✏✚✔✓ ✛✔✍✎ ✍✎✏ ✙✖✘✏ ✒✌ ✖

✥✔✘✙t ❏✳✍ ✍✎✏ ✕✏✘✳✱✍ ✛✔✱✱ ✖❍❍✱✲ ✍✒ ✖✓✲ ✕✒✱✱✔✓✚ ❏✒✥✲

✕✒✱✱✔✓✚ ✒✓ ✖ ✱✏❡✏✱ ✘✳✕✌✖✙✏✧ ❲✏ ✘✎✖✱✱ ✖✘✘✳✑✏ ✍✎✖✍

✍✎✏ ✥✔✘✙ ✕✒✱✱✘ ✛✔✍✎✒✳✍ ✘✱✔❍❍✔✓✚✧ ❯✎✔✘ ✑✏✖✓✘ ✍✎✖✍

✖✍ ✖✓✲ ✔✓✘✍✖✓✍ ✒✌ ✍✔✑✏ ✍✎✏ ❏✒✍✍✒✑ ✒✌ ✍✎✏ ✥✔✘✙

✛✎✔✙✎ ✔✘ ✔✓ ✙✒✓✍✖✙✍ ✛✔✍✎ ✍✎✏ ✘✳✕✌✖✙✏ ✔✘ ✖✍ ✕✏✘✍

✒✓ ✍✎✏ ✘✳✕✌✖✙✏✧

♠♥♣ rs✉✈ ✇①④ ⑤ ⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩❶❷❸❹❷❺⑨⑩ ⑨❻ ❼⑨⑩❶⑦❸❽❹❷❺⑨⑩ ⑨❻❹⑩❾❿➀❹❸ ⑧⑨⑧⑦⑩❷❿⑧➁ ⑤ ❾❺❸➀ ❶❺❷❶ ⑨⑩ ❹❶➂❺❽⑦➀ ❼➃❹❺❸ ❹⑩⑥ ❶❷❸⑦❷❼➃⑦❶ ➃⑦❸ ❹❸⑧❶➄➅❸❺⑩❾❶ ➃⑦❸ ❹❸⑧❶ ❼➀⑨❶⑦❸ ❷⑨ ❷➃⑦ ➅⑨⑥➆➁

♠♥♣ rs✉✈ ✇➇④ ⑤⑩ ❹❼❸⑨➅❹❷ ⑦⑧➈➀⑨➆❺⑩❾ ❷➃⑦ ➈❸❺⑩❼❺➈➀⑦ ⑨❻❼⑨⑩❶⑦❸❽❹❷❺⑨⑩ ⑨❻ ❹⑩❾❿➀❹❸ ⑧⑨⑧⑦⑩❷❿⑧ ❺⑩➃⑦❸ ➈⑦❸❻⑨❸⑧❹⑩❼⑦➁

Page 178: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❲❡ ✥✞✟❡ ✠❡✡✞✠☛❡☞ ❡✞✠✌✍❡✠ ✎✥✞✎ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑ ✡♦✎✍♦✏✍✐ ✞ ✒♦✡✓✍✏✞✎✍♦✏ ♦✔ ✠♦✎✞✎✍♦✏ ✞✏☞ ✎✠✞✏✐✌✞✎✍♦✏✕❲❡ ☛✏♦✖ ✎✥✞✎ ✎✥❡ ✎✠✞✏✐✌✞✎✍♦✏✞✌ ✡♦✎✍♦✏ ♦✔ ✞✐s✐✎❡✡ ♦✔ ✗✞✠✎✍✒✌❡✐ ✍✐ ✎✥❡ ✡♦✎✍♦✏ ♦✔ ✍✎✐ ✒❡✏✎✠❡ ♦✔✡✞✐✐✕

❋✘✙✚ ✛✚✜✛ ❚✢✣ ✤✦✧✧★✩✪ ✫✦✬★✦✩ ✭✮★✬✢✦✯✬ ✰✧★✱✱★✩✪✲ ✦✳ ✴❞★✰✵ ✦✩ ✴ ✧✣✷✣✧ ✰✯✤✳✴✵✣❢ ✸✦✬✣ ✴✬ ✴✩✹ ★✩✰✬✴✩✬✺✬✢✣ ✱✦★✩✬ ✦✳ ✵✦✩✬✴✵✬ t✻ ✦✳ ✬✢✣ ❞★✰✵ ✮★✬✢ ✬✢✣✰✯✤✳✴✵✣ ★✰ ✴✬ ✤✣✰✬✼ ✬✢✣ ✵✣✩✬✤✣ ✦✳ ✫✴✰✰ ✦✳✬✢✣ ❞★✰✵ ✫✦✷✣✰ ✮★✬✢ ✷✣✧✦✵★✬✹✺ ✷❝✽❢ ❚✢✣ ❞★✰✵✤✦✬✴✬✣✰ ✮★✬✢ ✴✩✪✯✧✴✤ ✷✣✧✦✵★✬✹ ✴❛✦✯✬ ★✬✰✴✾★✰ ✮✢★✵✢ ✱✴✰✰✣✰ ✬✢✤✦✯✪✢ ✿✼ ✷❝✽ ❀❁❂✺✮✢✣✤✣ ❁ ★✰ ✬✢✣ ✤✴❞★✯✰ ✦✳ ✬✢✣ ❞★✰✵❢

▲❡✎ ✈❃❄ ✓❡ ✎✥❡ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✒❡✏✎✠❡ ♦✔ ✡✞✐✐

✞✏☞ ✎✥❡✠❡✔♦✠❡ ✎✥❡ ✎✠✞✏✐✌✞✎✍♦✏✞✌ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s ♦✔ ✎✥❡

☞✍✐✒✕ ❅✍✏✒❡ ✎✥❡ ✒❡✏✎✠❡ ♦✔ ✡✞✐✐ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑ ☞✍✐✒

✍✐ ✞✎ ✍✎✐ ✑❡♦✡❡✎✠✍✒ ✒❡✏✎✠❡ ❆ ❇❈✍✑✕ ❉✕ ❊❉●❍ ✈❃❄ ✍✐

✎✥❡ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s ♦✔ ❆✕ ■✎ ✍✐ ✗✞✠✞✌✌❡✌ ✎♦ ✎✥❡ ✌❡✟❡✌

✐❏✠✔✞✒❡✕ ❑✥❡ ✠♦✎✞✎✍♦✏✞✌ ✡♦✎✍♦✏ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ☞✍✐✒ ✍✐

✞✓♦❏✎ ✍✎✐ ✐s✡✡❡✎✠s ✞▼✍✐❍ ✖✥✍✒✥ ✗✞✐✐❡✐ ✎✥✠♦❏✑✥

❆✕ ❑✥❏✐❍ ✎✥❡ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s ♦✔ ✞✏s ✗♦✍✏✎ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ☞✍✐✒❍

✌✍☛❡ ❧◆❍ ❧❖ ♦✠ ❧◗❍ ✒♦✏✐✍✐✎✐ ♦✔ ✎✖♦ ✗✞✠✎✐❍ ♦✏❡ ✍✐ ✎✥❡

✎✠✞✏✐✌✞✎✍♦✏✞✌ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s ✈❃❄ ✞✏☞ ✎✥❡ ♦✎✥❡✠ ✍✐ ✎✥❡

✌✍✏❡✞✠ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s ✈r ♦✏ ✞✒✒♦❏✏✎ ♦✔ ✠♦✎✞✎✍♦✏✕ ❑✥❡

✡✞✑✏✍✎❏☞❡ ♦✔ ✈r ✍✐ ❘r❙ ❯❱❍ ✖✥❡✠❡ ❳✍✐ ✎✥❡ ✞✏✑❏✌✞✠

✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✠♦✎✞✎✍♦✏ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ☞✍✐✒ ✞✓♦❏✎ ✎✥❡ ✞▼✍✐

✞✏☞ ❯ ✍✐ ✎✥❡ ☞✍✐✎✞✏✒❡ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✗♦✍✏✎ ✔✠♦✡ ✎✥❡ ✞▼✍✐

❇✍✕❡✕ ✔✠♦✡ ❆●✕ ❑✥❡ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s ✈r ✍✐ ☞✍✠❡✒✎❡☞

✗❡✠✗❡✏☞✍✒❏✌✞✠ ✎♦ ✎✥❡ ✠✞☞✍❏✐ ✟❡✒✎♦✠ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✑✍✟❡✏

✗♦✍✏✎ ✖✍✎✥ ✠❡✐✗❡✒✎ ✎♦ ❆✕ ■✏ ❈✍✑✕ ❉✕❊❉❍ ✎✥❡ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s

♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✗♦✍✏✎ ❧◗ ❇✈◗● ✞✏☞ ✍✎✐ ✒♦✡✗♦✏❡✏✎✐ ✈r ✞✏☞

✈❃❄ ✞✠❡ ✐✥♦✖✏❨ ✈r✥❡✠❡ ✍✐ ✗❡✠✗❡✏☞✍✒❏✌✞✠ ✎♦ ❆❧◗ ✕

■✎ ✍✐ ❡✞✐s ✎♦ ✐✥♦✖ ✎✥✞✎ ✈③ ✍✐ ✗❡✠✗❡✏☞✍✒❏✌✞✠ ✎♦ ✎✥❡

✌✍✏❡ ❧❩❧◗✕ ❑✥❡✠❡✔♦✠❡ ✎✥❡ ✌✍✏❡ ✗✞✐✐✍✏✑ ✎✥✠♦❏✑✥ ❧❩✞✏☞ ✗✞✠✞✌✌❡✌ ✎♦ ❳ ✍✐ ✒✞✌✌❡☞ ✎✥❡ ✍✏✐✎✞✏✎✞✏❡♦❏✐

✞▼✍✐ ♦✔ ✠♦✎✞✎✍♦✏✕

❬✎ ❧❭❍ ✎✥❡ ✌✍✏❡✞✠ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s❍ ✈r❍ ☞❏❡ ✎♦ ✠♦✎✞✎✍♦✏

✍✐ ☞✍✠❡✒✎❡☞ ❡▼✞✒✎✌s ♦✗✗♦✐✍✎❡ ✎♦ ✎✥❡ ✎✠✞✏✐✌✞✎✍♦✏✞✌

✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s ✈❃❄✕ ❈❏✠✎✥❡✠ ✎✥❡ ✡✞✑✏✍✎❏☞❡ ♦✔ ✈r✥❡✠❡ ✍✐

❪❱❍ ✖✥❡✠❡ ❪ ✍✐ ✎✥❡ ✠✞☞✍❏✐ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ☞✍✐✒✕ ❑✥❡

✒♦✏☞✍✎✍♦✏ ✎✥✞✎ ❧❭ ✍✐ ✍✏✐✎✞✏✎✞✏❡♦❏✐✌s ✞✎ ✠❡✐✎

✠❡❫❏✍✠❡✐ ❘❃❄ ❙ ❪❱✕ ❑✥❏✐ ✔♦✠ ✎✥❡ ☞✍✐✒ ✎✥❡ ✒♦✏☞✍✎✍♦✏

✔♦✠ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑ ✖✍✎✥♦❏✎ ✐✌✍✗✗✍✏✑ ✍✐

❇❉✕❴❉●

■✏✒✍☞❡✏✎✞✌✌s❍ ✎✥✍✐ ✡❡✞✏✐ ✎✥✞✎ ✎✥❡ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s ♦✔

✗♦✍✏✎ ❧❖ ✞✎ ✎✥❡ ✎♦✗ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ☞✍✐✒ ❇✈❖● ✥✞✐ ✞

✡✞✑✏✍✎❏☞❡ ❘❃❄❵ ❪❱ ♦✠ ❜ ❘❃❄ ✞✏☞ ✍✐ ☞✍✠❡✒✎❡☞

✗✞✠✞✌✌❡✌ ✎♦ ✎✥❡ ✌❡✟❡✌ ✐❏✠✔✞✒❡✕ ❑✥❡ ✒♦✏☞✍✎✍♦✏ ❇❉✕❴❉●

✞✗✗✌✍❡✐ ✎♦ ✞✌✌ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑ ✓♦☞✍❡✐✕

❣❤❥❦❤❥ ♠♥♣q✉♥✇ ①♣q②④⑤ ⑥⑦ ⑧⑥⑨⑨♥♣④ ⑩⑥✉♥⑥♣

❶❏✠ ✏❡▼✎ ✎✞✐☛ ✖✍✌✌ ✓❡ ✎♦ ♦✓✎✞✍✏ ✞✏ ❡▼✗✠❡✐✐✍♦✏✔♦✠ ✎✥❡ ☛✍✏❡✎✍✒ ❡✏❡✠✑s ♦✔ ✞ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑ ✓♦☞s✕ ❑✥❡☛✍✏❡✎✍✒ ❡✏❡✠✑s ♦✔ ✞ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑ ✓♦☞s ✒✞✏ ✓❡ ✐❡✗✞✠✞✎❡☞✍✏✎♦ ☛✍✏❡✎✍✒ ❡✏❡✠✑s ♦✔ ✎✠✞✏✐✌✞✎✍♦✏ ✞✏☞ ☛✍✏❡✎✍✒❡✏❡✠✑s ♦✔ ✠♦✎✞✎✍♦✏✕ ❑✥✍✐ ✍✐ ✞ ✐✗❡✒✍✞✌ ✒✞✐❡ ♦✔ ✞✑❡✏❡✠✞✌ ✠❡✐❏✌✎ ✔♦✠ ✞ ✐s✐✎❡✡ ♦✔ ✗✞✠✎✍✒✌❡✐❍✞✒✒♦✠☞✍✏✑ ✎♦ ✖✥✍✒✥ ✎✥❡ ☛✍✏❡✎✍✒ ❡✏❡✠✑s ♦✔ ✞✐s✐✎❡✡ ♦✔ ✗✞✠✎✍✒✌❡✐ ❇❷● ✒✞✏ ✓❡ ✐❡✗✞✠✞✎❡☞ ✍✏✎♦✎✥❡ ☛✍✏❡✎✍✒ ❡✏❡✠✑s ♦✔ ✡♦✎✍♦✏ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✒❡✏✎✠❡ ♦✔✡✞✐✐ ❇✎✠✞✏✐✌✞✎✍♦✏● ❇❸❹◗❺❜● ✞✏☞ ☛✍✏❡✎✍✒ ❡✏❡✠✑s♦✔ ✠♦✎✞✎✍♦✏✞✌ ✡♦✎✍♦✏ ✞✓♦❏✎ ✎✥❡ ✒❡✏✎✠❡ ♦✔ ✡✞✐✐♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✐s✐✎❡✡ ♦✔ ✗✞✠✎✍✒✌❡✐ ❇❷❻ ●✕ ❑✥❏✐❍

❼ ❽❾❿ ❿ ➀➁➂ ➃➄ ❇❉✕❴➅●

❲❡ ✞✐✐❏✡❡ ✎✥✍✐ ✑❡✏❡✠✞✌ ✠❡✐❏✌✎ ❇✐❡❡ ➆▼❡✠✒✍✐❡❉✕❊➇●❍ ✞✏☞ ✞✗✗✌s ✍✎ ✎♦ ✎✥❡ ✒✞✐❡ ♦✔ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑ ✡♦✎✍♦✏✕■✏ ♦❏✠ ✏♦✎✞✎✍♦✏❍ ✎✥❡ ☛✍✏❡✎✍✒ ❡✏❡✠✑s ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✒❡✏✎✠❡♦✔ ✡✞✐✐❍ ✍✕❡✕❍ ✎✥❡ ☛✍✏❡✎✍✒ ❡✏❡✠✑s ♦✔ ✎✠✞✏✐✌✞✎✍♦✏❍

♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑ ✓♦☞s ✍✐ ➈❘◗❃❄ ❺❜❍ ✖✥❡✠❡ ➈ ✍✐ ✎✥❡✡✞✐✐ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✓♦☞s ✞✏☞ ❘❃❄ ✍✐ ✎✥❡ ✒❡✏✎✠❡ ♦✔ ✎✥❡✡✞✐✐ ✟❡✌♦✒✍✎s✕ ❅✍✏✒❡ ✎✥❡ ✡♦✎✍♦✏ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑

✓♦☞s ✞✓♦❏✎ ✎✥❡ ✒❡✏✎✠❡ ♦✔ ✡✞✐✐ ✍✐ ✠♦✎✞✎✍♦✏❍ ❷❻✠❡✗✠❡✐❡✏✎✐ ✎✥❡ ☛✍✏❡✎✍✒ ❡✏❡✠✑s ♦✔ ✠♦✎✞✎✍♦✏ ♦✔ ✎✥❡

✓♦☞s❨ ➉ ➊➋ ➌➍➎ ➏ ❍ ✖✥❡✠❡ ➐ ✍✐ ✎✥❡ ✡♦✡❡✏✎ ♦✔✍✏❡✠✎✍✞ ✞✓♦❏✎ ✎✥❡ ✞✗✗✠♦✗✠✍✞✎❡ ✞▼✍✐❍ ✖✥✍✒✥ ✍✐ ✎✥❡✐s✡✡❡✎✠s ✞▼✍✐ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑ ✓♦☞s✕ ❑✥❡ ☛✍✏❡✎✍✒

❡✏❡✠✑s ♦✔ ✞ ✠♦✌✌✍✏✑ ✓♦☞s❍ ✎✥❡✠❡✔♦✠❡❍ ✍✐ ✑✍✟❡✏ ✓s

➑ ➑➒ ➒

➓ ➓➔→➣ ↔ ↕➙ ➛➜ ➝ ❇❉✕❴➞✞●

❅❏✓✐✎✍✎❏✎ ✍✏✑ ➐ ➟ ➈➠◗ ✖✥❡✠❡ ➠ ➟ ✎✥❡✒♦✠✠❡✐✗♦✏☞✍✏✑ ✠✞☞✍❏✐ ♦✔ ✑s✠✞✎✍♦✏ ♦✔ ✎✥❡ ✓♦☞s✞✏☞ ❘❃❄➟ ❪ ❳➡ ✖❡ ✑❡✎

➢ ➢➢

➢➤ ➤

➥ ➥➦➧

➦➧➨➩

➫ ➨➭

➯➯➲ ➳

♦✠

➵➵

➵➸

➸➺

➻➼➽

➾ ➚➪

➶➹ ➘

➴ ➷➬ ➮➱ ✃

❇❉✕❴➞✓●

Page 179: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✼✺

❊✍✎✏✑✒✓✔ ✕✖✗✘✙✚✛ ✏✜✜✢✒✣✤ ✑✓ ✏✔✥ ✦✓✢✢✒✔♦ ✚✓✧✥★✏ ✧✒✤❛✩ ✏ ❛✥✢✒✔✧✣✦✩ ✏ ✦✒✔♦ ✓✦ ✏ ✤✜✱✣✦✣✗

✪✫✬✭✮✯✰ ✲✳✴✵ ✷✱✦✣✣ ✚✓✧✒✣✤✩ ✏ ✦✒✔♦✩ ✏ ✤✓✢✒✧❛✥✢✒✔✧✣✦ ✏✔✧ ✏ ✤✓✢✒✧ ✤✜✱✣✦✣ ✦✓✢✢ ✧✓✸✔ ✑✱✣✤✏s✣ ✒✔❛✢✒✔✣✧ ✜✢✏✔✣ ✸✒✑✱✓✎✑ ✤✢✒✜✜✒✔♦✗ ✷✱✣✥✤✑✏✦✑ ✹✦✓s ✦✣✤✑✗ ✷✱✣ ✦✏✧✒✒ ✓✹ ✑✱✣ ✚✓✧✒✣✤ ✏✦✣✒✧✣✔✑✒❛✏✢✗ ✐✱✒❛✱ ✓✹ ✑✱✣ ✚✓✧✒✣✤ ✦✣✏❛✱✣✤ ✑✱✣♦✦✓✎✔✧ ✸✒✑✱ s✏✻✒s✎s ✽✣✢✓❛✒✑✥✾

❆✿❀❁✰❂ ✐✣ ✏✤✤✎s✣ ❛✓✔✤✣✦✽✏✑✒✓✔ ✓✹ ✣✔✣✦♦✥ ✓✹✑✱✣ ✦✓✢✢✒✔♦ ✚✓✧✥✩ ✒✗✣✗ ✑✱✣✦✣ ✒✤ ✔✓ ✢✓✤✤ ✓✹ ✣✔✣✦♦✥✧✎✣ ✑✓ ✹✦✒❛✑✒✓✔ ✣✑❛✗ ✷✱✣ ✜✓✑✣✔✑✒✏✢ ✣✔✣✦♦✥ ✢✓✤✑ ✚✥✑✱✣ ✚✓✧✥ ✒✔ ✦✓✢✢✒✔♦ ✧✓✸✔ ✑✱✣ ✒✔❛✢✒✔✣✧ ✜✢✏✔✣✕❃ ♠❄❅✛ s✎✤✑✩ ✑✱✣✦✣✹✓✦✣✩ ✚✣ ✣✍✎✏✢ ✑✓ ❡✒✔✣✑✒❛

✣✔✣✦♦✥ ♦✏✒✔✣✧✗ ✕❇✣✣ ❈✒♦✗✖✗❉❋✛ ❇✒✔❛✣ ✑✱✣ ✚✓✧✒✣✤✤✑✏✦✑ ✹✦✓s ✦✣✤✑ ✑✱✣ ❡✒✔✣✑✒❛ ✣✔✣✦♦✥ ♦✏✒✔✣✧ ✒✤ ✣✍✎✏✢✑✓ ✑✱✣ ✹✒✔✏✢ ❡✒✔✣✑✒❛ ✣✔✣✦♦✥ ✓✹ ✑✱✣ ✚✓✧✒✣✤✗ ❈✦✓s

❊✍✗ ✕✖✗✘✙✚✛✩

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●❍

❍■

❦❑ ❏

❘▲

▼ ◆❖ P◗ ❯

❱ ❲✩ ✸✱✣✦✣ ✈ ✒✤ ✑✱✣

✹✒✔✏✢ ✽✣✢✓❛✒✑✥ ✓✹ ✕✑✱✣ ❛✣✔✑✦✣ ✓✹ s✏✤✤ ✓✹✛ ✑✱✣ ✚✓✧✥✗❊✍✎✏✑✒✔♦ ❳ ✏✔✧ ♠❄❅✩

❨❩❬❭❪❭❫❴

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●❍

❍■

❦❏❵❜ ❏

❘▲

▼ ◆❖ P◗ ❯

❱ ❲

✓✦●

● ●■

❵❜

❦ ❘▲

▼ ◆❖ ◗ ❯

P❱ ❲

❝✓✑✣ ✒✤ ✒✔✧✣✜✣✔✧✣✔✑ ✓✹ ✑✱✣ s✏✤✤ ✓✹ ✑✱✣✦✓✢✢✒✔♦ ✚✓✧✥❞

❈✓✦ ✏ ✦✒✔♦✩ ❢❣ ❃ ❤❣

❍ ❍r❥♥❧

❵❜▲ ❖

P ✩

❃ ♣q

❈✓✦ ✏ ✤✓✢✒✧ ❛✥✢✒✔✧✣✦ ❢❣ ❃ ❤❣t✉

❍ ❍ ■✇❥①②

❵❜▲ ❖

P

❃③

❵❜

❈✓✦ ✏ ✤✓✢✒✧ ✤✜✱✣✦✣ ❢❣ ❃ ✉❤❣t⑤

❍ ■ ⑥①⑦⑧⑨r⑨

❵❜▲ ❖

P

❃❍⑩

❵❜

❈✦✓s ✑✱✣ ✦✣✤✎✢✑✤ ✓✚✑✏✒✔✣✧ ✒✑ ✒✤ ❛✢✣✏✦ ✑✱✏✑✏s✓✔♦✑✱✣ ✑✱✦✣✣ ✚✓✧✒✣✤ ✑✱✣ ✤✜✱✣✦✣ ✱✏✤ ✑✱✣ ♦✦✣✏✑✣✤✑ ✏✔✧✑✱✣ ✦✒✔♦ ✱✏✤ ✑✱✣ ✢✣✏✤✑ ✽✣✢✓❛✒✑✥ ✓✹ ✑✱✣ ❛✣✔✑✦✣ ✓✹s✏✤✤✏✑ ✑✱✣ ✚✓✑✑✓s ✓✹ ✑✱✣ ✒✔❛✢✒✔✣✧ ✜✢✏✔✣✗

❇✎✜✜✓✤✣ ✑✱✣✚✓✧✒✣✤✱✏✽✣ ✑✱✣✤✏s✣s✏✤✤✗ ✐✱✒❛✱✚✓✧✥✱✏✤ ✑✱✣ ♦✦✣✏✑✣✤✑ ✦✓✑✏✑✒✓✔✏✢ ❡✒✔✣✑✒❛✣✔✣✦♦✥✸✱✒✢✣✦✣✏❛✱✒✔♦ ✑✱✣ ✚✓✑✑✓s ✓✹ ✑✱✣ ✒✔❛✢✒✔✣✧ ✜✢✏✔✣✾ ❷

❸❹❺❺❻❼❽

❾❿ ➀➁➂➃➄➄➅➆ ➃ ➇➈➉➈➁ ➊➋➁➅ ➈➌ ➋➍➂ ➎➋➇ ➏➐➈➑➐ ➒➐➂ ➁➈➌➒➃➍➑➂➌ ➊➂➒➏➂➂➍ ➁➈➎➎➂➇➂➍➒ ➓➃➇➒➈➑➄➂➌ ➋➎ ➒➐➂➊➋➁➅ ➁➋ ➍➋➒ ➑➐➃➍➉➂➆ ➂➔➂➍ ➒➐➋→➉➐ ➒➐➂➇➂ ➃➇➂ ➎➋➇➑➂➌ ➋➍ ➒➐➂➣❿

↔❿ ↕ ➇➈➉➈➁ ➊➋➁➅ ➎➈➙➂➁ ➃➒ ➋➍➂ ➓➋➈➍➒ ➋➇ ➃➄➋➍➉ ➃ ➄➈➍➂ ➑➃➍ ➐➃➔➂ ➋➍➄➅ ➇➋➒➃➒➈➋➍➃➄ ➣➋➒➈➋➍❿ ↕ ➇➈➉➈➁➊➋➁➅ ➍➋➒ ➎➈➙➂➁ ➈➍ ➌➋➣➂ ➏➃➅ ➑➃➍ ➐➃➔➂ ➂➈➒➐➂➇ ➓→➇➂ ➒➇➃➍➌➄➃➒➈➋➍ ➋➇ ➃ ➑➋➣➊➈➍➃➒➈➋➍ ➋➎➒➇➃➍➌➄➃➒➈➋➍ ➃➍➁ ➇➋➒➃➒➈➋➍❿

➛❿ ➀➍ ➇➋➒➃➒➈➋➍ ➃➊➋→➒ ➃ ➎➈➙➂➁ ➃➙➈➌➆ ➂➔➂➇➅ ➓➃➇➒➈➑➄➂ ➋➎ ➒➐➂ ➇➈➉➈➁ ➊➋➁➅ ➣➋➔➂➌ ➈➍ ➃ ➑➈➇➑➄➂ ➏➐➈➑➐➄➈➂➌ ➈➍ ➃ ➓➄➃➍➂ ➓➂➇➓➂➍➁➈➑→➄➃➇ ➒➋ ➒➐➂ ➃➙➈➌ ➃➍➁ ➐➃➌ ➈➒➌ ➑➂➍➒➇➂ ➋➍ ➒➐➂ ➃➙➈➌❿ ➜➔➂➇➅ ➝➋➈➍➒ ➈➍➒➐➂ ➇➋➒➃➒➈➍➉ ➇➈➉➈➁ ➊➋➁➅ ➐➃➌ ➒➐➂ ➌➃➣➂ ➃➍➉→➄➃➇ ➔➂➄➋➑➈➒➅ ➃➒ ➃➍➅ ➈➍➌➒➃➍➒ ➋➎ ➒➈➣➂❿

➞❿ ➀➍ ➓→➇➂ ➒➇➃➍➌➄➃➒➈➋➍➆ ➂➔➂➇➅ ➓➃➇➒➈➑➄➂ ➋➎ ➒➐➂ ➊➋➁➅ ➣➋➔➂➌ ➏➈➒➐ ➒➐➂ ➌➃➣➂ ➔➂➄➋➑➈➒➅ ➃➒ ➃➍➅➈➍➌➒➃➍➒ ➋➎ ➒➈➣➂❿

➟❿ ↕➍➉→➄➃➇ ➔➂➄➋➑➈➒➅ ➈➌ ➃ ➔➂➑➒➋➇❿ ➀➒➌ ➣➃➉➍➈➒→➁➂ ➈➌ ➠➡ ➢➤➥➢➦ ➃➍➁ ➈➒ ➈➌ ➁➈➇➂➑➒➂➁ ➃➄➋➍➉ ➒➐➂ ➃➙➈➌➋➎ ➇➋➒➃➒➈➋➍❿ ➧➋➇ ➇➋➒➃➒➈➋➍ ➃➊➋→➒ ➃ ➎➈➙➂➁ ➃➙➈➌➆ ➒➐➈➌ ➔➂➑➒➋➇ ➨➨ ➐➃➌ ➃ ➎➈➙➂➁ ➁➈➇➂➑➒➈➋➍❿

Page 180: Ncert class 11 physics part 1
Page 181: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✼✼

✌✺✳ ❘✍✎✏✎✑✍✒ ✏✓✍✔✎ ✏ ✕✑✖✗✘ ✏✖✑✙ ✑✙ ✘✑✚✗❡✎✛✜ ✏✒✏✛✍✢✍✔✙ ✎✍ ✛✑✒✗✏✚ ✣✍✎✑✍✒ ✑✒ ✚✗✙✤✗❡✎ ✍✕ ✥✑✒✗✣✏✎✑❡✙

✏✒✘ ✘✜✒✏✣✑❡✙✳

✌✻✳ ✦✧✗ ✏✒✢✔✛✏✚ ✏❡❡✗✛✗✚✏✎✑✍✒ ✍✕ ✏ ✚✑✢✑✘ ✓✍✘✜ ✚✍✎✏✎✑✒✢ ✏✓✍✔✎ ✏ ✕✑✖✗✘ ✏✖✑✙ ✑✙ ✢✑★✗✒ ✓✜ ■✩ ✪ ✫ ✳ ✬✕

✎✧✗ ✗✖✎✗✚✒✏✛ ✎✍✚q✔✗ ✭ ✑✙ ✮✗✚✍✯ ✎✧✗ ❡✍✣✤✍✒✗✒✎ ✍✕ ✏✒✢✔✛✏✚ ✣✍✣✗✒✎✔✣ ✏✓✍✔✎ ✎✧✗ ✕✑✖✗✘ ✏✖✑✙

■✰ ✍✕ ✙✔❡✧ ✏ ✚✍✎✏✎✑✒✢ ✓✍✘✜ ✑✙ ❡✍✒✙✎✏✒✎✳

✌✱✳ ❋✍✚ ✚✍✛✛✑✒✢ ✣✍✎✑✍✒ ♦✑✎✧✍✔✎ ✙✛✑✤✤✑✒✢ ✈❝✲ ✪ ✴✰✯ ♦✧✗✚✗ ✈❝✲ ✑✙ ✎✧✗ ★✗✛✍❡✑✎✜ ✍✕ ✎✚✏✒✙✛✏✎✑✍✒ ✵✑✳✗✳

✍✕ ✎✧✗ ❡✗✒✎✚✗ ✍✕ ✣✏✙✙✷✯ ✴ ✑✙ ✎✧✗ ✚✏✘✑✔✙ ✏✒✘ ♠ ✑✙ ✎✧✗ ✣✏✙✙ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✓✍✘✜✳ ✦✧✗ ✥✑✒✗✎✑❡ ✗✒✗✚✢✜

✍✕ ✙✔❡✧ ✏ ✚✍✛✛✑✒✢ ✓✍✘✜ ✑✙ ✎✧✗ ✙✔✣ ✍✕ ✥✑✒✗✎✑❡ ✗✒✗✚✢✑✗✙ ✍✕ ✎✚✏✒✙✛✏✎✑✍✒ ✏✒✘ ✚✍✎✏✎✑✍✒✸

✹ ✹✽ ✽

✾ ✾✿❀❑ ❁ ❂ ❃❄❅ ❆ ✳

P❇❈❉❊● ❊❇ P❇❉❍❏▲

✌✳ ✦✍ ✘✗✎✗✚✣✑✒✗ ✎✧✗ ✣✍✎✑✍✒ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ❡✗✒✎✚✗ ✍✕ ✣✏✙✙ ✍✕ ✏ ✙✜✙✎✗✣ ✒✍ ✥✒✍♦✛✗✘✢✗ ✍✕ ✑✒✎✗✚✒✏✛

✕✍✚❡✗✙ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✙✜✙✎✗✣ ✑✙ ✚✗q✔✑✚✗✘✳ ❋✍✚ ✎✧✑✙ ✤✔✚✤✍✙✗ ♦✗ ✒✗✗✘ ✎✍ ✥✒✍♦ ✍✒✛✜ ✎✧✗ ✗✖✎✗✚✒✏✛

✕✍✚❡✗✙ ✍✒ ✎✧✗ ✓✍✘✜✳

▼✳ ◆✗✤✏✚✏✎✑✒✢ ✎✧✗ ✣✍✎✑✍✒ ✍✕ ✏ ✙✜✙✎✗✣ ✍✕ ✤✏✚✎✑❡✛✗✙ ✏✙✯ ✑✳✗✳ ✎✧✗ ✣✍✎✑✍✒ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ❡✗✒✎✚✗ ✍✕ ✣✏✙✙

✎✚✏✒✙✒✏✎✑✍✒✏✛ ✣✍✎✑✍✒ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✙✜✙✎✗✣ ✏✒✘ ✣✍✎✑✍✒ ✏✓✍✔✎ ✵✑✳✗✳ ✚✗✛✏✎✑★✗ ✎✍✷ ✎✧✗ ❡✗✒✎✚✗ ✍✕

✣✏✙✙ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✙✜✙✎✗✣ ✑✙ ✏ ✔✙✗✕✔✛ ✎✗❡✧✒✑q✔✗ ✑✒ ✘✜✒✏✣✑❡✙ ✍✕ ✏ ✙✜✙✎✗✣ ✍✕ ✤✏✚✎✑❡✛✗✙✳ ❖✒✗

✗✖✏✣✤✛✗ ✍✕ ✎✧✑✙ ✎✗❡✧✒✑q✔✗ ✑✙ ✙✗✤✏✚✏✎✑✒✢ ✎✧✗ ✥✑✒✗✎✑❡ ✗✒✗✚✢✜ ✍✕ ✏ ✙✜✙✎✗✣ ✍✕ ✤✏✚✎✑❡✛✗✙ ❣ ✏✙

✎✧✗ ✥✑✒✗✎✑❡ ✗✒✗✚✢✜ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✙✜✙✎✗✣ ✏✓✍✔✎ ✑✎✙ ❡✗✒✎✚✗ ✍✕ ✣✏✙✙ ❣◗ ✏✒✘ ✎✧✗ ✥✑✒✗✎✑❡ ✗✒✗✚✢✜ ✍✕

✎✧✗ ❡✗✒✎✚✗ ✍✕ ✣✏✙✙ ❯❱❲❳▼✯

❨ ✪ ❨❩ ❬ ❯❱❲❳▼

❭✳ ❪✗♦✎✍✒❫✙ ◆✗❡✍✒✘ ❴✏♦ ✕✍✚ ✕✑✒✑✎✗ ✙✑✮✗✘ ✓✍✘✑✗✙ ✵✍✚ ✙✜✙✎✗✣✙ ✍✕ ✤✏✚✎✑❡✛✗✙✷ ✑✙ ✓✏✙✗✘ ✑✒ ❪✗♦✎✍✒❫✙

◆✗❡✍✒✘ ❴✏♦ ✏✒✘ ✏✛✙✍ ❪✗♦✎✍✒❫✙ ✦✧✑✚✘ ❴✏♦ ✕✍✚ ✤✏✚✎✑❡✛✗✙✳

❵✳ ✦✍ ✗✙✎✏✓✛✑✙✧ ✎✧✏✎ ✎✧✗ ✎✑✣✗ ✚✏✎✗ ✍✕ ❡✧✏✒✢✗ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✎✍✎✏✛ ✏✒✢✔✛✏✚ ✣✍✣✗✒✎✔✣ ✍✕ ✏ ✙✜✙✎✗✣ ✍✕

✤✏✚✎✑❡✛✗✙ ✑✙ ✎✧✗ ✎✍✎✏✛ ✗✖✎✗✚✒✏✛ ✎✍✚q✔✗ ✑✒ ✎✧✗ ✙✜✙✎✗✣✯ ♦✗ ✒✗✗✘ ✒✍✎ ✍✒✛✜ ❪✗♦✎✍✒❫✙ ✙✗❡✍✒✘

✛✏♦ ✕✍✚ ✤✏✚✎✑❡✛✗✙✯ ✓✔✎ ✏✛✙✍ ❪✗♦✎✍✒❫✙ ✎✧✑✚✘ ✛✏♦ ♦✑✎✧ ✎✧✗ ✤✚✍★✑✙✑✍✒ ✎✧✏✎ ✎✧✗ ✕✍✚❡✗✙ ✓✗✎♦✗✗✒

✏✒✜ ✎♦✍ ✤✏✚✎✑❡✛✗ ✏❡✎ ✏✛✍✒✢ ✎✧✗ ✛✑✒✗ ❛✍✑✒✑✒✢ ✎✧✗ ✤✏✚✎✑❡✛✗✙✳

✺✳ ✦✧✗ ★✏✒✑✙✧✑✒✢ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✎✍✎✏✛ ✗✖✎✗✚✒✏✛ ✕✍✚❡✗ ✏✒✘ ✎✧✗ ★✏✒✑✙✧✑✒✢ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✎✍✎✏✛ ✗✖✎✗✚✒✏✛ ✎✍✚q✔✗

✏✚✗ ✑✒✘✗✤✗✒✘✗✒✎ ❡✍✒✘✑✎✑✍✒✙✳ ❜✗ ❡✏✒ ✧✏★✗ ✍✒✗ ♦✑✎✧✍✔✎ ✎✧✗ ✍✎✧✗✚✳ ✬✒ ✏ ❡✍✔✤✛✗✯ ✎✍✎✏✛

✗✖✎✗✚✒✏✛ ✕✍✚❡✗ ✑✙ ✮✗✚✍ ✓✔✎ ✎✍✎✏✛ ✎✍✚q✔✗ ✑✙ ✒✍✒❞✮✗✚✍✳

✻✳ ✦✧✗ ✎✍✎✏✛ ✎✍✚q✔✗ ✍✒ ✏ ✙✜✙✎✗✣ ✑✙ ✑✒✘✗✤✗✒✘✗✒✎ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✍✚✑✢✑✒ ✑✕ ✎✧✗ ✎✍✎✏✛ ✗✖✎✗✚✒✏✛ ✕✍✚❡✗ ✑✙

✮✗✚✍✳

✱✳ ✦✧✗ ❡✗✒✎✚✗ ✍✕ ✢✚✏★✑✎✜ ✍✕ ✏ ✓✍✘✜ ❡✍✑✒❡✑✘✗✙ ♦✑✎✧ ✑✎✙ ❡✗✒✎✚✗ ✍✕ ✣✏✙✙ ✍✒✛✜ ✑✕ ✎✧✗ ✢✚✏★✑✎✏✎✑✍✒✏✛

✕✑✗✛✘ ✘✍✗✙ ✒✍✎ ★✏✚✜ ✕✚✍✣ ✍✒✗ ✤✏✚✎ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✓✍✘✜ ✎✍ ✎✧✗ ✍✎✧✗✚✳

❢✳ ✦✧✗ ✏✒✢✔✛✏✚✣✍✣✗✒✎✔✣ ❤ ✏✒✘ ✎✧✗ ✏✒✢✔✛✏✚ ★✗✛✍❡✑✎✜ ✐✐✏✚✗ ✒✍✎ ✒✗❡✗✙✙✏✚✑✛✜ ✤✏✚✏✛✛✗✛ ★✗❡✎✍✚✙✳

❥✍♦✗★✗✚✯ ✕✍✚ ✎✧✗ ✙✑✣✤✛✗✚ ✙✑✎✔✏✎✑✍✒✙ ✘✑✙❡✔✙✙✗✘ ✑✒ ✎✧✑✙ ❡✧✏✤✎✗✚ ♦✧✗✒ ✚✍✎✏✎✑✍✒ ✑✙ ✏✓✍✔✎ ✏

✕✑✖✗✘ ✏✖✑✙ ♦✧✑❡✧ ✑✙ ✏✒ ✏✖✑✙ ✍✕ ✙✜✣✣✗✎✚✜ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✚✑✢✑✘ ✓✍✘✜✯ ✎✧✗ ✚✗✛✏✎✑✍✒ ❤ ❦ ■✐✧✍✛✘✙ ✢✍✍✘✯

♦✧✗✚✗ ■ ✑✙ ✎✧✗ ✣✍✣✗✒✎ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✑✒✗✚✎✑✏ ✍✕ ✎✧✗ ✓✍✘✜ ✏✓✍✔✎ ✎✧✗ ✚✍✎✏✎✑✍✒ ✏✖✑✙✳

Page 182: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❊✞❊✟✠✡☛❊☛

✼☞✌ ●✍✎✏ ✑✒✏ ✓✔✕✖✑✍✔✗ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✕✏✗✑✙✏ ✔✘ ✚✖✛✛ ✔✘ ✖ ✜✍✢ ✛✣✒✏✙✏❡ ✜✍✍✢ ✕✤✓✍✗✥✏✙❡ ✜✍✍✍✢ ✙✍✗✱❡ ✖✗✥ ✜✍✎✢

✕❝✦✏❡ ✏✖✕✒ ✔✘ ❝✗✍✘✔✙✚ ✚✖✛✛ ✥✏✗✛✍✑✤♠ ✧✔✏✛ ✑✒✏ ✕✏✗✑✙✏ ✔✘ ✚✖✛✛ ✔✘ ✖ ✦✔✥✤ ✗✏✕✏✛✛✖✙✍✓✤

✓✍✏ ✍✗✛✍✥✏ ✑✒✏ ✦✔✥✤ ❧

✼☞★ ■✗ ✑✒✏ ✩✪✫ ✚✔✓✏✕❝✓✏❡ ✑✒✏ ✛✏✣✖✙✖✑✍✔✗ ✦✏✑✬✏✏✗ ✑✒✏ ✗❝✕✓✏✍ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✑✬✔ ✖✑✔✚✛ ✍✛ ✖✦✔❝✑

✫♠✭✮ ✯ ✜✫ ✯ ✰ ✫✲✳✫✲ ✚✢♠ ✴✍✗✥ ✑✒✏ ✖✣✣✙✔♦✍✚✖✑✏ ✓✔✕✖✑✍✔✗ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✪✵ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✚✔✓✏✕❝✓✏❡

✱✍✎✏✗ ✑✒✖✑ ✖ ✕✒✓✔✙✍✗✏ ✖✑✔✚ ✍✛ ✖✦✔❝✑ ❣✷♠✷ ✑✍✚✏✛ ✖✛ ✚✖✛✛✍✎✏ ✖✛ ✖ ✒✤✥✙✔✱✏✗ ✖✑✔✚ ✖✗✥

✗✏✖✙✓✤ ✖✓✓ ✑✒✏ ✚✖✛✛ ✔✘ ✖✗ ✖✑✔✚ ✍✛ ✕✔✗✕✏✗✑✙✖✑✏✥ ✍✗ ✍✑✛ ✗❝✕✓✏❝✛♠

✼☞✸ ❆ ✕✒✍✓✥ ✛✍✑✛ ✛✑✖✑✍✔✗✖✙✤ ✖✑ ✔✗✏ ✏✗✥ ✔✘ ✖ ✓✔✗✱ ✑✙✔✓✓✏✤ ✚✔✎✍✗✱ ❝✗✍✘✔✙✚✓✤ ✬✍✑✒ ✖ ✛✣✏✏✥ ❱

✔✗ ✖ ✛✚✔✔✑✒ ✒✔✙✍✹✔✗✑✖✓ ✘✓✔✔✙♠ ■✘ ✑✒✏ ✕✒✍✓✥ ✱✏✑✛ ❝✣ ✖✗✥ ✙❝✗✛ ✖✦✔❝✑ ✔✗ ✑✒✏ ✑✙✔✓✓✏✤ ✍✗ ✖✗✤

✚✖✗✗✏✙❡ ✬✒✖✑ ✍✛ ✑✒✏ ✛✣✏✏✥ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✪✵ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✜✑✙✔✓✓✏✤ ✺ ✕✒✍✓✥✢ ✛✤✛✑✏✚ ❧

✼☞✻ ❙✒✔✬ ✑✒✖✑ ✑✒✏ ✖✙✏✖ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✑✙✍✖✗✱✓✏ ✕✔✗✑✖✍✗✏✥ ✦✏✑✬✏✏✗ ✑✒✏ ✎✏✕✑✔✙✛ ❛ ✖✗✥ ❜ ✍✛ ✔✗✏ ✒✖✓✘

✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✚✖✱✗✍✑❝✥✏ ✔✘ ❛ ✽ ❜♠

✼☞✾ ❙✒✔✬ ✑✒✖✑ ❛☞✜❜ ✽ ✿✢ ✍✛ ✏❀❝✖✓ ✍✗ ✚✖✱✗✍✑❝✥✏ ✑✔ ✑✒✏ ✎✔✓❝✚✏ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✣✖✙✖✓✓✏✓✏✣✍✣✏✥ ✘✔✙✚✏✥

✔✗ ✑✒✏ ✑✒✙✏✏ ✎✏✕✑✔✙✛ ❡ ❛❡ ❜ ✖✗✥ ✿♠

✼☞❁ ✴✍✗✥ ✑✒✏ ✕✔✚✣✔✗✏✗✑✛ ✖✓✔✗✱ ✑✒✏ ①❂ ❃❂ ❄ ✖♦✏✛ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✖✗✱❝✓✖✙ ✚✔✚✏✗✑❝✚ ❅ ✔✘ ✖ ✣✖✙✑✍✕✓✏❡

✬✒✔✛✏ ✣✔✛✍✑✍✔✗ ✎✏✕✑✔✙ ✍✛ r ✬✍✑✒ ✕✔✚✣✔✗✏✗✑✛ ①❡ ❃❡ ❄ ✖✗✥ ✚✔✚✏✗✑❝✚ ✍✛ ♣ ✬✍✑✒

✕✔✚✣✔✗✏✗✑✛ ❇❈❡ ❇② ✖✗✥ ❇③♠ ❙✒✔✬ ✑✒✖✑ ✍✘ ✑✒✏ ✣✖✙✑✍✕✓✏ ✚✔✎✏✛ ✔✗✓✤ ✍✗ ✑✒✏ ①✳❃ ✣✓✖✗✏ ✑✒✏

✖✗✱❝✓✖✙ ✚✔✚✏✗✑❝✚ ✒✖✛ ✔✗✓✤ ✖ ❄✳✕✔✚✣✔✗✏✗✑♠

✼☞✼ ❚✬✔ ✣✖✙✑✍✕✓✏✛❡ ✏✖✕✒ ✔✘ ✚✖✛✛ ❉ ✖✗✥ ✛✣✏✏✥ ✈❡ ✑✙✖✎✏✓ ✍✗ ✔✣✣✔✛✍✑✏ ✥✍✙✏✕✑✍✔✗✛ ✖✓✔✗✱ ✣✖✙✖✓✓✏✓

✓✍✗✏✛ ✛✏✣✖✙✖✑✏✥ ✦✤ ✖ ✥✍✛✑✖✗✕✏ ❞♠ ❙✒✔✬ ✑✒✖✑ ✑✒✏ ✎✏✕✑✔✙ ✖✗✱❝✓✖✙ ✚✔✚✏✗✑❝✚ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✑✬✔

✣✖✙✑✍✕✓✏ ✛✤✛✑✏✚ ✍✛ ✑✒✏ ✛✖✚✏ ✬✒✖✑✏✎✏✙ ✦✏ ✑✒✏ ✣✔✍✗✑ ✖✦✔❝✑ ✬✒✍✕✒ ✑✒✏ ✖✗✱❝✓✖✙✚✔✚✏✗✑❝✚

✍✛ ✑✖✐✏✗♠

✼☞❋ ❆ ✗✔✗✳❝✗✍✘✔✙✚ ✦✖✙ ✔✘ ✬✏✍✱✒✑ ❲ ✍✛ ✛❝✛✣✏✗✥✏✥ ✖✑ ✙✏✛✑ ✦✤ ✑✬✔ ✛✑✙✍✗✱✛ ✔✘ ✗✏✱✓✍✱✍✦✓✏

✬✏✍✱✒✑ ✖✛ ✛✒✔✬✗ ✍✗ ✴✍✱♠✮♠❣✇♠ ❚✒✏ ✖✗✱✓✏✛ ✚✖✥✏ ✦✤ ✑✒✏ ✛✑✙✍✗✱✛ ✬✍✑✒ ✑✒✏ ✎✏✙✑✍✕✖✓ ✖✙✏

❣❍♠✇➦ ✖✗✥ ✷❣♠✫➦ ✙✏✛✣✏✕✑✍✎✏✓✤♠ ❚✒✏ ✦✖✙ ✍✛ ✭ ✚ ✓✔✗✱♠ ✪✖✓✕❝✓✖✑✏ ✑✒✏ ✥✍✛✑✖✗✕✏ ❞ ✔✘ ✑✒✏

✕✏✗✑✙✏ ✔✘ ✱✙✖✎✍✑✤ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✦✖✙ ✘✙✔✚ ✍✑✛ ✓✏✘✑ ✏✗✥♠

❏❑▲▼ ◆▼❖◗

✼☞❘ ❆ ✕✖✙ ✬✏✍✱✒✛ ✫❯✲✲ ✐✱♠ ❚✒✏ ✥✍✛✑✖✗✕✏ ✦✏✑✬✏✏✗ ✍✑✛ ✘✙✔✗✑ ✖✗✥ ✦✖✕✐ ✖♦✓✏✛ ✍✛ ✫♠❯ ✚♠ ■✑✛

✕✏✗✑✙✏ ✔✘ ✱✙✖✎✍✑✤ ✍✛ ✫♠✲✷ ✚ ✦✏✒✍✗✥ ✑✒✏ ✘✙✔✗✑ ✖♦✓✏♠ ✧✏✑✏✙✚✍✗✏ ✑✒✏ ✘✔✙✕✏ ✏♦✏✙✑✏✥ ✦✤ ✑✒✏

✓✏✎✏✓ ✱✙✔❝✗✥ ✔✗ ✏✖✕✒ ✘✙✔✗✑ ✬✒✏✏✓ ✖✗✥ ✏✖✕✒ ✦✖✕✐ ✬✒✏✏✓♠

✼☞✌❳ ✜✖✢ ✴✍✗✥ ✑✒✏ ✚✔✚✏✗✑ ✔✘ ✍✗✏✙✑✍✖ ✔✘ ✖ ✛✣✒✏✙✏ ✖✦✔❝✑ ✖ ✑✖✗✱✏✗✑ ✑✔ ✑✒✏ ✛✣✒✏✙✏❡ ✱✍✎✏✗ ✑✒✏

✚✔✚✏✗✑ ✔✘ ✍✗✏✙✑✍✖ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✛✣✒✏✙✏ ✖✦✔❝✑ ✖✗✤ ✔✘ ✍✑✛ ✥✍✖✚✏✑✏✙✛ ✑✔ ✦✏ ✭❨❩❬❭✷❡ ✬✒✏✙✏

❨ ✍✛ ✑✒✏ ✚✖✛✛ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✛✣✒✏✙✏ ✖✗✥ ❩ ✍✛ ✑✒✏ ✙✖✥✍❝✛ ✔✘ ✑✒✏ ✛✣✒✏✙✏♠

✜✦✢ ●✍✎✏✗ ✑✒✏ ✚✔✚✏✗✑ ✔✘ ✍✗✏✙✑✍✖ ✔✘ ✖ ✥✍✛✕ ✔✘ ✚✖✛✛ ❨ ✖✗✥ ✙✖✥✍❝✛ ❩ ✖✦✔❝✑ ✖✗✤ ✔✘ ✍✑✛

✥✍✖✚✏✑✏✙✛ ✑✔ ✦✏ ❨❩❬❭❪❡ ✘✍✗✥ ✍✑✛ ✚✔✚✏✗✑ ✔✘ ✍✗✏✙✑✍✖ ✖✦✔❝✑ ✖✗ ✖♦✍✛ ✗✔✙✚✖✓ ✑✔ ✑✒✏

✥✍✛✕ ✖✗✥ ✣✖✛✛✍✗✱ ✑✒✙✔❝✱✒ ✖ ✣✔✍✗✑ ✔✗ ✍✑✛ ✏✥✱✏♠

Page 183: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✼✾

✌✍✎✎ ✏♦r✑✒✓✔ ♦✕ ✓✑✒✖✗ ✘✖✙✚✛✜✒✢✓ ✖r✓ ✖❡❡✗✛✓✢ ✜♦ ✖ ✣♦✗✗♦✤ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r ✖✚✢ ✖ ✔♦✗✛✢ ✔❡✣✓r✓✧ ★♦✜✣

✣✖❤✛✚✙ ✜✣✓ ✔✖✘✓ ✘✖✔✔ ✖✚✢ r✖✢✛✒✔✩ ✏✣✓ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r ✛✔ ✕r✓✓ ✜♦ r♦✜✖✜✓ ✖★♦✒✜ ✛✜✔ ✔✜✖✚✢✖r✢

✖❛✛✔ ♦✕ ✔✦✘✘✓✜r✦✧ ✖✚✢ ✜✣✓ ✔❡✣✓r✓ ✛✔ ✕r✓✓ ✜♦ r♦✜✖✜✓ ✖★♦✒✜ ✖✚ ✖❛✛✔ ❡✖✔✔✛✚✙ ✜✣r♦✒✙✣ ✛✜✔

✥✓✚✜r✓✩ ❝✣✛✥✣ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✜✤♦ ✤✛✗✗ ✖✥✑✒✛r✓ ✖ ✙r✓✖✜✓r ✖✚✙✒✗✖r ✔❡✓✓✢ ✖✕✜✓r ✖ ✙✛❤✓✚ ✜✛✘✓✩

✌✍✎✪ ❆ ✔♦✗✛✢ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r ♦✕ ✘✖✔✔ ✫✬ ✭✙ r♦✜✖✜✓✔ ✖★♦✒✜ ✛✜✔ ✖❛✛✔ ✤✛✜✣ ✖✚✙✒✗✖r ✔❡✓✓✢ ✮✬✬ r✖✢ ✔✲✮✩

✏✣✓ r✖✢✛✒✔ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r ✛✔ ✬✩✫✯ ✘✩ ❝✣✖✜ ✛✔ ✜✣✓ ✭✛✚✓✜✛✥ ✓✚✓r✙✦ ✖✔✔♦✥✛✖✜✓✢ ✤✛✜✣ ✜✣✓

r♦✜✖✜✛♦✚ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r✰ ❝✣✖✜ ✛✔ ✜✣✓ ✘✖✙✚✛✜✒✢✓ ♦✕ ✖✚✙✒✗✖r ✘♦✘✓✚✜✒✘ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r

✖★♦✒✜ ✛✜✔ ✖❛✛✔✰

✌✍✎✱ ✳✖✴ ❆ ✥✣✛✗✢ ✔✜✖✚✢✔ ✖✜ ✜✣✓ ✥✓✚✜r✓ ♦✕ ✖ ✜✒r✚✜✖★✗✓ ✤✛✜✣ ✣✛✔ ✜✤♦ ✖r✘✔ ♦✒✜✔✜r✓✜✥✣✓✢✩ ✏✣✓

✜✒r✚✜✖★✗✓ ✛✔ ✔✓✜ r♦✜✖✜✛✚✙ ✤✛✜✣ ✖✚ ✖✚✙✒✗✖r ✔❡✓✓✢ ♦✕ ♥✬ r✓❤✵✘✛✚✩ ✷♦✤ ✘✒✥✣ ✛✔ ✜✣✓

✖✚✙✒✗✖r ✔❡✓✓✢ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✥✣✛✗✢ ✛✕ ✣✓ ✕♦✗✢✔ ✣✛✔ ✣✖✚✢✔ ★✖✥✭ ✖✚✢ ✜✣✓r✓★✦ r✓✢✒✥✓✔ ✣✛✔

✘♦✘✓✚✜ ♦✕ ✛✚✓r✜✛✖ ✜♦ ✫✵✯ ✜✛✘✓✔ ✜✣✓ ✛✚✛✜✛✖✗ ❤✖✗✒✓ ✰ ❆✔✔✒✘✓ ✜✣✖✜ ✜✣✓ ✜✒r✚✜✖★✗✓

r♦✜✖✜✓✔ ✤✛✜✣♦✒✜ ✕r✛✥✜✛♦✚✩

✳★✴ ✸✣♦✤ ✜✣✖✜ ✜✣✓ ✥✣✛✗✢✹✔ ✚✓✤ ✭✛✚✓✜✛✥ ✓✚✓r✙✦ ♦✕ r♦✜✖✜✛♦✚ ✛✔ ✘♦r✓ ✜✣✖✚ ✜✣✓ ✛✚✛✜✛✖✗

✭✛✚✓✜✛✥ ✓✚✓r✙✦ ♦✕ r♦✜✖✜✛♦✚✩ ✷♦✤ ✢♦ ✦♦✒ ✖✥✥♦✒✚✜ ✕♦r ✜✣✛✔ ✛✚✥r✓✖✔✓ ✛✚ ✭✛✚✓✜✛✥ ✓✚✓r✙✦✰

✌✍✎✺ ❆ r♦❡✓ ♦✕ ✚✓✙✗✛✙✛★✗✓ ✘✖✔✔ ✛✔ ✤♦✒✚✢ r♦✒✚✢ ✖ ✣♦✗✗♦✤ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r ♦✕ ✘✖✔✔ ✻ ✭✙ ✖✚✢ r✖✢✛✒✔

♥✬ ✥✘✩ ❝✣✖✜ ✛✔ ✜✣✓ ✖✚✙✒✗✖r ✖✥✥✓✗✓r✖✜✛♦✚ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r ✛✕ ✜✣✓ r♦❡✓ ✛✔ ❡✒✗✗✓✢ ✤✛✜✣ ✖

✕♦r✥✓ ♦✕ ✻✬ ❢ ✰ ❝✣✖✜ ✛✔ ✜✣✓ ✗✛✚✓✖r ✖✥✥✓✗✓r✖✜✛♦✚ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ r♦❡✓ ✰ ❆✔✔✒✘✓ ✜✣✖✜ ✜✣✓r✓ ✛✔ ✚♦

✔✗✛❡❡✛✚✙✩

✌✍✎✽ ✏♦ ✘✖✛✚✜✖✛✚ ✖ r♦✜♦r ✖✜ ✖ ✒✚✛✕♦r✘ ✖✚✙✒✗✖r ✔❡✓✓✢ ♦r ✫✬✬ r✖✢ ✔✲✮✧ ✖✚ ✓✚✙✛✚✓ ✚✓✓✢✔ ✜♦

✜r✖✚✔✘✛✜ ✖ ✜♦r✑✒✓ ♦✕ ✮q✬ ❢ ✘✩ ❝✣✖✜ ✛✔ ✜✣✓ ❡♦✤✓r r✓✑✒✛r✓✢ ★✦ ✜✣✓ ✓✚✙✛✚✓ ✰

✳❢♦✜✓✿ ✒✚✛✕♦r✘ ✖✚✙✒✗✖r ❤✓✗♦✥✛✜✦ ✛✚ ✜✣✓ ✖★✔✓✚✥✓ ♦✕ ✕r✛✥✜✛♦✚ ✛✘❡✗✛✓✔ ♠✓r♦ ✜♦r✑✒✓✩ ❀✚

❡r✖✥✜✛✥✓✧ ✖❡❡✗✛✓✢ ✜♦r✑✒✓ ✛✔ ✚✓✓✢✓✢ ✜♦ ✥♦✒✚✜✓r ✕r✛✥✜✛♦✚✖✗ ✜♦r✑✒✓✴✩ ❆✔✔✒✘✓ ✜✣✖✜ ✜✣✓

✓✚✙✛✚✓ ✛✔ ✮✬✬❁ ✓✕✕✛✥✛✓✚✜✩

✌✍✎❂ ❋r♦✘ ✖ ✒✚✛✕♦r✘ ✢✛✔✭ ♦✕ r✖✢✛✒✔ ❘✧ ✖ ✥✛r✥✒✗✖r ✣♦✗✓ ♦✕ r✖✢✛✒✔ ❘✵✫ ✛✔ ✥✒✜ ♦✒✜✩ ✏✣✓ ✥✓✚✜r✓

♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✣♦✗✓ ✛✔ ✖✜ ❘✵✫ ✕r♦✘ ✜✣✓ ✥✓✚✜r✓ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ♦r✛✙✛✚✖✗ ✢✛✔✥✩ ❃♦✥✖✜✓ ✜✣✓ ✥✓✚✜r✓ ♦✕ ✙r✖❤✛✜✦

♦✕ ✜✣✓ r✓✔✒✗✜✛✚✙ ✕✗✖✜ ★♦✢✦✩

✌✍✎✌ ❆ ✘✓✜r✓ ✔✜✛✥✭ ✛✔ ★✖✗✖✚✥✓✢ ♦✚ ✖ ✭✚✛✕✓ ✓✢✙✓ ✖✜ ✛✜✔ ✥✓✚✜r✓✩ ❝✣✓✚ ✜✤♦ ✥♦✛✚✔✧ ✓✖✥✣ ♦✕ ✘✖✔✔

✯ ✙ ✖r✓ ❡✒✜ ♦✚✓ ♦✚ ✜♦❡ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ♦✜✣✓r ✖✜ ✜✣✓ ✮✫✩✬ ✥✘ ✘✖r✭✧ ✜✣✓ ✔✜✛✥✭ ✛✔ ✕♦✒✚✢ ✜♦ ★✓

★✖✗✖✚✥✓✢ ✖✜ ♥✯✩✬ ✥✘✩ ❝✣✖✜ ✛✔ ✜✣✓ ✘✖✔✔ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✘✓✜r✓ ✔✜✛✥✭✰

✌✍✎❄ ❆ ✔♦✗✛✢ ✔❡✣✓r✓ r♦✗✗✔ ✢♦✤✚ ✜✤♦ ✢✛✕✕✓r✓✚✜ ✛✚✥✗✛✚✓✢ ❡✗✖✚✓✔ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✔✖✘✓ ✣✓✛✙✣✜✔ ★✒✜

✢✛✕✕✓r✓✚✜ ✖✚✙✗✓✔ ♦✕ ✛✚✥✗✛✚✖✜✛♦✚✩ ✳✖✴ ❝✛✗✗ ✛✜ r✓✖✥✣ ✜✣✓ ★♦✜✜♦✘ ✤✛✜✣ ✜✣✓ ✔✖✘✓ ✔❡✓✓✢ ✛✚

✓✖✥✣ ✥✖✔✓✰ ✳★✴ ❝✛✗✗ ✛✜ ✜✖✭✓ ✗♦✚✙✓r ✜♦ r♦✗✗ ✢♦✤✚ ♦✚✓ ❡✗✖✚✓ ✜✣✖✚ ✜✣✓ ♦✜✣✓r✰ ✳✥✴ ❀✕ ✔♦✧

✤✣✛✥✣ ♦✚✓ ✖✚✢ ✤✣✦✰

✌✍✎❅ ❆ ✣♦♦❡ ♦✕ r✖✢✛✒✔ ✫ ✘ ✤✓✛✙✣✔ ✮✬✬ ✭✙✩ ❀✜ r♦✗✗✔ ✖✗♦✚✙ ✖ ✣♦r✛♠♦✚✜✖✗ ✕✗♦♦r ✔♦ ✜✣✖✜ ✛✜✔ ✥✓✚✜r✓

♦✕ ✘✖✔✔ ✣✖✔ ✖ ✔❡✓✓✢ ♦✕ ✫✬ ✥✘✵✔✩ ✷♦✤ ✘✒✥✣ ✤♦r✭ ✣✖✔ ✜♦ ★✓ ✢♦✚✓ ✜♦ ✔✜♦❡ ✛✜✰

✌✍✪❇ ✏✣✓ ♦❛✦✙✓✚ ✘♦✗✓✥✒✗✓ ✣✖✔ ✖ ✘✖✔✔ ♦✕ ✯✩✻✬ ❈ ✮✬❉❊● ✭✙ ✖✚✢ ✖ ✘♦✘✓✚✜ ♦✕ ✛✚✓r✜✛✖ ♦✕

✮✩❍♥❈✮✬❉■● ✭✙ ✘❊ ✖★♦✒✜ ✖✚ ✖❛✛✔ ✜✣r♦✒✙✣ ✛✜✔ ✥✓✚✜r✓ ❡✓r❡✓✚✢✛✥✒✗✖r ✜♦ ✜✣✓ ✗✛✚✓✔ ❏♦✛✚✛✚✙

✜✣✓ ✜✤♦ ✖✜♦✘✔✩ ✸✒❡❡♦✔✓ ✜✣✓ ✘✓✖✚ ✔❡✓✓✢ ♦✕ ✔✒✥✣ ✖ ✘♦✗✓✥✒✗✓ ✛✚ ✖ ✙✖✔ ✛✔ ✯✬✬ ✘✵✔ ✖✚✢

✜✣✖✜ ✛✜✔ ✭✛✚✓✜✛✥ ✓✚✓r✙✦ ♦✕ r♦✜✖✜✛♦✚ ✛✔ ✜✤♦ ✜✣✛r✢✔ ♦✕ ✛✜✔ ✭✛✚✓✜✛✥ ✓✚✓r✙✦ ♦✕ ✜r✖✚✔✗✖✜✛♦✚✩

❋✛✚✢ ✜✣✓ ✖❤✓r✖✙✓ ✖✚✙✒✗✖r ❤✓✗♦✥✛✜✦ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✘♦✗✓✥✒✗✓✩

✌✍✪✎ ❆ ✔♦✗✛✢ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r r♦✗✗✔ ✒❡ ✖✚ ✛✚✥✗✛✚✓✢ ❡✗✖✚✓ ♦✕ ✖✚✙✗✓ ♦✕ ✛✚✥✗✛✚✖✜✛♦✚ ✻✬➦ ✩ ❆✜ ✜✣✓ ★♦✜✜♦✘

♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✛✚✥✗✛✚✓✢ ❡✗✖✚✓ ✜✣✓ ✥✓✚✜r✓ ♦✕ ✘✖✔✔ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r ✣✖✔ ✖ ✔❡✓✓✢ ♦✕ ✯ ✘✵✔✩

✳✖✴ ✷♦✤ ✕✖r ✤✛✗✗ ✜✣✓ ✥✦✗✛✚✢✓r ✙♦ ✒❡ ✜✣✓ ❡✗✖✚✓✰

✳★✴ ✷♦✤ ✗♦✚✙ ✤✛✗✗ ✛✜ ✜✖✭✓ ✜♦ r✓✜✒r✚ ✜♦ ✜✣✓ ★♦✜✜♦✘✰

❑▲▲▼◆▼❖P◗❯ ❱❲❳❨❩▼❬❳❬

✌✍✪✪ ❆✔ ✔✣♦✤✚ ✛✚ ❋✛✙✩❭✩♥✬✧ ✜✣✓ ✜✤♦ ✔✛✢✓✔ ♦✕ ✖ ✔✜✓❡ ✗✖✢✢✓r ❪❆ ✖✚✢ ❫❆ ✖r✓ ✮✩❴ ✘ ✗♦✚✙ ✖✚✢

✣✛✚✙✓✢ ✖✜ ❆✩ ❆ r♦❡✓ ❵❜✧ ✬✩✯ ✘ ✛✔ ✜✛✓✢ ✣✖✗✕ ✤✖✦ ✒❡✩ ❆ ✤✓✛✙✣✜ ♥✬ ✭✙ ✛✔ ✔✒✔❡✓✚✢✓✢ ✕r♦✘

✖ ❡♦✛✚✜ ❋✧ ✮✩✫ ✘ ✕r♦✘ ❪ ✖✗♦✚✙ ✜✣✓ ✗✖✢✢✓r ❪❆✩ ❆✔✔✒✘✛✚✙ ✜✣✓ ✕✗♦♦r ✜♦ ★✓ ✕r✛✥✜✛♦✚✗✓✔✔

✖✚✢ ✚✓✙✗✓✥✜✛✚✙ ✜✣✓ ✤✓✛✙✣✜ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✗✖✢✢✓r✧ ✕✛✚✢ ✜✣✓ ✜✓✚✔✛♦✚ ✛✚ ✜✣✓ r♦❡✓ ✖✚✢ ✕♦r✥✓✔

✓❛✓r✜✓✢ ★✦ ✜✣✓ ✕✗♦♦r ♦✚ ✜✣✓ ✗✖✢✢✓r✩ ✳✏✖✭✓ ❣ ❞ ❍✩q ✘✵✔❊✴

✳✷✛✚✜✿ ❫♦✚✔✛✢✓r ✜✣✓ ✓✑✒✛✗✛★r✛✒✘ ♦✕ ✓✖✥✣ ✔✛✢✓ ♦✕ ✜✣✓ ✗✖✢✢✓r ✔✓❡✖r✖✜✓✗✦✩✴

Page 184: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❋✞✟✠✡✠☛☞

✼✌✍✎ ❆ ✏✑✒ ✓✔✑✒✕✓ ✖✒ ✑ ✗✖✔✑✔♦✒✘ ✙✚✑✔✛✖✗✏♠ ✜♦✔✢ ✢♦✓ ✑✗✏✓ ✓✔✗❡✔✣✢❡✕ ✢✖✗♦✤✖✒✔✑✚✚✥ ✢✖✚✕♦✒✘ ✑✺ ✦✘ ✜❡♦✘✢✔ ♦✒ ❡✑✣✢ ✢✑✒✕✧ ★✢❡ ✑✒✘✩✚✑✗ ✓✙❡❡✕ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✙✚✑✔✛✖✗✏ ♦✓ ✪✫ ✗❡✬✖✚✩✔♦✖✒✓ ✙❡✗✏♦✒✩✔❡✧ ★✢❡ ✏✑✒ ✔✢❡✒ ✭✗♦✒✘✓ ✢♦✓ ✑✗✏✓ ✣✚✖✓❡ ✔✖ ✢♦✓ ✭✖✕✥ ✜♦✔✢ ✔✢❡ ✕♦✓✔✑✒✣❡ ✖✛ ❡✑✣✢✜❡♦✘✢✔ ✛✗✖✏ ✔✢❡ ✑✮♦✓ ✣✢✑✒✘♦✒✘ ✛✗✖✏ ✯✫✣✏ ✔✖ ✰✫✣✏✧ ★✢❡ ✏✖✏❡✒✔ ✖✛ ♦✒❡✗✔♦✑ ✖✛ ✔✢❡✏✑✒ ✔✖✘❡✔✢❡✗ ✜♦✔✢ ✔✢❡ ✙✚✑✔✛✖✗✏ ✏✑✥ ✭❡ ✔✑✦❡✒ ✔✖ ✭❡ ✣✖✒✓✔✑✒✔ ✑✒✕ ❡✱✩✑✚ ✔✖ ✲✧✳ ✦✘ ✏✷✧✴✑✵ ✸✢✑✔ ♦✓ ✢♦✓ ✒❡✜ ✑✒✘✩✚✑✗ ✓✙❡❡✕✹ ✴✻❡✘✚❡✣✔ ✛✗♦✣✔♦✖✒✧✵✴✭✵ ✽✓ ✦♦✒❡✔♦✣ ❡✒❡✗✘✥ ✣✖✒✓❡✗✬❡✕ ♦✒ ✔✢❡ ✙✗✖✣❡✓✓✹ ✽✛ ✒✖✔♠ ✛✗✖✏ ✜✢❡✗❡ ✕✖❡✓ ✔✢❡ ✣✢✑✒✘❡✣✖✏❡ ✑✭✖✩✔✹

✼✌✍✾ ❆ ✭✩✚✚❡✔ ✖✛ ✏✑✓✓ ✿✫ ✘ ✑✒✕ ✓✙❡❡✕ ✺✫✫ ✏❀✓ ♦✓ ✛♦✗❡✕ ♦✒✔✖ ✑ ✕✖✖✗ ✑✒✕ ✘❡✔✓ ❡✏✭❡✕✕❡✕❡✮✑✣✔✚✥ ✑✔ ✔✢❡ ✣❡✒✔✗❡ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✕✖✖✗✧ ★✢❡ ✕✖✖✗ ♦✓ ✿✧✫ ✏ ✜♦✕❡ ✑✒✕ ✜❡♦✘✢✓ ✿✰ ✦✘✧ ✽✔ ♦✓✢♦✒✘❡✕ ✑✔ ✖✒❡ ❡✒✕ ✑✒✕ ✗✖✔✑✔❡✓ ✑✭✖✩✔ ✑ ✬❡✗✔♦✣✑✚ ✑✮♦✓ ✙✗✑✣✔♦✣✑✚✚✥ ✜♦✔✢✖✩✔ ✛✗♦✣✔♦✖✒✧ ❁♦✒✕✔✢❡ ✑✒✘✩✚✑✗ ✓✙❡❡✕ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✕✖✖✗ t✩✓✔ ✑✛✔❡✗ ✔✢❡ ✭✩✚✚❡✔ ❡✏✭❡✕✓ ♦✒✔✖ ♦✔✧✴❂♦✒✔❃ ★✢❡ ✏✖✏❡✒✔ ✖✛ ♦✒❡✗✔♦✑ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✕✖✖✗ ✑✭✖✩✔ ✔✢❡ ✬❡✗✔♦✣✑✚ ✑✮♦✓ ✑✔ ✖✒❡ ❡✒✕ ♦✓ ▼❄✷❀✪✧✵

✼✌✍❅ ★✜✖ ✕♦✓✣✓ ✖✛ ✏✖✏❡✒✔✓ ✖✛ ♦✒❡✗✔♦✑ ■✿ ✑✒✕ ■✰ ✑✭✖✩✔ ✔✢❡♦✗ ✗❡✓✙❡✣✔♦✬❡ ✑✮❡✓ ✴✒✖✗✏✑✚ ✔✖ ✔✢❡✕♦✓✣ ✑✒✕ ✙✑✓✓♦✒✘ ✔✢✗✖✩✘✢ ✔✢❡ ✣❡✒✔✗❡✵♠ ✑✒✕ ✗✖✔✑✔♦✒✘ ✜♦✔✢ ✑✒✘✩✚✑✗ ✓✙❡❡✕✓ ❇✿ ✑✒✕ ❇✰✑✗❡ ✭✗✖✩✘✢✔ ♦✒✔✖ ✣✖✒✔✑✣✔ ✛✑✣❡ ✔✖ ✛✑✣❡ ✜♦✔✢ ✔✢❡♦✗ ✑✮❡✓ ✖✛ ✗✖✔✑✔♦✖✒ ✣✖♦✒✣♦✕❡✒✔✧ ✴✑✵ ✸✢✑✔♦✓ ✔✢❡ ✑✒✘✩✚✑✗ ✓✙❡❡✕ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✔✜✖✐✕♦✓✣ ✓✥✓✔❡✏✹ ✴✭✵ ❈✢✖✜ ✔✢✑✔ ✔✢❡ ✦♦✒❡✔♦✣ ❡✒❡✗✘✥ ✖✛ ✔✢❡✣✖✏✭♦✒❡✕ ✓✥✓✔❡✏ ♦✓ ✚❡✓✓ ✔✢✑✒ ✔✢❡ ✓✩✏ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ♦✒♦✔♦✑✚ ✦♦✒❡✔♦✣ ❡✒❡✗✘♦❡✓ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✔✜✖ ✕♦✓✣✓✧❂✖✜ ✕✖ ✥✖✩ ✑✣✣✖✩✒✔ ✛✖✗ ✔✢♦✓ ✚✖✓✓ ♦✒ ❡✒❡✗✘✥✹ ★✑✦❡ ❇✿ ❉ ❇✰✧

✼✌✍❊ ✴✑✵ ●✗✖✬❡ ✔✢❡ ✔✢❡✖✗❡✏ ✖✛ ✙❡✗✙❡✒✕♦✣✩✚✑✗ ✑✮❡✓✧

✴❂♦✒✔ ❃ ❈✱✩✑✗❡ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✕♦✓✔✑✒✣❡ ✖✛ ✑ ✙✖♦✒✔ ✴①❍ ❏✵ ♦✒ ✔✢❡ ①❑❏ ✙✚✑✒❡ ✛✗✖✏ ✑✒ ✑✮♦✓ ✔✢✗✖✩✘✢✔✢❡ ✖✗♦✘♦✒ ✙❡✗✙❡✒✕♦✣✩✚✑✗ ✔✖ ✔✢❡ ✙✚✑✒❡ ♦✓ ①▲◆❏▲✵✧

✴✭✵ ●✗✖✬❡ ✔✢❡ ✔✢❡✖✗❡✏ ✖✛ ✙✑✗✑✚✚❡✚ ✑✮❡✓✧

✴❂♦✒✔ ❃ ✽✛ ✔✢❡ ✣❡✒✔✗❡ ✖✛ ✏✑✓✓ ♦✓ ✣✢✖✓❡✒ ✔✖ ✭❡ ✔✢❡ ✖✗♦✘♦✒ ❖◗ ◗❘ ❙❚ r ).

✼✌✍✼ ●✗✖✬❡ ✔✢❡ ✗❡✓✩✚✔ ✔✢✑✔ ✔✢❡ ✬❡✚✖✣♦✔✥ ✈ ✖✛ ✔✗✑✒✓✚✑✔♦✖✒ ✖✛ ✑ ✗✖✚✚♦✒✘ ✭✖✕✥ ✴✚♦✦❡ ✑ ✗♦✒✘♠ ✕♦✓✣♠✣✥✚♦✒✕❡✗ ✖✗ ✓✙✢❡✗❡✵ ✑✔ ✔✢❡ ✭✖✔✔✖✏ ✖✛ ✑✒ ♦✒✣✚♦✒❡✕ ✙✚✑✒❡ ✖✛ ✑ ✢❡♦✘✢✔ ❤ ♦✓ ✘♦✬❡✒ ✭✥

❯ ❱

❲❲ ❲

❨ ❩

❣❬❭

❦ ❪❙

✩✓♦✒✘ ✕✥✒✑✏♦✣✑✚ ✣✖✒✓♦✕❡✗✑✔♦✖✒ ✴♦✧❡✧ ✭✥ ✣✖✒✓♦✕❡✗✑✔♦✖✒ ✖✛ ✛✖✗✣❡✓ ✑✒✕ ✔✖✗✱✩❡✓✵✧ ✻✖✔❡ ❴ ♦✓✔✢❡ ✗✑✕♦✩✓ ✖✛ ✘✥✗✑✔♦✖✒ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✭✖✕✥ ✑✭✖✩✔ ♦✔✓ ✓✥✏✏❡✔✗✥ ✑✮♦✓♠ ✑✒✕ ❵ ♦✓ ✔✢❡ ✗✑✕♦✩✓ ✖✛ ✔✢❡✭✖✕✥✧ ★✢❡ ✭✖✕✥ ✓✔✑✗✔✓ ✛✗✖✏ ✗❡✓✔ ✑✔ ✔✢❡ ✔✖✙ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✙✚✑✒❡✧

✼✌✍❛ ❆ ✕♦✓✣ ✗✖✔✑✔♦✒✘ ✑✭✖✩✔ ♦✔✓ ✑✮♦✓ ✜♦✔✢ ✑✒✘✩✚✑✗ ✓✙❡❡✕ ❇❜ ♦✓ ✙✚✑✣❡✕ ✚♦✘✢✔✚✥ ✴✜♦✔✢✖✩✔ ✑✒✥✔✗✑✒✓✚✑✔♦✖✒✑✚ ✙✩✓✢✵ ✖✒ ✑ ✙❡✗✛❡✣✔✚✥ ✛✗♦✣✔♦✖✒✚❡✓✓ ✔✑✭✚❡✧ ★✢❡ ✗✑✕♦✩✓ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✕♦✓✣ ♦✓ ❝✧ ✸✢✑✔✑✗❡ ✔✢❡ ✚♦✒❡✑✗ ✬❡✚✖✣♦✔♦❡✓ ✖✛ ✔✢❡ ✙✖♦✒✔✓ ❆♠ ❞ ✑✒✕ ❢ ✖✒ ✔✢❡ ✕♦✓✣ ✓✢✖✜✒ ♦✒❁♦✘✧ ✲✧❥✿✹ ✸♦✚✚ ✔✢❡ ✕♦✓✣ ✗✖✚✚ ♦✒ ✔✢❡ ✕♦✗❡✣✔♦✖✒ ♦✒✕♦✣✑✔❡✕ ✹

Page 185: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❙�❙✁✂✄❙ ☎✆ ✝✞✟✁❚✠✡✂❙ ✞☛☞ ✟☎✁✞✁❚☎☛✞✡ ✄☎✁❚☎☛ ✶✽✶

❋✌✍✎ ✏✎✑✒

✼✓✔✕ ❊✖✗✘✙✚✛ ✜✢✣ ✤✥✚✦✧✚★✛ ✚✩ ✛✪✦✪✩✩✙✥✣ ✧★ ✫✙✬✪ ✧✢✪ ✭✚✩✦ ✚✛ ✮✚✯✰ ✱✰✲✳ ✥★✘✘ ✚✛ ✧✢✪ ✭✚✥✪✦✧✚★✛ ✚✛✭✚✦✙✧✪✭✰✴✙✵ ●✚✷✪ ✧✢✪ ✭✚✥✪✦✧✚★✛ ★✤ ✤✥✚✦✧✚★✛✙✘ ✤★✥✦✪ ✙✧ ✸✹ ✙✛✭ ✧✢✪ ✩✪✛✩✪ ★✤ ✤✥✚✦✧✚★✛✙✘ ✧★✥q✺✪✹ ✻✪✤★✥✪ ✗✪✥✤✪✦✧ ✥★✘✘✚✛✯

✻✪✯✚✛✩✰✴✻✵ ❲✢✙✧ ✚✩ ✧✢✪ ✤★✥✦✪ ★✤ ✤✥✚✦✧✚★✛ ✙✤✧✪✥ ✗✪✥✤✪✦✧ ✥★✘✘✚✛✯ ✻✪✯✚✛✩ ❢

✼✓✾✿ ❆ ✩★✘✚✭ ✭✚✩✦ ✙✛✭ ✙ ✥✚✛✯✹ ✻★✧✢ ★✤ ✥✙✭✚✺✩ ✳❀ ✦✫ ✙✥✪ ✗✘✙✦✪✭ ★✛ ✙ ✢★✥✚❁★✛✧✙✘ ✧✙✻✘✪✩✚✫✺✘✧✙✛✪★✺✩✘✣✹ ✜✚✧✢ ✚✛✚✧✚✙✘ ✙✛✯✺✘✙✥ ✩✗✪✪✭ ✪q✺✙✘ ✧★ ✳❀ ❂ ✥✙✭ ✩❃✳✰ ❲✢✚✦✢ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✧✜★ ✜✚✘✘ ✩✧✙✥✧ ✧★ ✥★✘✘✪✙✥✘✚✪✥ ❢ ❡✢✪ ✦★❃✪✤✤✚✦✚✪✛✧ ★✤ ✬✚✛✪✧✚✦ ✤✥✚✦✧✚★✛ ✚✩ ➭❦ ❄ ❀✰❅✰

✼✓✾❇ ❆ ✦✣✘✚✛✭✪✥ ★✤ ✫✙✩✩ ✳❀ ✬✯ ✙✛✭ ✥✙✭✚✺✩ ✳❈ ✦✫ ✚✩ ✥★✘✘✚✛✯ ✗✪✥✤✪✦✧✘✣ ★✛ ✙ ✗✘✙✛✪ ★✤ ✚✛✦✘✚✛✙✧✚★✛ ❉❀★✰ ❡✢✪ ✦★❃✪✤✤✚✦✚✪✛✧ ★✤ ✩✧✙✧✚✦ ✤✥✚✦✧✚★✛ ➭✩ ❄ ❀✰❅❈✰✴✙✵ ❍★✜ ✫✺✦✢ ✚✩ ✧✢✪ ✤★✥✦✪ ★✤ ✤✥✚✦✧✚★✛ ✙✦✧✚✛✯ ★✛ ✧✢✪ ✦✣✘✚✛✭✪✥ ❢✴✻✵ ❲✢✙✧ ✚✩ ✧✢✪ ✜★✥✬ ✭★✛✪ ✙✯✙✚✛✩✧ ✤✥✚✦✧✚★✛ ✭✺✥✚✛✯ ✥★✘✘✚✛✯ ❢✴✦✵ ■✤ ✧✢✪ ✚✛✦✘✚✛✙✧✚★✛ ❏ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✗✘✙✛✪ ✚✩ ✚✛✦✥✪✙✩✪✭✹ ✙✧ ✜✢✙✧ ✷✙✘✺✪ ★✤ ❏ ✭★✪✩ ✧✢✪ ✦✣✘✚✛✭✪✥ ✻✪✯✚✛ ✧★ ✩✬✚✭✹

✙✛✭ ✛★✧ ✥★✘✘ ✗✪✥✤✪✦✧✘✣ ❢

✼✓✾✔ ❘✪✙✭ ✪✙✦✢ ✩✧✙✧✪✫✪✛✧ ✻✪✘★✜ ✦✙✥✪✤✺✘✘✣✹ ✙✛✭ ✩✧✙✧✪✹ ✜✚✧✢ ✥✪✙✩★✛✩✹ ✚✤ ✚✧ ✚✩ ✧✥✺✪ ★✥ ✤✙✘✩✪❑✴✙✵ ▲✺✥✚✛✯ ✥★✘✘✚✛✯✹ ✧✢✪ ✤★✥✦✪ ★✤ ✤✥✚✦✧✚★✛ ✙✦✧✩ ✚✛ ✧✢✪ ✩✙✫✪ ✭✚✥✪✦✧✚★✛ ✙✩ ✧✢✪ ✭✚✥✪✦✧✚★✛ ★✤ ✫★✧✚★✛ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ▼◆

★✤ ✧✢✪ ✻★✭✣✰✴✻✵ ❡✢✪ ✚✛✩✧✙✛✧✙✛✪★✺✩ ✩✗✪✪✭ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✗★✚✛✧ ★✤ ✦★✛✧✙✦✧ ✭✺✥✚✛✯ ✥★✘✘✚✛✯ ✚✩ ❁✪✥★✰✴✦✵ ❡✢✪ ✚✛✩✧✙✛✧✙✛✪★✺✩ ✙✦✦✪✘✪✥✙✧✚★✛ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✗★✚✛✧ ★✤ ✦★✛✧✙✦✧ ✭✺✥✚✛✯ ✥★✘✘✚✛✯ ✚✩ ❁✪✥★✰✴✭✵ ✮★✥ ✗✪✥✤✪✦✧ ✥★✘✘✚✛✯ ✫★✧✚★✛✹ ✜★✥✬ ✭★✛✪ ✙✯✙✚✛✩✧ ✤✥✚✦✧✚★✛ ✚✩ ❁✪✥★✰✴✪✵ ❆ ✜✢✪✪✘ ✫★✷✚✛✯ ✭★✜✛ ✙ ✗✪✥✤✪✦✧✘✣ ❖P◗❯❱◗❳❨❩❬❭❭ ✚✛✦✘✚✛✪✭ ✗✘✙✛✪ ✜✚✘✘ ✺✛✭✪✥✯★ ✩✘✚✗✗✚✛✯ ✴✛★✧ ✥★✘✘✚✛✯✵

✫★✧✚★✛✰✼✓✾✾ ❪✪✗✙✥✙✧✚★✛ ★✤ ◆★✧✚★✛ ★✤ ✙ ✩✣✩✧✪✫ ★✤ ✗✙✥✧✚✦✘✪✩ ✚✛✧★ ✫★✧✚★✛ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✦✪✛✧✥✪ ★✤ ✫✙✩✩ ✙✛✭ ✫★✧✚★✛ ✙✻★✺✧ ✧✢✪

✦✪✛✧✥✪ ★✤ ✫✙✩✩ ❝

✴✙✵ ❪✢★✜ ✐ ✐♠❫❴ ❵♣ ♣ ❛✜✢✪✥✪ ❜❞ ✚✩ ✧✢✪ ✫★✫✪✛✧✺✫ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ◗✧✢ ✗✙✥✧✚✦✘✪ ✴★✤ ✫✙✩✩ ❣❞✵ ✙✛✭ ❜❤ ❞ ❥ ❣❞ ✈❤ ❞✰ ❧★✧✪ ✈❤❤ ❞ ✚✩ ✧✢✪ ✷✪✘★✦✚✧✣ ★✤✧✢✪ ◗✧✢ ✗✙✥✧✚✦✘✪ ✥✪✘✙✧✚✷✪ ✧★ ✧✢✪ ✦✪✛✧✥✪ ★✤ ✫✙✩✩✰

❆✘✩★✹ ✗✥★✷✪ ✺✩✚✛✯ ✧✢✪ ✭✪✤✚✛✚✧✚★✛ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✦✪✛✧✥✪ ★✤ ✫✙✩✩ ♥♦r st ✉

✴✻✵ ❪✢★✜ ✇➼① ① ②③④⑤ ⑥

✜✢✪✥✪ ⑦ ✚✩ ✧✢✪ ✧★✧✙✘ ✬✚✛✪✧✚✦ ✪✛✪✥✯✣ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✩✣✩✧✪✫ ★✤ ✗✙✥✧✚✦✘✪✩✹ ⑧ ⑨ ✚✩ ✧✢✪ ✧★✧✙✘ ✬✚✛✪✧✚✦ ✪✛✪✥✯✣ ★✤ ✧✢✪✩✣✩✧✪✫ ✜✢✪✛ ✧✢✪ ✗✙✥✧✚✦✘✪ ✷✪✘★✦✚✧✚✪✩ ✙✥✪ ✧✙✬✪✛ ✜✚✧✢ ✥✪✩✗✪✦✧ ✧★ ✧✢✪ ✦✪✛✧✥✪ ★✤ ✫✙✩✩ ✙✛✭ ⑩❶❷❸❅ ✚✩ ✧✢✪✬✚✛✪✧✚✦ ✪✛✪✥✯✣ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✧✥✙✛✩✘✙✧✚★✛ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✩✣✩✧✪✫ ✙✩ ✙ ✜✢★✘✪ ✴✚✰✪✰ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✦✪✛✧✥✪ ★✤ ✫✙✩✩ ✫★✧✚★✛ ★✤ ✧✢✪✩✣✩✧✪✫✵✰ ❡✢✪ ✥✪✩✺✘✧ ✢✙✩ ✻✪✪✛ ✺✩✪✭ ✚✛ ❪✪✦✰ ✱✰✳✲✰

✴✦✵ ❪✢★✜

❹❺ ❻ ×⑨❼ ❼ ❽ ❾

✜✢✪✥✪ ⑨❼ ❄ ❿❿ ➀➁ ➁➂ ➃ ➄ ✚✩ ✧✢✪ ✙✛✯✺✘✙✥ ✫★✫✪✛✧✺✫ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✩✣✩✧✪✫ ✙✻★✺✧ ✧✢✪ ✦✪✛✧✥✪ ★✤ ✫✙✩✩ ✜✚✧✢

✷✪✘★✦✚✧✚✪✩ ✧✙✬✪✛ ✥✪✘✙✧✚✷✪ ✧★ ✧✢✪ ✦✪✛✧✥✪ ★✤ ✫✙✩✩✰ ❘✪✫✪✫✻✪✥ ➊➅ ➅⑨ ❺➆ ➆ ❽ ❑ ✥✪✩✧ ★✤ ✧✢✪ ✛★✧✙✧✚★✛ ✚✩ ✧✢✪

Page 186: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

s✞✟✠✡✟☛✡ ✠☞✞✟✞✌☞✠ ✍s✎✡ ✌✠ ✞✏✎ ✑✏✟✒✞✎☛✳ ✓☞✞✎ ✔▲ ✟✠✡ ▼ ×❘ ✕ ✑✟✠ ✥✎ s✟✌✡ ✞☞ ✥✎✟✠❛✍✖✟☛ ✗☞✗✎✠✞✟✘ ☛✎s✒✎✑✞✌❡✎✖✙✘ ✟✥☞✍✞ ✟✠✡ ☞✚ ✞✏✎ ✑✎✠✞☛✎ ☞✚ ✗✟ss ☞✚ ✞✏✎ s✙s✞✎✗ ☞✚✒✟☛✞✌✑✖✎s✳

✭✡✮ ❙✏☞✛ ✐❞ ❞

❞✜ ❞✜

✔ ✔✔❂ ✢✣

▲ ✤r

❋✍☛✞✏✎☛✘ s✏☞✛ ✞✏✟✞

✦✧★❞

❞✜

✔✔❂

✛✏✎☛✎ ✦✧★✩ ✌s ✞✏✎ s✍✗ ☞✚ ✟✖✖ ✎✪✞✎☛✠✟✖ ✞☞☛q✍✎s ✟✑✞✌✠❛ ☞✠ ✞✏✎ s✙s✞✎✗ ✟✥☞✍✞ ✞✏✎✑✎✠✞☛✎ ☞✚ ✗✟ss✳✭✫✌✠✞ ✬ ✯s✎ ✞✏✎ ✡✎✚✌✠✌✞✌☞✠ ☞✚ ✑✎✠✞☛✎ ☞✚ ✗✟ss ✟✠✡ ✓✎✛✞☞✠✰s ✱✏✌☛✡ ✲✟✛✳ ✴ss✍✗✎ ✞✏✎✌✠✞✎☛✠✟✖ ✚☞☛✑✎s ✥✎✞✛✎✎✠ ✟✠✙ ✞✛☞ ✒✟☛✞✌✑✖✎s ✟✑✞ ✟✖☞✠❛ ✞✏✎ ✖✌✠✎ ♥☞✌✠✌✠❛ ✞✏✎ ✒✟☛✞✌✑✖✎s✳✮

Page 187: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❈❍�✁✂✄☎ ✥■✆❍✂

●❘✝❱✞✟✝✟✞✠✡

✽☛☞ ✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✎✌✑✍

❊✕✖✗✘ ✙✚ ✛✜✖ ✗✙✢✣✤✦ ✧✣ ★✣✩✛✪✣ ✕✧✕✖✣ ✛❡ ✫✬✣ ✫✣✚✭✣✚✩✘ ✛❡ ✕✗✗✪✕✫✣✖✙✕✗ ✛★♠✣✩✫✤ ✫✛ ★✣ ✕✫✫✖✕✩✫✣✭ ✫✛✧✕✖✭✤ ✫✬✣ ✣✕✖✫✬❞ ✮✚✘✫✬✙✚✯✫✬✖✛✧✚ ✜♦ ❡✕✗✗✤ ✭✛✧✚ ✫✛✧✕✖✭✤ ✫✬✣ ✣✕✖✫✬✦ ✯✛✙✚✯ ✜♦✬✙✗✗ ✙✤ ✗✛✫✪✛✖✣ ✫✙✖✙✚✯ ✫✬✕✚ ✯✛✙✚✯ ✭✛✧✚✬✙✗✗✦ ✖✕✙✚✭✖✛♦✤ ❡✖✛✪ ✫✬✣ ✩✗✛✜✭✤✕★✛✢✣ ❡✕✗✗ ✫✛✧✕✖✭✤ ✫✬✣ ✣✕✖✫✬ ✕✚✭ ✫✬✣✖✣ ✕✖✣ ✪✕✚✘ ✛✫✬✣✖ ✤✜✩✬♦✬✣✚✛✪✣✚✕❞ ♣✙✤✫✛✖✙✩✕✗✗✘ ✙✫ ✧✕✤ ✫✬✣ ✰✫✕✗✙✕✚ ✱✬✘✤✙✩✙✤✫ ✲✕✗✙✗✣✛✳✴✵✶✷✸✴✶✷✹✺ ✧✬✛ ✖✣✩✛✯✚✙✤✣✭ ✫✬✣ ❡✕✩✫ ✫✬✕✫ ✕✗✗ ★✛✭✙✣✤✦✙✖✖✣✤♦✣✩✫✙✢✣ ✛❡ ✫✬✣✙✖ ✪✕✤✤✣✤✦ ✕✖✣ ✕✩✩✣✗✣✖✕✫✣✭ ✫✛✧✕✖✭✤ ✫✬✣ ✣✕✖✫✬✧✙✫✬ ✕ ✩✛✚✤✫✕✚✫ ✕✩✩✣✗✣✖✕✫✙✛✚❞ ✰✫ ✙✤ ✤✕✙✭ ✫✬✕✫ ✬✣✪✕✭✣ ✕ ♦✜★✗✙✩✭✣✪✛✚✤✫✖✕✫✙✛✚ ✛❡ ✫✬✙✤ ❡✕✩✫❞ ✻✛ ❡✙✚✭ ✫✬✣ ✫✖✜✫✬✦ ✬✣ ✩✣✖✫✕✙✚✗✘ ✭✙✭✣✼♦✣✖✙✪✣✚✫✤ ✧✙✫✬ ★✛✭✙✣✤ ✖✛✗✗✙✚✯ ✭✛✧✚ ✙✚✩✗✙✚✣✭ ♦✗✕✚✣✤ ✕✚✭✕✖✖✙✢✣✭ ✕✫ ✕ ✢✕✗✜✣ ✛❡ ✫✬✣ ✕✩✩✣✗✣✖✕✫✙✛✚ ✭✜✣ ✫✛ ✯✖✕✢✙✫✘ ✧✬✙✩✬ ✙✤✩✗✛✤✣ ✫✛ ✫✬✣ ✪✛✖✣ ✕✩✩✜✖✕✫✣ ✢✕✗✜✣ ✛★✫✕✙✚✣✭ ✗✕✫✣✖❞✮ ✤✣✣✪✙✚✯✗✘ ✜✚✖✣✗✕✫✣✭ ♦✬✣✚✛✪✣✚✛✚✦ ✛★✤✣✖✢✕✫✙✛✚ ✛❡ ✤✫✕✖✤✦

♦✗✕✚✣✫✤ ✕✚✭ ✫✬✣✙✖ ✪✛✫✙✛✚ ✬✕✤ ★✣✣✚ ✫✬✣ ✤✜★♠✣✩✫ ✛❡ ✕✫✫✣✚✫✙✛✚ ✙✚✪✕✚✘ ✩✛✜✚✫✖✙✣✤ ✤✙✚✩✣ ✫✬✣ ✣✕✖✗✙✣✤✫ ✛❡ ✫✙✪✣✤❞ ✾★✤✣✖✢✕✫✙✛✚✤ ✤✙✚✩✣✣✕✖✗✘ ✫✙✪✣✤ ✖✣✩✛✯✚✙✤✣✭ ✤✫✕✖✤ ✧✬✙✩✬ ✕♦♦✣✕✖✣✭ ✙✚ ✫✬✣ ✤✿✘ ✧✙✫✬♦✛✤✙✫✙✛✚✤ ✜✚✩✬✕✚✯✣✭ ✘✣✕✖ ✕❡✫✣✖ ✘✣✕✖❞ ✻✬✣ ✪✛✖✣ ✙✚✫✣✖✣✤✫✙✚✯✛★♠✣✩✫✤ ✕✖✣ ✫✬✣ ♦✗✕✚✣✫✤ ✧✬✙✩✬ ✤✣✣✪ ✫✛ ✬✕✢✣ ✖✣✯✜✗✕✖ ✪✛✫✙✛✚✤✕✯✕✙✚✤✫ ✫✬✣ ★✕✩✿✯✖✛✜✚✭ ✛❡ ✤✫✕✖✤❞ ✻✬✣ ✣✕✖✗✙✣✤✫ ✖✣✩✛✖✭✣✭ ✪✛✭✣✗❡✛✖ ♦✗✕✚✣✫✕✖✘ ✪✛✫✙✛✚✤ ♦✖✛♦✛✤✣✭ ★✘ ✱✫✛✗✣✪✘ ✕★✛✜✫ ✹❀❀❀ ✘✣✕✖✤✕✯✛ ✧✕✤ ✕ ❛✯✣✛✩✣✚✫✖✙✩❁ ✪✛✭✣✗ ✙✚ ✧✬✙✩✬ ✕✗✗ ✩✣✗✣✤✫✙✕✗ ✛★♠✣✩✫✤✦✤✫✕✖✤✦ ✫✬✣ ✤✜✚ ✕✚✭ ✫✬✣ ♦✗✕✚✣✫✤✦ ✕✗✗ ✖✣✢✛✗✢✣✭ ✕✖✛✜✚✭ ✫✬✣ ✣✕✖✫✬❞✻✬✣ ✛✚✗✘ ✪✛✫✙✛✚ ✫✬✕✫ ✧✕✤ ✫✬✛✜✯✬✫ ✫✛ ★✣ ♦✛✤✤✙★✗✣ ❡✛✖ ✩✣✗✣✤✫✙✕✗✛★♠✣✩✫✤ ✧✕✤ ✪✛✫✙✛✚ ✙✚ ✕✩✙✖✩✗✣❞ ❝✛✪♦✗✙✩✕✫✣✭ ✤✩✬✣✪✣✤ ✛❡ ✪✛✫✙✛✚✧✣✖✣ ♦✜✫ ❡✛✖✧✕✖✭ ★✘ ✱✫✛✗✣✪✘ ✙✚ ✛✖✭✣✖ ✫✛ ✭✣✤✩✖✙★✣ ✫✬✣ ✛★✤✣✖✢✣✭✪✛✫✙✛✚ ✛❡ ✫✬✣ ♦✗✕✚✣✫✤❞ ✻✬✣ ♦✗✕✚✣✫✤ ✧✣✖✣ ✭✣✤✩✖✙★✣✭ ✕✤ ✪✛✢✙✚✯✙✚ ✩✙✖✩✗✣✤ ✧✙✫✬ ✫✬✣ ✩✣✚✫✣✖ ✛❡ ✫✬✣ ✩✙✖✩✗✣✤ ✫✬✣✪✤✣✗✢✣✤ ✪✛✢✙✚✯ ✙✚✗✕✖✯✣✖ ✩✙✖✩✗✣✤❞ ❂✙✪✙✗✕✖ ✫✬✣✛✖✙✣✤ ✧✣✖✣ ✕✗✤✛ ✕✭✢✕✚✩✣✭ ★✘ ✰✚✭✙✕✚✕✤✫✖✛✚✛✪✣✖✤ ✤✛✪✣ ✷❀❀ ✘✣✕✖✤ ✗✕✫✣✖❞ ♣✛✧✣✢✣✖ ✕ ✪✛✖✣ ✣✗✣✯✕✚✫✪✛✭✣✗ ✙✚ ✧✬✙✩✬ ✫✬✣ ❂✜✚ ✧✕✤ ✫✬✣ ✩✣✚✫✣✖ ✕✖✛✜✚✭ ✧✬✙✩✬ ✫✬✣♦✗✕✚✣✫✤ ✖✣✢✛✗✢✣✭ ❃ ✫✬✣ ❛✬✣✗✙✛✩✣✚✫✖✙✩❁ ✪✛✭✣✗ ❃ ✧✕✤ ✕✗✖✣✕✭✘✪✣✚✫✙✛✚✣✭ ★✘ ✮✖✘✕★✬✕✫✫✕ ✳✵t❄ ✩✣✚✫✜✖✘ ✮❞❅❞✺ ✙✚ ✬✙✤ ✫✖✣✕✫✙✤✣❞ ✮✫✬✛✜✤✕✚✭ ✘✣✕✖✤ ✗✕✫✣✖✦ ✕ ✱✛✗✙✤✬ ✪✛✚✿ ✚✕✪✣✭ ❆✙✩✛✗✕✤

❇❉❋ ❏❑▲▼◆❖P◗▲❙◆❑❇❉❚ ❯❲❳❨❲▼❩❬ ❨❭❪❬❇❉❫ ❴❑❙❵❲▼❬❭❨ ❨❭❪ ◆❜

❣▼❭❵❙▲❭▲❙◆❑❇❉❢ ❤✐❲ ❣▼❭❵❙▲❭▲❙◆❑❭❨

◗◆❑❬▲❭❑▲❇❉❥ ❦◗◗❲❨❲▼❭▲❙◆❑ ❖P❲ ▲◆

❣▼❭❵❙▲❧ ◆❜ ▲✐❲ ❲❭▼▲✐❇❉♥ ❦◗◗❲❨❲▼❭▲❙◆❑ ❖P❲ ▲◆

❣▼❭❵❙▲❧ q❲❨◆❪ ❭❑❖ ❭q◆❵❲▲✐❲ ❬P▼❜❭◗❲ ◆❜ ❲❭▼▲✐

❇❉r s▼❭❵❙▲❭▲❙◆❑❭❨ ❳◆▲❲❑▲❙❭❨❲❑❲▼❣❧

❇❉❇ ✉❬◗❭❳❲ ❬❳❲❲❖❇❉✈ ✉❭▼▲✐ ❬❭▲❲❨❨❙▲❲❬❇❉❋✇ ✉❑❲▼❣❧ ◆❜ ❭❑ ◆▼q❙▲❙❑❣

❬❭▲❲❨❨❙▲❲❇❉❋❋ s❲◆❬▲❭▲❙◆❑❭▼❧ ❭❑❖ ❳◆❨❭▼

❬❭▲❲❨❨❙▲❲❬❇❉❋❚ ①❲❙❣✐▲❨❲❬❬❑❲❬❬

②P③③❭▼❧④◆❙❑▲❬ ▲◆ ❳◆❑❖❲▼✉⑤❲▼◗❙❬❲❬❦❖❖❙▲❙◆❑❭❨ ❲⑤❲▼◗❙❬❲❬

Page 188: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

B

A

C

P S S✬2❜

2❛

❈✞✟✠✡♥☛☞✌✍ ✎✏✑✒✓✔✏✕✑✓✖ ✟✡✞✟✞✍✠♦ ✗ ♦✠✘☛♥☛✙☛✚✠

♠✞♦✠✛ ☛♥ ✜✢☛☞✢ ✙✢✠ ✟✛✗♥✠✙✍ ♠✞✚✠♦ ☛♥ ☞☛✡☞✛✠✍

✗✡✞✌♥♦ ✗ ✘☛✣✠♦ ☞✠♥✙✡✗✛ ✍✌♥✤ ✥☛✍ ✙✢✠✞✡✦ ✜✗✍

♦☛✍☞✡✠♦☛✙✠♦ ❡✦ ✙✢✠ ☞✢✌✡☞✢✧ ❡✌✙ ♥✞✙✗❡✛✠ ✗♠✞♥★✍✙

☛✙✍ ✍✌✟✟✞✡✙✠✡✍ ✜✗✍ ✐✗✛☛✛✠✞ ✜✢✞ ✢✗♦ ✙✞ ✘✗☞✠

✟✡✞✍✠☞✌✙☛✞♥ ✘✡✞♠ ✙✢✠ ✍✙✗✙✠ ✘✞✡ ✢☛✍ ❡✠✛☛✠✘✍✤

■✙ ✜✗✍ ✗✡✞✌♥♦ ✙✢✠ ✍✗♠✠ ✙☛♠✠ ✗✍ ✐✗✛☛✛✠✞✧ ✗

♥✞❡✛✠♠✗♥ ☞✗✛✛✠♦ ✩✦☞✢✞ ✪✡✗✢✠ ✎✏✕✑✫✔✏✫✭✏✖

✢✗☛✛☛♥★ ✘✡✞♠ ✮✠♥♠✗✡✯✧ ✍✟✠♥✙ ✢☛✍ ✠♥✙☛✡✠ ✛☛✘✠✙☛♠✠

✡✠☞✞✡♦☛♥★ ✞❡✍✠✡✚✗✙☛✞♥✍ ✞✘ ✙✢✠ ✟✛✗♥✠✙✍ ✜☛✙✢ ✙✢✠

♥✗✯✠♦ ✠✦✠✤ ✥☛✍ ☞✞♠✟☛✛✠♦ ♦✗✙✗ ✜✠✡✠ ✗♥✗✛✦✍✠♦

✛✗✙✠✡ ❡✦ ✢☛✍ ✗✍✍☛✍✙✗♥✙ ❧✞✢✗♥♥✠✍ ✰✠✟✛✠✡ ✎✏✕✒✏✔

✏✫✑✭✖✤ ✥✠ ☞✞✌✛♦ ✠✣✙✡✗☞✙ ✘✡✞♠ ✙✢✠ ♦✗✙✗ ✙✢✡✠✠

✠✛✠★✗♥✙ ✛✗✜✍ ✙✢✗✙ ♥✞✜ ★✞ ❡✦ ✙✢✠ ♥✗♠✠ ✞✘ ✰✠✟✛✠✡✱✍

✛✗✜✍✤ ✩✢✠✍✠ ✛✗✜✍ ✜✠✡✠ ✯♥✞✜♥ ✙✞ ✲✠✜✙✞♥ ✗♥♦

✠♥✗❡✛✠♦ ✢☛♠ ✙✞ ♠✗✯✠ ✗ ★✡✠✗✙ ✍☞☛✠♥✙☛✘☛☞ ✛✠✗✟ ☛♥

✟✡✞✟✞✍☛♥★ ✢☛✍ ✌♥☛✚✠✡✍✗✛ ✛✗✜ ✞✘ ★✡✗✚☛✙✗✙☛✞♥✤

✽✳✴ ❑✵✷✸✵✹✺✻ ✸✼❲✻

✩✢✠ ✙✢✡✠✠ ✛✗✜✍ ✞✘ ✰✠✟✛✠✡ ☞✗♥ ❡✠ ✍✙✗✙✠♦ ✗✍ ✘✞✛✛✞✜✍❚

✾✳ ✸✿❀ ❁❂ ❁❃❄❅❆❇ ❉ ❊✛✛ ✟✛✗♥✠✙✍ ♠✞✚✠ ☛♥ ✠✛✛☛✟✙☛☞✗✛

✞✡❡☛✙✍ ✜☛✙✢ ✙✢✠ ❋✌♥ ✍☛✙✌✗✙✠♦ ✗✙ ✞♥✠ ✞✘ ✙✢✠ ✘✞☞☛

●❍❏▲ ▼▲◆❖◗❘ ❙❯ ❱❳❳❨❩❬❱ ❭❪❫❴❱❵ ❝❞❭ ❢❣ ❫ ❩❳❫❯❱❭ ❫❪❝❞❯❵

❭t❱ ❬❞❯❤ ❥t❱ ❴❳❝❬❱❬❭ ❩❝❨❯❭ ❨❬ ❦ ❫❯❵ ❭t❱

♣❫❪❭t❱❬❭ ❩❝❨❯❭ ❨❬ ❙q ❦ ❨❬ ❴❫❳❳❱❵ ❭t❱

❩❱❪❨t❱❳❨❝❯ ❫❯❵ ❙ ❭t❱ ❫❩t❱❳❨❝❯❤ ❥t❱

❬❱s❨s❫r❝❪ ❫✉❨❬ ❨❬ t❫❳♣ ❭t❱ ❵❨❬❭❫❯❴❱ ❙❦❤

●❍❏▲ ▼▲◆❖✈❘ ✇❪❫①❨❯② ❫❯ ❱❳❳❨❩❬❱❤ ❙ ❬❭❪❨❯② t❫❬ ❨❭❬ ❱❯❵❬

♣❨✉❱❵ ❫❭ ③④ ❫❯❵ ③⑤❤ ❥t❱ ❭❨❩ ❝♣ ❫ ❩❱❯❴❨❳ t❝❳❵❬

❭t❱ ❬❭❪❨❯② ❭❫❞❭ ❫❯❵ ❨❬ s❝⑥❱❵ ❫❪❝❞❯❵❤

✞✘ ✙✢✠ ✠✛✛☛✟✍✠ ✎⑦☛★✤ ⑧✤✏✗✖✤ ✩✢☛✍ ✛✗✜ ✜✗✍ ✗ ♦✠✚☛✗✙☛✞♥

✘✡✞♠ ✙✢✠ ❈✞✟✠✡♥☛☞✗♥ ♠✞♦✠✛ ✜✢☛☞✢ ✗✛✛✞✜✠♦ ✞♥✛✦

☞☛✡☞✌✛✗✡ ✞✡❡☛✙✍✤ ✩✢✠ ✠✛✛☛✟✍✠✧ ✞✘ ✜✢☛☞✢ ✙✢✠ ☞☛✡☞✛✠ ☛✍

✗ ✍✟✠☞☛✗✛ ☞✗✍✠✧ ☛✍ ✗ ☞✛✞✍✠♦ ☞✌✡✚✠ ✜✢☛☞✢ ☞✗♥ ❡✠

♦✡✗✜♥ ✚✠✡✦ ✍☛♠✟✛✦ ✗✍ ✘✞✛✛✞✜✍✤

❋✠✛✠☞✙ ✙✜✞ ✟✞☛♥✙✍ ⑦⑨ ✗♥♦ ⑦⑩✤ ✩✗✯✠ ✗ ✛✠♥★✙✢

✞✘ ✗ ✍✙✡☛♥★ ✗♥♦ ✘☛✣ ☛✙✍ ✠♥♦✍ ✗✙ ⑦⑨ ✗♥♦ ⑦⑩ ❡✦ ✟☛♥✍✤

❶☛✙✢ ✙✢✠ ✙☛✟ ✞✘ ✗ ✟✠♥☞☛✛ ✍✙✡✠✙☞✢ ✙✢✠ ✍✙✡☛♥★ ✙✗✌✙

✗♥♦ ✙✢✠♥ ♦✡✗✜ ✗ ☞✌✡✚✠ ❡✦ ♠✞✚☛♥★ ✙✢✠ ✟✠♥☞☛✛

✯✠✠✟☛♥★ ✙✢✠ ✍✙✡☛♥★ ✙✗✌✙ ✙✢✡✞✌★✢✞✌✙✤✎⑦☛★✤ ⑧✤✏✎❡✖✖

✩✢✠ ☞✛✞✍✠♦ ☞✌✡✚✠ ✦✞✌ ★✠✙ ☛✍ ☞✗✛✛✠♦ ✗♥ ✠✛✛☛✟✍✠✤

❈✛✠✗✡✛✦ ✘✞✡ ✗♥✦ ✟✞☛♥✙ ✩ ✞♥ ✙✢✠ ✠✛✛☛✟✍✠✧ ✙✢✠ ✍✌♠ ✞✘

✙✢✠ ♦☛✍✙✗♥☞✠✍ ✘✡✞♠ ⑦⑨ ✗♥♦ ⑦⑩ ☛✍ ✗ ☞✞♥✍✙✗♥✙✤ ⑦⑨✧

⑦⑩ ✗✡✠ ☞✗✛✛✠♦ ✙✢✠ ✘✞☞☛☛✤ ❧✞☛♥ ✙✢✠ ✟✞☛♥✙✍ ⑦⑨ ✗♥♦ ⑦⑩

✗♥♦ ✠✣✙✠♥♦ ✙✢✠ ✛☛♥✠ ✙✞ ☛♥✙✠✡✍✠☞✙ ✙✢✠ ✠✛✛☛✟✍✠ ✗✙

✟✞☛♥✙✍ ❷ ✗♥♦ ❊ ✗✍ ✍✢✞✜♥ ☛♥ ⑦☛★✤ ⑧✤✏✎❡✖✤ ✩✢✠

♠☛♦✟✞☛♥✙ ✞✘ ✙✢✠ ✛☛♥✠ ❷❊ ☛✍ ✙✢✠ ☞✠♥✙✡✠ ✞✘ ✙✢✠ ✠✛✛☛✟✍✠

❸ ✗♥♦ ✙✢✠ ✛✠♥★✙✢ ❷❸ ❹ ❊❸ ☛✍ ☞✗✛✛✠♦ ✙✢✠ ✍✠♠☛✔

♠✗❺✞✡ ✗✣☛✍ ✞✘ ✙✢✠ ✠✛✛☛✟✍✠✤ ⑦✞✡ ✗ ☞☛✡☞✛✠✧ ✙✢✠ ✙✜✞

✘✞☞☛☛ ♠✠✡★✠ ☛♥✙✞ ✞♥✠ ✗♥♦ ✙✢✠ ✍✠♠☛✔♠✗❺✞✡ ✗✣☛✍

❡✠☞✞♠✠✍ ✙✢✠ ✡✗♦☛✌✍ ✞✘ ✙✢✠ ☞☛✡☞✛✠✤

✴✳ ✸✿❀ ❁❂ ✿❃❻✿❇ ❉ ✩✢✠ ✛☛♥✠ ✙✢✗✙ ❺✞☛♥✍ ✗♥✦ ✟✛✗♥✠✙

✙✞ ✙✢✠ ✍✌♥ ✍✜✠✠✟✍ ✠❼✌✗✛ ✗✡✠✗✍ ☛♥ ✠❼✌✗✛ ☛♥✙✠✡✚✗✛✍

✞✘ ✙☛♠✠ ✎⑦☛★✤ ⑧✤❽✖✤ ✩✢☛✍ ✛✗✜ ☞✞♠✠✍ ✘✡✞♠ ✙✢✠

✞❡✍✠✡✚✗✙☛✞♥✍ ✙✢✗✙ ✟✛✗♥✠✙✍ ✗✟✟✠✗✡ ✙✞♠✞✚✠ ✍✛✞✜✠✡

✜✢✠♥ ✙✢✠✦ ✗✡✠ ✘✗✡✙✢✠✡ ✘✡✞♠ ✙✢✠ ✍✌♥ ✙✢✗♥ ✜✢✠♥

✙✢✠✦ ✗✡✠ ♥✠✗✡✠✡✤

●❍❏▲ ▼▲❾ ❥t❱ ❩❳❫❯❱❭ ❦ s❝⑥❱❬ ❫❪❝❞❯❵ ❭t❱ ❬❞❯ ❨❯ ❫❯

❱❳❳❨❩❭❨❴❫❳ ❝❪❢❨❭❤ ❥t❱ ❬t❫❵❱❵ ❫❪❱❫ ❨❬ ❭t❱ ❫❪❱❫

❿❙ ❬①❱❩❭ ❝❞❭ ❨❯ ❫ ❬s❫❳❳ ❨❯❭❱❪⑥❫❳ ❝♣ ❭❨s❱ ❿❭❤

➀✳ ✸✿❀ ❁❂ ➁❻❃❅❁➂❇ ❉ ✩✢✠ ✍❼✌✗✡✠ ✞✘ ✙✢✠ ✙☛♠✠ ✟✠✡☛✞♦

✞✘ ✡✠✚✞✛✌✙☛✞♥ ✞✘ ✗ ✟✛✗♥✠✙ ☛✍ ✟✡✞✟✞✡✙☛✞♥✗✛ ✙✞ ✙✢✠

☞✌❡✠ ✞✘ ✙✢✠ ✍✠♠☛✔♠✗❺✞✡ ✗✣☛✍ ✞✘ ✙✢✠ ✠✛✛☛✟✍✠ ✙✡✗☞✠♦

✞✌✙ ❡✦ ✙✢✠ ✟✛✗♥✠✙✤

✩✢✠ ✙✗❡✛✠ ❡✠✛✞✜ ★☛✚✠✍ ✙✢✠ ✗✟✟✡✞✣☛♠✗✙✠ ✙☛♠✠

✟✠✡☛✞♦✍ ✞✘ ✡✠✚✞✛✌✙☛✞♥ ✞✘ ♥☛♥✠ ✟✛✗♥✠✙✍ ✗✡✞✌♥♦ ✙✢✠

✍✌♥ ✗✛✞♥★ ✜☛✙✢ ✚✗✛✌✠✍ ✞✘ ✙✢✠☛✡ ✍✠♠☛✔♠✗❺✞✡ ✗✣✠✍✤

Page 189: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

●�✁❱✂✄✁✄✂❆☎ ✶✆✝

❚❛✟✠✡ ☛ ❉❛☞❛ ✌✍♦✎ ✎✡❛✏✑✍✡✎✡❡☞ ♦✌ ✒✠❛❡✡☞❛✍✓

✎♦☞♠♦❡✏ ✔♠✕✡❡ ✟✡✠♦✖ ✗♦❡✌♠✍✎ ✘✡✒✠✡✍✙✏

▲❛✖ ♦✌ ✚✡✍♠♦✛✏

✜ ✢ ❙✣✤✥✦✤✜✧★✩ ✜✪✥✫ ✥✬ ✭✬✥✮✫ ★✯ ✰✱✲✳ ✤✴

✵ ✢ ✵✥✤✣ ✐✣✩✥★✷ ★✯ ✩✣✸★✹✭✮✥★✬ ★✯ ✮✺✣ ✐✹✜✬✣✮

✥✬ ✻✣✜✩✫✼✻✽✴

◗ ✢ ✵✺✣ ✾✭★✮✥✣✬✮ ✿ ✵❀❁✜❂ ❃ ✥✬ ✭✬✥✮✫ ★✯

✰✱ ❄❂❅ ✻❀ ✤❄❂✴

P✹✜✬✣✮ ✜ ✵ ◗

▼❇❈❊❋❈❍ ■❏❑◆ ❖❏❘❯ ❘❏◆■

❲❇❳❋❨ ❩❖❏❬ ❖❏❭❩■ ❪❏❖❖

❫❴❈❵❜ ❩■❏❖ ❩ ❘❏◆❭

▼❴❈❨ ❘❘❏❬ ❩❏❬❬ ❘❏◆❬

❝❋❞❢❵❇❈ ❑❑❏❬ ❩❩❏◆ ❪❏❖❩

❣❴❵❋❈❳ ❩❯❪ ❘◆❏■ ❘❏◆❬

❤❈❴❳❋❨ ❘❬❑ ❬❯ ❘❏◆❬

❥❇❞❵❋❳❇ ❯■❖ ❩❭■ ❘❏◆◆

❦❧❋❵♥ ■◆❖ ❘❯❬ ❘❏◆◆

♣qr st✉ ✈✇ t①rt② ③t④ ⑤r ⑥④⑦r①②⑧✈✈⑦ t② t

③✈④②r⑨⑥r④③r ✈✇ ③✈④②r①⑩t⑧❶✈④ ✈✇ t④❷⑥st①

❸✈❸r④⑧⑥❸ ✉q③q ❶② ⑩ts❶⑦ ✇✈① t④❹ ③r④⑧①ts ✇✈①③r ❺

❻ ③r④⑧①ts ✇✈①③r ❶② ②⑥③q ⑧qt⑧ ⑧qr ✇✈①③r ✈④ ⑧qr

❼st④r⑧ ❶② ts✈④❷ ⑧qr ⑩r③⑧✈① ❽✈❶④❶④❷ ⑧qr ②⑥④ t④⑦

⑧qr ❼st④r⑧❺ ❾r⑧ ⑧qr ②⑥④ ⑤r t⑧ ⑧qr ✈①❶❷❶④ t④⑦ sr⑧

⑧qr ❼✈②❶⑧❶✈④ t④⑦ ❸✈❸r④⑧⑥❸ ✈✇ ⑧qr ❼st④r⑧ ⑤r

⑦r④✈⑧r⑦ ⑤❹ ✍ t④⑦ ✒ ①r②❼r③⑧❶⑩rs❹❺ ♣qr④ ⑧qr t①rt

②✉r❼⑧ ✈⑥⑧ ⑤❹ ⑧qr ❼st④r⑧ ✈✇ ❸t②② ❸ ❶④ ⑧❶❸r

❶④⑧r①⑩ts ❿➀ ❶② ➁➂❶❷❺ ➃❺➄➅ ❿➆ ❷❶⑩r④ ⑤❹

➇➈ ➉ ➊ ➁✍ × ✕❿➀➅ ➁➃❺➋➅

➌r④③r

➇➈ ➍❿⑧ ➉➊ ➁✍ × ✒➅➍❸➎ ➁②❶④③r ✕ ➉ ✒➍❸➅

➉ ▲ ➍ ➁➄ ❸➅ ➁➃❺➄➅

✉qr①r ✕ ❶② ⑧qr ⑩rs✈③❶⑧❹➎ ▲ ❶② ⑧qr t④❷⑥st①

❸✈❸r④⑧⑥❸ r⑨⑥ts ⑧✈ ➁ ✍ × ✒ ➅❺ ➂✈① t ③r④⑧①ts

✇✈①③r➎ ✉q❶③q ❶② ⑦❶①r③⑧r⑦ ts✈④❷ ✍➎ ▲ ❶② t ③✈④②⑧t④⑧

t② ⑧qr ❼st④r⑧ ❷✈r② t①✈⑥④⑦❺ ➌r④③r➎ ➏ ➐ ➍❿➀ ❶② t

③✈④②⑧t④⑧ t③③✈①⑦❶④❷ ⑧✈ ⑧qr st②⑧ r⑨⑥t⑧❶✈④❺ ♣q❶② ❶②

⑧qr st✉ ✈✇ t①rt②❺ ➑①t⑩❶⑧t⑧❶✈④ ❶② t ③r④⑧①ts ✇✈①③r

t④⑦ qr④③r ⑧qr st✉ ✈✇ t①rt② ✇✈ss✈✉②❺

➒➓➔→➣↔↕ ➙➛➜ ❾r⑧ ⑧qr ②❼rr⑦ ✈✇ ⑧qr ❼st④r⑧

t⑧ ⑧qr ❼r①❶qrs❶✈④ ➝ ❶④ ➂❶❷❺ ➃❺➋➁t➅ ⑤r ➞➟ t④⑦

⑧qr ➠⑥④➡❼st④r⑧ ⑦❶②⑧t④③r ➠➢ ⑤r ➤➟❺ ➥rst⑧r

➦➤➟➧ ➞➟➨ ⑧✈ ⑧qr ③✈①①r②❼✈④⑦❶④❷ ⑨⑥t④⑧❶⑧❶r② t⑧

⑧qr t❼qrs❶✈④ ➦➤➩➫ ➞➩➨❺ ➭❶ss ⑧qr ❼st④r⑧ ⑧t➯r

r⑨⑥ts ⑧❶❸r② ⑧✈ ⑧①t⑩r①②r ➲➳➵ t④⑦ ➵➝➲ ➸

➺➻➼➽↕➾ ♣qr ❸t❷④❶⑧⑥⑦r ✈✇ ⑧qr t④❷⑥st①

❸✈❸r④⑧⑥❸ t⑧ ➝ ❶② ➚➪ ➶ ➹➪ ➤➪➞➪➎ ②❶④③r ❶④②❼r③⑧❶✈④

⑧rss② ⑥② ⑧qt⑧ ✍➪ t④⑦ ✕➪ t①r ❸⑥⑧⑥tss❹

❼r①❼r④⑦❶③⑥st①❺ ➠❶❸❶st①s❹➎ ➚➩ ➶ ➹➪ ➤➩ ➞➩❺ ➂①✈❸

t④❷⑥st① ❸✈❸r④⑧⑥❸ ③✈④②r①⑩t⑧❶✈④

➹➪ ➤➪ ➞➪ ➶ ➹➪ ➤➩ ➞➩

✈①

➬➮

➴➱

➠❶④③r ➤➩ ✃ ➤➪➧ ➞➪ ❐ ➞➩ ❺

♣qr t①rt ❒➲➳➵ ⑤✈⑥④⑦r⑦ ⑤❹ ⑧qr rss❶❼②r t④⑦

⑧qr ①t⑦❶⑥② ⑩r③⑧✈①② ❒➲ t④⑦ ❒➵ ❶② st①❷r① ⑧qt④ ➠❮➢❰

❶④ ➂❶❷❺ ➃❺➋❺ ➂①✈❸ Ïr❼sr①Ð② ②r③✈④⑦ st✉➎ r⑨⑥ts t①rt②

t①r ②✉r❼⑧ ❶④ r⑨⑥ts ⑧❶❸r②❺ ➌r④③r ⑧qr ❼st④r⑧ ✉❶ss

⑧t➯r t s✈④❷r① ⑧❶❸r ⑧✈ ⑧①t⑩r①②r ➲➳➵ ⑧qt④ ➵➝➲❺

ÑÒÓ ÔÕÖØÙÚÛ➆▲ ▲➆Ü ÝÞ ßÚ➆ØÖ❚➆❚ÖÝÕ

❾r❷r④⑦ qt② ❶⑧ ⑧qt⑧ ✈⑤②r①⑩❶④❷ t④ t❼❼sr ✇tss❶④❷

✇①✈❸ t ⑧①rr➎ àr✉⑧✈④ ✉t② ❶④②❼❶①r⑦ ⑧✈ t①①❶⑩r t⑧ t④

⑥④❶⑩r①②ts st✉ ✈✇ ❷①t⑩❶⑧t⑧❶✈④ ⑧qt⑧ sr⑦ ⑧✈ t④

rá❼st④t⑧❶✈④ ✈✇ ⑧r①①r②⑧①❶ts ❷①t⑩❶⑧t⑧❶✈④ t② ✉rss t②

✈✇ Ïr❼sr①Ð② st✉②❺ àr✉⑧✈④Ð② ①rt②✈④❶④❷ ✉t② ⑧qt⑧

⑧qr ❸✈✈④ ①r⑩✈s⑩❶④❷ ❶④ t④ ✈①⑤❶⑧ ✈✇ ①t⑦❶⑥② âã ✉t②

②⑥⑤❽r③⑧ ⑧✈ t ③r④⑧①❶❼r⑧ts t③③rsr①t⑧❶✈④ ⑦⑥r ⑧✈

rt①⑧qÐ② ❷①t⑩❶⑧❹ ✈✇ ❸t❷④❶⑧⑥⑦r

ää

äå æ

ææ

çèé

ç ê

ëì ì ➁➃❺í➅

✉qr①r î ❶② ⑧qr ②❼rr⑦ ✈✇ ⑧qr ❸✈✈④ ①rst⑧r⑦ ⑧✈ ⑧qr

⑧❶❸r ❼r①❶✈⑦ ï ⑤❹ ⑧qr ①rst⑧❶✈④ ð ñòó ô õö÷ ❺ ♣qr

⑧❶❸r ❼r①❶✈⑦ ï ❶② t⑤✈⑥⑧ ➄ø❺í ⑦t❹② t④⑦ âã ✉t②

ts①rt⑦❹ ➯④✈✉④ ⑧qr④ ⑧✈ ⑤r t⑤✈⑥⑧ í❺➃ù × ➋úû❸❺ ü✇

✉r ②⑥⑤②⑧❶⑧⑥⑧r ⑧qr②r ④⑥❸⑤r①② ❶④ r⑨⑥t⑧❶✈④ ➁➃❺í➅➎

✉r ❷r⑧ t ⑩ts⑥r ✈✇ ýã ❸⑥③q ②❸tssr① ⑧qt④ ⑧qr ⑩ts⑥r

✈✇ t③③rsr①t⑧❶✈④ ⑦⑥r ⑧✈ ❷①t⑩❶⑧❹ ❷ ✈④ ⑧qr ②⑥①✇t③r ✈✇

⑧qr rt①⑧q➎ t①❶②❶④❷ ts②✈ ⑦⑥r ⑧✈ rt①⑧qÐ② ❷①t⑩❶⑧t⑧❶✈④ts

t⑧⑧①t③⑧❶✈④❺

þ★✺✜✬✬✣✫ ÿ✣✐✹✣✩

✼✰✭�✰✁✰✂✄✱✽ ✇❴❨ ❴

❨❊❢❇❳❵ ❢❨❵ ♥s ☎❇❈♠❴❳

♥❈❢♦❢❳❏ ✆❇ s♥❈♠❋❧❴❵❇✝

❵❜❇ ❵❜❈❇❇ ❧❴✇❨ ♥s

❞❧❴❳❇❵❴❈❍ ♠♥❵❢♥❳ ♣❴❨❇✝

♥❳ ❵❜❇ ❞❴❢❳❨❵❴✞❢❳♦

♥♣❨❇❈✟❴❵❢♥❳❨ ♥s ✠❍❊❜♥

❇❈❴❜❇ ❴❳✝ ❊♥✇♥❈✞❇❈❨❏ ✡❇❞❧❇❈ ❜❢♠❨❇❧s ✇❴❨ ❴❳

❴❨❨❢❨❵❴❳❵ ❵♥ ❇❈❴❜❇ ❴❳✝ ❢❵ ❵♥♥✞ ❜❢♠ ❨❢❛❵❇❇❳ ❧♥❳♦

❍❇❴❈❨ ❵♥ ❴❈❈❢✟❇ ❴❵ ❵❜❇ ❵❜❈❇❇ ❞❧❴❳❇❵❴❈❍ ❧❴✇❨❏ ✆❇

❢❨ ❴❧❨♥ ✞❳♥✇❳ ❴❨ ❵❜❇ s♥❋❳✝❇❈ ♥s ♦❇♥♠❇❵❈❢❊❴❧

♥❞❵❢❊❨☛ ♣❇❢❳♦ ❵❜❇ s❢❈❨❵ ❵♥ ✝❇❨❊❈❢♣❇✇❜❴❵ ❜❴❞❞❇❳❨

❵♥ ❧❢♦❜❵ ❴s❵❇❈ ❢❵ ❇❳❵❇❈❨ ❴ ❵❇❧❇❨❊♥❞❇❏

Page 190: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❈✞✟✠✡☛☞ ✌✍✡✎✞✏

❲❡ ✑✒✓✔ ✕✖❡ ✕✗✘❡ ✙✚✕❡ ✓✛ ✜✖✚✒✢❡ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✚✒✢✣✤✚✙ ✘✓✘❡✒✕✣✘ ✓✛ ✚ ✥✗✒✢✤❡ ✦✚✙✕✗✜✤❡ ✚✧✓✣✕ ✕✖❡ ✓✙✗✢✗✒✗✥

❞t❂ ★

❧r ✩

❚✖❡ ✚✒✢✣✤✚✙ ✘✓✘❡✒✕✣✘ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✦✚✙✕✗✜✤❡ ✗✥ ✜✓✒✥❡✙✪❡✫✬ ✗✛ ✕✖❡ ✕✓✙q✣❡ ❂ ★r ✩ ✫✣❡ ✕✓ ✕✖❡

✛✓✙✜❡ ❋ ✓✒ ✗✕ ✪✚✒✗✥✖❡✥♦ ❚✖✗✥ ✖✚✦✦❡✒✥ ❡✗✕✖❡✙ ✔✖❡✒ ❋ ✗✥ ✭❡✙✓ ✓✙ ✔✖❡✒ ❋ ✗✥ ✚✤✓✒✢ ✮♦ ❲❡ ✚✙❡

✗✒✕❡✙❡✥✕❡✫ ✗✒ ✛✓✙✜❡✥ ✔✖✗✜✖ ✥✚✕✗✥✛❝ ✕✖❡ ✤✚✕✕❡✙ ✜✓✒✫✗✕✗✓✒♦ ✯❡✒✕✙✚✤ ✛✓✙✜❡✥ ✥✚✕✗✥✛❝ ✕✖✗✥ ✜✓✒✫✗✕✗✓✒♦

❆ ✰✜❡✒✕✙✚✤✱ ✛✓✙✜❡ ✗✥ ✚✤✔✚❝✥ ✫✗✙❡✜✕❡✫ ✕✓✔✚✙✫✥ ✓✙ ✚✔✚❝ ✛✙✓✘ ✚ ✛✗✲❡✫ ✦✓✗✒✕✬ ✗♦❡♦✬ ✚✤✓✒✢ ✕✖❡ ✦✓✥✗✕✗✓✒✪❡✜✕✓✙ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✦✓✗✒✕ ✓✛ ✚✦✦✤✗✜✚✕✗✓✒ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✛✓✙✜❡ ✔✗✕✖ ✙❡✥✦❡✜✕ ✕✓ ✕✖❡ ✛✗✲❡✫ ✦✓✗✒✕♦ ✳✴❡❡ ✵✗✢✣✙❡ ✧❡✤✓✔♦✷✵✣✙✕✖❡✙✬ ✕✖❡ ✘✚✢✒✗✕✣✫❡ ✓✛ ✚ ✜❡✒✕✙✚✤ ✛✓✙✜❡ ✸ ✫❡✦❡✒✫✥ ✓✒ ✹✬ ✕✖❡ ✫✗✥✕✚✒✜❡ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✦✓✗✒✕ ✓✛ ✚✦✦✤✗✜✚✕✗✓✒✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✛✓✙✜❡ ✛✙✓✘ ✕✖❡ ✛✗✲❡✫ ✦✓✗✒✕✺ ✸ ✻ ✸✳✹✷♦■✒ ✕✖❡ ✘✓✕✗✓✒ ✣✒✫❡✙ ✚ ✜❡✒✕✙✚✤ ✛✓✙✜❡ ✕✖❡ ✚✒✢✣✤✚✙ ✘✓✘❡✒✕✣✘ ✗✥ ✚✤✔✚❝✥ ✜✓✒✥❡✙✪❡✫♦ ❚✔✓ ✗✘✦✓✙✕✚✒✕✙❡✥✣✤✕✥ ✛✓✤✤✓✔ ✛✙✓✘ ✕✖✗✥✼✳✽✷ ❚✖❡ ✘✓✕✗✓✒ ✓✛ ✚ ✦✚✙✕✗✜✤❡ ✣✒✫❡✙ ✕✖❡ ✜❡✒✕✙✚✤ ✛✓✙✜❡ ✗✥ ✚✤✔✚❝✥ ✜✓✒✛✗✒❡✫ ✕✓ ✚ ✦✤✚✒❡♦✳✾✷ ❚✖❡ ✦✓✥✗✕✗✓✒ ✪❡✜✕✓✙ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✦✚✙✕✗✜✤❡ ✔✗✕✖ ✙❡✥✦❡✜✕ ✕✓ ✕✖❡ ✜❡✒✕✙❡ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✛✓✙✜❡ ✳✗♦❡♦ ✕✖❡ ✛✗✲❡✫ ✦✓✗✒✕✷

✖✚✥ ✚ ✜✓✒✥✕✚✒✕ ✚✙❡✚✤ ✪❡✤✓✜✗✕❝♦ ■✒ ✓✕✖❡✙ ✔✓✙✫✥ ✕✖❡ ✦✓✥✗✕✗✓✒ ✪❡✜✕✓✙ ✥✔❡❡✦✥ ✓✣✕ ❡q✣✚✤ ✚✙❡✚✥ ✗✒❡q✣✚✤ ✕✗✘❡✥ ✚✥ ✕✖❡ ✦✚✙✕✗✜✤❡ ✘✓✪❡✥ ✣✒✫❡✙ ✕✖❡ ✗✒✛✤✣❡✒✜❡ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✜❡✒✕✙✚✤ ✛✓✙✜❡♦

❚✙❝ ✕✓ ✦✙✓✪❡ ✧✓✕✖ ✕✖❡✥❡ ✙❡✥✣✤✕✥♦ ✿✓✣ ✘✚❝ ✒❡❡✫ ✕✓ ✑✒✓✔ ✕✖✚✕ ✕✖❡ ✚✙❡✚✤ ✪❡✤✓✜✗✕❝ ✗✥ ✢✗✪❡✒ ✧❝ ✼✫❀❁✫❃ ❄ ❅ ✹ ❇ ✥✗✒ ❉♦

❆✒ ✗✘✘❡✫✗✚✕❡ ✚✦✦✤✗✜✚✕✗✓✒ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✚✧✓✪❡ ✫✗✥✜✣✥✥✗✓✒ ✜✚✒ ✧❡ ✘✚✫❡ ✕✓ ✕✖❡ ✘✓✕✗✓✒ ✓✛ ✚ ✦✤✚✒❡✕✣✒✫❡✙ ✕✖❡ ✢✙✚✪✗✕✚✕✗✓✒✚✤ ✛✓✙✜❡ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✥✣✒♦ ✵✓✙ ✜✓✒✪❡✒✗❡✒✜❡ ✕✖❡ ✥✣✒ ✘✚❝ ✧❡ ✕✚✑❡✒ ✕✓ ✧❡ ✥✓ ✖❡✚✪❝✕✖✚✕ ✗✕ ✗✥ ✚✕ ✙❡✥✕♦ ❚✖❡ ✢✙✚✪✗✕✚✕✗✓✒✚✤ ✛✓✙✜❡ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✥✣✒ ✓✒ ✕✖❡ ✦✤✚✒❡✕ ✗✥ ✫✗✙❡✜✕❡✫ ✕✓✔✚✙✫✥ ✕✖❡ ✥✣✒♦

❚✖✗✥ ✛✓✙✜❡ ✚✤✥✓ ✥✚✕✗✥✛✗❡✥ ✕✖❡ ✙❡q✣✗✙❡✘❡✒✕ ✸ ❄ ✸❊✹●✬ ✥✗✒✜❡ ✸ ❄ ❍ ❏❑❏▲❁✹▲ ✔✖❡✙❡ ❏▼ ✚✒✫ ❏◆ ✚✙❡

✙❡✥✦❡✜✕✗✪❡✤❝ ✕✖❡ ✘✚✥✥❡✥ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✦✤✚✒❡✕ ✚✒✫ ✕✖❡ ✥✣✒ ✚✒✫ ❍ ✗✥ ✕✖❡ ✣✒✗✪❡✙✥✚✤ ✜✓✒✥✕✚✒✕ ✓✛ ✢✙✚✪✗✕✚✕✗✓✒♦❚✖❡ ✕✔✓ ✙❡✥✣✤✕✥ ✳✽✷ ✚✒✫ ✳✾✷ ✫❡✥✜✙✗✧❡✫ ✚✧✓✪❡✬ ✕✖❡✙❡✛✓✙❡✬ ✚✦✦✤❝ ✕✓ ✕✖❡ ✘✓✕✗✓✒ ✓✛ ✕✖❡ ✦✤✚✒❡✕♦ ■✒ ✛✚✜✕✬✕✖❡ ✙❡✥✣✤✕ ✳✾✷ ✗✥ ✕✖❡ ✔❡✤✤❖✑✒✓✔✒ ✥❡✜✓✒✫ ✤✚✔ ✓✛ ◗❡✦✤❡✙♦

❘✹ ❙❯ ❃❱❳ ❃✹❳❨❳❩❃❬✹❭ ❬❪ ❃❱❳ ❫❴✹❃❙❩❵❳ ❛❜❢❳✹ ❃❱❳ ❩❳❜❃✹❴❵ ❪❬✹❩❳❣ ❀❃ ❴ ❫❬❯❙❃❙❬❜ ❤✐ ❃❱❳ ❪❬✹❩❳ ❙❯ ❢❙✹❳❩❃❳❢❴❵❬❜❥ ❦♠✐ ♥ ❙❯ ❃❱❳ ❩❳❜❃✹❳ ❬❪ ❃❱❳ ❪❬✹❩❳ ❃❴♣❳❜ ❴❯ ❃❱❳ ❬✹❙❥❙❜❣ s❜ ❃❙❏❳ ✉❃✐ ❃❱❳ ❫❴✹❃❙❩❵❳ ❏❬❇❳❯ ❪✹❬❏ ✈ ❃❬ ❤✇ ✐❴✹❩ ❤❤✇ ❄ ①❯ ❄ ❇ ①❃❣ ❘❱❳ ❃❴❜❥❳❜❃ ❤② ❴❃ ❤ ❃❬ ❃❱❳ ❃✹❴❨❳❩❃❬✹❭ ❥❙❇❳❯ ❃❱❳ ❢❙✹❳❩❃❙❬❜ ❬❪ ❃❱❳ ❇❳❵❬❩❙❃❭ ❴❃ ❤❣ ❘❱❳

❴✹❳❴ ❯③❳❫❃ ❙❜ ✉❃ ❙❯ ❃❱❳ ❴✹❳❴ ❬❪ ❯❳❩❃❬✹ ❤♥❤✇ ④ ⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨ ⑩❶ ❤❤✇ ❁✾ ❄ ❊✹ ❇ ❯❙❜ ❴● ①❃❁❷❣●

Page 191: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

●�✁❱✂✄✁✄✂❆☎ ✶✆✝

❚✟✠✡ ☛☞✌✍✎☞✏ ✡✟✑✒✡ ✓✟✍✓ ✓✟✌ ✔✑✎☛✌ ❝✕✌ ✓✑✌✍✎✓✟❡✡ ✖✎✍✗✠✓✏ ❝✌☛✎✌✍✡✌✡ ✒✠✓✟ ❝✠✡✓✍✘☛✌✙ ✚✔ ✑✘✌✍✡✡✕❛✌✡ ✓✟✍✓ ✓✟✌ ✖✎✍✗✠✓✍✓✠✑✘✍☞ ✔✑✎☛✌ ❝✕✌ ✓✑ ✓✟✌✌✍✎✓✟ ❝✌☛✎✌✍✡✌✡ ✠✘ ✛✎✑✛✑✎✓✠✑✘ ✓✑ ✓✟✌ ✠✘✗✌✎✡✌✡s✕✍✎✌ ✑✔ ✓✟✌ ❝✠✡✓✍✘☛✌ ✔✎✑❛ ✓✟✌ ☛✌✘✓✌✎ ✑✔ ✓✟✌✌✍✎✓✟✜ ✒✌ ✒✠☞☞ ✟✍✗✌ ✷

♠ ♠✢ ✣✤ ❾ ❀ ➊✷❊❣ ✣✤ ✍✘❝ ✒✌ ✖✌✓

✥✥✦

✦ ✧

❘★✩ ❘

❂ ; ✪✫✬✬ ✭✮✙✯✰

✠✘ ✍✖✎✌✌❛✌✘✓ ✒✠✓✟ ✍ ✗✍☞✕✌ ✑✔ ✱ ; ✾✙✮ ❛ ✡✲✳ ✍✘❝✓✟✌ ✗✍☞✕✌ ✑✔ ✍✴ ✔✎✑❛ ♦s✙ ✭✮✙✪✰✙ ❚✟✌✡✌✑✵✡✌✎✗✍✓✠✑✘✡ ☞✌❝ ✸✌✒✓✑✘ ✓✑ ✛✎✑✛✑✡✌ ✓✟✌ ✔✑☞☞✑✒✠✘✖❯✘✠✗✌✎✡✍☞ ✹✍✒ ✑✔ ✺✎✍✗✠✓✍✓✠✑✘ ✻♦✗✌✎✏ ✵✑❝✏ ✠✘ ✓✟✌ ✕✘✠✗✌✎✡✌ ✍✓✓✎✍☛✓✡ ✌✗✌✎✏ ✑✓✟✌✎✵✑❝✏ ✒✠✓✟ ✍ ✔✑✎☛✌ ✒✟✠☛✟ ✠✡ ❝✠✎✌☛✓☞✏ ✛✎✑✛✑✎✓✠✑✘✍☞✓✑ ✓✟✌ ✛✎✑❝✕☛✓ ✑✔ ✓✟✌✠✎ ❛✍✡✡✌✡ ✍✘❝ ✠✘✗✌✎✡✌☞✏✛✎✑✛✑✎✓✠✑✘✍☞ ✓✑ ✓✟✌ ✡s✕✍✎✌ ✑✔ ✓✟✌ ❝✠✡✓✍✘☛✌✵✌✓✒✌✌✘ ✓✟✌❛✙

❚✟✌ s✕✑✓✍✓✠✑✘ ✠✡ ✌✡✡✌✘✓✠✍☞☞✏ ✔✎✑❛ ✸✌✒✓✑✘❡✡✔✍❛✑✕✡ ✓✎✌✍✓✠✡✌ ☛✍☞☞✌❝ ✼✽✍✓✟✌❛✍✓✠☛✍☞ ✿✎✠✘☛✠✛☞✌✡✑✔ ✸✍✓✕✎✍☞ ✿✟✠☞✑✡✑✛✟✏❡ ✭✿✎✠✘☛✠✛✠✍ ✔✑✎ ✡✟✑✎✓✰✙

❙✓✍✓✌❝ ✽✍✓✟✌❛✍✓✠☛✍☞☞✏✜ ✸✌✒✓✑✘❡✡ ✖✎✍✗✠✓✍✓✠✑✘☞✍✒ ✎✌✍❝✡ ✻ ❚✟✌ ✔✑✎☛✌ ❋ ✑✘ ✍ ✛✑✠✘✓ ❛✍✡✡ ❁❃ ❝✕✌✓✑ ✍✘✑✓✟✌✎ ✛✑✠✘✓ ❛✍✡✡ ❁❄ ✟✍✡ ✓✟✌ ❛✍✖✘✠✓✕❝✌

❅ ❇❇⑤ ⑤

❈ ❈❉

r❍■ ✭✮✙❏✰

♦s✕✍✓✠✑✘✭✮✙❏✰☛✍✘✵✌ ✌❑✛✎✌✡✡✌❝ ✠✘ ✗✌☛✓✑✎ ✔✑✎❛ ✍✡

$▲ ▼ $◆ ❖ ◆ ❖❖ ❖P P

◗ ◗ ◗ ◗❲ ❲

❳ ❳❨ ❨❩ ❬ ❬

$❭ ❪❫❴

❵ ❵❜❞ ❢

✒✟✌✎✌ ✺ ✠✡ ✓✟✌ ✕✘✠✗✌✎✡✍☞ ✖✎✍✗✠✓✍✓✠✑✘✍☞ ☛✑✘✡✓✍✘✓✜$❤ ✠✡ ✓✟✌ ✕✘✠✓ ✗✌☛✓✑✎ ✔✎✑❛ ❁✐ ✓✑ ❁✳ ✍✘❝ ❥ ❦ ❥✳ ❧ ❥✐✍✡ ✡✟✑✒✘ ✠✘ ♥✠✖✙ ✮✙✪✙

❚✟✌ ✖✎✍✗✠✓✍✓✠✑✘✍☞ ✔✑✎☛✌ ✠✡ ✍✓✓✎✍☛✓✠✗✌✜ ✠✙✌✙✜ ✓✟✌✔✑✎☛✌ ❋ ✠✡ ✍☞✑✘✖ ❧ ❥✙ ❚✟✌ ✔✑✎☛✌ ✑✘ ✛✑✠✘✓ ❛✍✡✡ ❁✐❝✕✌ ✓✑ ❁✳ ✠✡ ✑✔ ☛✑✕✎✡✌ ❧ ❋ ✵✏ ✸✌✒✓✑✘❡✡ ✓✟✠✎❝ ☞✍✒✙❚✟✕✡✜ ✓✟✌ ✖✎✍✗✠✓✍✓✠✑✘✍☞ ✔✑✎☛✌ ❋✐✳ ✑✘ ✓✟✌ ✵✑❝✏ ♣❝✕✌ ✓✑ q ✍✘❝ ❋✳✐ ✑✘ ✓✟✌ ✵✑❝✏ q ❝✕✌ ✓✑ ♣ ✍✎✌✎✌☞✍✓✌❝ ✍✡ ❋✐✳ ❦ ❧ t✳✐✙

✉✌✔✑✎✌ ✒✌ ☛✍✘ ✍✛✛☞✏ ♦s✙ ✭✮✙❏✰ ✓✑ ✑✵✈✌☛✓✡ ✕✘❝✌✎☛✑✘✡✠❝✌✎✍✓✠✑✘✜ ✒✌ ✟✍✗✌ ✓✑ ✵✌ ☛✍✎✌✔✕☞ ✡✠✘☛✌ ✓✟✌☞✍✒ ✎✌✔✌✎✡ ✓✑ ✇①②③④ ❛✍✡✡✌✡ ✒✟✌✎✌✍✡ ✒✌ ❝✌✍☞ ✒✠✓✟✌❑✓✌✘❝✌❝ ✑✵✈✌☛✓✡ ✒✟✠☛✟ ✟✍✗✌ ✔✠✘✠✓✌ ✡✠⑥✌✙ ✙ ✚✔ ✒✌✟✍✗✌ ✍ ☛✑☞☞✌☛✓✠✑✘ ✑✔ ✛✑✠✘✓ ❛✍✡✡✌✡✜✓✟✌ ✔✑✎☛✌ ✑✘✍✘✏ ✑✘✌ ✑✔ ✓✟✌❛ ✠✡ ✓✟✌ ✗✌☛✓✑✎ ✡✕❛ ✑✔ ✓✟✌✖✎✍✗✠✓✍✓✠✑✘✍☞ ✔✑✎☛✌✡ ✌❑✌✎✓✌❝ ✵✏ ✓✟✌ ✑✓✟✌✎ ✛✑✠✘✓❛✍✡✡✌✡ ✍✡ ✡✟✑✒✘ ✠✘ ♥✠✖ ✮✙✯✙

⑦⑧⑨⑩ ❶⑩❷ ❸❹❺❻❼❽❺❽❼❿➀❺➁ ➂❿❹➃➄ ❿➀ ➅❿❼➀❽ ➆❺➇➇ ➆➈ ❼➇ ❽➉➄❻➄➃❽❿❹ ➇➋➆ ❿➂ ❽➉➄ ➌❹❺❻❼❽❺❽❼❿➀❺➁ ➂❿❹➃➄➇ ➄➍➄❹❽➄➎➏➐ ➆➑➒ ➆➓ ❺➀➎ ➆➔→

➣↔↕ ➙➛➙➜➝ ➞➛➟➠↕ ➛➡ ➆➢ ➤➥

✳ ✐✐ ✳✳✐

➦➧ ➧➨

➩➫ $ ➭ ✐✳✐ ✳➭✐

➦➧ ➧➨

➯➲ $ $➳ ✐➭✐ ➳✐✳➳✐

➦➧ ➧➨

➯➲ ➲

➵➸➺➻➼➽➾ ➚➪➶ ❚✟✎✌✌ ✌s✕✍☞ ❛✍✡✡✌✡ ✑✔ ❛ ➹✖✌✍☛✟ ✍✎✌ ✔✠❑✌❝ ✍✓ ✓✟✌ ✗✌✎✓✠☛✌✡ ✑✔ ✍✘✌s✕✠☞✍✓✌✎✍☞ ✓✎✠✍✘✖☞✌ ➘✉➴✙✭✍✰ ➷✟✍✓ ✠✡ ✓✟✌ ✔✑✎☛✌ ✍☛✓✠✘✖ ✑✘ ✍ ❛✍✡✡ q❁✛☞✍☛✌❝ ✍✓ ✓✟✌ ☛✌✘✓✎✑✠❝ ✺ ✑✔ ✓✟✌ ✓✎✠✍✘✖☞✌➬✭✵✰ ➷✟✍✓ ✠✡ ✓✟✌ ✔✑✎☛✌ ✠✔ ✓✟✌ ❛✍✡✡ ✍✓ ✓✟✌✗✌✎✓✌❑ ➘ ✠✡ ❝✑✕✵☞✌❝ ➬

❚✍➹✌ ➘✺ ➮ ✉✺ ➮ ➴✺ ➮ ♣❛ ✭✡✌✌ ♥✠✖✙ ✮✙❏✰⑦⑧⑨⑩ ❶⑩➱ ❸❹❺❻❼❽❺❽❼❿➀❺➁ ➂❿❹➃➄ ❿➀ ➆➢ ➎➋➄ ❽❿ ➆✃ ❼➇ ❺➁❿➀➌❐ ❒➉➄❹➄ ❽➉➄ ❻➄➃❽❿❹ ❐ ❼➇ ❮❐✃❰ ❐➢ÏÐ

Ñ

Page 192: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�� P✁✂✄☎✆✄

❆✝✞✟✠✡ ✭☛☞ ✌✍✎ ☛✏✑✒✎ ✓✎✔✕✎✎✏ ✖✗ ☛✏✘ ✔✍✎♣✙✚✛✔✛✜✎ ①✲☛✢✛✚ ✛✚ ✣✤✥ ☛✏✘ ✚✙ ✛✚ ✔✍✎ ☛✏✑✒✎ ✓✎✔✕✎✎✏✖● ☛✏✘ ✔✍✎✏✎✑☛✔✛✜✎ ①✲☛✢✛✚✦ ✌✍✎ ✛✏✘✛✜✛✘✧☛✒ ★✙✩✪✎✚✛✏ ✜✎✪✔✙✩ ✏✙✔☛✔✛✙✏ ☛✩✎

✫ ✮✬✯

✷ ❼✰

✱✳ ✳❂❋ ✴

✵ ✸✹ ✺✬✻

✷ ❼ ❼❝✼s ✽✾ s✿❀ ✽✾✰

✱✳ ✳ ❁ ❁❂ ❃ ❃❋ ❄ ✴

❅ ❇❈ ❉❊❍

■ ❏ ❏❑▲▼ ◆❖ ▼◗❘ ◆❖❙

❚❯ ❯ ❱ ❱❲ ❳ ❾❨ ❩ ❥

❬✩✙♦ ✔✍✎ ♣✩✛✏✪✛♣✒✎ ✙★ ✚✧♣✎✩♣✙✚✛✔✛✙✏ ☛✏✘ ✔✍✎ ✒☛✕✙★ ✜✎✪✔✙✩ ☛✘✘✛✔✛✙✏❭ ✔✍✎ ✩✎✚✧✒✔☛✏✔ ✑✩☛✜✛✔☛✔✛✙✏☛✒★✙✩✪✎ ❪❫ ✙✏ ✭❴♠☞ ✛✚

❪❫ ❵ ❪❛❜ ❞ ❪❛❡ ❞ ❪❛❢

❣ ❤✐✐❦❦❧♥ qrt✉✈✇qr②③t✇④✇④ ⑤⑤⑥ ⑦⑧⑦⑨ ⑩❶⑩❶

❷ ❸ ❹❺❹❻❽❿➀❺❹➁➂❻➀➃ ➄ ➅➆➇ ➈➈ ➉➊➋➌➍✒✔✎✩✏☛✔✛✜✎✒➎❭ ✙✏✎ ✎✢♣✎✪✔✚ ✙✏ ✔✍✎ ✓☛✚✛✚ ✙★

✚➎♦♦✎✔✩➎ ✔✍☛✔ ✔✍✎ ✩✎✚✧✒✔☛✏✔ ★✙✩✪✎ ✙✧✑✍✔ ✔✙ ✓✎➏✎✩✙✦

✭✓☞ ●➎ ✚➎♦♦✎✔✩➎ ✔✍✎ ①✲✪✙♦♣✙✏✎✏✔ ✙★ ✔✍✎★✙✩✪✎ ✪☛✏✪✎✒✚ ✙✧✔✦ ✌✍✎ ➐✲✪✙♦♣✙✏✎✏✔ ✚✧✩✜✛✜✎✚✦

⑦⑦⑦⑨ ✇④✇④✇➑ ⑤⑤⑤ ⑩❶⑩❶⑩❶➒ ♥❦♥ ➓

❬✙✩ ✔✍✎ ✑✩☛✜✛✔☛✔✛✙✏☛✒ ★✙✩✪✎ ✓✎✔✕✎✎✏ ☛✏✎✢✔✎✏✘✎✘ ✙✓➔✎✪✔ ✭✒✛→✎ ✔✍✎ ✎☛✩✔✍☞ ☛✏✘ ☛ ♣✙✛✏✔ ♦☛✚✚❭➣↔✦ ✭↕✦➙☞ ✛✚✏✙✔✘✛✩✎✪✔✒➎ ☛♣♣✒✛✪☛✓✒✎✦➣☛✪✍♣✙✛✏✔♦☛✚✚✛✏ ✔✍✎ ✎✢✔✎✏✘✎✘ ✙✓➔✎✪✔ ✕✛✒✒ ✎✢✎✩✔ ☛ ★✙✩✪✎ ✙✏ ✔✍✎✑✛✜✎✏ ♣✙✛✏✔ ♦☛✚✚ ☛✏✘ ✔✍✎✚✎ ★✙✩✪✎ ✕✛✒✒ ✏✙✔ ☛✒✒ ✓✎ ✛✏✔✍✎ ✚☛♦✎✘✛✩✎✪✔✛✙✏✦➛✎✍☛✜✎ ✔✙ ☛✘✘ ✧♣ ✔✍✎✚✎ ★✙✩✪✎✚✜✎✪✔✙✩✛☛✒✒➎ ★✙✩ ☛✒✒ ✔✍✎ ♣✙✛✏✔ ♦☛✚✚✎✚ ✛✏ ✔✍✎ ✎✢✔✎✏✘✎✘✙✓➔✎✪✔ ✔✙ ✑✎✔ ✔✍✎ ✔✙✔☛✒ ★✙✩✪✎✦ ✌✍✛✚ ✛✚ ✎☛✚✛✒➎ ✘✙✏✎✧✚✛✏✑ ✪☛✒✪✧✒✧✚✦ ❬✙✩ ✔✕✙ ✚♣✎✪✛☛✒ ✪☛✚✎✚❭ ☛ ✚✛♦♣✒✎✒☛✕ ✩✎✚✧✒✔✚ ✕✍✎✏ ➎✙✧ ✘✙ ✔✍☛✔ ➜✭➝☞ ➞➟➠ ➡➢➤➥➠ ➢➡ ➦➧➧➤➦➥➧➨➢➩ ➫➠➧➭➠➠➩ ➦ ➟➢➯➯➢➭

➲➳➟➠➤➨➥➦➯ ➲➟➠➯➯ ➢➡ ➵➩➨➡➢➤➸ ➺➠➩➲➨➧➻ ➦➩➺ ➦➳➢➨➩➧ ➸➦➲➲ ➲➨➧➵➦➧➠➺ ➢➵➧➲➨➺➠ ➨➲ ➼➵➲➧ ➦➲ ➨➡➧➟➠ ➠➩➧➨➤➠ ➸➦➲➲ ➢➡ ➧➟➠ ➲➟➠➯➯ ➨➲➥➢➩➥➠➩➧➤➦➧➠➺ ➦➧ ➧➟➠ ➥➠➩➧➤➠ ➢➡ ➧➟➠ ➲➟➠➯➯➽➾✧☛✒✛✔☛✔✛✜✎✒➎ ✔✍✛✚ ✪☛✏ ✓✎ ✧✏✘✎✩✚✔✙✙✘ ☛✚★✙✒✒✙✕✚➜ ✖✩☛✜✛✔☛✔✛✙✏☛✒ ★✙✩✪✎✚ ✪☛✧✚✎✘ ✓➎ ✔✍✎✜☛✩✛✙✧✚ ✩✎✑✛✙✏✚ ✙★ ✔✍✎ ✚✍✎✒✒ ✍☛✜✎✪✙♦♣✙✏✎✏✔✚ ☛✒✙✏✑ ✔✍✎ ✒✛✏✎ ➔✙✛✏✛✏✑ ✔✍✎ ♣✙✛✏✔♦☛✚✚ ✔✙ ✔✍✎ ✪✎✏✔✩✎ ☛✚ ✕✎✒✒ ☛✚ ☛✒✙✏✑ ☛✘✛✩✎✪✔✛✙✏ ♣✩✎♣✎✏✘✛✪✧✒☛✩ ✔✙ ✔✍✛✚ ✒✛✏✎✦ ✌✍✎✪✙♦♣✙✏✎✏✔✚ ♣✩✎♣✎✏✘✛✪✧✒☛✩ ✔✙ ✔✍✛✚ ✒✛✏✎✪☛✏✪✎✒ ✙✧✔ ✕✍✎✏ ✚✧♦♦✛✏✑ ✙✜✎✩ ☛✒✒ ✩✎✑✛✙✏✚✙★ ✔✍✎ ✚✍✎✒✒ ✒✎☛✜✛✏✑ ✙✏✒➎ ☛ ✩✎✚✧✒✔☛✏✔ ★✙✩✪✎☛✒✙✏✑ ✔✍✎ ✒✛✏✎ ➔✙✛✏✛✏✑ ✔✍✎ ♣✙✛✏✔ ✔✙ ✔✍✎ ✪✎✏✔✩✎✦✌✍✎ ♦☛✑✏✛✔✧✘✎ ✙★ ✔✍✛✚ ★✙✩✪✎ ✕✙✩→✚ ✙✧✔ ✔✙✓✎ ☛✚ ✚✔☛✔✎✘ ☛✓✙✜✎✦

➚➪➶➹➘➴➷➬ ➮➱✃➴❐✃❒✃❮

❰ÏÐÑÏÒ ÓÔÕ Ö×ÒØÙÑÔÚÏÕ ÓÛÜ ÚÓÛÒÕ ÑÔÝ Þß àáàâã äÓÏ Ôåå×ÙåæÏØÏåÚ ×Ö ÚÓÏ ÙåÕÏÒÑßÛåç ÙåÛèÏÒÜÔÑ ÑÔÝ ×ÖçÒÔèÛÚÔÚÛ×å æÔØÏ ÔÞ×ÙÚ ÜÏèÏåÚß ßÏÔÒÜ ÑÔÚÏÒ ÝÛÚÓ ÚÓÏ ÐÙÞÑÛæÔÚÛ×å Ûå àáéê ×Ö ëÏÝÚ×åìÜ ØÔÜÚÏÒÐÛÏæÏ➮í✃î➘➬➘❒í✃❮➪ ➚❮➹ï➱❮î✃➬ ➮➱✃➴❐✃❒✃❮ ð❮➹í➪ñ❮➹✃❐❮ò ×ÖÚÏå ÜÛØÐÑß æÔÑÑÏÕ ÚÓÏ ➮➱✃➴❐✃❒✃❮ã

óÒ×ÙåÕ àáéôò õÕØÙåÕ öÔÑÑÏß ÷ÔÖÚÏÒ ÝÓ×Ø ÚÓÏ ÖÔØ×ÙÜ öÔÑÑÏßìÜ æ×ØÏÚ ÛÜ åÔØÏÕøò æÔØÏ Ú× èÛÜÛÚëÏÝÚ×å ÔÚ ùÔØÞÒÛÕçÏ ÔåÕ ÔÜúÏÕ ÓÛØ ÔÞ×ÙÚ ÚÓÏ åÔÚÙÒÏ ×Ö ÚÓÏ ÚÒÔûÏæÚ×Òß ×Ö Ô Þ×Õß Ø×èÛåç ÙåÕÏÒ ÚÓÏÛåÖÑÙÏåæÏ ×Ö Ôå ÛåèÏÒÜÏ ÜüÙÔÒÏ ÑÔÝã ýÛÚÓ×ÙÚ ÓÏÜÛÚÔÚÛ×å ëÏÝÚ×å ÒÏÐÑÛÏÕ ÚÓÔÚ ÛÚ ÓÔÕ Ú× ÞÏ Ôå ÏÑÑÛÐÜÏòÔåÕ ÖÙÒÚÓÏÒ ÚÓÔÚ ÓÏ ÓÔÕ Ý×ÒúÏÕ ÛÚ ×ÙÚ Ñ×åç Ôç× ÔÒ×ÙåÕ àááô ÝÓÏå ÓÏ ÝÔÜ Ö×ÒæÏÕ Ú× ÒÏÚÛÒÏ Ú× ÓÛÜ ÖÔÒØÓ×ÙÜÏ ÖÒ×Ø ùÔØÞÒÛÕçÏ ×å Ôææ×ÙåÚ ×Ö Ô ÐÑÔçÙÏ ×ÙÚÞÒÏÔúã þåÖ×ÒÚÙåÔÚÏÑßò ëÏÝÚ×å ÓÔÕ Ñ×ÜÚ ÓÛÜ ÐÔÐÏÒÜãöÔÑÑÏß ÐÒÏèÔÛÑÏÕ ÙÐ×å ëÏÝÚ×å Ú× ÐÒ×ÕÙæÏ ÓÛÜ Ý×Òú Ûå Þ××ú Ö×ÒØ ÔåÕ ÔçÒÏÏÕ Ú× ÞÏÔÒ ÚÓÏ æ×ÜÚ ×ÖÐÙÞÑÛæÔÚÛ×åã ëÏÝÚ×å Ôææ×ØÐÑÛÜÓÏÕ ÚÓÛÜ ÖÏÔÚ Ûå ÏÛçÓÚÏÏå Ø×åÚÓÜ ×Ö ÜÙÐÏÒÓÙØÔå ÏÖÖ×ÒÚã äÓÏ ➮➱✃➴❐✃❒✃❮ÛÜ Ô ÜÛåçÙÑÔÒ ÜæÛÏåÚÛÖÛæ ØÔÜÚÏÒÐÛÏæÏ ÔåÕ Ûå ÚÓÏ Ý×ÒÕÜ ×Ö ÿÔçÒÔåçÏ ÛÚ ÛÜ ❞ÚÓÏ çÒÏÔÚÏÜÚ ÐÒ×ÕÙæÚÛ×å ×Ö ÚÓÏÓÙØÔå ØÛåÕã❤ äÓÏ �åÕÛÔå Þ×Òå ÔÜÚÒ×ÐÓßÜÛæÛÜÚ ÔåÕ ë×ÞÏÑ ÑÔÙÒÏÔÚÏ ❡ã ùÓÔåÕÒÔÜÏúÓÔÒ ÜÐÏåÚ ÚÏåßÏÔÒÜ ÝÒÛÚÛåç Ô ÚÒÏÔÚÛÜÏ ×å ÚÓÏ ➮➱✃➴❐✃❒✃❮ã öÛÜ Þ××úò ëÏÝÚ×åìÜ ➮➱✃➴❐✃❒✃❮ P➘➱ ➹í➪ ✁➘ññ➘➴ ✂➪❮✄➪➱ÞÒÛåçÜ ÛåÚ× ÜÓÔÒÐ Ö×æÙÜ ÚÓÏ ÞÏÔÙÚßò æÑÔÒÛÚß ÔåÕ ÞÒÏÔÚÓ ÚÔúÛåç Ïæ×å×Øß ×Ö ëÏÝÚ×åìÜ ØÏÚÓ×ÕÜã

❋☎✆✝ ✞✝✟ ❚✠✡☛☛ ☛☞✌✍✎ ✏✍✑✑☛✑ ✍✡☛ ✒✎✍✓☛✔ ✍✕ ✕✠☛ ✕✠✡☛☛

✈☛✡✕✖✓☛✑ ✗✘ ✕✠☛ ✙ ✥✚✛✜ ✥ ✏✍✑✑ ✢✏ ✖✑ ✒✎✍✓☛✔

✍✕ ✕✠☛ ✓☛❛✕✡✗✖✔ ♦ã

Page 193: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

●�✁❱✂✄✁✄✂❆☎ ✶✆✝

✭✞✟ ❚✠✡ ☛☞✌❝✡ ☞☛ ✍✎✎✌✍❝✎✏☞✑ ✒✓✡ ✎☞ ✍ ✠☞✔✔☞✕

s✖✠✡✌✏❝✍✔ s✠✡✔✔ ☞☛ ✓✑✏☛☞✌♠ ✒✡✑s✏✎✗✘ ☞✑ ✍

✖☞✏✑✎ ♠✍ss s✏✎✓✍✎✡✒ ✏✑s✏✒✡ ✏✎ ✏s ♣✡✌☞♦

◗✙✚✛✜✢✚✢✜✣✤✛✥✦ ✧✤ ★✚✩ ✚✪✚✜✩ ✙✩✫✤✬✮✢✚✩✫ ✢✯✜✮

✬✤✮✙✛✢❡ ✰✚✬✜❛✙✮ ✬✤✪✜❛✩✮ ❛✱ ✢✯✤ ✮✲✯✤✬✜★✚✛ ✮✯✤✛✛

✚✢✢✬✚★✢ ✢✯✤ ✲❛✜✩✢ ✳✚✮✮ ✜✩✮✜✫✤ ✜✢ ✜✩ ✣✚✬✜❛✙✮

✫✜✬✤★✢✜❛✩✮❡ ✴✯✤✮✤ ✱❛✬★✤✮ ★✚✩★✤✛ ✤✚★✯ ❛✢✯✤✬

★❛✳✲✛✤✢✤✛✥❡

✽♦✵ ❚✷✸ ✹✺✻✼✾❚✻❚✾✿❀✻❁ ❂✿❀❃❚✻❀❚

✴✯✤ ✣✚✛✙✤ ❛✱ ✢✯✤ ✪✬✚✣✜✢✚✢✜❛✩✚✛ ★❛✩✮✢✚✩✢ ❄

✤✩✢✤✬✜✩✪ ✢✯✤ ❅✩✜✣✤✬✮✚✛ ✛✚✧ ❛✱ ✪✬✚✣✜✢✚✢✜❛✩ ★✚✩ ❇✤

✫✤✢✤✬✳✜✩✤✫ ✤❈✲✤✬✜✳✤✩✢✚✛✛✥ ✚✩✫ ✢✯✜✮ ✧✚✮ ✱✜✬✮✢

✫❛✩✤ ❇✥ ❞✩✪✛✜✮✯ ✮★✜✤✩✢✜✮✢ ❉✤✩✬✥ ❊✚✣✤✩✫✜✮✯ ✜✩

❋❍■❏❡ ✴✯✤ ✚✲✲✚✬✚✢✙✮ ✙✮✤✫ ❇✥ ✯✜✳ ✜✮

✮★✯✤✳✚✢✜★✚✛✛✥ ✮✯❛✧✩ ✜✩ ✱✜✪✙✬✤❡❏❡❑

▲▼◆❖ P❖❘ ❙❯❲❳❨❩❬❭❯ ❪❫❩❴❭❵❜ ❢❣ ❤❩✐❳❵❪❭❥❲❦❥

❳❧♥❳❫❭❨❳❵❬q ❙r ❩❵❪ ❙t ❩❫❳ ✉❩❫❜❳ ❥♥❲❳❫❳❥

❴❲❭❯❲ ❩❫❳ ✈❳♥❬ ❢❵ ❳❭❬❲❳❫ ❥❭❪❳ ✇❥❲❢❴❵

❥❲❩❪❳❥① ❢❣ ❬❲❳ ❨❩❥❥❳❥ ❩❬ ② ❩❵❪ ③q ④❲❳❵

❬❲❳ ⑤❭❜ ❥♥❲❳❫❳❥ ❩❫❳ ❬❩✈❳❵ ❬❢ ❬❲❳ ❢❬❲❳❫ ❥❭❪❳

❢❣ ❬❲❳❨❩❥❥❳❥ ✇❥❲❢❴❵ ⑤⑥ ❪❢❬❬❳❪ ❯❭❫❯✉❳❥①⑦ ❬❲❳

⑤❩❫ ②③ ❫❢❬❩❬❳❥ ❩ ✉❭❬❬✉❳ ❥❭❵❯❳ ❬❲❳ ❬❢❫⑧⑨❳

❫❳✐❳❫❥❳❥ ❪❭❫❳❯❬❭❢❵q ⑩❲❳ ❩❵❜✉❳ ❢❣ ❫❢❬❩❬❭❢❵ ❯❩❵

⑤❳ ❨❳❩❥⑨❫❳❪ ❳❧♥❳❫❭❨❳❵❬❩✉✉⑥q

✴✯✤ ❇✚✬ ❶❷ ✯✚✮ ✢✧❛ ✮✳✚✛✛ ✛✤✚✫ ✮✲✯✤✬✤✮

✚✢✢✚★✯✤✫ ✚✢ ✜✢✮ ✤✩✫✮❡ ✴✯✤ ❇✚✬ ✜✮ ✮✙✮✲✤✩✫✤✫ ✱✬❛✳

✚ ✬✜✪✜✫ ✮✙✲✲❛✬✢ ❇✥ ✚ ✱✜✩✤ ✧✜✬✤❡ ✴✧❛ ✛✚✬✪✤ ✛✤✚✫

✮✲✯✤✬✤✮ ✚✬✤ ❇✬❛✙✪✯✢ ★✛❛✮✤ ✢❛ ✢✯✤ ✮✳✚✛✛ ❛✩✤✮ ❇✙✢

❛✩ ❛✲✲❛✮✜✢✤ ✮✜✫✤✮ ✚✮ ✮✯❛✧✩❡ ✴✯✤ ❇✜✪ ✮✲✯✤✬✤✮

✚✢✢✬✚★✢ ✢✯✤ ✩✤✚✬❇✥ ✮✳✚✛✛ ❛✩✤✮ ❇✥ ✤❸✙✚✛ ✚✩✫

❛✲✲❛✮✜✢✤ ✱❛✬★✤ ✚✮ ✮✯❛✧✩❡ ✴✯✤✬✤ ✜✮ ✩❛ ✩✤✢ ✱❛✬★✤

❛✩ ✢✯✤ ❇✚✬ ❇✙✢ ❛✩✛✥ ✚ ✢❛✬❸✙✤ ✧✯✜★✯ ✜✮ ★✛✤✚✬✛✥

✤❸✙✚✛ ✢❛ ❹ ✢✜✳✤✮ ✢✯✤ ✛✤✩✪✢✯ ❛✱ ✢✯✤ ❇✚✬✦✧✯✤✬✤ ❹ ✜✮

✢✯✤ ✱❛✬★✤ ❛✱ ✚✢✢✬✚★✢✜❛✩ ❇✤✢✧✤✤✩ ✚ ❇✜✪ ✮✲✯✤✬✤ ✚✩✫

✜✢✮ ✩✤✜✪✯❇❛✙✬✜✩✪ ✮✳✚✛✛ ✮✲✯✤✬✤❡ ❺✙✤ ✢❛ ✢✯✜✮

✢❛✬❸✙✤✦ ✢✯✤ ✮✙✮✲✤✩✫✤✫ ✧✜✬✤ ✪✤✢✮ ✢✧✜✮✢✤✫ ✢✜✛✛ ✮✙★✯

✢✜✳✤ ✚✮ ✢✯✤ ✬✤✮✢❛✬✜✩✪ ✢❛✬❸✙✤ ❛✱ ✢✯✤ ✧✜✬✤ ✤❸✙✚✛✮

✢✯✤ ✪✬✚✣✜✢✚✢✜❛✩✚✛ ✢❛✬❸✙✤ ❡ ❻✱ ❼ ✜✮ ✢✯✤ ✚✩✪✛✤ ❛✱

✢✧✜✮✢ ❛✱ ✢✯✤ ✮✙✮✲✤✩✫✤✫ ✧✜✬✤✦ ✢✯✤ ✬✤✮✢❛✬✜✩✪ ✢❛✬❸✙✤

✜✮ ✲✬❛✲❛✬✢✜❛✩✚✛ ✢❛ ❼✦ ✤❸✙✚✛ ✢❛ ❽❾❿ ➀✯✤✬✤ ❽ ✜✮ ✢✯✤

✬✤✮✢❛✬✜✩✪ ★❛✙✲✛✤ ✲✤✬ ✙✩✜✢ ✚✩✪✛✤ ❛✱ ✢✧✜✮✢❡ ❽ ★✚✩ ❇✤

✳✤✚✮✙✬✤✫ ✜✩✫✤✲✤✩✫✤✩✢✛✥ ✤❡✪❡ ❇✥ ✚✲✲✛✥✜✩✪ ✚

➁✩❛✧✩ ✢❛✬❸✙✤ ✚✩✫✳✤✚✮✙✬✜✩✪ ✢✯✤ ✚✩✪✛✤ ❛✱ ✢✧✜✮✢❡

✴✯✤ ✪✬✚✣✜✢✚✢✜❛✩✚✛ ✱❛✬★✤ ❇✤✢✧✤✤✩ ✢✯✤ ✮✲✯✤✬✜★✚✛

❇✚✛✛✮ ✜✮ ✢✯✤ ✮✚✳✤ ✚✮ ✜✱ ✢✯✤✜✬ ✳✚✮✮✤✮ ✚✬✤

★❛✩★✤✩✢✬✚✢✤✫ ✚✢ ✢✯✤✜✬ ★✤✩✢✤✬✮❡ ✴✯✙✮ ✜✱ ✫ ✜✮ ✢✯✤

✮✤✲✚✬✚✢✜❛✩ ❇✤✢✧✤✤✩ ✢✯✤ ★✤✩✢✤✬✮ ❛✱ ✢✯✤ ❇✜✪ ✚✩✫

✜✢✮ ✩✤✜✪✯❇❛✙✬✜✩✪ ✮✳✚✛✛ ❇✚✛✛✦ ➂ ✚✩✫ ✳ ✢✯✤✜✬

✳✚✮✮✤✮✦ ✢✯✤ ✪✬✚✣✜✢✚✢✜❛✩✚✛ ✱❛✬★✤ ❇✤✢✧✤✤✩ ✢✯✤ ❇✜✪

✮✲✯✤✬✤ ✚✩✫ ✜✢✮ ✩✤✜✪✯❛✙✬✜✩✪ ✮✳✚✛✛ ❇✚✛✛ ✜✮❡

➃➄➅

➆ ➇➈

➉ ✭❏❡❑✟

❻✱ ➊ ✜✮ ✢✯✤ ✛✤✩✪✢✯ ❛✱ ✢✯✤ ❇✚✬ ❶❷ ✦ ✢✯✤✩ ✢✯✤

✢❛✬❸✙✤ ✚✬✜✮✜✩✪ ❛✙✢ ❛✱ ➋ ✜✮ ➋ ✳✙✛✢✜✲✛✜✤✫ ❇✥ ➊❡ ❶✢

✤❸✙✜✛✜❇✬✜✙✳✦ ✢✯✜✮ ✜✮ ✤❸✙✚✛ ✢❛ ✢✯✤ ✬✤✮✢❛✬✜✩✪ ✢❛✬❸✙✤

✚✩✫ ✯✤✩★✤

➃➄➅

➇ ➌➈

➍ ➎➉ ✭❏❡❍✟

➏❇✮✤✬✣✚✢✜❛✩ ❛✱ ❼ ✢✯✙✮ ✤✩✚❇✛✤✮ ❛✩✤ ✢❛

★✚✛★✙✛✚✢✤ ❄ ✱✬❛✳ ✢✯✜✮ ✤❸✙✚✢✜❛✩❡

➐✜✩★✤ ❊✚✣✤✩✫✜✮✯➑✮ ✤❈✲✤✬✜✳✤✩✢✦ ✢✯✤

✳✤✚✮✙✬✤✳✤✩✢ ❛✱ ❄ ✯✚✮ ❇✤✤✩ ✬✤✱✜✩✤✫ ✚✩✫ ✢✯✤

★✙✬✬✤✩✢✛✥ ✚★★✤✲✢✤✫ ✣✚✛✙✤ ✜✮

➒ ➓ ❑❡❑❍➔❋→➣↔↔ ↕ ✳➙➛➁✪➙ ✭❏❡❏✟

✽♦➜ ✻❂❂✸❁✸✺✻❚✾✿❀ ➝➞✸ ❚✿ ✹✺✻✼✾❚➟ ✿➠

❚✷✸ ✸✻✺❚✷

✴✯✤ ✤✚✬✢✯ ★✚✩ ❇✤ ✜✳✚✪✜✩✤✫ ✢❛ ❇✤ ✚ ✮✲✯✤✬✤ ✳✚✫✤

❛✱ ✚ ✛✚✬✪✤ ✩✙✳❇✤✬ ❛✱ ★❛✩★✤✩✢✬✜★ ✮✲✯✤✬✜★✚✛ ✮✯✤✛✛✮

✧✜✢✯ ✢✯✤ ✮✳✚✛✛✤✮✢ ❛✩✤ ✚✢ ✢✯✤ ★✤✩✢✬✤ ✚✩✫ ✢✯✤

✛✚✬✪✤✮✢ ❛✩✤ ✚✢ ✜✢✮ ✮✙✬✱✚★✤❡ ❶ ✲❛✜✩✢ ❛✙✢✮✜✫✤ ✢✯✤

✤✚✬✢✯ ✜✮ ❛❇✣✜❛✙✮✛✥ ❛✙✢✮✜✫✤ ✚✛✛ ✢✯✤ ✮✯✤✛✛✮❡ ✴✯✙✮✦

✚✛✛ ✢✯✤ ✮✯✤✛✛✮ ✤❈✤✬✢ ✚ ✪✬✚✣✜✢✚✢✜❛✩✚✛ ✱❛✬★✤ ✚✢ ✢✯✤

✲❛✜✩✢ ❛✙✢✮✜✫✤ ➡✙✮✢ ✚✮ ✜✱ ✢✯✤✜✬ ✳✚✮✮✤✮ ✚✬✤

★❛✩★✤✩✢✬✚✢✤✫ ✚✢ ✢✯✤✜✬ ★❛✳✳❛✩ ★✤✩✢✬✤ ✚★★❛✬✫✜✩✪

✢❛ ✢✯✤ ✬✤✮✙✛✢ ✮✢✚✢✤✫ ✜✩ ✢✯✤ ✛✚✮✢ ✮✤★✢✜❛✩❡ ✴✯✤ ✢❛✢✚✛

✳✚✮✮ ❛✱ ✚✛✛ ✢✯✤ ✮✯✤✛✛✮ ★❛✳❇✜✩✤✫ ✜✮ ➡✙✮✢ ✢✯✤ ✳✚✮✮

❛✱ ✢✯✤ ✤✚✬✢✯❡ ❉✤✩★✤✦ ✚✢ ✚ ✲❛✜✩✢ ❛✙✢✮✜✫✤ ✢✯✤ ✤✚✬✢✯✦

✢✯✤ ✪✬✚✣✜✢✚✢✜❛✩✚✛ ✱❛✬★✤ ✜✮ ➡✙✮✢ ✚✮ ✜✱ ✜✢✮ ✤✩✢✜✬✤ ✳✚✮✮

❛✱ ✢✯✤ ✤✚✬✢✯ ✜✮ ★❛✩★✤✩✢✬✚✢✤✫ ✚✢ ✜✢✮ ★✤✩✢✤✬❡

❹❛✬ ✚ ✲❛✜✩✢ ✜✩✮✜✫✤ ✢✯✤ ✤✚✬✢✯✦ ✢✯✤ ✮✜✢✙✚✢✜❛✩

✜✮ ✫✜✱✱✤✬✤✩✢❡ ✴✯✜✮ ✜✮ ✜✛✛✙✮✢✬✚✢✤✫ ✜✩ ❹✜✪❡ ❏❡❍❡

Page 194: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❋✞✟✠ ✡✠☛ ❚☞✌ ✍✎✏✏ ✍ ✑✏ ✑✒ ✎ ✍✑✒✌ ✓✔✕✎✖✌✗ ✎✖ ✎ ✗✌✘✖☞✗ ❞✌✓✔✙ ✖☞✌ ✏✚✛✜✎✕✌ ✔✜ ✖☞✌ ✢✎✛✖☞ ✔✜ ✍✎✏✏▼❊ ✎✒✗ ✛✎✗✑✚✏ ✥❊✳ ✣✌ ✖✛✌✎✖ ✖☞✌ ✢✎✛✖☞ ✖✔ ❞✌✏✘☞✌✛✑✕✎✓✓s ✏s✍✍✌✖✛✑✕✳

❆✤✦✧★ ✩✪★✫✧✬✭✮ ✯✰✭ ✭✦✮✯✰ ✯✪ ✱✭ ✲✦✬✭ ✴✵ ✪✷✩✪★✩✭★✯✮✧✩ ✫✰✭❝❝✫ ✦✫ ✱✭✷✪✮✭ ✦★✬ ✦ ✵✪✧★✯ ✲✦✫✫ ✲✫✧✯✴✦✯✭✬ ✦✯ ✦ ✬✧✫✯✦★✩✭ ✮ ✷✮✪✲ ✯✰✭ ✩✭★✯✮✭❡ ✸✰✭✵✪✧★✯ ♣ ❝✧✭✫ ✪✴✯✫✧✬✭ ✯✰✭ ✫✵✰✭✮✭ ✪✷ ✮✦✬✧✴✫ ✮❡ ✹✪✮✯✰✭ ✫✰✭❝❝✫ ✪✷ ✮✦✬✧✴✫ ✤✮✭✦✯✭✮ ✯✰✦★ ✮✺ ✯✰✭ ✵✪✧★✯ ♣❝✧✭✫ ✧★✫✧✬✭❡ ❧✭★✩✭ ✦✩✩✪✮✬✧★✤ ✯✪ ✮✭✫✴❝✯ ✫✯✦✯✭✬ ✧★✯✰✭ ❝✦✫✯ ✫✭✩✯✧✪★✺ ✯✰✭t ✭✻✭✮✯ ★✪ ✤✮✦✼✧✯✦✯✧✪★✦❝ ✷✪✮✩✭

✪★ ✲✦✫✫ ♠ ✽✭✵✯ ✦✯ ♣❡ ✸✰✭ ✫✰✭❝❝✫ ✾✧✯✰ ✮✦✬✧✴✫ ✿ ✮

✲✦✽✭ ✴✵ ✦ ✫✵✰✭✮✭ ✪✷ ✮✦✬✧✴✫ ✮ ✷✪✮ ✾✰✧✩✰ ✯✰✭ ✵✪✧★✯

♣ ❝✧✭✫ ✪★ ✯✰✭ ✫✴✮✷✦✩✭❡ ✸✰✧✫ ✫✲✦❝❝✭✮ ✫✵✰✭✮✭✯✰✭✮✭✷✪✮✭ ✭✻✭✮✯✫ ✦ ✷✪✮✩✭ ✪★ ✦ ✲✦✫✫ ✲ ✦✯ ♣ ✦✫ ✧✷✧✯✫ ✲✦✫✫ ♠r ✧✫ ✩✪★✩✭★✯✮✦✯✭✬ ✦✯ ✯✰✭ ✩✭★✯✭✮❡ ✸✰✴✫✯✰✭ ✷✪✮✩✭ ✪★ ✯✰✭ ✲✦✫✫ ✲ ✦✯ ♣ ✰✦✫ ✦ ✲✦✤★✧✯✴✬✭

❀❁❂❃ ❄

●❇❈ ❉ ❍■❡❏❑

❲✭ ✦✫✫✴✲✭ ✯✰✦✯ ✯✰✭ ✭★✯✧✮✭ ✭✦✮✯✰ ✧✫ ✪✷ ✴★✧✷✪✮✲

✬✭★✫✧✯t ✦★✬ ✰✭★✩✭ ✧✯✫ ✲✦✫✫ ✧✫▲

◆❖

◗❘❙ ❯

❱❳❉

✾✰✭✮✭ ❨❩✧✫ ✯✰✭✲✦✫✫ ✪✷ ✯✰✭ ✭✦✮✯✰ ❬❩ ✧✫ ✧✯✫ ✮✦✬✧✴✫

✦★✬ ❭ ✧✫ ✯✰✭ ✬✭★✫✧✯t❡ ❪★ ✯✰✭ ✪✯✰✭✮ ✰✦★✬ ✯✰✭

✲✦✫✫ ✪✷ ✯✰✭ ✫✵✰✭✮✭ ❨r✪✷ ✮✦✬✧✴✫ ❫ ✧✫▲❖

◗❴

❱❳ ✦★✬

✰✭★✩✭▲▲

❁ ▲ ❁❖

◗❘

❙ ❴❴❈ ●❇ ●❇

❴ ❯ ❴

❱❳

❵ ❛❵ ❛❉ ❉❜ ❢ ❜ ❢❣ ❤ ❣ ❤

◆▲❘

●❇ ❙❴

❯❉ ❍■❡✐❥❑

❦✷ ✯✰✭ ✲✦✫✫ ✲ ✧✫ ✫✧✯✴✦✯✭✬ ✪★ ✯✰✭ ✫✴✮✷✦✩✭ ✪✷✭✦✮✯✰✺ ✯✰✭★ ✮ ♥ ♦q ✦★✬ ✯✰✭ ✤✮✦✼✧✯✦✯✧✪★✦❝ ✷✪✮✩✭✪★ ✧✯ ✧✫✺ ✷✮✪✲ ✉✈❡ ❍■❡✐❥❑

❁❘

❙ ❇❈ ●

❯❉ ❍■❡✐✐❑

✸✰✭ ✦✩✩✭❝✭✮✦✯✧✪★ ✭✻✵✭✮✧✭★✩✭✬ ✱t ✯✰✭ ✲✦✫✫

✲✺ ✾✰✧✩✰ ✧✫ ✴✫✴✦❝❝t ✬✭★✪✯✭✬ ✱t ✯✰✭ ✫t✲✱✪❝ ✇ ✧✫

✮✭❝✦✯✭✬ ✯✪ ✹ ✱t ①✭✾✯✪★②✫ ③④⑤ ❝✦✾ ✱t ✮✭❝✦✯✧✪★

✹ ♥ ✲✇❡ ✸✰✴✫

❁❘

●❙❈⑥

❇ ❯❉ ❉ ❍■❡✐③❑

❆✩✩✭❝✭✮✦✯✧✪★ ✇ ✧✫ ✮✭✦✬✧❝t✲✭✦✫✴✮✦✱❝✭❡ ♦q ✧✫ ✦

✽★✪✾★ ✈✴✦★✯✧✯t❡ ✸✰✭ ✲✭✦✫✴✮✭✲✭★✯ ✪✷ ⑦ ✱t

⑧✦✼✭★✬✧✫✰②✫ ✭✻✵✭✮✧✲✭★✯ ❍✪✮ ✪✯✰✭✮✾✧✫✭❑✺ ✩✪✲✱✧★✭✬

✾✧✯✰ ✽★✪✾❝✭✬✤✭ ✪✷ ✇ ✦★✬ ❬❩ ✭★✦✱❝✭✫ ✪★✭ ✯✪

✭✫✯✧✲✦✯✭ ⑨q ✷✮✪✲ ✉✈❡ ❍■❡✐③❑❡ ✸✰✧✫ ✧✫ ✯✰✭ ✮✭✦✫✪★

✾✰t ✯✰✭✮✭ ✧✫ ✦ ✵✪✵✴❝✦✮ ✫✯✦✯✭✲✭★✯ ✮✭✤✦✮✬✧★✤

⑧✦✼✭★✬✧✫✰ ⑩ ❶⑧✦✼✭★✬✧✫✰ ✾✭✧✤✰✭✬ ✯✰✭ ✭✦✮✯✰❷❡

❸❹❺ ❻❼❼❽❾❽❿❻➀➁➂➃ ➄➅❽ ➀➂ ➆❿❻➇➁➀➈

➉❽❾➂➊ ❻➃➄ ❻➉➂➇❽ ➀➋❽ ➌➅❿➍❻❼❽ ➂➍

❽❻❿➀➋

⑧✪★✫✧✬✭✮ ✦ ✵✪✧★✯ ✲✦✫✫ ♠ ✦✯ ✦ ✰✭✧✤✰✯ ➎ ✦✱✪✼✭ ✯✰✭

✫✴✮✷✦✩✭ ✪✷ ✯✰✭ ✭✦✮✯✰ ✦✫ ✫✰✪✾★ ✧★ ✹✧✤❡ ■❡■❍✦❑❡ ✸✰✭

✮✦✬✧✴✫ ✪✷ ✯✰✭ ✭✦✮✯✰ ✧✫ ✬✭★✪✯✭✬ ✱t ❬❩ ➏ ➐✧★✩✭ ✯✰✧✫

✵✪✧★✯ ✧✫ ✪✴✯✫✧✬✭ ✯✰✭ ✭✦✮✯✰✺

❋✞✟✠ ✡✠✡ ➑➒➓ ➔ ✎✖ ✎ ☞✌✑➔☞✖ ☞ ✎❞✔→✌ ✖☞✌ ✏✚✛✜✎✕✌ ✔✜ ✖☞✌✌✎✛✖☞✳

✧✯✫ ✬✧✫✯✦★✩✭ ✷✮✪✲ ✯✰✭ ✩✭★✯✮✭ ✪✷ ✯✰✭ ✭✦✮✯✰ ✧✫ ❍❬❩ ➣

➎ ❑❡ ❦✷ ↔ ❍➎❑ ✬✭★✪✯✭✬ ✯✰✭✲✦✤★✧✯✴✬✭ ✪✷ ✯✰✭ ✷✪✮✩✭

✪★ ✯✰✭ ✵✪✧★✯ ✲✦✫✫ ♠ ✺ ✾✭ ✤✭✯ ✷✮✪✲ ✉✈❡ ❍■❡↕❑ ⑩

❁❂ ❄❂ ❄

●❙ ❇❈ ➙

❯ ➙❉

➛ ❍■❡✐➜❑

✸✰✭ ✦✩✩✭❝✭✮✦✯✧✪★ ✭✻✵✭✮✧✭★✩✭✬ ✱t ✯✰✭ ✵✪✧★✯

✲✦✫✫ ✧✫ ❂ ❄➝ ❂ ❄❈ ➙ ❇ ⑥ ➙➞ ✦★✬ ✾✭ ✤✭✯

Page 195: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

●�✁❱✂✄✁✄✂❆☎ ✶✆✶

✷✭ ✝

✭ ✝ ✳✭ ✝

✞✟❋ ✠❣ ✠

♠ ❘ ✠❂ ❂

✰ ✡☛☞✌✍✎

❚✏✑✒ ✑✒ ✓✔✕✖✗✔✘ ✔✕✒✒ ✙✏✖✚ ✙✏✕ ✛✖✔✜✕ ✢✣ ✤ ✢✚ ✙✏✕

✒✜✗✣✖✓✕ ✢✣ ✕✖✗✙✏ ❢ ✷ ✳❊

✞✟❣

❘❂ ✥✢✗ ✱✦❤ ✧❁❁ ✇✕ ✓✖✚

✕❡★✖✚✩ ✙✏✕ ✪✫✬ ✢✣ ✮✯☞ ✡☛☞✌✍✎ ❢

✲ ✴✵

✵ ✵✸ ✹ ✺ ✻✸✺ ✻ ✹

✼✼ ✼

✽✾✿ ❀ ✿ ❀ ❃

❃ ❀ ❃

❾❄ ❄ ❅

✥✢✗ ❇✦

✧❁❁ ❈ ✜✒✑✚✤ ❉✑✚✢❍✑✖✔ ✕❡★✗✕✒✒✑✢✚❈

■ ❏❑

▲▼

◆❖ ◆ ❖

P

◗ ❙❯ ❲❳ ❨❩ ❬

☞ ✡☛☞✌❭✎

✮✯✜✖✙✑✢✚ ✡☛☞✌❭✎ ✙✏✜✒ ✙✕✔✔✒ ✜✒ ✙✏✖✙ ✣✢✗ ✒❍✖✔✔✏✕✑✤✏✙✒ ✏ ✖❉✢✛✕ ✙✏✕ ✛✖✔✜✕ ✢✣ ✤ ✩✕✓✗✕✖✒✕✒ ❉✘ ✖

✣✖✓✙✢✗ ❪❇ ❫ ❴ ❵❛✦❤ ✧❜

❝✢✇❈ ✓✢✚✒✑✩✕✗ ✖ ★✢✑✚✙ ❍✖✒✒ ❞ ✖✙ ✖ ✩✕★✙✏ ✐❉✕✔✢✇ ✙✏✕ ✒✜✗✣✖✓✕ ✢✣ ✙✏✕ ✕✖✗✙✏ ✡✥✑✤☞ ☛☞☛✡❉✎✎❈ ✒✢✙✏✖✙ ✑✙✒ ✩✑✒✙✖✚✓✕ ✣✗✢❍ ✙✏✕ ✓✕✚✙✕✗ ✢✣ ✙✏✕ ✕✖✗✙✏ ✑✒

❪ ❵✦✧ ❥❜ ✖✒ ✒✏✢✇✚ ✑✚ ✙✏✕ ✣✑✤✜✗✕☞ ❚✏✕ ✕✖✗✙✏ ✓✖✚

❉✕ ✙✏✢✜✤✏✙ ✢✣ ✖✒ ❉✕✑✚✤ ✓✢❍★✢✒✕✩ ✢✣ ✖ ✒❍✖✔✔✕✗✒★✏✕✗✕ ✢✣ ✗✖✩✑✜✒ ✡❦❧ ♥ ✐ ✎ ✖✚✩ ✖ ✒★✏✕✗✑✓✖✔ ✒✏✕✔✔✢✣ ✙✏✑✓♦✚✕✒✒ ✐☞ ❚✏✕ ✣✢✗✓✕ ✢✚ ❍ ✩✜✕ ✙✢ ✙✏✕ ✢✜✙✕✗✒✏✕✔✔ ✢✣ ✙✏✑✓♦✚✕✒✒ ✩ ✑✒ s✕✗✢ ❉✕✓✖✜✒✕ ✙✏✕ ✗✕✒✜✔✙✯✜✢✙✕✩ ✑✚ ✙✏✕ ★✗✕✛✑✢✜✒ ✒✕✓✙✑✢✚☞ ♣✒ ✣✖✗ ✖✒ ✙✏✕✒❍✖✔✔✕✗ ✒★✏✕✗✕ ✢✣ ✗✖✩✑✜✒ ✡ ❦❧ ♥ ✐ ✎ ✑✒ ✓✢✚✓✕✗✚✕✩❈

✙✏✕ ★✢✑✚✙ ❍✖✒✒ ✑✒ ✢✜✙✒✑✩✕ ✑✙ ✖✚✩ ✏✕✚✓✕ ✖✓✓✢✗✩✑✚✤✙✢ ✙✏✕ ✗✕✒✜✔✙ ✯✜✢✙✕✩ ✕✖✗✔✑✕✗❈ ✙✏✕ ✣✢✗✓✕ ✩✜✕ ✙✢ ✙✏✑✒✒❍✖✔✔✕✗ ✒★✏✕✗✕ ✑✒ q✜✒✙ ✖✒ ✑✣ ✙✏✕ ✕✚✙✑✗✕ ❍✖✒✒ ✢✣✙✏✕ ✒❍✖✔✔✕✗ ✒★✏✕✗✕ ✑✒ ✓✢✚✓✕✚✙✗✖✙✕✩ ✖✙ ✙✏✕ ✓✕✚✙✗✕☞

r✣ t✉ ✑✒ ✙✏✕ ❍✖✒✒ ✢✣ ✙✏✕ ✒❍✖✔✔✕✗ ✒★✏✕✗✕❈ ✙✏✕✚❈

t✉ ✈ t❧ ① ② ❦❧ ③ ✩ ✎ ④ ⑤ ❦❧④ ✡ ☛☞✌⑥✎

✬✑✚✓✕ ❍✖✒✒ ✢✣ ✖ ✒★✏✕✗✕ ✑✒ ★✗✢★✢✗✙✑✢✚✖✔ ✙✢ ❉✕✓✜❉✕ ✢✣ ✑✙✒ ✗✖✩✑✜✒☞

⑦⑧⑨⑩ ❶⑩❶ ❷❸❹ ❺ ❻❼ ❻ ❽❿➀❼➁ ❽➂ ➃➄ ❼➁➅➆ ➇❻➆❿ ➈➄➉➊ ❼➁❿➆➋❻➉➉❿➌ ➆➀➁❿➌❿ ➈➍ ➌❻❽➅➎➆ ➏➐➑➒❽➓➇➈➄❼➌➅➔➎❼❿➆ ❼➈ ❺➂

❚✏✜✒ ✙✏✕ ✣✢✗✓✕ ✢✚ ✙✏✕ ★✢✑✚✙ ❍✖✒✒ ✑✒

→ ✡✐✎ ➣ ↔ t✉ ❞ ⑤ ✡❦❧ ♥ ✐ ✎ ↕ ✡☛☞✌➙✎

✬✜❉✒✙✑✙✜✙✑✚✤ ✣✢✗ ➛➜ ✣✗✢❍ ✖❉✢✛✕ ❈ ✇✕ ✤✕✙

→ ✡✐✎ ➣ ↔ t❧ ❞ ✡ ❦❧ ♥ ✐ ✎ ⑤ ❦❧④ ✡☛☞✌☛✎

✖✚✩ ✏✕✚✓✕ ✙✏✕ ✖✓✓✕✔✕✗✖✙✑✢✚ ✩✜✕ ✙✢ ✤✗✖✛✑✙✘ ✖✙✖ ✩✕★✙✏ ✐❈

➝✡✐✎ ➣❪ ❵➞ ❥

➟✑✒

➠❪ ❵

❪ ❵ ❪ ❵✦✦

➡➢➞ ❥➤ ❥ ✧ ❥

➟ ✧➥ ➥ ❜

❪❇ ❴ ❵✦✦

✧ ❥➤ ➤ ❥ ✧

❜➥ ➥ ❜ ✡☛☞✌➦✎

❚✏✜✒❈ ✖✒ ✇✕ ✤✢ ✩✢✇✚ ❉✕✔✢✇ ✕✖✗✙✏➧✒ ✒✜✗✣✖✓✕❈

✙✏✕ ✖✓✓✕✔✕✗✖✙✑✢✚ ✩✜✕ ✤✗✖✛✑✙✘ ✩✕✓✗✕✖✒✕✒ ❉✘ ✖ ✣✖✓✙✢✗

❪❇ ❴ ❵❛✦❥ ✧❜ ❚✏✕ ✗✕❍✖✗♦✖❉✔✕ ✙✏✑✚✤ ✖❉✢✜✙

✖✓✓✕✔✕✗✖✙✑✢✚ ✩✜✕ ✙✢ ✕✖✗✙✏➧✒ ✤✗✖✛✑✙✘ ✑✒ ✙✏✖✙ ✑✙ ✑✒❍✖❡✑❍✜❍ ✢✚ ✑✙✒ ✒✜✗✣✖✓✕ ✩✕✓✗✕✖✒✑✚✤✇✏✕✙✏✕✗ ✘✢✜✤✢ ✜★ ✢✗ ✩✢✇✚☞

➨➩➫ ➭➯➲➳➵➸➲➸➵➺➻➲➼ ➽➺➸➾➻➸➵➲➼ ➾➻➾➯➭➚

➪✕ ✏✖✩ ✩✑✒✓✜✒✒✕✩ ✕✖✗✔✑✕✗ ✙✏✕ ✚✢✙✑✢✚ ✢✣ ★✢✙✕✚✙✑✖✔

✕✚✕✗✤✘ ✖✒ ❉✕✑✚✤ ✙✏✕ ✕✚✕✗✤✘ ✒✙✢✗✕✩ ✑✚ ✙✏✕ ❉✢✩✘ ✖✙

✑✙✒ ✤✑✛✕✚ ★✢✒✑✙✑✢✚☞ r✣ ✙✏✕ ★✢✒✑✙✑✢✚ ✢✣ ✙✏✕ ★✖✗✙✑✓✔✕

✓✏✖✚✤✕✒ ✢✚ ✖✓✓✢✜✚✙ ✢✣ ✣✢✗✓✕✒ ✖✓✙✑✚✤ ✢✚ ✑✙❈ ✙✏✕✚

✙✏✕ ✓✏✖✚✤✕ ✑✚ ✑✙✒ ★✢✙✕✚✙✑✖✔ ✕✚✕✗✤✘ ✑✒ q✜✒✙ ✙✏✕

✖❍✢✜✚✙ ✢✣ ✇✢✗♦ ✩✢✚✕ ✢✚ ✙✏✕ ❉✢✩✘ ❉✘ ✙✏✕ ✣✢✗✓✕☞

♣✒ ✇✕ ✏✖✩ ✩✑✒✓✜✒✒✕✩ ✕✖✗✔✑✕✗❈ ✣✢✗✓✕✒ ✣✢✗ ✇✏✑✓✏

✙✏✕ ✇✢✗♦ ✩✢✚✕ ✑✒ ✑✚✩✕★✕✚✩✕✚✙ ✢✣ ✙✏✕ ★✖✙✏ ✖✗✕

✙✏✕ ✓✢✚✒✕✗✛✖✙✑✛✕ ✣✢✗✓✕✒☞

❚✏✕ ✣✢✗✓✕ ✢✣ ✤✗✖✛✑✙✘ ✑✒ ✖ ✓✢✚✒✕✗✛✖✙✑✛✕ ✣✢✗✓✕

✖✚✩ ✇✕ ✓✖✚ ✓✖✔✓✜✔✖✙✕ ✙✏✕ ★✢✙✕✚✙✑✖✔ ✕✚✕✗✤✘ ✢✣ ✖

❉✢✩✘ ✖✗✑✒✑✚✤ ✢✜✙ ✢✣ ✙✏✑✒ ✣✢✗✓✕❈ ✓✖✔✔✕✩ ✙✏✕

✤✗✖✛✑✙✖✙✑✢✚✖✔ ★✢✙✕✚✙✑✖✔ ✕✚✕✗✤✘☞ ➶✢✚✒✑✩✕✗ ★✢✑✚✙✒

✓✔✢✒✕ ✙✢ ✙✏✕ ✒✜✗✣✖✓✕ ✢✣ ✕✖✗✙✏❈ ✖✙ ✩✑✒✙✖✚✓✕✒ ✣✗✢❍

✙✏✕ ✒✜✗✣✖✓✕ ❍✜✓✏ ✒❍✖✔✔✕✗ ✙✏✖✚ ✙✏✕ ✗✖✩✑✜✒ ✢✣ ✙✏✕

✕✖✗✙✏☞ r✚ ✒✜✓✏ ✓✖✒✕✒❈ ✙✏✕ ✣✢✗✓✕ ✢✣ ✤✗✖✛✑✙✘ ✑✒

★✗✖✓✙✑✓✖✔✔✘ ✖ ✓✢✚✒✙✖✚✙ ✕✯✜✖✔ ✙✢ ❍✤❈ ✩✑✗✕✓✙✕✩

✙✢✇✖✗✩✒ ✙✏✕ ✓✕✚✙✕✗ ✢✣ ✙✏✕ ✕✖✗✙✏☞ r✣ ✇✕ ✓✢✚✒✑✩✕✗

✖ ★✢✑✚✙ ✖✙ ✖ ✏✕✑✤✏✙ ➹➘ ✣✗✢❍ ✙✏✕ ✒✜✗✣✖✓✕ ✢✣ ✙✏✕

✕✖✗✙✏ ✖✚✩ ✖✚✢✙✏✕✗ ★✢✑✚✙ ✛✕✗✙✑✓✖✔✔✘ ✖❉✢✛✕ ✑✙ ✖✙ ✖

✏✕✑✤✏✙ ➹↕ ✣✗✢❍ ✙✏✕ ✒✜✗✣✖✓✕❈ ✙✏✕ ✇✢✗♦ ✩✢✚✕ ✑✚

✔✑✣✙✑✚✤ ✙✏✕ ★✖✗✙✑✓✔✕ ✢✣ ❍✖✒✒ ❍ ✣✗✢❍ ✙✏✕ ✣✑✗✒✙ ✙✢

✙✏✕ ✒✕✓✢✚✩ ★✢✒✑✙✑✢✚ ✑✒ ✩✕✚✢✙✕✩ ❉✘ ➴➘↕➴➘↕ ➣ ✥✢✗✓✕ ➷ ✩✑✒★✔✖✓✕❍✕✚✙

➣ ❞➝ ✡➹↕ ♥ ➹➘✎ ✡☛☞➬➮✎

Page 196: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

■✟ ✠✡ ☛☞☞✌✍✎☛✏✡ ☛ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ❲✭❤✮ ☛✏ ☛✑✌✎✒✏ ☛✏ ☛ ♣✡✎✕♣✏ ❤ ☛✥✌✗✡ ✏♣✡ ☞✘✔✟☛✍✡ ☞✘✍♣ ✏♣☛✏

❲✭❤✮ ✙ ♠✚❤ ✛ ❲♦ ✭✜✢✣✤✮✭✠♣✡✔✡ ❲♦ ✙ ✍✌✒☞✏☛✒✏✮ ✦✏♣✡✒ ✎✏ ✎☞ ✍✓✡☛✔ ✏♣☛✏

❲✧★ ✙ ❲✭❤★✮ ✩ ❲✭❤✧✮ ✭✜✢✣✣✮❚♣✡ ✠✌✔✪ ✫✌✒✡ ✎✒ ✬✌✗✎✒✕ ✏♣✡ ✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡ ✎☞ ✯✘☞✏

✏♣✡ ✫✎✟✟✡✔✡✒✍✡ ✌✟ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ✥✡✏✠✡✡✒ ✎✏☞✟✎✒☛✓ ☛✒✫ ✎✒✎✏✎☛✓ ✑✌☞✎✏✎✌✒☞✢❢✥☞✡✔✗✡ ✏♣☛✏ ✏♣✡✍✌✒☞✏☛✒✏ ❲♦ ✍☛✒✍✡✓☞ ✌✘✏ ✎✒ ✰✱✢ ✭✜✢✣✣✮✢ ✲✡✏✏✎✒✕❤ ✙ ✳ ✎✒ ✏♣✡ ✓☛☞✏ ✡✱✘☛✏✎✌✒✴ ✠✡ ✕✡✏ ❲ ✭ ❤ ✙ ✳ ✮ ✙❲♦✵ ✢ ❤ ✙ ✳ ✬✡☛✒☞ ✑✌✎✒✏☞ ✌✒ ✏♣✡ ☞✘✔✟☛✍✡ ✌✟ ✏♣✡✡☛✔✏♣✢ ❚♣✘☞✴ ❲♦ ✎☞ ✏♣✡ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ✌✒ ✏♣✡☞✘✔✟☛✍✡ ✌✟ ✏♣✡ ✡☛✔✏♣✢

■✟ ✠✡ ✍✌✒☞✎✫✡✔ ✑✌✎✒✏☞ ☛✏ ☛✔✥✎✏✔☛✔✖ ✫✎☞✏☛✒✍✡✟✔✌✬ ✏♣✡ ☞✘✔✟☛✍✡ ✌✟ ✏♣✡ ✡☛✔✏♣✴ ✏♣✡ ✔✡☞✘✓✏ ✯✘☞✏✫✡✔✎✗✡✫ ✎☞ ✒✌✏ ✗☛✓✎✫ ☞✎✒✍✡ ✏♣✡ ☛☞☞✘✬✑✏✎✌✒ ✏♣☛✏✏♣✡ ✕✔☛✗✎✏☛✏✎✌✒☛✓ ✟✌✔✍✡ ✬✕ ✎☞ ☛ ✍✌✒☞✏☛✒✏ ✎☞ ✒✌✓✌✒✕✡✔ ✗☛✓✎✫✢ ❧✌✠✡✗✡✔✴ ✟✔✌✬ ✌✘✔ ✫✎☞✍✘☞☞✎✌✒ ✠✡✪✒✌✠ ✏♣☛✏ ☛ ✑✌✎✒✏ ✌✘✏☞✎✫✡ ✏♣✡ ✡☛✔✏♣✴ ✏♣✡ ✟✌✔✍✡ ✌✟✕✔☛✗✎✏☛✏✎✌✒ ✌✒ ☛ ✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡ ✫✎✔✡✍✏✡✫ ✏✌✠☛✔✫☞ ✏♣✡✍✡✒✏✡✔ ✌✟ ✏♣✡ ✡☛✔✏♣ ✎☞

✷❊●✸ ✹❋r

❂ ✭✜✢✣✺✮

✠♣✡✔✡ ▼✻ ✙ ✬☛☞☞ ✌✟ ✡☛✔✏♣✴ ♠ ✙ ✬☛☞☞ ✌✟ ✏♣✡✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡ ☛✒✫ ✼ ✎✏☞ ✫✎☞✏☛✒✍✡ ✟✔✌✬ ✏♣✡ ✍✡✒✏✡✔ ✌✟ ✏♣✡✡☛✔✏♣✢ ■✟ ✠✡ ✒✌✠ ✍☛✓✍✘✓☛✏✡ ✏♣✡ ✠✌✔✪ ✫✌✒✡ ✎✒✓✎✟✏✎✒✕ ☛ ✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡ ✟✔✌✬ ✼ ✙ ✼✧ ✏✌ ✼ ✙ ✼★ ✭✼★ ✽ ✼✧✮ ☛✓✌✒✕☛ ✗✡✔✏✎✍☛✓ ✑☛✏♣✴ ✠✡ ✕✡✏ ✎✒☞✏✡☛✫ ✌✟ ✰✱✢ ✭✜✢✣✳✮

✾✿❀❁ ❁ ❞❃❃❄ ❅❆❇ ❈❈

❉ ❍

❏❑ ▲◆ ◆❖ ◗ ❘❙ ❙❯ ❱

❳ ❨ ❨❩ ❬❭ ❪ ✭✜✢✣❫✮

■✒ ✑✓☛✍✡ ✌✟ ✰✱✢ ✭✜✢✣✤✮✴ ✠✡ ✍☛✒ ✏♣✘☞ ☛☞☞✌✍✎☛✏✡☛ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ❲✭✼✮ ☛✏ ☛ ✫✎☞✏☛✒✍✡ ✼✴ ☞✘✍♣ ✏♣☛✏

❴ ❵❛ ❜ ❝● ✸ ✹❡ r ❡r

❂❣ ✐ ✭✜✢✣❥✮

✗☛✓✎✫ ✟✌✔ ✼ ✽ ❦ ✴☞✌ ✏♣☛✏ ✌✒✍✡ ☛✕☛✎✒ ❲✧★ ✙ ❲✭✼★✮ ✩ ❲✭✼✧✮✢

✲✡✏✏✎✒✕ ✼ ✙ ✎✒✟✎✒✎✏✖ ✎✒ ✏♣✡ ✓☛☞✏ ✡✱✘☛✏✎✌✒✴ ✠✡ ✕✡✏♥ ✭ ✼ ✙ ✎✒✟✎✒✎✏✖ ✮ ✙ ❲✧ ✢ ❚♣✘☞✴ ❲✧ ✎☞ ✏♣✡✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ☛✏ ✎✒✟✎✒✎✏✖✢ ❢✒✡ ☞♣✌✘✓✫ ✒✌✏✡ ✏♣☛✏✌✒✓✖ ✏♣✡ ✫✎✟✟✡✔✡✒✍✡ ✌✟ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ✥✡✏✠✡✡✒✏✠✌ ✑✌✎✒✏☞ ♣☛☞ ☛ ✫✡✟✎✒✎✏✡ ✬✡☛✒✎✒✕ ✟✔✌✬ ✰✱☞✢✭✜✢✣✣✮ ☛✒✫ ✭✜✢✣❫✮✢ ❢✒✡ ✍✌✒✗✡✒✏✎✌✒☛✓✓✖ ☞✡✏☞ ❲✧✡✱✘☛✓ ✏✌ q✡✔✌✴ ☞✌ ✏♣☛✏ ✏♣✡ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ☛✏ ☛✑✌✎✒✏ ✎☞ ✯✘☞✏ ✏♣✡ ☛✬✌✘✒✏ ✌✟ ✠✌✔✪ ✫✌✒✡ ✎✒✫✎☞✑✓☛✍✎✒✕ ✏♣✡ ✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡ ✟✔✌✬ ✎✒✟✎✒✎✏✖ ✏✌ ✏♣☛✏ ✑✌✎✒✏✢

♥✡ ♣☛✗✡ ✍☛✓✍✘✓☛✏✡✫ ✏♣✡ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ☛✏☛ ✑✌✎✒✏ ✌✟ ☛ ✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡ ✫✘✡ ✏✌ ✕✔☛✗✎✏☛✏✎✌✒☛✓ ✟✌✔✍✡☞✌✒ ✎✏ ✫✘✡ ✏✌ ✏♣✡ ✡☛✔✏♣ ☛✒✫ ✎✏ ✎☞ ✑✔✌✑✌✔✏✎✌✒☛✓ ✏✌✏♣✡ ✬☛☞☞ ✌✟ ✏♣✡ ✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡✢ ❚♣✡ ✕✔☛✗✎✏☛✏✎✌✒☛✓✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✫✘✡ ✏✌ ✏♣✡ ✕✔☛✗✎✏☛✏✎✌✒☛✓ ✟✌✔✍✡ ✌✟ ✏♣✡✡☛✔✏♣ ✎☞ ✫✡✟✎✒✡✫ ☛☞ ✏♣✡ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ✌✟ ☛✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡ ✌✟ ✘✒✎✏ ✬☛☞☞ ☛✏ ✏♣☛✏ ✑✌✎✒✏✢ s✔✌✬ ✏♣✡✡☛✔✓✎✡✔ ✫✎☞✍✘☞☞✎✌✒✴ ✠✡ ✓✡☛✔✒ ✏♣☛✏ ✏♣✡ ✕✔☛✗✎✏☛✏✎✌✒☛✓✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ☛☞☞✌✍✎☛✏✡✫ ✠✎✏♣ ✏✠✌ ✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡☞✌✟ ✬☛☞☞✡☞ ♠✧ ☛✒✫ ♠★ ☞✡✑☛✔☛✏✡✫ ✥✖ ✫✎☞✏☛✒✍✡ ✥✖ ☛✫✎☞✏☛✒✍✡ ✼ ✎☞ ✕✎✗✡✒ ✥✖

t ✉➊ ❄❆ ❆✈❈

❉ ✭✎✟ ✠✡ ✍♣✌✌☞✡ ✇ ✙ ✳ ☛☞ ✼ ①② ✮

■✏ ☞♣✌✘✓✫ ✥✡ ✒✌✏✡✫ ✏♣☛✏ ☛✒ ✎☞✌✓☛✏✡✫ ☞✖☞✏✡✬✌✟ ✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡☞ ✠✎✓✓ ♣☛✗✡ ✏♣✡ ✏✌✏☛✓ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖✏♣☛✏ ✡✱✘☛✓☞ ✏♣✡ ☞✘✬ ✌✟ ✡✒✡✔✕✎✡☞ ✭✕✎✗✡✒ ✥✖ ✏♣✡☛✥✌✗✡ ✡✱✘☛✏✎✌✒✮ ✟✌✔ ☛✓✓ ✑✌☞☞✎✥✓✡ ✑☛✎✔☞ ✌✟ ✎✏☞✍✌✒☞✏✎✏✘✡✒✏ ✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡☞✢ ❚♣✎☞ ✎☞ ☛✒ ✡③☛✬✑✓✡ ✌✟ ✏♣✡☛✑✑✓✎✍☛✏✎✌✒ ✌✟ ✏♣✡ ☞✘✑✡✔✑✌☞✎✏✎✌✒ ✑✔✎✒✍✎✑✓✡✢

④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩ ❶❷❸ s✎✒✫ ✏♣✡ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ✡✒✡✔✕✖ ✌✟☛ ☞✖☞✏✡✬ ✌✟ ✟✌✘✔ ✑☛✔✏✎✍✓✡☞ ✑✓☛✍✡✫ ☛✏ ✏♣✡✗✡✔✏✎✍✡☞ ✌✟ ☛ ☞✱✘☛✔✡ ✌✟ ☞✎✫✡ ❹✢ ❺✓☞✌ ✌✥✏☛✎✒✏♣✡ ✑✌✏✡✒✏✎☛✓ ☛✏ ✏♣✡ ✍✡✒✏✔✡ ✌✟ ✏♣✡ ☞✱✘☛✔✡✢

❻❼❽❾⑩❿ ➀✌✒☞✎✫✡✔ ✟✌✘✔ ✬☛☞☞✡☞ ✡☛✍♣ ✌✟ ✬☛☞☞✬☛✏ ✏♣✡ ✍✌✔✒✡✔☞ ✌✟ ☛ ☞✱✘☛✔✡ ✌✟ ☞✎✫✡ ❹ ✦ ✲✡✡ s✎✕✢ ✜✢➁✢♥✡ ♣☛✗✡ ✟✌✘✔ ✬☛☞☞ ✑☛✎✔☞ ☛✏ ✫✎☞✏☛✒✍✡ ❹ ☛✒✫ ✏✠✌✫✎☛✕✌✒☛✓ ✑☛✎✔☞ ☛✏ ✫✎☞✏☛✒✍✡ ➂ ➃

❧✡✒✍✡✴✉ ✉➄➅ ➆ ➇ ➈

➈❆ ❄❆❇ ❈➉ ➉

❉ ➋ ➋

➌➍➎➏ ➐➏➑

Page 197: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

●�✁❱✂✄✁✄✂❆☎ ✶✆✝

❧♠✟

❧♠✟ ✷✷

✺✠✡☛☞

☛☞

☞❾❂✏✏

✍✎✎✑

✌✰❾❂

❚✓✔ ✕✖✗✘✙✚✗✚✙✛✜✗✢ ✣✛✚✔✜✚✙✗✢ ✗✚ ✚✓✔ ✤✔✜✚✖✔ ✛❡

✚✓✔ t✥✦✗✖✔ ✭ ✧r ★ ✩ ✴ ★✪ ✙t

✫✬✮

✯✱❯ ✹✲✳ ✵✸✻ ✼

✽✾✽ ✿❀❁❃❄✿ ❀❄✿✿❅

■❡ ✗ t✚✛✜✔ ✙t ✚✓✖✛♦✜ ❇❈ ✓✗✜❉❊ ♦✔ t✔✔ ✙✚ ❡✗✢✢t ❇✗✤❋✚✛ ✚✓✔ ✔✗✖✚✓✻ ❍❡ ✤✛✦✖t✔ ✦t✙✜✕ ❏✗✤✓✙✜✔t ♦✔ ✤✗✜t✓✛✛✚ ✗✜ ✛❇s✔✤✚ ♦✙✚✓ ❏✦✤✓ ✕✖✔✗✚✔✖ t✣✔✔❉t ✗✜❉♦✙✚✓ ✕✖✔✗✚✔✖ ✗✜❉ ✕✖✔✗✚✔✖ ✙✜✙✚✙✗✢ t✣✔✔❉❊ ✚✓✔ ✛❇s✔✤✚t✤✗✢✔t ✓✙✕✓✔✖ ✗✜❉ ✓✙✕✓✔✖ ✓✔✙✕✓✚t✻ ❑ ✜✗✚✦✖✗✢✥✦✔✖❈ ✚✓✗✚ ✗✖✙t✔t ✙✜ ✛✦✖ ❏✙✜❉ ✙t ✚✓✔ ❡✛✢✢✛♦✙✜✕q➅✤✗✜ ♦✔ ✚✓✖✛♦ ✗✜ ✛❇s✔✤✚ ♦✙✚✓ t✦✤✓ ✓✙✕✓ ✙✜✙✚✙✗✢t✣✔✔❉t ✚✓✗✚ ✙✚ ❉✛✔t ✜✛✚ ❡✗✢✢ ❇✗✤❋ ✚✛ ✚✓✔ ✔✗✖✚✓▲▼

❚✓✔ ✣✖✙✜✤✙✣✢✔ ✛❡ ✤✛✜t✔✖✘✗✚✙✛✜ ✛❡ ✔✜✔✖✕❈ ✓✔✢✣t✦t ✚✛ ✗✜t♦✔✖ ✚✓✙t ✥✦✔t✚✙✛✜✻ ✉✦✣✣✛t✔ ✚✓✔ ✛❇s✔✤✚❉✙❉ ✖✔✗✤✓ ✙✜❡✙✜✙✚❈ ✗✜❉ ✚✓✗✚ ✙✚t t✣✔✔❉ ✚✓✔✖✔ ♦✗t◆❢✻ ❚✓✔ ✔✜✔✖✕❈ ✛❡ ✗✜ ✛❇s✔✤✚ ✙t ✚✓✔ t✦❏ ✛❡ ✣✛✚✔✜✚✙✗✢✗✜❉ ❋✙✜✔✚✙✤ ✔✜✔✖✕❈✻ ❑t ❇✔❡✛✖✔ ❖P ❉✔✜✛✚✔t ✚✓✗✚✕✖✗✘✙✚✗✚✙✛✜✗✢ ✣✛✚✔✜✚✙✗✢ ✔✜✔✖✕❈ ✛❡ ✚✓✔ ✛❇s✔✤✚ ✗✚✙✜❡✙✜✙✚❈✻ ❚✓✔ ✚✛✚✗✢ ✔✜✔✖✕❈ ✛❡ ✚✓✔ ✣✖✛s✔✤✚✙✢✔ ✗✚✙✜❡✙✜✙✚❈ ✚✓✔✜ ✙t

❘❙ ❲❳❨❩❬

❭ ❪❫ ❴ ❵ ❛❜✻❝❞❣

■❡ ✚✓✔ ✛❇s✔✤✚♦✗t ✚✓✖✛♦✜ ✙✜✙✚✙✗✢✢❈ ♦✙✚✓ ✗ t✣✔✔❉❤✐ ❡✖✛❏ ✗ ✣✛✙✜✚ ✗✚ ✗ ❉✙t✚✗✜✤✔ ❛❥❦♥♣❣ ❡✖✛❏ ✚✓✔✤✔✜✚✔✖ ✛❡ ✚✓✔ ✔✗✖✚✓ ❛♥♣ ✈ ✖✗❉✙✦t ✛❡ ✚✓✔ ✔✗✖✚✓❣❊ ✙✚t✔✜✔✖✕❈ ✙✜✙✚✙✗✢✢❈ ♦✗t

✇①

②③ ④ ➊

⑤ ③ ④⑥

⑥ ⑦⑥

⑧⑨⑩❶ ❷ ❸ ⑨❹ ❺

❷ ❸❻ ❼ ❻

❻ ❛❜✻❝❽❣

❿❈ ✚✓✔ ✣✖✙✜✤✙✣✢✔ ✛❡ ✔✜✔✖✕❈ ✤✛✜t✔✖✘✗✚✙✛✜➀✥t✻ ❛❜✻❝❞❣ ✗✜❉ ❛❜✻❝❽❣ ❏✦t✚ ❇✔ ✔✥✦✗✢✻ ➁✔✜✤✔

➂➂➃

➄ ➆ ➇ ➄➈➉ ➋

➌➍➌➍ ➎➌➏

➐ ➑➒

➓ ❛❜✻❝❜❣

❚✓✔ ➔✻➁✻✉✻ ✙t ✗ ✣✛t✙✚✙✘✔ ✥✦✗✜✚✙✚❈ ♦✙✚✓ ✗❏✙✜✙❏✦❏ ✘✗✢✦✔ →✔✖✛ ✓✔✜✤✔ t✛❏✦t✚ ❇✔ ✚✓✔ ➣✻➁✻✉✻❚✓✦t❊ ✗✜ ✛❇s✔✤✚ ✤✗✜ ✖✔✗✤✓ ✙✜❡✙✜✙✚❈ ✗t ✢✛✜✕ ✗t ◆✐✙t t✦✤✓ ✚✓✗✚

↔↕ ➙

➛ ➜ ➝➞ ➟

➠➡ ➢➠➤

➥ ➦➧

➨ ❛❜✻❝➩❣

❚✓✔❏✙✜✙❏✦❏ ✘✗✢✦✔ ✛❡ ◆✐ ✤✛✖✖✔t✣✛✜❉t ✚✛ ✚✓✔✤✗t✔ ♦✓✔✜ ✚✓✔ ➣✻➁✻✉✻ ✛❡ ➀✥✻ ❛❜✻❝➩❣ ✔✥✦✗✢t →✔✖✛✻

❚✓✦t❊ ✚✓✔❏✙✜✙❏✦❏ t✣✔✔❉ ✖✔✥✦✙✖✔❉ ❡✛✖ ✗✜ ✛❇s✔✤✚✚✛ ✖✔✗✤✓ ✙✜❡✙✜✙✚❈ ❛✙✻✔✻ ✔t✤✗✣✔ ❡✖✛❏ ✚✓✔ ✔✗✖✚✓❣✤✛✖✖✔t✣✛✜❉t ✚✛

➫ ➭➯➲➳➵

➺➻

➼➻

➽➾➚➾ ➪

➶ ➹➘

➴ ❛❜✻➷➬❣

■❡ ✚✓✔ ✛❇s✔✤✚ ✙t ✚✓✖✛♦✜ ❡✖✛❏ ✚✓✔ t✦✖❡✗✤✔ ✛❡✚✓✔ ✔✗✖✚✓❊ ✓✈➬❊ ✗✜❉ ♦✔ ✕✔✚

➮ ➱✃❐❒❮ ❰

Ï❰

ÐÑÒ

ÓÔ ❛❜✻➷Õ❣

Öt✙✜✕ ✚✓✔ ✖✔✢✗✚✙✛✜ ×ØÙ ÙÚ ÛÜ ÝÞ ❊ ♦✔ ✕✔✚

ß à✃❐❒ ❮Ï ❰Ò áÓÔ ❛❜✻➷❝❣

Öt✙✜✕ ✚✓✔ ✘✗✢✦✔ ✛❡ ✕ ✗✜❉ ➔â❊ ✜✦❏✔✖✙✤✗✢✢❈❛◆ã❣äãåæ ÕÕ✻❝ ❋❏çt✻ ❚✓✙t ✙t ✤✗✢✢✔❉ ✚✓✔ ✔t✤✗✣✔t✣✔✔❉❊ t✛❏✔✚✙❏✔t ✢✛✛t✔✢❈ ✤✗✢✢✔❉ ✚✓✔ ✔t✤✗✣✔✘✔✢✛✤✙✚❈✻

➀✥✦✗✚✙✛✜ ❛❜✻➷❝❣ ✗✣✣✢✙✔t ✔✥✦✗✢✢❈ ♦✔✢✢ ✚✛ ✗✜✛❇s✔✤✚ ✚✓✖✛♦✜ ❡✖✛❏ ✚✓✔ t✦✖❡✗✤✔ ✛❡ ✚✓✔❏✛✛✜ ♦✙✚✓✕ ✖✔✣✢✗✤✔❉ ❇❈ ✚✓✔ ✗✤✤✔✢✔✖✗✚✙✛✜ ❉✦✔ ✚✛ è✛✛✜▼t✕✖✗✘✙✚❈ ✛✜ ✙✚t t✦✖❡✗✤✔ ✗✜❉ ✖â ✖✔✣✢✗✤✔❉ ❇❈ ✚✓✔✖✗❉✙✦t ✛❡ ✚✓✔ ❏✛✛✜✻ ❿✛✚✓ ✗✖✔ t❏✗✢✢✔✖ ✚✓✗✜ ✚✓✔✙✖✘✗✢✦✔t ✛✜ ✔✗✖✚✓ ✗✜❉ ✚✓✔ ✔t✤✗✣✔ t✣✔✔❉ ❡✛✖ ✚✓✔❏✛✛✜ ✚✦✖✜t ✛✦✚ ✚✛ ❇✔ ❝✻➷ ❋❏çt❊ ✗❇✛✦✚ ❡✙✘✔ ✚✙❏✔tt❏✗✢✢✔✖✻ ❚✓✙t ✙t ✚✓✔ ✖✔✗t✛✜ ✚✓✗✚ ❏✛✛✜ ✓✗t ✜✛✗✚❏✛t✣✓✔✖✔✻ é✗t ❏✛✢✔✤✦✢✔t ✙❡ ❡✛✖❏✔❉ ✛✜ ✚✓✔t✦✖❡✗✤✔ ✛❡ ✚✓✔❏✛✛✜ ✓✗✘✙✜✕ ✘✔✢✛✤✙✚✙✔t ✢✗✖✕✔✖ ✚✓✗✜✚✓✙t ♦✙✢✢ ✔t✤✗✣✔ ✚✓✔ ✕✖✗✘✙✚✗✚✙✛✜✗✢ ✣✦✢✢ ✛❡ ✚✓✔❏✛✛✜✻

êëìíîïð ñòó ❚♦✛ ✦✜✙❡✛✖❏ t✛✢✙❉ t✣✓✔✖✔t✛❡ ✔✥✦✗✢ ✖✗❉✙✙ ♥❊ ❇✦✚ ❏✗tt ô ✗✜❉ õ ô ✓✗✘✔✗ ✤✔✜✚✔✖ ✚✛ ✤✔✜✚✖✔ t✔✣✗✖✗✚✙✛✜ ❞ ♥❊ ✗t t✓✛♦✜✙✜ ö✙✕✻ ❜✻Õ➬✻ ❚✓✔ ✚♦✛ t✣✓✔✖✔t ✗✖✔ ✓✔✢❉ ❡✙÷✔❉✻❑ ✣✖✛s✔✤✚✙✢✔ ✛❡ ❏✗tt ø ✙t ✣✖✛s✔✤✚✔❉ ❡✖✛❏✚✓✔ t✦✖❡✗✤✔ ✛❡ ✚✓✔ t✣✓✔✖✔ ✛❡ ❏✗tt ô ❉✙✖✔✤✚✢❈✚✛♦✗✖❉t ✚✓✔ ✤✔✜✚✖✔ ✛❡ ✚✓✔ t✔✤✛✜❉ t✣✓✔✖✔✻❍❇✚✗✙✜ ✗✜ ✔÷✣✖✔tt✙✛✜ ❡✛✖ ✚✓✔ ❏✙✜✙❏✦❏t✣✔✔❉ ✘ ✛❡ ✚✓✔ ✣✖✛s✔✤✚✙✢✔ t✛ ✚✓✗✚ ✙✚ ✖✔✗✤✓✔t✚✓✔ t✦✖❡✗✤✔ ✛❡ ✚✓✔ t✔✤✛✜❉ t✣✓✔✖✔✻

ùúûü ýüþÿ

❆�✁✂ð✄ ❚✓✔ ✣✖✛s✔✤✚✙✢✔ ✙t ✗✤✚✔❉ ✦✣✛✜ ❇❈ ✚♦✛❏✦✚✦✗✢✢❈ ✛✣✣✛t✙✜✕ ✕✖✗✘✙✚✗✚✙✛✜✗✢ ❡✛✖✤✔t ✛❡ ✚✓✔ ✚♦✛

Page 198: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

s✞✟✠✡✠s❡ ☛✟✠ ☞✠✌✍✡✎✏ ✞✑✒☞✍ ✓ ✔s✠✠ ✕✒✖❡ ✗❡✘✙✚ ✒s

❞✠✛✒☞✠❞ ✎s ✍✟✠ ✞✑s✒✍✒✑☞ ✜✟✠✡✠ ✍✟✠ ✍✜✑ ✛✑✡✢✠s

✢✎☞✢✠✏ ✠✎✢✟ ✑✍✟✠✡ ✠❝✎✢✍✏✣❡ ✤✛ ✥✓ ✦ r✱ ✜✠ ✟✎✧✠

✭ ★✷✷ ✩❘✻

♠▼●

♠▼●

❾❂✹

✔✪✫ ➊ r✚✬ ✮ ✯r✬

✪✫ ➊ r ✮ ✰✲r

r ✮ ✲✫ ✑✡ ➊ ✪✫✳

☛✟✠ ☞✠✌✍✡✎✏ ✞✑✒☞✍ r ✮ ➊ ✪✫ ❞✑✠s ☞✑✍ ✢✑☞✢✠✡☞

✌s ✒☞ ✍✟✒s ✠❝✎✉✞✏✠❡ ☛✟✌s ✥✓ ✮ r ✮ ✲✫❡ ✤✍ ✒s

s✌✛✛✒✢✒✠☞✍ ✍✑ ✞✡✑♦✠✢✍ ✍✟✠ ✞✎✡✍✒✢✏✠ ✜✒✍✟ ✎ s✞✠✠❞

✜✟✒✢✟ ✜✑✌✏❞ ✠☞✎✇✏✠ ✒✍ ✍✑ ✡✠✎✢✟ ✓❡ ☛✟✠✡✠✎✛✍✠✡✱

✍✟✠ ✖✡✠✎✍✠✡ ✖✡✎✧✒✍✎✍✒✑☞✎✏ ✞✌✏✏ ✑✛ ✯✴ ✜✑✌✏❞

s✌✛✛✒✢✠❡ ☛✟✠ ✉✠✢✟✎☞✒✢✎✏ ✠☞✠✡✖✣ ✎✍ ✍✟✠ s✌✡✛✎✢✠

✑✛ ✴ ✒s

✸✺✼

✸✺✼✈✸❊ ✽

✐✾

❁❃❃❄ ❡

❆✍ ✍✟✠ ☞✠✌✍✡✎✏ ✞✑✒☞✍ ✓✱ ✍✟✠ s✞✠✠❞ ✎✞✞✡✑✎✢✟✠s

③✠✡✑❡ ☛✟✠ ✉✠✢✟✎☞✒✢✎✏ ✠☞✠✡✖✣ ✎✍ ✓ ✒s ✞✌✡✠✏✣

✞✑✍✠☞✍✒✎✏❡

✸✺✼

✸✺✼❊◆

❀❃❃❄ ❡

✕✡✑✉ ✍✟✠ ✞✡✒☞✢✒✞✏✠ ✑✛ ✢✑☞s✠✡✧✎✍✒✑☞ ✑✛

✉✠✢✟✎☞✒✢✎✏ ✠☞✠✡✖✣

❇❉

❋❍

❋❍

❋❍

❋❍

❏❑ ❑ ▲ ❑ ❑

✑✡

◗❙

❚❯❱

❲❳❨❩

❪❩❫

❵❛❜

❢❣❤

❦❧♥

♣qt

①②

⑤⑥⑦ ⑧

❆✞✑✒☞✍ ✍✑ ☞✑✍✠ ✒s ✍✟✎✍ ✍✟✠ s✞✠✠❞✑✛ ✍✟✠ ✞✡✑♦✠✢✍✒✏✠

✒s ③✠✡✑ ✎✍ ✓✱ ✇✌✍ ✒s ☞✑☞③✠✡✑ ✜✟✠☞ ✒✍ s✍✡✒⑨✠s ✍✟✠

✟✠✎✧✒✠✡ s✞✟✠✡✠ ✯ ✴❡ ☛✟✠ ✢✎✏✢✌✏✎✍✒✑☞ ✑✛ ✍✟✒s s✞✠✠❞

✒s ✏✠✛✍ ✎s ✎☞ ✠❝✠✡✢✒s✠ ✍✑ ✍✟✠ s✍✌❞✠☞✍s❡

⑩❶❷ ❸❹❺❻❼ ❽❹❻❸❿❿➀❻❸❽

➁✎✡✍✟ s✎✍✠✏✏✒✍✠s ✎✡✠ ✑✇♦✠✢✍s ✜✟✒✢✟ ✡✠✧✑✏✧✠ ✎✡✑✌☞❞

✍✟✠ ✠✎✡✍✟❡ ☛✟✠✒✡ ✉✑✍✒✑☞ ✒s ✧✠✡✣ s✒✉✒✏✎✡ ✍✑ ✍✟✠

✉✑✍✒✑☞ ✑✛ ✞✏✎☞✠✍s ✎✡✑✌☞❞ ✍✟✠ ➂✌☞ ✎☞❞ ✟✠☞✢✠

➃✠✞✏✠✡➄s ✏✎✜s ✑✛ ✞✏✎☞✠✍✎✡✣ ✉✑✍✒✑☞ ✎✡✠ ✠➅✌✎✏✏✣

✎✞✞✏✒✢✎✇✏✠ ✍✑ ✍✟✠✉❡ ✤☞ ✞✎✡✍✒✢✌✏✎✡✱ ✍✟✠✒✡ ✑✡✇✒✍s

✎✡✑✌☞❞ ✍✟✠ ✠✎✡✍✟ ✎✡✠ ✢✒✡✢✌✏✎✡ ✑✡ ✠✏✏✒✞✍✒✢❡ ➆✑✑☞

✒s ✍✟✠ ✑☞✏✣ ☞✎✍✌✡✎✏ s✎✍✠✏✏✒✍✠ ✑✛ ✍✟✠ ✠✎✡✍✟ ✜✒✍✟ ✎

☞✠✎✡ ✢✒✡✢✌✏✎✡ ✑✡✇✒✍ ✜✒✍✟ ✎ ✍✒✉✠ ✞✠✡✒✑❞ ✑✛

✎✞✞✡✑❝✒✉✎✍✠✏✣ ✲➇❡➈ ❞✎✣s ✜✟✒✢✟ ✒s ✎✏s✑ ✡✑✌✖✟✏✣

✠➅✌✎✏ ✍✑ ✍✟✠ ✡✑✍✎✍✒✑☞✎✏ ✞✠✡✒✑❞ ✑✛ ✍✟✠✉✑✑☞ ✎✇✑✌✍

✒✍s ✑✜☞ ✎❝✒s❡ ➂✒☞✢✠✱ ✘➉➋➇✱ ✎❞✧✎☞✢✠s ✒☞

✍✠✢✟☞✑✏✑✖✣ ✟✎✧✠ ✠☞✎✇✏✠❞ ✉✎☞✣ ✢✑✌☞✍✡✒✠s

✒☞✢✏✌❞✒☞✖ ✤☞❞✒✎ ✍✑ ✏✎✌☞✢✟ ✎✡✍✒✛✒✢✒✎✏ ✠✎✡✍✟

s✎✍✠✏✏✒✍✠s ✛✑✡ ✞✡✎✢✍✒✢✎✏ ✌s✠ ✒☞ ✛✒✠✏❞s ✏✒⑨✠

✍✠✏✠✢✑✉✉✌☞✒✢✎✍✒✑☞✱ ✖✠✑✞✟✣s✒✢s ✎☞❞

✉✠✍✠✑✡✑✏✑✖✣❡

➌✠ ✜✒✏✏ ✢✑☞s✒❞✠✡ ✎ s✎✍✠✏✏✒✍✠ ✒☞ ✎ ✢✒✡✢✌✏✎✡ ✑✡✇✒✍

✑✛ ✎ ❞✒s✍✎☞✢✠ ✔✫➍ ➎ ➏ ✚ ✛✡✑✉ ✍✟✠ ✢✠☞✍✡✠ ✑✛ ✍✟✠ ✠✎✡✍✟✱

✜✟✠✡✠ ✫➍ ✦ ✡✎❞✒✌s ✑✛ ✍✟✠ ✠✎✡✍✟❡ ✤✛ ➐ ✒s ✍✟✠ ✉✎ss

✑✛ ✍✟✠ s✎✍✠✏✏✒✍✠ ✎☞❞ ➑ ✒✍s s✞✠✠❞✱ ✍✟✠ ✢✠☞✍✡✒✞✠✍✎✏

✛✑✡✢✠ ✡✠➅✌✒✡✠❞ ✛✑✡ ✍✟✒s ✑✡✇✒✍ ✒s

✕✔✢✠☞✍✡✒✞✠✍✎✏✚ ✦

➓ ➔→

➣↔

↕ ➙➛✔✗❡➈➈✚

❞✒✡✠✢✍✠❞ ✍✑✜✎✡❞s ✍✟✠ ✢✠☞✍✠✡❡ ☛✟✒s ✢✠☞✍✡✒✞✠✍✎✏ ✛✑✡✢✠

✒s ✞✡✑✧✒❞✠❞ ✇✣ ✍✟✠ ✖✡✎✧✒✍✎✍✒✑☞✎✏ ✛✑✡✢✠✱ ✜✟✒✢✟ ✒s

✕✔✖✡✎✧✒✍✎✍✒✑☞✚ ✦ ➜➝ ➞

❋➠ ❍

■ ➡➢✔✗❡➈✯✚

➌✟✠✡✠ ✴➍ ✒s ✍✟✠ ✉✎ss ✑✛ ✍✟✠ ✠✎✡✍✟❡

➁➅✌✎✍✒☞✖ ➤❡➥❡➂ ✑✛ ➁➅s❡ ✔✗❡➈➈✚ ✎☞❞ ✔✗❡➈✯✚ ✎☞❞

✢✎☞✢✠✏✏✒☞✖ ✑✌✍ ✉✱ ✜✠ ✖✠✍

➝ ➞

❋ ❍➦

■ ➡▲

➢✔✗❡➈➋✚

☛✟✌s ➑ ❞✠✢✡✠✎s✠s ✎s ➏ ✒☞✢✡✠✎s✠s❡ ✕✡✑✉

✠➅✌✎✍✒✑☞ ✔✗❡➈➋✚✱✍✟✠ s✞✠✠❞ ➑ ✛✑✡ ➏ ✦ ✙ ✒s

➧➨ ➩➫ ➭ ➯ ➯➲ ➳ ➵➸ ➺ ➻➺➼ ➼ ➼ ✔✗❡➈✪✚

✜✟✠✡✠ ✜✠ ✟✎✧✠ ✌s✠❞ ✍✟✠ ✡✠✏✎✍✒✑☞

✖ ✦ ➽➾ ➚➪➶ ➹ ❡ ✤☞ ✠✧✠✡✣ ✑✡✇✒✍✱ ✍✟✠ s✎✍✠✏✏✒✍✠

✍✡✎✧✠✡s✠s ✎ ❞✒s✍✎☞✢✠ ✲➘✔✫➍➎ ➏✚ ✜✒✍✟ s✞✠✠❞ ➑❡ ✤✍➄s

✍✒✉✠ ✞✠✡✒✑❞ ➴ ✍✟✠✡✠✛✑✡✠ ✒s➷➬➮➱ ✃ ❐ ➱ ✃ ❐❒ ❒

❮ ❰ ❮ ❰Ï

Ð Ñ Ò

Ó ÓÔ ÔÕ Õ ✔✗❡➈➇✚

✑☞ s✌✇s✍✒✍✌✍✒✑☞ ✑✛ ✧✎✏✌✠ ✑✛ ➑ ✛✡✑✉ ➁➅❡ ✔✗❡➈➋✚❡

➂➅✌✎✡✒☞✖ ✇✑✍✟ s✒❞✠s ✑✛ ➁➅❡ ✔✗❡➈➇✚✱ ✜✠ ✖✠✍

➴ Ö ✮ × Ø ✫➍ Ù ➏ÚÛ ØÜ➏ÝrÝ × ✮ Þ ➘Ö ß à✴➍Ú ✔✗❡➈✗✚

✜✟✒✢✟ ✒s ➃✠✞✏✠✡➄s ✏✎✜ ✑✛ ✞✠✡✒✑❞s✱ ✎s ✎✞✞✏✒✠❞ ✍✑

✉✑✍✒✑☞ ✑✛ s✎✍✠✏✏✒✍✠s ✎✡✑✌☞❞ ✍✟✠ ✠✎✡✍✟❡ ✕✑✡ ✎

s✎✍✠✏✏✒✍✠ ✧✠✡✣ ✢✏✑s✠ ✍✑ ✍✟✠ s✌✡✛✎✢✠ ✑✛ ✠✎✡✍✟ ➏ ✢✎☞

✇✠ ☞✠✖✏✠✢✍✠❞ ✒☞ ✢✑✉✞✎✡✒s✑☞ ✍✑ ✫➍ ✒☞ ➁➅❡ ✔✗❡➈✗✚❡

➥✠☞✢✠✱ ✛✑✡ s✌✢✟ s✎✍✠✏✏✒✍✠s✱ ➴ ✒s ➴á✱ ✜✟✠✡✠

â ❇ ãäå ■ æç▲ ✔✗❡➈➉✚

✤✛ ✜✠ s✌✇s✍✒✍✌✍✠ ✍✟✠ ☞✌✉✠✡✒✢✎✏ ✧✎✏✌✠s

✖ ; ➉❡✗ ✉ sè✬ ✎☞❞ ✫➍ ✦ ✪✯✙✙ ⑨✉❡✱ ✜✠ ✖✠✍

é

êëìí îï

ðñìò

ó ôõ

ö s

➌✟✒✢✟ ✒s ✎✞✞✡✑❝✒✉✎✍✠✏✣ ✗➋ ✉✒☞✌✍✠s❡

Page 199: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

●�✁❱✂✄✁✄✂❆☎ ✶✆✝

✞❊✟✠✡☛☞✌ ✍✎✏ ✥✑✒ ✓✔✕✖✒✗ ✘✕✙✚ ✑✕✚ ✗✛✜♠✜✜✖✚✢ ✓✑✜✣✜✚ ✕✖✤ ✤✒✔♠✜✚✦ ✧★✩ ✓✑✜✣✜✚ ✑✕✚✕ ✓✒✙★✜✤ ❛ ✑✜✪✙✚✢ ✫✬♠★✖✪✗✒✚ ✕✖✤✕✖ ✜✙✣★✗✕✔✙✕✤★✪✚ ✜r ✬✦✭ ×✮✯✸ ✰♠✦ ✱✕✔✲✪✔✕✗✒ ✗✑✒ ♠✕✚✚✜r ♠✕✙✚✦ ✧★★✩ ♦✚✚✪♠✒ ✗✑✕✗ ✒✕✙✗✑ ✕✖✤ ♠✕✙✚♠✜✳✒ ★✖ ✲★✙✲✪✔✕✙ ✜✙✣★✗✚ ✕✙✜✪✖✤ ✗✑✒ ✚✪✖✢✛★✗✑ ✗✑✒ ♠✕✙✗★✕✖ ✜✙✣★✗ ✣✒★✖✇ ✮✦✴✵ ✗★♠✒✚✗✑✒ ✜✙✣★✗✕✔ ✙✕✤★✪✚ ✜r ✗✑✒ ✒✕✙✗✑✦ t✑✕✗ ★✚✗✑✒ ✔✒✖✇✗✑ ✜r ✗✑✒ ♠✕✙✗★✕✖ ✷✒✕✙ ★✖ ✤✕✷✚ ✹

✺✻✼✽✌✾ ✧★✩ t✒ ✒♠✓✔✜✷ ❡✿✦ ✧❀✦✫❀✩ ✛★✗✑ ✗✑✒ ✚✪✖❁✚♠✕✚✚ ✙✒✓✔✕✲✒✤ ✣✷ ✗✑✒ ♠✕✙✗★✕✖ ♠✕✚✚ ▼❂

❚❃❄

❘❅

❇❈

❉ ❋❍■

❏❑ ▲

❖P◗ ❙ ❯

❙❲

❳ ❨ ❳ ❨

❳ ❨❩

❬ ❬ ❬

❬ ❬ ❬

❭ ❪❫❴❭

❵❫❵❜ ❴❝ ❭❞❢ ❵❝❣❤❤ ✐

✐ ❥ ❤❦❢ ❭ ❴❝❫

❧ ♥ ❧ ♥

❧ ♥♣

q s✉✈q

①✉①② q✉③④ ① ✈⑤⑥ ⑦⑧⑨ ⑩❶ ❶ ❶

❶ ❶ ❶

⑥ ❷ ❸❹④ q ✈⑤✉

❺ ❻✦✭❀ × ✮✯❼✸ ✰✇✦✧★★✩ ❽✖✲✒ ✕✇✕★✖ ❾✒✓✔✒✙❁✚ ✗✑★✙✤ ✔✕✛ ✲✜♠✒✚ ✗✜ ✜✪✙

✕★✤✢

❘❿❅

➀❅

❿➁➂

➀➁➂❈

✛✑✒✙✒ ➃➄➅ ★✚ ✗✑✒ ♠✕✙✚ ➆✚✪✖ ✤★✚✗✕✖✲✒ ✕✖✤ ➃➇➅ ★✚✗✑✒ ✒✕✙✗✑➆✚✪✖ ✤★✚✗✕✖✲✒✦

➈➉➄ ❺ ✧✮✦✴✵✩✸➊❼ × ✫❻✴❺ ❻❀✭ ✤✕✷✚

t✒ ✖✜✗✒ ✗✑✕✗ ✗✑✒ ✜✙✣★✗✚ ✜r ✕✔✔ ✓✔✕✖✒✗✚ ✒➋✲✒✓✗✘✒✙✲✪✙✷✢ ✘✕✙✚ ✕✖✤ ➌✔✪✗✜ ✕✙✒ ✳✒✙✷ ✲✔✜✚✒ ✗✜ ✣✒★✖✇✲★✙✲✪✔✕✙✦ ➍✜✙ ✒➋✕♠✓✔✒✢ ✗✑✒ ✙✕✗★✜ ✜r ✗✑✒ ✚✒♠★➆♠★✖✜✙ ✗✜ ✚✒♠★➆♠✕➎✜✙ ✕➋★✚ r✜✙ ✜✪✙ ❡✕✙✗✑ ★✚✢ ➏➐➑➒ ✯✦✬✬✬❀❻✦ ➓

❊✟✠✡☛☞✌ ✍✎➔ →➣↔↕➙↔➛↕ ➜➙➣ ➝➞➟➜➙ ➠ ➡✜✪✕✙✒ ✇★✳✒✖ ✗✑✒ r✜✔✔✜✛★✖✇ ✤✕✗✕➠ ➢ ❺ ✬✦❀✮ ♠✚➤❼✢➃➇ ❺ ❻✦✫❛×✮✯➥ ♠✢ ✗✑✒ ✤★✚✗✕✖✲✒ ✗✜ ✗✑✒ ♠✜✜✖➃ ❺ ✫✦❀✭×✮✯➦ ♠ ✕✖✤ ✗✑✒ ✗★♠✒ ✓✒✙★✜✤ ✜r ✗✑✒♠✜✜✖❁✚ ✙✒✳✜✔✪✗★✜✖ ★✚ ✵❛✦✫ ✤✕✷✚✦ ❽✣✗✕★✖ ✗✑✒♠✕✚✚ ✜r ✗✑✒ ❡✕✙✗✑▼➇ ★✖ ✗✛✜ ✤★rr✒✙✒✖✗ ✛✕✷✚✦

✺✻✼✽✌✾ ➍✙✜♠ ❡✿✦ ✧❀✦✮✵✩ ✛✒ ✑✕✳✒

➧➨➩➫➭➯➯ ➲

➳ ➵➸

➺ ➺

➻➼➽➾ ➚➼➪➶ ➾➹

➚➼➚➶ ➾➹

➘ ➴

➷➬➬

❺ ✴✦✬❛× ✮✯❼➮✰✇✦✥✑✒ ♠✜✜✖ ★✚ ✕ ✚✕✗✒✔✔★✗✒ ✜r ✗✑✒ ❡✕✙✗✑✦ ➍✙✜♠

✗✑✒ ✤✒✙★✳✕✗★✜✖ ✜r ❾✒✓✔✒✙❁✚ ✗✑★✙✤ ✔✕✛ ➱✚✒✒ ❡✿✦✧❀✦✫❀✩✃

➀❐❒❮❰❍❋❋ ÏÐÑ

ÒÓÒÔ

ÕÖØÙÚ

ÛÜ

Ý Þ

Ý Þß

à à à à

à à à à à

á âãäá âãäá âãåá äæ

çãçè äæ éèãâ éá çæ çæ

❷ ⑥ê

⑦❸❸ ⑥

ë ìíîïð ñïòó ôõö✜✗✑ ♠✒✗✑✜✤✚ ✷★✒✔✤ ✕✔♠✜✚✗ ✗✑✒ ✚✕♠✒ ✕✖✚✛✒✙✢

✗✑✒ ✤★rr✒✙✒✖✲✒ ✣✒✗✛✒✒✖ ✗✑✒♠ ✣✒★✖✇ ✔✒✚✚ ✗✑✕✖ ✮÷✦➓

❊✟✠✡☛☞✌ ✍✎ø ❡➋✓✙✒✚✚ ✗✑✒ ✲✜✖✚✗✕✖✗ ✰ ✜r❡✿✦ ✧❀✦✫❀✩ ★✖ ✤✕✷✚ ✕✖✤ ✰★✔✜♠✒✗✙✒✚✦ ù★✳✒✖✰ ➒ ✮✯➤ú✸ ✚❼ ♠➤✸✦ ✥✑✒ ♠✜✜✖ ★✚ ✕✗ ✕ ✤★✚✗✕✖✲✒✜r ✫✦❀✭ × ✮✯û✰♠ r✙✜♠ ✗✑✒ ✒✕✙✗✑✦ ❽✣✗✕★✖ ★✗✚✗★♠✒➆✓✒✙★✜✤ ✜r ✙✒✳✜✔✪✗★✜✖ ★✖ ✤✕✷✚✦

✺✻✼✽✌✾ ù★✳✒✖ü ❺ ✮✯➤ú✸ ✚❼ ♠➤✸

➒ý þ ÿ ✭

✶�✶

❞✶

❦✁

× ×

✚✛✛

✢✣✣

✛✛

✣✣

✂✄✷

✷✄ ✄

☎✹ ✻� ✻� ✶ ✶���✴

❺ ✮✦✫✫ ×✮✯➤ú➮ ✤❼ ✰♠➤✸❯✚★✖✇ ❡✿✦ ✧❀✦✫❀✩ ✕✖✤ ✗✑✒ ✇★✳✒✖ ✳✕✔✪✒ ✜r ✰✢

✗✑✒ ✗★♠✒ ✓✒✙★✜✤ ✜r ✗✑✒ ♠✜✜✖ ★✚➉ ✆❺ ✧✮✦✫✫ × ✮✯✲ú➮✩✧✫✦❀✭ × ✮✯û✩✸

➉ ❺ ✵❛✦✫ ✤ ➓◆✜✗✒ ✗✑✕✗ ❡✿✦ ✧❀✦✫❀✩ ✕✔✚✜ ✑✜✔✤✚ r✜✙ ✒✔✔★✓✗★✲✕✔

✜✙✣★✗✚ ★r ✛✒ ✙✒✓✔✕✲✒ ✧➃➇✰❤✩ ✣✷ ✗✑✒ ✚✒♠★➆♠✕➎✜✙✕➋★✚ ✜r ✗✑✒ ✒✔✔★✓✚✒✦ ✥✑✒ ✒✕✙✗✑ ✛★✔✔ ✗✑✒✖ ✣✒ ✕✗ ✜✖✒✜r ✗✑✒ r✜✲★ ✜r ✗✑★✚ ✒✔✔★✓✚✒✦

✽✝✞✟ ➝❊➝✠✡☛ ☞✌ ✍❊ ☞✠✎✏✑✏❊✡ ✒✍✑➝❚❚✏✑➝

❯✚★✖✇ ❡✿✦ ✧❀✦✫✴✩✢ ✗✑✒ ✰★✖✒✗★✲ ✒✖✒✙✇✷ ✜r ✗✑✒✚✕✗✒✔✔★✗✒ ★✖ ✕ ✲★✙✲✪✔✕✙ ✜✙✣★✗ ✛★✗✑ ✚✓✒✒✤ ✈ ★✚

✓✔

✕❑ ✖ ♠ ✗❈g

✘✤ ✮

●✦ ▼

❘ ✧❂

★✢ ✧❀✦✭✯✩

Page 200: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❈✟✠✡☛☞✌✍☛✠✎ ✎✍✏✑☛✒✏✒☛✟✠✏✓ ✔✟✒✌✠✒☛✏✓ ✌✠✌✍✎✕ ✏✒

☛✠✐☛✠☛✒✕ ✒✟ ✖✌ ✗✌✍✟♦ ✒✘✌ ✔✟✒✌✠✒☛✏✓ ✌✠✌✍✎✕ ✏✒

☞☛✡✒✏✠❞✌ ✙✚e✰✘✛ ✐✍✟✜ ✒✘✌ ❞✌✠✒✌✍ ✟✐ ✒✘✌ ✌✏✍✒✘ ☛✡

✳✭ ✢

●✣ ▼✤ ✥

❘ ✦❂ ✧

★✙✩✪✫✬✛

❚✘✌ ✮✪✯ ☛✡ ✔✟✡☛✒☛✑✌ ✱✘✌✍✌✏✡ ✒✘✌ ❡✪✯ ☛✡

✠✌✎✏✒☛✑✌✪ ♥✟✱✌✑✌✍♦ ☛✠✜✏✎✠☛✒✲☞✌ ✒✘✌ ✮✪✯✪ ☛✡ ✘✏✓✐

✒✘✌ ❡✪✯♦ ✡✟ ✒✘✏✒ ✒✘✌ ✒✟✒✏✓ ✯ ☛✡

✴ ✴✷✵ ✸

✺✻ ✼✽ ✾ ✽ ✿ ✽

❀ ❁❃ ❄ ❃ ❾

❄✙✩✪✫❅✛

❚✘✌ ✒✟✒✏✓ ✌✠✌✍✎✕ ✟✐ ✏✠ ❞☛✍❞✲✓✏✍✓✕ ✟✍✖☛✒☛✠✎

✡✏✒✌✓✓☛✒✌ ☛✡ ✒✘✲✡ ✠✌✎✏✒☛✑✌♦ ✱☛✒✘ ✒✘✌ ✔✟✒✌✠✒☛✏✓

✌✠✌✍✎✕ ✖✌☛✠✎ ✠✌✎✏✒☛✑✌ ✖✲✒ ✒✱☛❞✌ ☛✡ ✜✏✎✠☛✒✲☞✌ ✟✐

✒✘✌ ✔✟✡☛✒☛✑✌ t☛✠✌✒☛❞ ✌✠✌✍✎✕✪

❲✘✌✠ ✒✘✌ ✟✍✖☛✒ ✟✐ ✏ ✡✏✒✌✓✓☛✒✌ ✖✌❞✟✜✌✡

✌✓✓☛✔✒☛❞♦ ✖✟✒✘ ✒✘✌ ❑❆❇❆ ✏✠☞ ❉❆❇❆ ✑✏✍✕ ✐✍✟✜ ✔✟☛✠✒

✒✟ ✔✟☛✠✒✪ ❚✘✌ ✒✟✒✏✓ ✌✠✌✍✎✕ ✱✘☛❞✘ ✍✌✜✏☛✠✡

❞✟✠✡✒✏✠✒ ☛✡ ✠✌✎✏✒☛✑✌ ✏✡ ☛✠ ✒✘✌ ❞☛✍❞✲✓✏✍ ✟✍✖☛✒ ❞✏✡✌✪

❚✘☛✡ ☛✡ ✱✘✏✒ ✱✌ ✌❋✔✌❞✒♦ ✡☛✠❞✌ ✏✡ ✱✌ ✘✏✑✌

☞☛✡❞✲✡✡✌☞ ✖✌✐✟✍✌ ☛✐ ✒✘✌ ✒✟✒✏✓ ✌✠✌✍✎✕ ☛✡ ✔✟✡☛✒☛✑✌ ✟✍

✗✌✍✟♦ ✒✘✌ ✟✖❍✌❞✒ ✌✡❞✏✔✌✡ ✒✟ ☛✠✐☛✠☛✒✕✪ ■✏✒✌✓✓☛✒✌✡

✏✍✌ ✏✓✱✏✕✡ ✏✒ ✐☛✠☛✒✌ ☞☛✡✒✏✠❞✌ ✐✍✟✜ ✒✘✌ ✌✏✍✒✘ ✏✠☞

✘✌✠❞✌ ✒✘✌☛✍ ✌✠✌✍✎☛✌✡ ❞✏✠✠✟✒ ✖✌ ✔✟✡☛✒☛✑✌ ✟✍ ✗✌✍✟✪

❏▲◆❖◗❙❯ ❱❳❱ ❨ ✫❩❩ t✎ ✡✏✒✌✓✓☛✒✌ ☛✡ ☛✠ ✏

❞☛✍❞✲✓✏✍ ✟✍✖☛✒ ✟✐ ✍✏☞☛✲✡ ❅❬❭ ✏✖✟✲✒ ✒✘✌

✯✏✍✒✘✪ ♥✟✱ ✜✲❞✘ ✌✠✌✍✎✕ ☛✡ ✍✌❪✲☛✍✌☞ ✒✟

✒✍✏✠✡✐✌✍ ☛✒ ✒✟ ✏ ❞☛✍❞✲✓✏✍ ✟✍✖☛✒ ✟✐ ✍✏☞☛✲✡ ✫❬❭ ❫

❲✘✏✒ ✏✍✌ ✒✘✌ ❞✘✏✠✎✌✡ ☛✠ ✒✘✌ t☛✠✌✒☛❞ ✏✠☞

✔✟✒✌✠✒☛✏✓ ✌✠✌✍✎☛✌✡ ❫

❴❵❛❜❯❝ ❢✠☛✒☛✏✓✓✕♦

❣❤

♠❦❧♣

qrs

✉✈✇①②③④ ⑤⑥②⑦ ①✈⑧⑨ ⑩⑦②❶⑥

❷❸❹❺❻ ❼❸❽❼❿❼❹ ❽➀❼ ➁➂❻➃❼ ❻➄❼ ➅❺❽➀ ❽➀❼ ➆❻➇❸➃➀❺❸➄ ➈➉ ❽➀❼ ➆➈➅ ➈❿➊❺❽ ➁❻❽❼➆➆❺❽❼ ➋❿➌❻➊➀❻❽❽❻ ❺❸➍➎➏➐➑ ❷❸ ❽➀❼ ➉❺❿➁❽

➉❼➅ ➌❼❻❿➁ ➈➉ ❺❽➁ ➂❿➈➄❿❻➒➒❼ ❽➀❼ ➆❻➇❸➃➀ ➓❼➀❺➃➆❼➁ ➅❼❿❼ ➂❿➈➓❺❹❼❹ ➊➌ ❽➀❼ ❼❿➁❽➅➀❺➆❼ ➔➈➓❺❼❽ →❸❺➈❸➑ ❷❸❹❺➄❼❸➈➇➁

➆❻➇❸➃➀ ➓❼➀❺➃➆❼➁ ➅❼❿❼ ❼➒➂➆➈➌❼❹ ❺❸ ❽➀❼ ❼❻❿➆➌ ➍➎➣↔↕➁ ❽➈ ➁❼❸❹ ❽➀❼ ➙➈➀❺❸❺ ➁❼❿❺❼➁ ➈➉ ➁❻❽❼➆➆❺❽❼➁ ❺❸❽➈ ➁➂❻➃❼➑

➛➀❼ ➂❿➈➄❿❻➒➒❼ ❽➈ ➁❼❸❹ ➂➈➆❻❿ ➁❻❽❼➆➆❺❽❼➁ ❺❸❽➈ ➁➂❻➃❼ ➊❼➄❻❸ ❺❸ ➆❻❽❼ ➍➎➣↔↕➁➑ ➋ ➁❼❿❺❼➁ ➈➉ ➁❻❽❼➆➆❺❽❼➁ ➆❻➊❼➆➆❼❹

❷➙➔ ➜❷❸❹❺❻❸ ➙❼➒➈❽❼ ➔❼❸➁❺❸➄ ➔❻❽❼➆➆❺❽❼➁➝ ➀❻➓❼ ➊❼❼❸ ➆❻➇❸➃➀❼❹ ❻❸❹ ❽➀❺➁ ➂❿➈➄❿❻➒➒❼ ❺➁ ❼➞➂❼➃❽❼❹ ❽➈ ➃➈❸❽❺❸➇❼

❺❸ ➉➇❽➇❿❼➑ ➛➀❼ ➁❻❽❼➆➆❺❽❼➁ ➀❻➓❼ ➊❼❼❸ ❼➒➂➆➈➌❼❹ ➉➈❿ ➁➇❿➓❼➌❺❸➄➟ ➅❼❻❽➀❼❿ ➂❿❼❹❺➃❽❺➈❸ ❻❸❹ ➉➈❿ ➃❻❿❿➌❺❸➄ ➈➇❽

❼➞➂❼❿❺➒❼❸❽➁ ❺❸ ➁➂❻➃❼➑ ➛➀❼ ❷➠➔➋➛ ➜❷❸❹❺❻❸ ➠❻❽❺➈❸❻➆ ➔❻❽❼➆➆❺❽❼➝ ➁❼❿❺❼➁ ➈➉ ➁❻❽❼➆➆❺❽❼➁ ➅❼❿❼ ❹❼➁❺➄❸❼❹ ❻❸❹

➒❻❹❼ ➈➂❼❿❻❽❺➈❸❻➆ ➉➈❿ ➃➈➒➒➇❸❺➃❻❽❺➈❸➁ ❻❸❹ ➅❼❻❽➀❼❿ ➂❿❼❹❺➃❽❺➈❸ ➂➇❿➂➈➁❼➁ ➊❼➄❺❸❸❺❸➄ ❺❸ ➍➎➣➡➑ ➢➇❿➈➂❼❻❸

➆❻➇❸➃➀ ➓❼➀❺➃➆❼➁ ➀❻➓❼ ➊❼❼❸ ❼➒➂➆➈➌❼❹ ❺❸ ❽➀❼ ❷➠➔➋➛ ➁❼❿❺❼➁➑ ❷❸❹❺❻ ❽❼➁❽❼❹ ❺❽➁ ➄❼➈➁❽❻❽❺➈❸❻❿➌ ➆❻➇❸➃➀ ➃❻➂❻➊❺➆❺❽➌

❺❸ ➡↔↔➍ ➅➀❼❸ ❺❽ ➁❼❸❽ ❻❸ ❼➞➂❼❿❺➒❼❸❽❻➆ ➃➈➒➒➇❸❺➃❻❽❺➈❸➁ ➁❻❽❼➆➆❺❽❼ ➜➤➔➋➛➥➍➝ ❺❸❽➈ ➁➂❻➃❼➑ ❷❸ ➍➎➣q ➙❻➦❼➁➀

➔➀❻❿➒❻ ➊❼➃❻➒❼ ❽➀❼ ➉❺❿➁❽ ❷❸❹❺❻❸ ❻➁❽❿➈❸❻➇❽➑ ➛➀❼ ❷❸❹❺❻❸ ➔➂❻➃❼ ➙❼➁❼❻❿➃➀ ➧❿➄❻❸❺➁❻❽❺➈❸ ➜❷➔➙➧➝ ❺➁ ❽➀❼

➇➒➊❿❼➆➆❻ ➈❿➄❻❸❺➁❻❽❺➈❸ ❽➀❻❽ ❿➇❸➁ ❻ ❸➇➒➊❼❿ ➈➉ ➃❼❸❽❿❼➑ ❷❽➁ ➒❻❺❸ ➆❻➇➃➀ ➃❼❸❽❿❼ ❻❽ ➔❿❺➀❻❿❺➦➈❽❻ ➜➔➨➋➙➝ ❺➁

➍↔↔ ➦➒ ❸➈❿❽➀ ➈➉ ➩➀❼❸❸❻❺➑ ➛➀❼ ➠❻❽❺➈❸❻➆ ➙❼➒➈❽❼ ➔❼❸➁❺❸➄ ➋➄❼❸➃➌ ➜➠➙➔➋➝ ❺➁ ❸❼❻❿ ➨➌❹❼❿❻➊❻❹➑ ❷❽➁ ❸❻❽❺➈❸❻➆

➃❼❸❽❿❼ ➉➈❿ ❿❼➁❼❻❿➃➀ ❺❸ ➁➂❻➃❼ ❻❸❹ ❻➆➆❺❼❹ ➁➃❺❼❸➃❼➁ ❺➁ ❽➀❼ ➫➀➌➁❺➃❻➆ ➙❼➁❼❻❿➃➀ ➭❻➊➈❿❻❽➈❿➌ ➜➫➙➭➝ ❻❽ ➋➀➒❼❹❻➊❻❹➑

❲✘☛✓✌ ✐☛✠✏✓✓✕

❣➯

♠❦❧♣

➣rs

❚✘✌ ❞✘✏✠✎✌ ☛✠ ✒✘✌ ✒✟✒✏✓ ✌✠✌✍✎✕ ☛✡

➲❇ ➳ ❇➵ ➸ ❇➺

➻➻ ➼➽

➽ ➾➚

➪➶

➚➪➶➹➹

➷➷

➮➱➱

✃❐❒❐❮❰❮Ï

❐❒❮Ð❰ÑÒ❒❒Ï❐❰Ó

Ï

ÔÕ

×Ö×××

ÖÖØ ÙÚÛÜÝ

❚✘✌ t☛✠✌✒☛❞ ✌✠✌✍✎✕ ☛✡ ✍✌☞✲❞✌☞ ✏✠☞ ☛✒ ✜☛✜☛❞✡

➲❇♦ ✠✏✜✌✓✕♦ ➲❑ ➳ ❑➵ Þ ❑➺ ➳ Þ ß✪✬ß à ✬❩áâ✪

❚✘✌ ❞✘✏✠✎✌ ☛✠ ✔✟✒✌✠✒☛✏✓ ✌✠✌✍✎✕ ☛✡ ✒✱☛❞✌ ✒✘✌

❞✘✏✠✎✌ ☛✠ ✒✘✌ ✒✟✒✏✓ ✌✠✌✍✎✕♦ ✠✏✜✌✓✕

➲ã ➳ ã➵ Þ ã➺ ➳ Þ ä✪❅å à ✬❩áâ æ

çèéé êëìíîïîðìñïòó ïñô õìöïò

íïîëööðîëí

❨✠ ☛✠✒✌✍✌✡✒☛✠✎ ✔✘✌✠✟✜✌✠✟✠ ✏✍☛✡✌✡ ☛✐ ☛✠ ✱✌

✏✍✍✏✠✎✌ ✒✘✌ ✑✏✓✲✌ ✟✐ ✙❬÷ø ù✛ ✡✲❞✘ ✒✘✏✒ ú ☛✠

✯❪✪ ✙✩✪ßû✛ ✖✌❞✟✜✌✡ ✌❪✲✏✓ ✒✟ ❅✫ ✘✟✲✍✡✪ ❢✐ ✒✘✌

❞☛✍❞✲✓✏✍ ✟✍✖☛✒ ☛✡ ☛✠ ✒✘✌ ✌❪✲✏✒✟✍☛✏✓ ✔✓✏✠✌ ✟✐ ✒✘✌

✌✏✍✒✘♦ ✡✲❞✘ ✏ ✡✏✒✌✓✓☛✒✌♦ ✘✏✑☛✠✎ ✒✘✌ ✡✏✜✌ ✔✌✍☛✟☞

✏✡ ✒✘✌ ✔✌✍☛✟☞ ✟✐ ✍✟✒✏✒☛✟✠ ✟✐ ✒✘✌ ✌✏✍✒✘ ✏✖✟✲✒ ☛✒✡

✟✱✠ ✏❋☛✡ ✱✟✲✓☞ ✏✔✔✌✏✍ ✡✒✏✒☛✟✠✌✍✕ ✑☛✌✱✌☞ ✐✍✟✜

✏ ✔✟☛✠✒ ✟✠ ✌✏✍✒✘✪ ❚✘✌ ✙❬Eø ù✛ ✐✟✍ ✒✘☛✡ ✔✲✍✔✟✡✌

✱✟✍t✡ ✟✲✒ ✒✟ ✖✌ ✓✏✍✎✌ ✏✡ ❞✟✜✔✏✍✌☞ ✒✟ ❬Eü

ýþÿ✷

✷✹❊

❊❚ � ▼

❘ ✁☎

✌ ✂✰ ✄ ✎ ✆

✑ ✝✙✩✪✫ß✛

✏✠☞ ✐✟✍ ú ✥ ❅✫✘✟✲✍✡♦ ù ✱✟✍t✡ ✟✲✒ ✒✟ ✖✌ßå✩❩❩t✜✪✱✘☛❞✘ ☛✡ ✜✲❞✘ ✓✏✍✎✌✍ ✒✘✏✠ ❬÷✪ ■✏✒✌✓✓☛✒✌✡ ☛✠ ✏

❞☛✍❞✲✓✏✍ ✟✍✖☛✒✡ ✏✍✟✲✠☞ ✒✘✌ ✌✏✍✒✘ ☛✠ ✒✘✌

Page 201: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

●�✁❱✂✄✁✄✂❆☎ ✶✆✝

❡✞✟✠✡☛☞✌✠✍ ✎✍✠✏❡ ✑✌✡✒ ❚ ✥ ✓✔ ✒☛✟☞✕ ✠☞❡ ✖✠✍✍❡✗

✘❡☛✕✡✠✡✌☛✏❡☞✙ ✚✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡✕✛ ✜✍❡✠☞✍✙✢ ✕✌✏✖❡ ✡✒❡ ❡✠☞✡✒

☞☛✡✠✡❡✕ ✑✌✡✒ ✡✒❡ ✕✠♦❡ ✎❡☞✌☛✗✢ ✡✒❡ ✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡ ✑☛✟✍✗

✠✎✎❡✠☞ ❛✌✣❡✗ ❛☞☛♦ ✠✏✙ ✎☛✌✏✡ ☛✏ ❡✠☞✡✒✛ ✤✡ ✡✠✦❡✕

✈❡☞✙ ✎☛✑❡☞❛✟✍ ☞☛✖✦❡✡✕ ✡☛ ✡✒☞☛✑ ✟✎ ✠ ✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡ ✡☛

✕✟✖✒ ✍✠☞s❡ ✒❡✌s✒✡✕ ✠✧☛✈❡ ✡✒❡ ❡✠☞✡✒ ✧✟✡ ✡✒✌✕ ✒✠✕

✧❡❡✏ ✗☛✏❡ ✌✏ ✈✌❡✑ ☛❛ ✡✒❡ ✕❡✈❡☞✠✍ ✧❡✏❡❛✌✡✕ ☛❛ ♦✠✏✙

✎☞✠✖✡✌✖✠✍ ✠✎✎✍✌✖✠✡✌☛✏✕✛

✤✡ ✌✕ ✦✏☛✑✏ ✡✒✠✡ ❡✍❡✖✡☞☛♦✠s✏❡✡✌✖ ✑✠✈❡✕ ✠✧☛✈❡

✠ ✖❡☞✡✠✌✏ ❛☞❡✞✟❡✏✖✙ ✠☞❡ ✏☛✡ ☞❡❛✍❡✖✡❡✗ ❛☞☛♦

✌☛✏☛✕✎✒❡☞❡✛ ✐✠✗✌☛ ✑✠✈❡✕ ✟✕❡✗ ❛☛☞ ☞✠✗✌☛

✧☞☛✠✗✖✠✕✡ ✑✒✌✖✒ ✠☞❡ ✌✏ ✡✒❡ ❛☞❡✞✟❡✏✖✙ ☞✠✏s❡ ✓

▼★✩ ✡☛ ✪✫▼★✩✢ ✠☞❡ ✧❡✍☛✑ ✡✒❡ ✖☞✌✡✌✖✠✍ ❛☞❡✞✟❡✏✖✙✛

✬✒❡✙ ✠☞❡ ✡✒❡☞❡❛☛☞❡ ☞❡❛✍❡✖✡❡✗ ✧✙ ✡✒❡ ✌☛✏☛✕✎✒❡☞❡✛

✬✒✟✕ ☞✠✗✌☛ ✑✠✈❡✕ ✧☞☛✠✗✖✠✕✡ ❛☞☛♦ ✠✏ ✠✏✡❡✏✏✠

✖✠✏ ✧❡ ☞❡✖❡✌✈❡✗ ✠✡ ✎☛✌✏✡✕ ❛✠☞ ✠✑✠✙ ✑✒❡☞❡ ✡✒❡

✗✌☞❡✖✡ ✑✠✈❡ ❛✠✌✍ ✡☛ ☞❡✠✖✒ ☛✏ ✠✖✖☛✟✏✡ ☛❛ ✡✒❡

✖✟☞✈✠✡✟☞❡ ☛❛ ✡✒❡ ❡✠☞✡✒✛ ❝✠✈❡✕ ✟✕❡✗ ✌✏ ✡❡✍❡✈✌✕✌☛✏

✧☞☛✠✗✖✠✕✡ ☛☞ ☛✡✒❡☞ ❛☛☞♦✕ ☛❛ ✖☛♦♦✟✏✌✖✠✡✌☛✏ ✒✠✈❡

♦✟✖✒ ✒✌s✒❡☞ ❛☞❡✞✟❡✏✖✌❡✕ ✠✏✗ ✡✒✟✕ ✖✠✏✏☛✡ ✧❡

☞❡✖❡✌✈❡✗ ✧❡✙☛✏✗ ✡✒❡ ✍✌✏❡ ☛❛ ✕✌s✒✡✛ ✭

✘❡☛✕✡✠✡✌☛✏❡☞✙ ✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡✢ ✠✎✎❡✠☞✌✏s ❛✌✣❡✗ ✠✧☛✈❡ ✡✒❡

✧☞☛✠✗✖✠✕✡✌✏s ✕✡✠✡✌☛✏ ✖✠✏ ✒☛✑❡✈❡☞ ☞❡✖❡✌✈❡ ✡✒❡✕❡

✕✌s✏✠✍✕ ✠✏✗ ✧☞☛✠✗✖✠✕✡ ✡✒❡♦ ✧✠✖✦ ✡☛ ✠ ✑✌✗❡ ✠☞❡✠

☛✏ ❡✠☞✡✒✛ ✬✒❡ ✤✮✚✭✬ s☞☛✟✎ ☛❛ ✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡✕ ✕❡✏✡ ✟✎

✧✙ ✤✏✗✌✠ ✠☞❡ ☛✏❡ ✕✟✖✒ s☞☛✟✎ ☛❛ ✘❡☛✕✡✠✡✌☛✏✠☞✙

✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡✕ ✑✌✗❡✍✙ ✟✕❡✗ ❛☛☞ ✡❡✍❡✖☛♦♦✟✏✌✖✠✡✌☛✏✕ ✌✏

✤✏✗✌✠✛

✭✏☛✡✒❡☞ ✖✍✠✕✕ ☛❛ ✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡✕ ✠☞❡ ✖✠✍✍❡✗ ✡✒❡ ✯☛✍✠☞

✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡✕ ✰✱✌s✛ ✲✛✪✪✳✛ ✬✒❡✕❡ ✠☞❡ ✍☛✑ ✠✍✡✌✡✟✗❡ ✰❤ ✴

✺✫✫ ✡☛ ✲✫✫ ✦♦✳ ✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡✕✢ ✧✟✡ ✡✒❡✙ s☛ ✠☞☛✟✏✗

✡✒❡ ✎☛✍❡✕ ☛❛ ✡✒❡ ❡✠☞✡✒ ✌✏ ✠ ✏☛☞✡✒t✕☛✟✡✒ ✗✌☞❡✖✡✌☛✏

✑✒❡☞❡✠✕ ✡✒❡ ❡✠☞✡✒ ☞☛✡✠✡❡✕ ✠☞☛✟✏✗ ✌✡✕ ✠✣✌✕ ✌✏ ✠✏

❡✠✕✡t✑❡✕✡ ✗✌☞❡✖✡✌☛✏✛ ✚✌✏✖❡ ✌✡✕ ✡✌♦❡ ✎❡☞✌☛✗ ✌✕

✠☞☛✟✏✗ ✪✫✫♦✌✏✟✡❡✕ ✌✡ ✖☞☛✕✕❡✕ ✠✏✙ ✠✍✡✌✡✟✗❡♦✠✏✙

✡✌♦❡✕ ✠ ✗✠✙✛ ★☛✑❡✈❡☞✢ ✕✌✏✖❡ ✌✡✕ ✒❡✌s✒✡ ✒ ✠✧☛✈❡

✡✒❡ ❡✠☞✡✒ ✌✕ ✠✧☛✟✡ ✺✫✫t✲✫✫ ✦♦✢ ✠ ✖✠♦❡☞✠ ❛✌✣❡✗

☛✏ ✌✡ ✖✠✏ ✈✌❡✑ ☛✏✍✙ ✕♦✠✍✍ ✕✡☞✌✎✕ ☛❛ ✡✒❡ ❡✠☞✡✒ ✌✏

☛✏❡ ☛☞✧✌✡✛ ✭✗✵✠✖❡✏✡ ✕✡☞✌✎✕ ✠☞❡ ✈✌❡✑❡✗ ✌✏ ✡✒❡ ✏❡✣✡

☛☞✧✌✡✢ ✕☛ ✡✒✠✡ ✌✏ ❡❛❛❡✖✡ ✡✒❡ ✑✒☛✍❡ ❡✠☞✡✒ ✖✠✏ ✧❡

✈✌❡✑❡✗ ✕✡☞✌✎ ✧✙ ✕✡☞✌✎ ✗✟☞✌✏s ✡✒❡ ❡✏✡✌☞❡ ✗✠✙✛ ✬✒❡✕❡

✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡✕ ✖✠✏ ✈✌❡✑ ✎☛✍✠☞ ✠✏✗ ❡✞✟✠✡☛☞✌✠✍ ☞❡s✌☛✏✕

✠✡ ✖✍☛✕❡ ✗✌✕✡✠✏✖❡✕ ✑✌✡✒ s☛☛✗ ☞❡✕☛✍✟✡✌☛✏✛

✤✏❛☛☞♦✠✡✌☛✏ s✠✡✒❡☞❡✗ ❛☞☛♦ ✕✟✖✒ ✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡✕

✌✕ ❡✣✡☞❡♦❡✍✙ ✟✕❡❛✟✍ ❛☛☞ ☞❡♦☛✡❡ ✕❡✏✕✌✏s✢

♦❡✡❡☞☛✍☛s✙ ✠✕ ✑❡✍✍ ✠✕ ❛☛☞ ❡✏✈✌☞☛✏♦❡✏✡✠✍ ✕✡✟✗✌❡✕

☛❛ ✡✒❡ ❡✠☞✡✒✛

✽✷✸✹ ❲✻✼✾✿❀❁✻❂❂❃✻❂❂

❝❡✌s✒✡ ☛❛ ✠✏ ☛✧✵❡✖✡ ✌✕ ✡✒❡ ❛☛☞✖❡ ✑✌✡✒ ✑✒✌✖✒ ✡✒❡

❡✠☞✡✒ ✠✡✡☞✠✖✡✕ ✌✡✛ ❝❡ ✠☞❡ ✖☛✏✕✖✌☛✟✕ ☛❛ ☛✟☞ ☛✑✏

✑❡✌s✒✡ ✑✒❡✏ ✑❡ ✕✡✠✏✗ ☛✏ ✠ ✕✟☞❛✠✖❡✢ ✕✌✏✖❡ ✡✒❡

✕✟☞❛✠✖❡ ❡✣❡☞✡✕ ✠ ❛☛☞✖❡ ☛✎✎☛✕✌✡❡ ✡☛ ☛✟☞ ✑❡✌s✒✡ ✡☛

✦❡❡✎ ✟✕ ✠✡ ☞❡✕✡✛ ✬✒❡ ✕✠♦❡ ✎☞✌✏✖✌✎✍❡ ✒☛✍✗✕ s☛☛✗

✑✒❡✏ ✑❡ ♦❡✠✕✟☞❡ ✡✒❡ ✑❡✌s✒✡ ☛❛ ✠✏ ☛✧✵❡✖✡ ✧✙ ✠

✕✎☞✌✏s ✧✠✍✠✏✖❡ ✒✟✏s ❛☞☛♦ ✠ ❛✌✣❡✗ ✎☛✌✏✡ ❡✛s✛ ✡✒❡

✖❡✌✍✌✏s✛ ✬✒❡ ☛✧✵❡✖✡ ✑☛✟✍✗ ❛✠✍✍ ✗☛✑✏ ✟✏✍❡✕✕ ✌✡ ✌✕

✕✟✧✵❡✖✡ ✡☛ ✠ ❛☛☞✖❡ ☛✎✎☛✕✌✡❡ ✡☛ s☞✠✈✌✡✙✛ ✬✒✌✕ ✌✕

❡✣✠✖✡✍✙ ✑✒✠✡ ✡✒❡ ✕✎☞✌✏s ❡✣❡☞✡✕ ☛✏ ✡✒❡ ☛✧✵❡✖✡✛ ✬✒✌✕

✌✕ ✧❡✖✠✟✕❡ ✡✒❡ ✕✎☞✌✏s ✌✕ ✎✟✍✍❡✗ ✗☛✑✏ ✠ ✍✌✡✡✍❡ ✧✙

✡✒❡ s☞✠✈✌✡✠✡✌☛✏✠✍ ✎✟✍✍ ☛❛ ✡✒❡ ☛✧✵❡✖✡ ✠✏✗ ✌✏ ✡✟☞✏

✡✒❡ ✕✎☞✌✏s ❡✣❡☞✡✕ ✠ ❛☛☞✖❡ ☛✏ ✡✒❡ ☛✧✵❡✖✡ ✈❡☞✡✌✖✠✍✍✙

✟✎✑✠☞✗✕✛

✮☛✑✢ ✌♦✠s✌✏❡ ✡✒✠✡ ✡✒❡ ✡☛✎ ❡✏✗ ☛❛ ✡✒❡ ✧✠✍✠✏✖❡

✌✕ ✏☛ ✍☛✏s❡☞ ✒❡✍✗ ❛✌✣❡✗ ✡☛ ✡✒❡ ✡☛✎ ✖❡✌✍✌✏s ☛❛ ✡✒❡

☞☛☛♦✛ ❄☛✡✒ ❡✏✗✕ ☛❛ ✡✒❡ ✕✎☞✌✏s ✠✕ ✑❡✍✍ ✠✕ ✡✒❡

☛✧✵❡✖✡ ♦☛✈❡ ✑✌✡✒ ✌✗❡✏✡✌✖✠✍ ✠✖✖❡✍❡☞✠✡✌☛✏ ❣✛ ✬✒❡

✕✎☞✌✏s ✌✕ ✏☛✡ ✕✡☞❡✡✖✒❡✗ ✠✏✗ ✗☛❡✕ ✏☛✡ ❡✣❡☞✡ ✠✏✙

✟✎✑✠☞✗ ❛☛☞✖❡ ☛✏ ✡✒❡ ☛✧✵❡✖✡ ✑✒✌✖✒ ✌✕♦☛✈✌✏s✗☛✑✏

✑✌✡✒ ✠✖✖❡✍❡☞✠✡✌☛✏ ❣ ✗✟❡ ✡☛ s☞✠✈✌✡✙✛ ✬✒❡ ☞❡✠✗✌✏s

☞❡✖☛☞✗❡✗ ✌✏ ✡✒❡ ✕✎☞✌✏s ✧✠✍✠✏✖❡ ✌✕ ✩❡☞☛ ✕✌✏✖❡ ✡✒❡

✕✎☞✌✏s ✌✕ ✏☛✡ ✕✡☞❡✡✖✒❡✗ ✠✡ ✠✍✍✛ ✤❛ ✡✒❡ ☛✧✵❡✖✡ ✑❡☞❡

✠ ✒✟♦✠✏ ✧❡✌✏s✢ ✒❡ ☛☞ ✕✒❡ ✑✌✍✍ ✏☛✡ ❛❡❡✍ ✒✌✕ ✑❡✌s✒✡

✕✌✏✖❡ ✡✒❡☞❡ ✌✕ ✏☛ ✟✎✑✠☞✗ ❛☛☞✖❡ ☛✏ ✒✌♦✛ ✬✒✟✕✢

✑✒❡✏ ✠✏ ☛✧✵❡✖✡ ✌✕ ✌✏ ❛☞❡❡ ❛✠✍✍✢ ✌✡ ✌✕ ✑❡✌s✒✡✍❡✕✕

✠✏✗ ✡✒✌✕ ✎✒❡✏☛♦❡✏☛✏ ✌✕ ✟✕✟✠✍✍✙ ✖✠✍✍❡✗ ✡✒❡

✎✒❡✏☛♦❡✏☛✏ ☛❛ ✑❡✌s✒✡✍❡✕✕✏❡✕✕✛

✤✏ ✠ ✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡ ✠☞☛✟✏✗ ✡✒❡ ❡✠☞✡✒✢ ❡✈❡☞✙ ✎✠☞✡

✠✏✗ ✎✠☞✖❡✍ ☛❛ ✡✒❡ ✕✠✡❡✍✍✌✡❡ ✒✠✕ ✠✏ ✠✖✖❡✍❡☞✠✡✌☛✏

✡☛✑✠☞✗✕ ✡✒❡ ✖❡✏✡❡☞ ☛❛ ✡✒❡ ❡✠☞✡✒ ✑✒✌✖✒ ✌✕ ❡✣✠✖✡✍✙

❋❅❇❈ ❉❈❊❊ ❍ ■❏❑▲◆ ❖▲P◗❑❑❘P◗❙ ❍ ❖P◆❘❯ ❏❳ ◗▲◆P❨❩❖ ❖❬◆❢▲❭◗

❪❖❨❏❫❳ ❖❨▲❴◗❴❵ ❘❖ ❜❘❖❘❞❑◗ ❢◆❏❥ P❨◗ ❖▲P◗❑❑❘P◗

❴❬◆❘❳❦ ❏❳◗ ❭❧❭❑◗❙ ♠❏◆ P❨◗ ❳◗♥P ◆◗❜❏❑❬P❘❏❳ ❏❢

P❨◗ ❖▲P◗❑❑❘P◗♣ P❨◗ ◗▲◆P❨ ❨▲❖ ◆❏P▲P◗❴ ▲ ❑❘PP❑◗

❏❳ ❘P❖ ▲♥❘❖ ❖❏ P❨▲P ▲❳ ▲❴q▲❭◗❳P ❖P◆❘❯ ❞◗❭❏❥◗❖

❜❘❖❘❞❑◗❙

Page 202: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✶�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❙✞✟✟✠✡❨

☛☞ ◆✌✍✎✏✑✒✓ ✔✕✍ ✏✖ ✗✑✘✙✌✚✓✕✔ ✛✚✕✙✘✎✕✎✘✏✑ ✓✎✕✎✌✓ ✎✜✕✎ ✎✜✌ ✛✚✕✙✘✎✕✎✘✏✑✕✔ ✖✏✚✢✌ ✏✖ ✕✎✎✚✕✢✎✘✏✑❜✌✎✍✌✌✑ ✕✑✣ ✎✍✏ ✤✕✚✎✘✢✔✌✓ ✏✖ ✥✕✓✓✌✓ ♠✦ ✕✑❛ ♠✷ ✓✌✤✕✚✕✎✌❛ ❜✣ ✕ ❛✘✓✎✕✑✢✌ r ✜✕✓ ✎✜✌✥✕✛✑✘✎✗❛✌

❋ ✧★ ★

✩✪❂ ✫ ✬

✍✜✌✚✌ ● ✘✓ ✎✜✌ ✗✑✘✙✌✚✓✕✔ ✛✚✕✙✘✎✕✎✘✏✑✕✔ ✢✏✑✓✎✕✑✎✐ ✍✜✘✢✜ ✜✕✓ ✎✜✌ ✙✕✔✗✌ ✭☞✭✮✯ ×☛✰➊✱✱ ◆ ✥✲ ✳✛➊✲☞✯☞ ■✖ ✍✌ ✜✕✙✌ ✎✏ ✖✘✑❛ ✎✜✌ ✚✌✓✗✔✎✕✑✎ ✛✚✕✙✘✎✕✎✘✏✑✕✔ ✖✏✚✢✌ ✕✢✎✘✑✛ ✏✑ ✎✜✌ ✤✕✚✎✘✢✔✌ ✥ ❛✗✌ ✎✏ ✕✑✗✥❜✌✚ ✏✖ ✥✕✓✓✌✓ ▼✦✐ ▼✷✐✴☞▼♥ ✌✎✢☞ ✍✌ ✗✓✌ ✎✜✌ ✤✚✘✑✢✘✤✔✌ ✏✖ ✓✗✤✌✚✤✏✓✘✎✘✏✑☞ ❡✌✎ ✵✦✐ ✵✷✐✴☞✵♥❜✌ ✎✜✌ ✘✑❛✘✙✘❛✗✕✔ ✖✏✚✢✌✓ ❛✗✌ ✎✏ ▼✦✐ ▼✷✐✴☞▼♥✸ ✌✕✢✜ ✛✘✙✌✑ ❜✣ ✎✜✌ ✔✕✍ ✏✖ ✛✚✕✙✘✎✕✎✘✏✑☞ ❣✚✏✥✎✜✌ ✤✚✘✑✢✘✤✔✌ ✏✖ ✓✗✤✌✚✤✏✓✘✎✘✏✑ ✌✕✢✜ ✖✏✚✢✌ ✕✢✎✓ ✘✑❛✌✤✌✑❛✌✑✎✔✣ ✕✑❛ ✗✑✘✑✖✔✗✌✑✢✌❛ ❜✣ ✎✜✌✏✎✜✌✚ ❜✏❛✘✌✓☞ ♦✜✌ ✚✌✓✗✔✎✕✑✎ ✖✏✚✢✌ ✵❘ ✘✓ ✎✜✌✑ ✖✏✗✑❛ ❜✣ ✙✌✢✎✏✚ ✕❛❛✘✎✘✏✑

✵❘ ✹ ✵✦ ✺ ✵✷✺✴✴✺✵♥ ✹ Fii

n

✻✼

1

✍✜✌✚✌ ✎✜✌ ✓✣✥❜✏✔ ✽✾✒ ✓✎✕✑❛✓ ✖✏✚ ✓✗✥✥✕✎✘✏✑☞

✿☞ ❑✌✤✔✌✚✒✓ ✔✕✍✓ ✏✖ ✤✔✕✑✌✎✕✚✣ ✥✏✎✘✏✑ ✓✎✕✎✌ ✎✜✕✎❀✕❁ ❆✔✔ ✤✔✕✑✌✎✓ ✥✏✙✌ ✘✑ ✌✔✔✘✤✎✘✢✕✔ ✏✚❜✘✎✓ ✍✘✎✜ ✎✜✌ ❃✗✑ ✕✎ ✏✑✌ ✏✖ ✎✜✌ ✖✏✢✕✔ ✤✏✘✑✎✓❀❜❁ ♦✜✌ ✚✕❛✘✗✓ ✙✌✢✎✏✚ ❛✚✕✍✑ ✖✚✏✥ ✎✜✌ ✓✗✑ ✎✏ ✕ ✤✔✕✑✌✎ ✓✍✌✌✤✓ ✏✗✎ ✌❚✗✕✔ ✕✚✌✕✓ ✘✑ ✌❚✗✕✔✎✘✥✌ ✘✑✎✌✚✙✕✔✓☞ ♦✜✘✓ ✖✏✔✔✏✍✓ ✖✚✏✥ ✎✜✌ ✖✕✢✎ ✎✜✕✎ ✎✜✌ ✖✏✚✢✌ ✏✖ ✛✚✕✙✘✎✕✎✘✏✑ ✏✑ ✎✜✌ ✤✔✕✑✌✎ ✘✓✢✌✑✎✚✕✔ ✕✑❛ ✜✌✑✢✌ ✕✑✛✗✔✕✚ ✥✏✥✌✑✎✗✥ ✘✓ ✢✏✑✓✌✚✙✌❛☞

❀✢❁ ♦✜✌ ✓❚✗✕✚✌ ✏✖ ✎✜✌ ✏✚❜✘✎✕✔ ✤✌✚✘✏❛ ✏✖ ✕ ✤✔✕✑✌✎ ✘✓ ✤✚✏✤✏✚✎✘✏✑✕✔ ✎✏ ✎✜✌ ✢✗❜✌ ✏✖ ✎✜✌ ✓✌✥✘❄✥✕❅✏✚ ✕❇✘✓ ✏✖ ✎✜✌ ✌✔✔✘✤✎✘✢✕✔ ✏✚❜✘✎ ✏✖ ✎✜✌ ✤✔✕✑✌✎

♦✜✌ ✤✌✚✘✏❛ ❈ ✕✑❛ ✚✕❛✘✗✓ ❉ ✏✖ ✎✜✌ ✢✘✚✢✗✔✕✚ ✏✚❜✘✎ ✏✖ ✕ ✤✔✕✑✌✎ ✕❜✏✗✎ ✎✜✌ ❃✗✑ ✕✚✌ ✚✌✔✕✎✌❛❜✣

❊❍

❍ ❏▲

❖◗❯

s ❱❱❲

❳❩❩❬

❭ ❪❫

✍✜✌✚✌ ▼❴ ✘✓ ✎✜✌ ✥✕✓✓ ✏✖ ✎✜✌ ❃✗✑☞ ❵✏✓✎ ✤✔✕✑✌✎✓ ✜✕✙✌ ✑✌✕✚✔✣ ✢✘✚✢✗✔✕✚ ✏✚❜✘✎✓ ✕❜✏✗✎ ✎✜✌❃✗✑☞ ❣✏✚ ✌✔✔✘✤✎✘✢✕✔ ✏✚❜✘✎✓✐ ✎✜✌ ✕❜✏✙✌ ✌❚✗✕✎✘✏✑ ✘✓ ✙✕✔✘❛ ✘✖ ❉ ✘✓ ✚✌✤✔✕✢✌❛ ❜✣ ✎✜✌ ✓✌✥✘❄✥✕❅✏✚✕❇✘✓✐ ❝☞

❞☞ ♦✜✌ ✕✢✢✌✔✌✚✕✎✘✏✑ ❛✗✌ ✎✏ ✛✚✕✙✘✎✣☞❀✕❁ ✕✎ ✕ ✜✌✘✛✜✎ ❤ ✕❜✏✙✌ ✎✜✌ ❢✕✚✎✜✒✓ ✓✗✚✖✕✢✌

❥ ❦❧♣ q t

t

✉ ✈✇ ①

② ①③

⑤⑥

⑦⑧

⑧⑧

⑨ ⑩ ❶

❷❷

❸ ❹❺ ❻❼ ❽❾ ❿

✖✏✚ ❤ ➀➀ ❉➁

➂ ➃ ➂ ➃ ❧➄

♣ q ➅ ➆ ➇➈➉➋➉ ➅ t

t t

✉ ✈①✇ ① ✇ ✇

② ②

➌ ➍③ ➎ ③➏ ➐➑ ➒

➓➔→ ➣↔↕➙→ ➛➜ →↔➝➓➔➞➟ ↔➠➠→↕→➝↔➓➡➛➢ ➤➙→ ➓➛ ➥➝↔➣➡➓➦↔➓ ➓➔↔➓ ➧➛➟➡➓➡➛➢➨ ➩➔➙➟ ➡➢ ➓➔→ ➟↔➓→↕↕➡➓→ →➣→➝➦➓➔➡➢➥➡➢➟➡➤→ ➡➓ ➡➟ ➡➢ ↔ ➟➓↔➓→ ➛➜ ➜➝→→ ➜↔↕↕➨ ➩➔➡➟ ➡➟ ➫➙➟➓ ↔➟➡➜ ➭→ ➭→➝→ ➜↔↕↕➡➢➥ ➓➛➭↔➝➤➟ ➓➔→ →↔➝➓➔ ➜➝➛➯↔ ➔→➡➥➔➓➨➩➔➙➟➲ ➡➢ ↔ ➯↔➢➢→➤ ➟↔➓→↕↕➡➓→➲ ➧→➛➧↕→ ➡➢➟➡➤→

→➳➧→➝➡→➢➠→ ➢➛ ➥➝↔➣➡➓➦➨ ➵➝↔➣➡➓➦ ➜➛➝ ➙➟ ➤→➜➡➢→➟ ➓➔→➣→➝➓➡➠↔↕ ➤➡➝→➠➓➡➛➢ ↔➢➤ ➓➔➙➟ ➜➛➝ ➓➔→➯ ➓➔→➝→ ↔➝→ ➢➛➔➛➝➡➸➛➢➓↔↕ ➛➝ ➣→➝➓➡➠↔↕ ➤➡➝→➠➓➡➛➢➟➲ ↔↕↕ ➤➡➝→➠➓➡➛➢➟ ↔➝→➓➔→ ➟↔➯→➨ ➺➡➠➓➙➝→➟ ➛➜ ↔➟➓➝➛➢↔➙➓➟ ➜↕➛↔➓➡➢➥ ➡➢ ↔➟↔➓→↕↕➡➓→ ➝→➜↕→➠➓ ➟➔➛➭ ➓➔➡➟ ➜↔➠➓➨

Page 203: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

●�✁❱✂✄✁✄✂❆☎ ✶✆✆

✭✝✞ ✟✠ ✡☛☞✠✌ ❞ ✝☛✥✍✎ ✠✌☛ ✏✟✑✠✌✒✓ ✓✔✑❢✟✕☛ ✖✓

✗ ✮ ✗ ✮✷ ✘ ✵ ✘❊

❊ ❊❊

✙ ✚ ✛ ✛❣ ✛ ❣

❘ ❘❘

✜ ✢ ✜ ✢❂ ✣ ❂ ✣✤ ✦ ✤ ✦✧ ★ ✧ ★

✺✩ ❚✌☛ ✪✑✟✫✖✠✟✠✖✍✬✟✥ ❢✍✑✕☛ ✖✓ ✟ ✕✍✬✓☛✑✫✟✠✖✫☛ ❢✍✑✕☛✯ ✟✬✡ ✠✌☛✑☛❢✍✑☛ ✟ ☞✍✠☛✬✠✖✟✥ ☛✬☛✑✪t ❢✔✬✕✠✖✍✬

✕✟✬ ✝☛ ✡☛❢✖✬☛✡✩ ❚✌☛ ✰✱✲✳✴✸✲✸✴✹✻✲✼ ✽✹✸✾✻✸✴✲✼ ✾✻✾✱✰✿ ✟✓✓✍✕✖✟✠☛✡ ✎✖✠✌ ✠✎✍ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛✓ ✓☛☞✟✑✟✠☛✡✝t ✟ ✡✖✓✠✟✬✕☛ ✱ ✖✓ ✪✖✫☛✬ ✝t

r

♠♠❀❁ ❃❄❾❅

✎✌☛✑☛ ❇ ✖✓ ✠✟✐☛✬ ✠✍ ✝☛ ❈☛✑✍ ✟✠ ✱ ❉❋✩ ❚✌☛ ✠✍✠✟✥ ☞✍✠☛✬✠✖✟✥ ☛✬☛✑✪t ❢✍✑ ✟ ✓t✓✠☛❍ ✍❢ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛✓✖✓ ✠✌☛ ✓✔❍ ✍❢ ☛✬☛✑✪✖☛✓ ❢✍✑ ✟✥✥ ☞✟✖✑✓ ✍❢ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛✓✯ ✎✖✠✌ ☛✟✕✌ ☞✟✖✑ ✑☛☞✑☛✓☛✬✠☛✡ ✝t ✟ ✠☛✑❍ ✍❢

✠✌☛ ❢✍✑❍ ✪✖✫☛✬ ✝t ✟✝✍✫☛ ☛■✔✟✠✖✍✬✩ ❚✌✖✓ ☞✑☛✓✕✑✖☞✠✖✍✬ ❢✍✥✥✍✎✓ ❢✑✍❍ ✠✌☛ ☞✑✖✬✕✖☞✥☛ ✍❢✓✔☞☛✑☞✍✓✖✠✖✍✬✩

❏✩ ❑❢ ✟✬ ✖✓✍✥✟✠☛✡ ✓t✓✠☛❍ ✕✍✬✓✖✓✠✓ ✍❢ ✟ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛ ✍❢ ❍✟✓✓ ▲ ❍✍✫✖✬✪ ✎✖✠✌ ✟ ✓☞☛☛✡ ✳ ✖✬ ✠✌☛

✫✖✕✖✬✖✠t ✍❢ ✟ ❍✟✓✓✖✫☛ ✝✍✡t ✍❢ ❍✟✓✓ ▼✯ ✠✌☛ ✠✍✠✟✥ ❍☛✕✌✟✬✖✕✟✥ ☛✬☛✑✪t ✍❢ ✠✌☛ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛ ✖✓ ✪✖✫☛✬ ✝t

❖P◗✈❖❙

❲ ❳❨❩

❚✌✟✠ ✖✓✯ ✠✌☛ ✠✍✠✟✥ ❍☛✕✌✟✬✖✕✟✥ ☛✬☛✑✪t ✖✓ ✠✌☛ ✓✔❍ ✍❢ ✠✌☛ ✐✖✬☛✠✖✕ ✟✬✡ ☞✍✠☛✬✠✖✟✥ ☛✬☛✑✪✖☛✓✩❚✌☛ ✠✍✠✟✥ ☛✬☛✑✪t ✖✓ ✟ ✕✍✬✓✠✟✬✠ ✍❢ ❍✍✠✖✍✬✩

❬✩ ❑❢ ▲ ❍✍✫☛✓ ✖✬ ✟ ✕✖✑✕✔✥✟✑ ✍✑✝✖✠ ✍❢ ✑✟✡✖✔✓ ✲ ✟✝✍✔✠ ▼✯ ✎✌☛✑☛ ▼ ❭❭ ▲✯ ✠✌☛ ✠✍✠✟✥ ☛✬☛✑✪t ✍❢ ✠✌☛✓t✓✠☛❍ ✖✓

❖P◗❙

❯❨❩

✎✖✠✌ ✠✌☛ ✕✌✍✖✕☛ ✍❢ ✠✌☛ ✟✑✝✖✠✑✟✑t ✕✍✬✓✠✟✬✠ ✖✬ ✠✌☛ ☞✍✠☛✬✠✖✟✥ ☛✬☛✑✪t ✪✖✫☛✬ ✖✬ ✠✌☛ ☞✍✖✬✠ ✺✩✯✟✝✍✫☛✩ ❚✌☛ ✠✍✠✟✥ ☛✬☛✑✪t ✖✓ ✬☛✪✟✠✖✫☛ ❢✍✑ ✟✬t ✝✍✔✬✡ ✓t✓✠☛❍✯ ✠✌✟✠ ✖✓✯ ✍✬☛ ✖✬ ✎✌✖✕✌ ✠✌☛ ✍✑✝✖✠✖✓ ✕✥✍✓☛✡✯ ✓✔✕✌ ✟✓ ✟✬ ☛✥✥✖☞✠✖✕✟✥ ✍✑✝✖✠✩ ❚✌☛ ✐✖✬☛✠✖✕ ✟✬✡ ☞✍✠☛✬✠✖✟✥ ☛✬☛✑✪✖☛✓ ✟✑☛

♠❫❀❴

❵❅

❖P◗❜ ❨❩

❝✩ ❚✌☛ ☛✓✕✟☞☛ ✓☞☛☛✡ ❢✑✍❍ ✠✌☛ ✓✔✑❢✟✕☛ ✍❢ ✠✌☛ ✏✟✑✠✌ ✖✓

❡❤

❦❧♥

♦♣ q s ✉✇①

✟✬✡ ✌✟✓ ✟ ✫✟✥✔☛ ✍❢ ②②✩③ ✐❍ ✓➊④✩⑤✩ ❑❢ ✟ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛ ✖✓ ✍✔✠✓✖✡☛ ✟ ✔✬✖❢✍✑❍ ✓☞✌☛✑✖✕✟✥ ✓✌☛✥✥ ✍✑ ✓✍✥✖✡ ✓☞✌☛✑☛ ✎✖✠✌ ✟ ✓☞✌☛✑✖✕✟✥✥t

✓t❍❍☛✠✑✖✕ ✖✬✠☛✑✬✟✥ ❍✟✓✓ ✡✖✓✠✑✖✝✔✠✖✍✬✯ ✠✌☛ ✓☞✌☛✑☛ ✟✠✠✑✟✕✠✓ ✠✌☛ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛ ✟✓ ✠✌✍✔✪✌ ✠✌☛

❍✟✓✓ ✍❢ ✠✌☛ ✓☞✌☛✑☛ ✍✑ ✓✌☛✥✥ ✎☛✑☛ ✕✍✬✕☛✬✠✑✟✠☛✡ ✟✠ ✠✌☛ ✕☛✬✠✑☛ ✍❢ ✠✌☛ ✓☞✌☛✑☛✩②⑥✩❑❢ ✟ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛ ✖✓ ✖✬✓✖✡☛ ✟ ✔✬✖❢✍✑❍ ✓☞✌☛✑✖✕✟✥ ✓✌☛✥✥✯ ✠✌☛ ✪✑✟✫✖✠✟✠✖✍✬✟✥ ❢✍✑✕☛ ✍✬ ✠✌☛ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛ ✖✓

❈☛✑✍✩ ❑❢ ✟ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛ ✖✓ ✖✬✓✖✡☛ ✟ ✌✍❍✍✪☛✬☛✍✔✓ ✓✍✥✖✡ ✓☞✌☛✑☛✯ ✠✌☛ ❢✍✑✕☛ ✍✬ ✠✌☛ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛ ✟✕✠✓

✠✍✎✟✑✡ ✠✌☛ ✕☛✬✠✑☛ ✍❢ ✠✌☛ ✓☞✌☛✑☛✩ ❚✌✖✓ ❢✍✑✕☛ ✖✓ ☛⑦☛✑✠☛✡ ✝t ✠✌☛ ✓☞✌☛✑✖✕✟✥ ❍✟✓✓ ✖✬✠☛✑✖✍✑ ✠✍✠✌☛ ☞✟✑✠✖✕✥☛✩

②②✩ ⑧ ✪☛✍✓✠✟✠✖✍✬✟✑t ✭✪☛✍✓t✬✕✌✑✍✬✍✔✓ ✕✍❍❍✔✬✖✕✟✠✖✍✬✞ ✓✟✠☛✥✥✖✠☛ ❍✍✫☛✓ ✖✬ ✟ ✕✖✑✕✔✥✟✑ ✍✑✝✖✠ ✖✬

✠✌☛ ☛■✔✟✠✍✑✖✟✥ ☞✥✟✬☛ ✟✠ ✟ ✟☞☞✑✍⑦✖❍✟✠☛ ✡✖✓✠✟✬✕☛ ✍❢ ⑨✩③③ × ②⑥⑩ ✐❍ ❢✑✍❍ ✠✌☛ ✏✟✑✠✌✒✓ ✕☛✬✠✑☛✩

Page 204: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�� P✁✂✄☎✆✄

✝✞✟✠✡☛ ✡✞ ✝✞✠☞✌✍

✶✎ ■✏ ✑✒✏✓✔✕✖✗✔✏✘ ✙✒✚✔✒✏ ✒✛ ✜✏ ✒✢✣✖✑✚ ✤✏✕✖✗ ✚✥✖ ✘✗✜✦✔✚✜✚✔✒✏✜✧ ✔✏✛✧✤✖✏✑✖ ✒✛ ✜✏✒✚✥✖✗ ✒✢✣✖✑✚

✚✥✖ ✛✒✧✧✒t✔✏✘ ★✤✜✏✚✔✚✔✖✓ ✜✗✖ ✑✒✏✓✖✗✦✖✕✩

✭✜✪ ✫✏✘✤✧✜✗ ✙✒✙✖✏✚✤✙

✭✢✪ ✬✒✚✜✧ ✙✖✑✥✜✏✔✑✜✧ ✖✏✖✗✘②

▲✔✏✖✜✗ ✙✒✙✖✏✚✤✙ ✔✓ ♥✮✯ ✑✒✏✓✖✗✦✖✕

✰✎ ✫✏✘✤✧✜✗ ✙✒✙✖✏✚✤✙ ✑✒✏✓✖✗✦✜✚✔✒✏ ✧✖✜✕✓ ✚✒ ❆✖✱✧✖✗✲✓ ✓✖✑✒✏✕ ✧✜t✎ ✳✒t✖✦✖✗✴ ✔✚ ✔✓ ✏✒✚ ✓✱✖✑✔✜✧

✚✒ ✚✥✖ ✔✏✦✖✗✓✖ ✓★✤✜✗✖ ✧✜t ✒✛ ✘✗✜✦✔✚✜✚✔✒✏✎ ■✚ ✥✒✧✕✓ ✛✒✗ ✜✏② ✑✖✏✚✗✜✧ ✛✒✗✑✖✎

✸✎ ■✏ ❆✖✱✧✖✗✲✓ ✚✥✔✗✕ ✧✜t ✭✓✖✖ ❞★✎ ✭✵✎✶✪ ✜✏✕ ❚✹ ✺ ✻❙ ❘✼✎ ✬✥✖ ✑✒✏✓✚✜✏✚ ✻❙ ✔✓ ✚✥✖ ✓✜✙✖ ✛✒✗ ✜✧✧

✱✧✜✏✖✚✓ ✔✏ ✑✔✗✑✤✧✜✗ ✒✗✢✔✚✓✎ ✬✥✔✓ ✜✱✱✧✔✖✓ ✚✒ ✓✜✚✖✧✧✔✚✖✓ ✒✗✢✔✚✔✏✘ ✚✥✖ ❞✜✗✚✥ ♣✭❞★✎ ✭✵✎✸✵✪✽✎

✾✎ ✫✏ ✜✓✚✗✒✏✜✤✚ ✖✿✱✖✗✔✖✏✑✖✓ t✖✔✘✥✚✧✖✓✓✏✖✓✓ ✔✏ ✜ ✓✱✜✑✖ ✓✜✚✖✧✧✔✚✖✎ ✬✥✔✓ ✔✓ ✏✒✚ ✢✖✑✜✤✓✖ ✚✥✖

✘✗✜✦✔✚✜✚✔✒✏✜✧ ✛✒✗✑✖ ✔✓ ✓✙✜✧✧ ✜✚ ✚✥✜✚ ✧✒✑✜✚✔✒✏ ✔✏ ✓✱✜✑✖✎ ■✚ ✔✓ ✢✖✑✜✤✓✖ ✢✒✚✥ ✚✥✖ ✜✓✚✗✒✏✜✤✚

✜✏✕ ✚✥✖ ✓✜✚✖✧✧✔✚✖ ✜✗✖ ✔✏ ❛✛✗✖✖ ✛✜✧✧❀ ✚✒t✜✗✕✓ ✚✥✖ ❞✜✗✚✥✎

❁✎ ✬✥✖ ❣❂❃❄❅❇❃❇❅❈❉❃❊ ❋❈❇●❉❇❅❃❊ ●❉●❂❣❍ ✜✓✓✒✑✔✜✚✖✕ t✔✚✥ ✚t✒ ✱✜✗✚✔✑✧✖✓ ✓✖✱✜✗✜✚✖✕ ✢② ✜ ✕✔✓✚✜✏✑✖

❂ ✔✓ ✘✔✦✖✏ ✢②

❱❏❑ ❑

r▼ ◆➊

❖ ◗❝❯❲❳❨❩❲❨

✬✥✖ ✑✒✏✓✚✜✏✚ ✑✜✏ ✢✖ ✘✔✦✖✏ ✜✏② ✦✜✧✤✖✎ ✬✥✖ ✓✔✙✱✧✖✓✚ ✑✥✒✔✑✖ ✔✓ ✚✒ ✚✜❬✖ ✔✚ ✚✒ ✢✖ ❭✖✗✒✎ ❪✔✚✥

✚✥✔✓ ✑✥✒✔✑✖

❫❴❵ ❵

❜❡ ❢

❤ ✐

✬✥✔✓ ✑✥✒✔✑✖ ✔✙✱✧✔✖✓ ✚✥✜✚ ❥ ❦ ❧ ✜✓ ❂ ❦ ♠♦ q✥✒✒✓✔✏✘ ✧✒✑✜✚✔✒✏ ✒✛ ❭✖✗✒ ✒✛ ✚✥✖ ✘✗✜✦✔✚✜✚✔✒✏✜✧

✖✏✖✗✘② ✔✓ ✚✥✖ ✓✜✙✖ ✜✓ ✑✥✒✒✓✔✏✘ ✚✥✖ ✜✗✢✔✚✗✜✗② ✑✒✏✓✚✜✏✚ ✔✏ ✚✥✖ ✱✒✚✖✏✚✔✜✧ ✖✏✖✗✘②✎ s✒✚✖ ✚✥✜✚

✚✥✖ ✘✗✜✦✔✚✜✚✔✒✏✜✧ ✛✒✗✑✖ ✔✓ ✏✒✚ ✜✧✚✖✗✖✕ ✢② ✚✥✖ ✑✥✒✔✑✖ ✒✛ ✚✥✔✓ ✑✒✏✓✚✜✏✚✎

✉✎ ✬✥✖ ✚✒✚✜✧ ✙✖✑✥✜✏✔✑✜✧ ✖✏✖✗✘② ✒✛ ✜✏ ✒✢✣✖✑✚ ✔✓ ✚✥✖ ✓✤✙ ✒✛ ✔✚✓ ❬✔✏✖✚✔✑ ✖✏✖✗✘② ✭t✥✔✑✥ ✔✓ ✜✧t✜②✓

✱✒✓✔✚✔✦✖✪ ✜✏✕ ✚✥✖ ✱✒✚✖✏✚✔✜✧ ✖✏✖✗✘②✎ ✈✖✧✜✚✔✦✖ ✚✒ ✔✏✛✔✏✔✚② ✭✔✎✖✎ ✔✛ t✖ ✱✗✖✓✤✙✖ ✚✥✜✚ ✚✥✖ ✱✒✚✖✏✚✔✜✧

✖✏✖✗✘② ✒✛ ✚✥✖ ✒✢✣✖✑✚ ✜✚ ✔✏✛✔✏✔✚② ✔✓ ❭✖✗✒✪✴ ✚✥✖ ✘✗✜✦✔✚✜✚✔✒✏✜✧ ✱✒✚✖✏✚✔✜✧ ✖✏✖✗✘② ✒✛ ✜✏ ✒✢✣✖✑✚ ✔✓

✏✖✘✜✚✔✦✖✎ ✬✥✖ ✚✒✚✜✧ ✖✏✖✗✘② ✒✛ ✜ ✓✜✚✖✧✧✔✚✖ ✔✓ ✏✖✘✜✚✔✦✖✎

✇✎ ✬✥✖ ✑✒✙✙✒✏✧② ✖✏✑✒✤✏✚✖✗✖✕ ✖✿✱✗✖✓✓✔✒✏ ① ❣ ③ ✛✒✗ ✚✥✖ ✱✒✚✖✏✚✔✜✧ ✖✏✖✗✘② ✔✓ ✜✑✚✤✜✧✧② ✜✏

✜✱✱✗✒✿✔✙✜✚✔✒✏ ✚✒ ✚✥✖ ✕✔✛✛✖✗✖✏✑✖ ✔✏ ✚✥✖ ✘✗✜✦✔✚✜✚✔✒✏✜✧ ✱✒✚✖✏✚✔✜✧ ✖✏✖✗✘② ✕✔✓✑✤✓✓✖✕ ✔✏ ✚✥✖

✱✒✔✏✚ ✉✴ ✜✢✒✦✖✎

✵✎ ✫✧✚✥✒✤✘✥ ✚✥✖ ✘✗✜✦✔✚✜✚✔✒✏✜✧ ✛✒✗✑✖ ✢✖✚t✖✖✏ ✚t✒ ✱✜✗✚✔✑✧✖✓ ✔✓ ✑✖✏✚✗✜✧✴ ✚✥✖ ✛✒✗✑✖ ✢✖✚t✖✖✏ ✚t✒

✛✔✏✔✚✖ ✗✔✘✔✕ ✢✒✕✔✖✓ ✔✓ ✏✒✚ ✏✖✑✖✓✓✜✗✔✧② ✜✧✒✏✘ ✚✥✖ ✧✔✏✖ ✣✒✔✏✔✏✘ ✚✥✖✔✗ ✑✖✏✚✗✖ ✒✛ ✙✜✓✓✎ ④✒✗ ✜

✓✱✥✖✗✔✑✜✧✧② ✓②✙✙✖✚✗✔✑ ✢✒✕② ✥✒t✖✦✖✗ ✚✥✖ ✛✒✗✑✖ ✒✏ ✜ ✱✜✗✚✔✑✧✖ ✖✿✚✖✗✏✜✧ ✚✒ ✚✥✖ ✢✒✕② ✔✓ ✜✓ ✔✛

✚✥✖ ✙✜✓✓ ✔✓ ✑✒✏✑✖✏✚✗✜✚✖✕ ✜✚ ✚✥✖ ✑✖✏✚✗✖ ✜✏✕ ✚✥✔✓ ✛✒✗✑✖ ✔✓ ✚✥✖✗✖✛✒✗✖ ✑✖✏✚✗✜✧✎

⑤✎ ✬✥✖ ✘✗✜✦✔✚✜✚✔✒✏✜✧ ✛✒✗✑✖ ✒✏ ✜ ✱✜✗✚✔✑✧✖ ✔✏✓✔✕✖ ✜ ✓✱✥✖✗✔✑✜✧ ✓✥✖✧✧ ✔✓ ❭✖✗✒✎ ✳✒t✖✦✖✗✴ ✭✤✏✧✔❬✖ ✜

✙✖✚✜✧✧✔✑ ✓✥✖✧✧ t✥✔✑✥ ✓✥✔✖✧✕✓ ✖✧✖✑✚✗✔✑✜✧ ✛✒✗✑✖✓✪ ✚✥✖ ✓✥✖✧✧ ✕✒✖✓ ✏✒✚ ✓✥✔✖✧✕ ✒✚✥✖✗ ✢✒✕✔✖✓ ✒✤✚✓✔✕✖

✔✚ ✛✗✒✙ ✖✿✖✗✚✔✏✘ ✘✗✜✦✔✚✜✚✔✒✏✜✧ ✛✒✗✑✖✓ ✒✏ ✜ ✱✜✗✚✔✑✧✖ ✔✏✓✔✕✖✎ ⑥❂❃❄❅❇❃❇❅❈❉❃❊ ⑦③❅●❊⑧❅❉❣ ❅⑦ ❉❈❇

❋❈⑦⑦❅⑨❊●✎

Page 205: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

●�✁❱✂✄✁✄✂❆☎ ✷✆✝

❊✞❊✟✠✡☛❊☛

✽☞✌ ✍✎✏✑✒✓ ✔✕✒ ✖✗✘✘✗✑✙✎✚ ✛

✭❛✮ ❨✗♦ ✜❛✎ ✏✕✙✒✘✢ ❛ ✜✕❛✓✚✒ ✖✓✗✣ ✒✘✒✜✔✓✙✜❛✘ ✖✗✓✜✒✏ ❝✤ ✥♦✔✔✙✎✚ ✙✔ ✙✎✏✙✢✒ ❛ ✕✗✘✘✗✑ ✜✗✎✢♦✜✔✗✓✳

❈❛✎ ✤✗♦ ✏✕✙✒✘✢ ❛ ❝✗✢✤ ✖✓✗✣ ✔✕✒ ✚✓❛✦✙✔❛✔✙✗✎❛✘ ✙✎✖✘♦✒✎✜✒ ✗✖ ✎✒❛✓❝✤ ✣❛✔✔✒✓ ❝✤ ✥♦✔✔✙✎✚

✙✔ ✙✎✏✙✢✒ ❛ ✕✗✘✘✗✑ ✏✥✕✒✓✒ ✗✓ ❝✤ ✏✗✣✒ ✗✔✕✒✓ ✣✒❛✎✏ ✐

✭❝✮ ✍✎ ❛✏✔✓✗✎❛♦✔ ✙✎✏✙✢✒ ❛ ✏✣❛✘✘ ✏✥❛✜✒ ✏✕✙✥ ✗✓❝✙✔✙✎✚ ❛✓✗♦✎✢ ✔✕✒ ✒❛✓✔✕ ✜❛✎✎✗✔ ✢✒✔✒✜✔

✚✓❛✦✙✔✤✳ ❣✖ ✔✕✒ ✏✥❛✜✒ ✏✔❛✔✙✗✎ ✗✓❝✙✔✙✎✚ ❛✓✗♦✎✢ ✔✕✒ ✒❛✓✔✕ ✕❛✏ ❛ ✘❛✓✚✒ ✏✙✧✒★ ✜❛✎ ✕✒ ✕✗✥✒

✔✗ ✢✒✔✒✜✔ ✚✓❛✦✙✔✤ ✐

✭✜✮ ❣✖ ✤✗♦ ✜✗✣✥❛✓✒ ✔✕✒ ✚✓❛✦✙✔❛✔✙✗✎❛✘ ✖✗✓✜✒ ✗✎ ✔✕✒ ✒❛✓✔✕ ✢♦✒ ✔✗ ✔✕✒ ✏♦✎ ✔✗ ✔✕❛✔ ✢♦✒

✔✗ ✔✕✒ ✣✗✗✎★ ✤✗♦ ✑✗♦✘✢ ✖✙✎✢ ✔✕❛✔ ✔✕✒ t♦✎✩✏ ✥♦✘✘ ✙✏ ✚✓✒❛✔✒✓ ✔✕❛✎ ✔✕✒ ✣✗✗✎✩✏ ✥♦✘✘✳

✭✤✗♦ ✜❛✎ ✜✕✒✜✪ ✔✕✙✏ ✤✗♦✓✏✒✘✖ ♦✏✙✎✚ ✔✕✒ ✢❛✔❛ ❛✦❛✙✘❛❝✘✒ ✙✎ ✔✕✒ ✏♦✜✜✒✒✢✙✎✚ ✒✫✒✓✜✙✏✒✏✮✳

❍✗✑✒✦✒✓★ ✔✕✒ ✔✙✢❛✘ ✒✖✖✒✜✔ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ✣✗✗✎✩✏ ✥♦✘✘ ✙✏ ✚✓✒❛✔✒✓ ✔✕❛✎ ✔✕✒ ✔✙✢❛✘ ✒✖✖✒✜✔ ✗✖ ✏♦✎✳

❲✕✤ ✐

✽☞✬ ❈✕✗✗✏✒ ✔✕✒ ✜✗✓✓✒✜✔ ❛✘✔✒✓✎❛✔✙✦✒ ✛

✭❛✮ ✍✜✜✒✘✒✓❛✔✙✗✎ ✢♦✒ ✔✗ ✚✓❛✦✙✔✤ ✙✎✜✓✒❛✏✒✏✯✢✒✜✓✒❛✏✒✏ ✑✙✔✕ ✙✎✜✓✒❛✏✙✎✚ ❛✘✔✙✔♦✢✒✳

✭❝✮ ✍✜✜✒✘✒✓❛✔✙✗✎ ✢♦✒ ✔✗ ✚✓❛✦✙✔✤ ✙✎✜✓✒❛✏✒✏✯✢✒✜✓✒❛✏✒✏ ✑✙✔✕ ✙✎✜✓✒❛✏✙✎✚ ✢✒✥✔✕ ✭❛✏✏♦✣✒

✔✕✒ ✒❛✓✔✕ ✔✗ ❝✒ ❛ ✏✥✕✒✓✒ ✗✖ ♦✎✙✖✗✓✣ ✢✒✎✏✙✔✤✮✳

✭✜✮ ✍✜✜✒✘✒✓❛✔✙✗✎ ✢♦✒ ✔✗ ✚✓❛✦✙✔✤ ✙✏ ✙✎✢✒✥✒✎✢✒✎✔ ✗✖ ✣❛✏✏ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ✒❛✓✔✕✯✣❛✏✏ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ❝✗✢✤✳

✭✢✮ ❚✕✒ ✖✗✓✣♦✘❛ ♠✰ ✱✲✭✴✯r✵ ♠ ✴✯r✶✮ ✙✏ ✣✗✓✒✯✘✒✏✏ ❛✜✜♦✓❛✔✒ ✔✕❛✎ ✔✕✒ ✖✗✓✣♦✘❛

✲✸✭r✵ ♠ r✶✮ ✖✗✓ ✔✕✒ ✢✙✖✖✒✓✒✎✜✒ ✗✖ ✥✗✔✒✎✔✙❛✘ ✒✎✒✓✚✤ ❝✒✔✑✒✒✎ ✔✑✗ ✥✗✙✎✔✏ r✵ ❛✎✢ r✶ ✢✙✏✔❛✎✜✒

❛✑❛✤ ✖✓✗✣ ✔✕✒ ✜✒✎✔✓✒ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ✒❛✓✔✕✳

✽☞✹ t♦✥✥✗✏✒ ✔✕✒✓✒ ✒✫✙✏✔✒✢ ❛ ✥✘❛✎✒✔ ✔✕❛✔ ✑✒✎✔ ❛✓✗♦✎✢ ✔✕✒ ✏♦✎ ✔✑✙✜✒ ❛✏ ✖❛✏✔ ❛✏ ✔✕✒ ✒❛✓✔✕✳

❲✕❛✔ ✑✗♦✘✢ ❝✒ ✙✔✏ ✗✓❝✙✔❛✘ ✏✙✧✒ ❛✏ ✜✗✣✥❛✓✒✢ ✔✗ ✔✕❛✔ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ✒❛✓✔✕ ✐

✽☞✺ ❣✗★ ✗✎✒ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ✏❛✔✒✘✘✙✔✒✏ ✗✖ ■♦✥✙✔✒✓★ ✕❛✏ ❛✎ ✗✓❝✙✔❛✘ ✥✒✓✙✗✢ ✗✖ ✴✳✻✼✾ ✢❛✤✏ ❛✎✢ ✔✕✒ ✓❛✢✙♦✏

✗✖ ✔✕✒ ✗✓❝✙✔ ✙✏ ✿✳❀❀ × ✴❁❂ ✣✳ t✕✗✑ ✔✕❛✔ ✔✕✒ ✣❛✏✏ ✗✖ ■♦✥✙✔✒✓ ✙✏ ❛❝✗♦✔ ✗✎✒❃✔✕✗♦✏❛✎✢✔✕

✔✕❛✔ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ✏♦✎✳

✽☞❄ ▲✒✔ ♦✏ ❛✏✏♦✣✒ ✔✕❛✔ ✗♦✓ ✚❛✘❛✫✤ ✜✗✎✏✙✏✔✏ ✗✖ ❀✳❅ × ✴❁❇❇ ✏✔❛✓✏ ✒❛✜✕ ✗✖ ✗✎✒ ✏✗✘❛✓ ✣❛✏✏✳ ❍✗✑

✘✗✎✚ ✑✙✘✘ ❛ ✏✔❛✓ ❛✔ ❛ ✢✙✏✔❛✎✜✒ ✗✖ ❅❁★❁❁❁ ✘✤ ✖✓✗✣ ✔✕✒ ✚❛✘❛✜✔✙✜ ✜✒✎✔✓✒ ✔❛✪✒ ✔✗ ✜✗✣✥✘✒✔✒ ✗✎✒

✓✒✦✗✘♦✔✙✗✎ ✐ ❚❛✪✒ ✔✕✒ ✢✙❛✣✒✔✒✓ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ❉✙✘✪✤ ❲❛✤ ✔✗ ❝✒ ✴❁❋ ✘✤✳

✽☞❏ ❈✕✗✗✏✒ ✔✕✒ ✜✗✓✓✒✜✔ ❛✘✔✒✓✎❛✔✙✦✒✛

✭❛✮ ❣✖ ✔✕✒ ✧✒✓✗ ✗✖ ✥✗✔✒✎✔✙❛✘ ✒✎✒✓✚✤ ✙✏ ❛✔ ✙✎✖✙✎✙✔✤★ ✔✕✒ ✔✗✔❛✘ ✒✎✒✓✚✤ ✗✖ ❛✎ ✗✓❝✙✔✙✎✚ ✏❛✔✒✘✘✙✔✒

✙✏ ✎✒✚❛✔✙✦✒ ✗✖ ✙✔✏ ✪✙✎✒✔✙✜✯✥✗✔✒✎✔✙❛✘ ✒✎✒✓✚✤✳

✭❝✮ ❚✕✒ ✒✎✒✓✚✤ ✓✒❡♦✙✓✒✢ ✔✗ ✘❛♦✎✜✕ ❛✎ ✗✓❝✙✔✙✎✚ ✏❛✔✒✘✘✙✔✒ ✗♦✔ ✗✖ ✒❛✓✔✕✩✏ ✚✓❛✦✙✔❛✔✙✗✎❛✘

✙✎✖✘♦✒✎✜✒ ✙✏ ✣✗✓✒✯✘✒✏✏ ✔✕❛✎ ✔✕✒ ✒✎✒✓✚✤ ✓✒❡♦✙✓✒✢ ✔✗ ✥✓✗❑✒✜✔ ❛ ✏✔❛✔✙✗✎❛✓✤ ✗❝❑✒✜✔ ❛✔

✔✕✒ ✏❛✣✒ ✕✒✙✚✕✔ ✭❛✏ ✔✕✒ ✏❛✔✒✘✘✙✔✒✮ ✗♦✔ ✗✖ ✒❛✓✔✕✩✏ ✙✎✖✘♦✒✎✜✒✳

✽☞▼ ◆✗✒✏ ✔✕✒ ✒✏✜❛✥✒ ✏✥✒✒✢ ✗✖ ❛ ❝✗✢✤ ✖✓✗✣ ✔✕✒ ✒❛✓✔✕ ✢✒✥✒✎✢ ✗✎ ✭❛✮ ✔✕✒ ✣❛✏✏ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ❝✗✢✤★ ✭❝✮

✔✕✒ ✘✗✜❛✔✙✗✎ ✖✓✗✣ ✑✕✒✓✒ ✙✔ ✙✏ ✥✓✗❑✒✜✔✒✢★ ✭✜✮ ✔✕✒ ✢✙✓✒✜✔✙✗✎ ✗✖ ✥✓✗❑✒✜✔✙✗✎★ ✭✢✮ ✔✕✒ ✕✒✙✚✕✔ ✗✖

✔✕✒ ✘✗✜❛✔✙✗✎ ✖✓✗✣ ✑✕✒✓✒ ✔✕✒ ❝✗✢✤ ✙✏ ✘❛♦✎✜✕✒✢✐

✽☞✽ ✍ ✜✗✣✒✔ ✗✓❝✙✔✏ ✔✕✒ ✏♦✎ ✙✎ ❛ ✕✙✚✕✘✤ ✒✘✘✙✥✔✙✜❛✘ ✗✓❝✙✔✳ ◆✗✒✏ ✔✕✒ ✜✗✣✒✔ ✕❛✦✒ ❛ ✜✗✎✏✔❛✎✔ ✭❛✮

✘✙✎✒❛✓ ✏✥✒✒✢★ ✭❝✮ ❛✎✚♦✘❛✓ ✏✥✒✒✢★ ✭✜✮ ❛✎✚♦✘❛✓ ✣✗✣✒✎✔♦✣★ ✭✢✮ ✪✙✎✒✔✙✜ ✒✎✒✓✚✤★ ✭✒✮ ✥✗✔✒✎✔✙❛✘

✒✎✒✓✚✤★ ✭✖✮ ✔✗✔❛✘ ✒✎✒✓✚✤ ✔✕✓✗♦✚✕✗♦✔ ✙✔✏ ✗✓❝✙✔✐ ❖✒✚✘✒✜✔ ❛✎✤ ✣❛✏✏ ✘✗✏✏ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ✜✗✣✒✔ ✑✕✒✎

✙✔ ✜✗✣✒✏ ✦✒✓✤ ✜✘✗✏✒ ✔✗ ✔✕✒ t♦✎✳

✽☞P ❲✕✙✜✕ ✗✖ ✔✕✒ ✖✗✘✘✗✑✙✎✚ ✏✤✣✥✔✗✣✏ ✙✏ ✘✙✪✒✘✤ ✔✗ ❛✖✖✘✙✜✔ ❛✎ ❛✏✔✓✗✎❛♦✔ ✙✎ ✏✥❛✜✒ ✭❛✮ ✏✑✗✘✘✒✎

✖✒✒✔★ ✭❝✮ ✏✑✗✘✘✒✎ ✖❛✜✒★ ✭✜✮ ✕✒❛✢❛✜✕✒★ ✭✢✮ ✗✓✙✒✎✔❛✔✙✗✎❛✘ ✥✓✗❝✘✒✣✳

❣✎ ✔✕✒ ✖✗✘✘✗✑✙✎✚ ✔✑✗ ✒✫✒✓✜✙✏✒✏★ ✜✕✗✗✏✒ ✔✕✒ ✜✗✓✓✒✜✔ ❛✎✏✑✒✓ ✖✓✗✣ ❛✣✗✎✚ ✔✕✒ ✚✙✦✒✎ ✗✎✒✏✛

✽☞✌◗ ❚✕✒ ✚✓❛✦✙✔❛✔✙✗✎❛✘ ✙✎✔✒✎✏✙✔✤ ❛✔ ✔✕✒ ✜✒✎✔✓✒ ✗✖ ❛ ✕✒✣✙✏✥✕✒✓✙✜❛✘ ✏✕✒✘✘ ✗✖ ♦✎✙✖✗✓✣ ✣❛✏✏

✢✒✎✏✙✔✤ ✕❛✏ ✔✕✒ ✢✙✓✒✜✔✙✗✎ ✙✎✢✙✜❛✔✒✢ ❝✤ ✔✕✒ ❛✓✓✗✑ ✭✏✒✒ ❘✙✚ ❙✳✴❀✮ ✭✙✮ ❛★ ✭✙✙✮ ❝★ ✭✙✙✙✮ ✜★ ✭✙✦✮ ❁✳

❯❳❩❬ ❭❬❪❫

Page 206: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✷ P✁✂✄☎✆✄

✽✝✞✞ ❋✟✠ ✡☛☞ ✌✍✟✎☞ ✏✠✟✍✑☞✒✓ ✡☛☞ ✔✕✠☞✖✡✕✟✗ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✙✠✌✎✕✡✌✡✕✟✗✌✑ ✕✗✡☞✗✚✕✡✛ ✌✡ ✌✗ ✌✠✍✕✡✠✌✠✛

✏✟✕✗✡ ♣ ✕✚ ✕✗✔✕✖✌✡☞✔ ✍✛ ✡☛☞ ✌✠✠✟♦ ✜✕✢ ✔✓ ✜✕✕✢ ☞✓ ✜✕✕✕✢ ✘✓ ✜✕✎✢ ✙✣

✽✝✞✤ ❆ ✠✟✖✥☞✡ ✕✚ ✘✕✠☞✔ ✘✠✟✒ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✡✟♦✌✠✔✚ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✗✣ ❆✡ ♦☛✌✡ ✔✕✚✡✌✗✖☞ ✘✠✟✒ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛✦✚

✖☞✗✡✠☞ ✕✚ ✡☛☞ ✙✠✌✎✕✡✌✡✕✟✗✌✑ ✘✟✠✖☞ ✟✗ ✡☛☞ ✠✟✖✥☞✡ ✧☞✠✟ ★ ✩✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✗ ✪ ✫×✶✬✸✭ ✥✙✓

✒✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✪ ♠×✶✬✮✯ ✥✙✣ ✰☞✙✑☞✖✡ ✡☛☞ ☞✘✘☞✖✡ ✟✘ ✟✡☛☞✠ ✏✑✌✗☞✡✚ ☞✡✖✣ ✜✟✠✍✕✡✌✑ ✠✌✔✕❞✚

✪ ✶✣❂ × ✶✬✱✱ ✒✢✣

✽✝✞✲ ❍✟♦ ♦✕✑✑ ✛✟❞ ✳♦☞✕✙☛ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✗✦✓ ✡☛✌✡ ✕✚ ☞✚✡✕✒✌✡☞ ✕✡✚ ✒✌✚✚★ ✴☛☞ ✒☞✌✗ ✟✠✍✕✡✌✑ ✠✌✔✕❞✚ ✟✘

✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✌✠✟❞✗✔ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✗ ✕✚ ✶✣❂ × ✶✬✵ ✥✒✣

✽✝✞✹ ❆ ✚✌✡❞✠✗ ✛☞✌✠ ✕✚ ✫♥✣❂ ✡✕✒☞✚ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✛☞✌✠✣ ❍✟♦ ✘✌✠ ✕✚ ✡☛☞ ✚✌✡❞✠✗ ✘✠✟✒ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✗ ✕✘ ✡☛☞

☞✌✠✡☛ ✕✚ ✶✣❂✬ × ✶✬✵ ✥✒ ✌♦✌✛ ✘✠✟✒ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✗ ★

✽✝✞✺ ❆ ✍✟✔✛ ♦☞✕✙☛✚ ♠✻ ✰ ✟✗ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✠✘✌✖☞ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛✣ ❢☛✌✡ ✕✚ ✡☛☞ ✙✠✌✎✕✡✌✡✕✟✗✌✑ ✘✟✠✖☞ ✟✗ ✕✡

✔❞☞ ✡✟ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✌✡ ✌ ☛☞✕✙☛✡ ☞✼❞✌✑ ✡✟ ☛✌✑✘ ✡☛☞ ✠✌✔✕❞✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ★

✽✝✞✾ ❆✚✚❞✒✕✗✙ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✡✟ ✍☞ ✌ ✚✏☛☞✠☞ ✟✘ ❞✗✕✘✟✠✒ ✒✌✚✚ ✔☞✗✚✕✡✛✓ ☛✟♦ ✒❞✖☛ ♦✟❞✑✔ ✌ ✍✟✔✛

♦☞✕✙☛ ☛✌✑✘ ♦✌✛ ✔✟♦✗ ✡✟ ✡☛☞ ✖☞✗✡✠☞ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✕✘ ✕✡ ♦☞✕✙☛☞✔ ✫❂✬ ✰ ✟✗ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✠✘✌✖☞ ★

✽✝✞✿ ❆ ✠✟✖✥☞✡ ✕✚ ✘✕✠☞✔ ✎☞✠✡✕✖✌✑✑✛ ♦✕✡☛ ✌ ✚✏☞☞✔ ✟✘ ❂ ✥✒ ✚❀✱ ✘✠✟✒ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛✦✚ ✚❞✠✘✌✖☞✣ ❍✟♦ ✘✌✠

✘✠✟✒ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✔✟☞✚ ✡☛☞ ✠✟✖✥☞✡ ✙✟ ✍☞✘✟✠☞ ✠☞✡❞✠✗✕✗✙ ✡✟ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ★ ✩✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛

✪ ♠✣✬ × ✶✬✮✯ ✥✙❁ ✒☞✌✗ ✠✌✔✕❞✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✪ ♠✣❃ × ✶✬❄ ✒❁ ● ✪ ♠✣♠❅ × ✶✬➊✱✱ ✰ ✒✮ ✥✙❇✮✣

✽✝✞✽ ✴☛☞ ☞✚✖✌✏☞ ✚✏☞☞✔ ✟✘ ✌ ✏✠✟❈☞✖✡✕✑☞ ✟✗ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛✦✚ ✚❞✠✘✌✖☞ ✕✚ ✶✶✣✫ ✥✒ ✚➊✱✣ ❆ ✍✟✔✛ ✕✚

✏✠✟❈☞✖✡☞✔ ✟❞✡ ♦✕✡☛ ✡☛✠✕✖☞ ✡☛✕✚ ✚✏☞☞✔✣ ❢☛✌✡ ✕✚ ✡☛☞ ✚✏☞☞✔ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✍✟✔✛ ✘✌✠ ✌♦✌✛ ✘✠✟✒ ✡☛☞

☞✌✠✡☛★ ❡✙✗✟✠☞ ✡☛☞ ✏✠☞✚☞✗✖☞ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✗ ✌✗✔ ✟✡☛☞✠ ✏✑✌✗☞✡✚✣

✽✝✞❉ ❆ ✚✌✡☞✑✑✕✡☞ ✟✠✍✕✡✚ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✌✡ ✌ ☛☞✕✙☛✡ ✟✘ ❃✬✬ ✥✒ ✌✍✟✎☞ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✠✘✌✖☞✣ ❍✟♦ ✒❞✖☛

☞✗☞✠✙✛ ✒❞✚✡ ✍☞ ☞❊✏☞✗✔☞✔ ✡✟ ✠✟✖✥☞✡ ✡☛☞ ✚✌✡☞✑✑✕✡☞ ✟❞✡ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛✦✚ ✙✠✌✎✕✡✌✡✕✟✗✌✑

✕✗✘✑❞☞✗✖☞★ ✩✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✚✌✡☞✑✑✕✡☞ ✪ ✫✬✬ ✥✙❁ ✒✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✪ ♠✣✬×✶✬✮✯ ✥✙❁ ✠✌✔✕❞✚ ✟✘

✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✪ ♠✣❃ × ✶✬❄ ✒❁ ● ✪ ♠✣♠❅ × ✶✬➊✱✱ ✰ ✒✮ ✥✙❇✮✣

✽✝✤■ ✴♦✟ ✚✡✌✠✚ ☞✌✖☛ ✟✘ ✟✗☞ ✚✟✑✌✠ ✒✌✚✚ ✜✪ ✫×✶✬✸✭ ✥✙✢ ✌✠☞ ✌✏✏✠✟✌✖☛✕✗✙ ☞✌✖☛ ✟✡☛☞✠ ✘✟✠ ✌ ☛☞✌✔

✟✗ ✖✟✑✑✕✚✕✟✗✣ ❢☛☞✗ ✡☛☞✛ ✌✠☞ ✌ ✔✕✚✡✌✗✖☞ ✶✬❏ ✥✒✓ ✡☛☞✕✠ ✚✏☞☞✔✚ ✌✠☞ ✗☞✙✑✕✙✕✍✑☞✣ ❢☛✌✡ ✕✚

✡☛☞ ✚✏☞☞✔ ♦✕✡☛ ♦☛✕✖☛ ✡☛☞✛ ✖✟✑✑✕✔☞ ★ ✴☛☞ ✠✌✔✕❞✚ ✟✘ ☞✌✖☛ ✚✡✌✠ ✕✚ ✶✬✯ ✥✒✣ ❆✚✚❞✒☞ ✡☛☞

✚✡✌✠✚ ✡✟ ✠☞✒✌✕✗ ❞✗✔✕✚✡✟✠✡☞✔ ❞✗✡✕✑ ✡☛☞✛ ✖✟✑✑✕✔☞✣ ✜s✚☞ ✡☛☞ ✥✗✟♦✗ ✎✌✑❞☞ ✟✘ ●✢✣

✽✝✤✞ ✴♦✟ ☛☞✌✎✛ ✚✏☛☞✠☞✚ ☞✌✖☛ ✟✘ ✒✌✚✚ ✶✬✬ ✥✙ ✌✗✔ ✠✌✔✕❞✚ ✬✣✶✬ ✒ ✌✠☞ ✏✑✌✖☞✔ ✶✣✬ ✒ ✌✏✌✠✡

✟✗ ✌ ☛✟✠✕✧✟✗✡✌✑ ✡✌✍✑☞✣ ❢☛✌✡ ✕✚ ✡☛☞ ✙✠✌✎✕✡✌✡✕✟✗✌✑ ✘✟✠✖☞ ✌✗✔ ✏✟✡☞✗✡✕✌✑ ✌✡ ✡☛☞ ✒✕✔ ✏✟✕✗✡

✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✑✕✗☞ ❈✟✕✗✕✗✙ ✡☛☞ ✖☞✗✡✠☞✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✚✏☛☞✠☞✚ ★ ❡✚ ✌✗ ✟✍❈☞✖✡ ✏✑✌✖☞✔ ✌✡ ✡☛✌✡ ✏✟✕✗✡ ✕✗

☞✼❞✕✑✕✍✠✕❞✒★ ❡✘ ✚✟✓ ✕✚ ✡☛☞ ☞✼❞✕✑✕✍✠✕❞✒ ✚✡✌✍✑☞ ✟✠ ❞✗✚✡✌✍✑☞ ★

❑▲▲▼◆▼❖◗❘❙ ❚❯❱❲❝▼❳❱❳

✽✝✤✤ ❆✚ ✛✟❞ ☛✌✎☞ ✑☞✌✠✗✡ ✕✗ ✡☛☞ ✡☞❊✡✓ ✌ ✙☞✟✚✡✌✡✕✟✗✌✠✛ ✚✌✡☞✑✑✕✡☞ ✟✠✍✕✡✚ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✌✡ ✌ ☛☞✕✙☛✡ ✟✘

✗☞✌✠✑✛ ✻♠✓✬✬✬ ✥✒ ✘✠✟✒ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✠✘✌✖☞ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛✣ ❢☛✌✡ ✕✚ ✡☛☞ ✏✟✡☞✗✡✕✌✑ ✔❞☞ ✡✟ ☞✌✠✡☛✦✚

✙✠✌✎✕✡✛ ✌✡ ✡☛☞ ✚✕✡☞ ✟✘ ✡☛✕✚ ✚✌✡☞✑✑✕✡☞ ★ ✜✴✌✥☞ ✡☛☞ ✏✟✡☞✗✡✕✌✑ ☞✗☞✠✙✛ ✌✡ ✕✗✘✕✗✕✡✛ ✡✟ ✍☞ ✧☞✠✟✢✣

✩✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ☞✌✠✡☛ ✪ ♠✣✬×✶✬✮✯ ✥✙✓ ✠✌✔✕❞✚ ✪ ♠❃✬✬ ✥✒✣

✽✝✤✲ ❆ ✚✡✌✠ ✫✣❂ ✡✕✒☞✚ ✡☛☞ ✒✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✗ ✌✗✔ ✖✟✑✑✌✏✚☞✔ ✡✟ ✌ ✚✕✧☞ ✟✘ ✶✫ ✥✒ ✠✟✡✌✡☞✚ ♦✕✡☛ ✌

✚✏☞☞✔ ✟✘ ✶✣✫ ✠☞✎✣ ✏☞✠ ✚☞✖✟✗✔✣ ✜❨❊✡✠☞✒☞✑✛ ✖✟✒✏✌✖✡ ✚✡✌✠✚ ✟✘ ✡☛✕✚ ✥✕✗✔ ✌✠☞ ✥✗✟♦✗ ✌✚

✗☞❞✡✠✟✗ ✚✡✌✠✚✣ ❩☞✠✡✌✕✗ ✚✡☞✑✑✌✠ ✟✍❈☞✖✡✚ ✖✌✑✑☞✔ ✏❞✑✚✌✠✚ ✍☞✑✟✗✙ ✡✟ ✡☛✕✚ ✖✌✡☞✙✟✠✛✢✣ ❢✕✑✑ ✌✗

✟✍❈☞✖✡ ✏✑✌✖☞✔ ✟✗ ✕✡✚ ☞✼❞✌✡✟✠ ✠☞✒✌✕✗ ✚✡❞✖✥ ✡✟ ✕✡✚ ✚❞✠✘✌✖☞ ✔❞☞ ✡✟ ✙✠✌✎✕✡✛ ★ ✜✒✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞

✚❞✗ ✪ ✫×✶✬✸✭ ✥✙✢✣

✽✝✤✹ ❆ ✚✏✌✖☞✚☛✕✏ ✕✚ ✚✡✌✡✕✟✗☞✔ ✟✗ ✩✌✠✚✣ ❍✟♦ ✒❞✖☛ ☞✗☞✠✙✛ ✒❞✚✡ ✍☞ ☞❊✏☞✗✔☞✔ ✟✗ ✡☛☞

✚✏✌✖☞✚☛✕✏ ✡✟ ✑✌❞✗✖☛ ✕✡ ✟❞✡ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✚✟✑✌✠ ✚✛✚✡☞✒ ★ ✩✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✚✏✌✖☞ ✚☛✕✏ ✪ ✶✬✬✬ ✥✙❁

✒✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✗ ✪ ✫× ✶✬✸✭ ✥✙❁ ✒✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✒✌✠✚ ✪ ♠✣❃× ✶✬✮✸ ✥✙❁ ✠✌✔✕❞✚ ✟✘ ✒✌✠✚ ✪ ✻✻♥❂ ✥✒❁

✠✌✔✕❞✚ ✟✘ ✡☛☞ ✟✠✍✕✡ ✟✘ ✒✌✠✚ ✪ ✫✣✫r ×✶✬✵ ✥✒❁ ● ✪ ♠✣♠❅×✶✬❀✱✱ ✰ ✒✮ ✥✙➊✮✣

✽✝✤✺ ❆ ✠✟✖✥☞✡ ✕✚ ✘✕✠☞✔ ✳✎☞✠✡✕✖✌✑✑✛✦ ✘✠✟✒ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✠✘✌✖☞ ✟✘ ✒✌✠✚ ♦✕✡☛ ✌ ✚✏☞☞✔ ✟✘ ✫ ✥✒ ✚➊✱✣ ❡✘ ✫✬❬

✟✘ ✕✡✚ ✕✗✕✡✕✌✑ ☞✗☞✠✙✛ ✕✚ ✑✟✚✡ ✔❞☞ ✡✟ ✒✌✠✡✕✌✗ ✌✡✒✟✚✏☛☞✠✕✖ ✠☞✚✕✚✡✌✗✖☞✓ ☛✟♦ ✘✌✠ ♦✕✑✑ ✡☛☞

✠✟✖✥☞✡ ✙✟ ✘✠✟✒ ✡☛☞ ✚❞✠✘✌✖☞ ✟✘ ✒✌✠✚ ✍☞✘✟✠☞ ✠☞✡❞✠✗✕✗✙ ✡✟ ✕✡ ★ ✩✌✚✚ ✟✘ ✒✌✠✚ ✪ ♠✣❃×✶✬✮✸

✥✙❁ ✠✌✔✕❞✚ ✟✘ ✒✌✠✚ ✪ ✻✻♥❂ ✥✒❁ ● ❭ ♠✣♠❅× ✶✬❀✱✱ ✰ ✒✮ ✥✙➊✮✣

Page 207: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✥PP�✁✂✄☎�✆

❆✝✝✞✟✠✡☛ ❆ ☞❚✌✞ ✍✎✞✞✏ ❆✑✝✌❆✒✞❚

❆✝✝✞✟✠✡☛ ❆ ✓

❈✔✕✕✔✟ ✖✡ ✝✎✞✗✡☛✞✖ ❆✟✠ ✖✘✕✒✔✑✖ ✗✔✎ ✕✙✑❚✡✝✑✞✖ ❆✟✠ ✖✙✒✚✕✙✑❚✡✝✑✞✖

Page 208: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❆✞✞✟✠✡☛☞ ❆ ✌

❙✍✎✟ ☛✎✞✍✏✑❆✠✑ ✒✍✠❙✑❆✠✑❙

❖✓✔✕✖ ✗✘✕✙✗✚ ✛✜✢✘✓✣✢✓✘

Page 209: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁❆✂✂✄☎✆✝✞✄✟

✠✡✡☛☞✌✍✎ ✠ ✏

❈✑☞✒☛✓✔✍✑☞ ✕✠❈✖✑✓✔

✗✘✙✚✛✜✢✣✘✙ ✤✥✦✧✘✜✢ ✥✜✛ ❡✜✣✧✧✛✙ ✥✢ ✛★✩✥✧✣✘✙✢ ✤✘✜ ✢✣✪✫✬✣✦✣✧✭✮

▲✯✰✱✲✳ ✠✰✱✴✯ ✵✰✶ ✠✰✱✸✴✵✹ ✔✺✯✯✶

✻ ✼✪ ✽ ✾✮✿❀✻❁ ✪✣ ❂ ✜✥r ✽ ✻❃✾➦

✻✪✣ ✽ ✻✮✿✾❄ ✼✪ ✻ ✜✥r ✽ ❁❅✮❇✾➦

✻✪ ✽ ✻✮✾❄❇✿ ✭r ✽ ❇✮❀❃✻ ✤✧ ✽ ❇❄✮❇❅ ✣✙ ✻➦✽ ✻✮❅❉❁ ❊ ✻✾

➊❋✜✥r

✻ ✣✙ ✽ ❀✮❁❉ ✦✪ ✻ ✜✛✚ ✪✣✙➊●✽ ✾✮✻✾❉❅ ✜✥r ✢

➊●

✻ ✤✧ ✽ ✻❀ ✣✙ ✽ ❇✾✮❉❃ ✦✪ ✻ ✜✥r ✢➊●✽ ❄✮❁❉❄ ✜✛✚ ✪✣✙

➊●

✻ ✭r ✽ ❇✤✧ ✽ ❄✻✮❉❉ ✦✪ ▼✵❍❍

✻ ✬✣■❏✧✭✛✥✜ ✽ ✻ ✬✭ ✽ ❄✮❉✿✻ ❑ ✻✾●◆✪ ✻ ✼■ ✽ ✻✾✾✾ ■

✻ ❖➦✽ ✾✮✻✙✪ ✻ ✧✘✙✙✛ ✽ ✻✾✾✾ ✼■ ✽ ✻ P■

✠✹✯✵ ✻ ✩ ✽ ✻✮✿✿✾✿ ❊ ✻✾➊❋◗

✼■

✻ ✪❋✽ ✻✾

❘✦✪

❋✻ ✼■ ✽ ✿✮✾❀❀ ❊ ✻✾

❋❙✩

✻✼✪❋✽ ✾✮❇❃✿✻ ✪✣

❋✽ ❀❉❅✮✻ ✥✦✜✛✢ ✻ ✢✬✩■ ✽ ✻❉✮❁❄ ✼■

✻ ✣✙❋✽ ✿✮❉❁✻✿ ✦✪

❋✻ ✼■ ✽ ✿✮❃❁❀ ❊ ✻✾

➊❋✢✬✩■

✻✤✧❋✽ ❄✮❀❄ ❑ ✻✾

❚❋✪❋

✻ ✩ ✽ ❄❇✻✮❁✾ P✛❯❱✦❋

✻ ✪❋✽ ✻✾✮❅✿ ✤✧

❋✌✯✰❍❲✲❳

✻ ✥✦✜✛ ✽ ❉❇❨❁✿✾ ✤✧❋

✻ ■ ✦✪➊❩✽ ✻✾✾✾ ✼■ ✪

➊❩✽ ✻ ✼■ ❬

➊●

✻ ✪✣❋✽ ❉✿✾ ✥✦✜✛✢ ✽ ❀✮❁❄✾ ✼✪

❋✕❭✹❝✯

✒❭✴✸♦✯ ✻ ❪ ✽ ✾✮❀❀❉❃ ✬❫✤ ✽ ✻✾◆r✭✙

✻✪❩✽ ✻✾

❙✦✪

❩✻ ✬❫✤ ✽ ❉✮❉❉❃❀ ❪

✻ ❬ ✽ ✻✾✾✾ ✦✪❩✽ ✻✾

❚❩✪❩

✻ ✼■✤ ✽ ❀✮❀✾❉✿ ✬❫✤

✻ ■✥✬ ✽ ❇✮❅❃✿ ❬ ✖❲♦✯

✻ ■✥✬ ✽ ❉ ★✧ ✽ ❃ ✫✧ ✽ ✻❀❃ ✘❴ ✽ ❀❇✻ ✣✙❩

✻ ❏ ✽ ✿✾ ✪✣✙ ✽ ❇✮✿ ✼✢

✻ ✣✙❩✽ ✻✿✮❇❄ ✦✪

❩✻ r ✽ ❀❉ ❏ ✽ ✻❉❉✾ ✪✣✙ ✽ ❃✿✮❉ ✼✢

✻✤✧❩✽ ✻❅❀❃ ✣✙

❩✽ ❀❃✮❇❀ ❬ ✽ ❀✮❃❇❀ ❊ ✻✾

❘✦✪

❩✻✭ ✽ ❇✿❁✮❀❉ r ✽ ❇✻✮❁✿ P✢

✔✺✯✯✶ ✡✹✯❍❍✸✹✯

✻ ✼✪ ❏➊●✽ ✾✮❀❅❅❃ ✪ ✢

➊●✽ ✾✮✿❀✻❁ ✪✣ ❏

➊●✻ ❵✥ ✽ ✻ ❪ ✪

➊❋

✻✪✣ ❏➊●✽ ✾✮❉❉❅✾ ✪ ✢

➊●✽ ✻✮✿✾❄ ✼✪ ❏

➊●✻ ❫✥✜ ✽ ✻✾✾ ✼❵✥

✻✪✣ ❏➊●✽ ✻✮❉✿❅ ✤✧ ✢

➊●✻ ✥✧✪ ✽ ✻✾✻✮❇❀❁ ✼❵✥ ✽ ✻✮✾✻❇❀❁ ❫✥✜

▼✵✱✰✯✲❲❝ ✕❲✯✴✶ ✻✥✧✪ ✽ ✻❉✮❅ ✬❫✤❱✣✙❋✽ ❅✿✾ ✪✪ ❛■

✻ ❜ ✽ ✻✾➊❘❞ ✽ ❀❄✮❄ ✣✙ ❛■ ✽ ❇❇✮❃ ✤✧ ❛❋❢

✻ ❞ ✽ ✻ ❣❫ ✪➊❋✽ ✻✾

❘❜ ✻ ✬❫✤ ✣✙

➊❋✽ ✿✮❃❄❁ ✼❵✥

✻ ✧✘✜✜ ✽ ✻✪✪❛■ ✽ ✻❇❇✮❇❀ ❵✥

Page 210: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❊✞✟✠✡☛ ☞✌✍✟✠

✶ ✎✏ ✑ ✒ ✓✔✕ ✖✗ ✶ ✑✘✙✚✛✜✘✢✛✙ ✣✑✜✤ ✒ ✥✥✦ ✧★ ✩✪✧✫✚

✶ ✬✭✩ ✒ ✮✔✶✯✕ ✗ ✒ ✰✮✥✔✰ ✏

✶✧★ ✩✪✧ ✒ ✶✔✓✥✕ ✗ ✒ ✶✔✱✯✕ ✲ ✶✦➊✸❇★✳ ✶ ❇★✳ ✴✵✹

✺✻✒ ✶✰✔✥✯ ✏

✶ ✼ ✭★✴ ✒ ✶✦✶✔✓✱✥ ✗ ✶ ✏ ✒ ✶✔✓✮✶ ✲ ✶✦✺✸

✑✜

✶ ✼ ✭★✴ ✒ ✱✮✔✱✶✰ ✬✭✩ ✒ ✦✔✰✓✰✕ ✧★ ✩✪✧✫✚

✶ ❇★✳ ✒ ✰✰✯ ✧★ ✩✪ ✒ ✱✥✱ ✬✭✩ ✒ ✶✦✥✮✔✓✥ ✗ ❚✽✟✠✾✿❀ ❁✌✞❂❃❄❅❆❈❆❅☛

✶ ✛❉ ✒ ✶✔✕✦✱ ✲ ✶✦✺✻❋

✗ ✶ ✏ ✴✺✻❑✺✻✒ ✕✔●✓✯ ❇★✳ ✵✹✫✑✧★

❍■❏

✶ ✳ ❝❍✒ ●✓✶✔✥✦ ✖✛❉ ✶ ❇★✳ ✵✹✫✑✧★

❍■❏ ✒ ✦✔✶✮✮✶ ✏✫✴❑

✶ ✛✙▲ ✒ ✶✦✺▼✗

◆☞☞❊❖◗❘❙ ◆ ❯

❱◆❚❲❊❱◆❚❘❁◆❳❨❩❬❱❭❳◆❊

❪✟✌✾✟❅✠☛

❫✵✙✬✩✛ ✘✧ ✙✭❴✵✳✚ ✙❵ ✬✵✙✬✳✴✧✛✙✛✹✬✛ ✒ ✱❛r❜

✭✙✛✭ ✒ ❛r❍

❞✜✑✛✙✛ ✘✧ ✙✭❴✵✳✚ r❡ ✭✙✛✭ ✒ ✮❛r❍❜

✈✘✩✳✴✛ ✒43

3❢ r

❣✵▲✑★ ✬✵✙✬✳✩✭✙ ✬❤✩✵✹❴✛✙ ✘✧ ✙✭❴✵✳✚ r

✭✹❴ ✑✛✵▲✑★ ✐❡ ✭✙✛✭ ✒ ✱❛ r❍❥✱❛ r ✐❦

✈✘✩✳✴✛ ✒ hr2❧ ❦

♠✙✵✭✹▲✩✛ ✘✧ ✪✭✚✛ ♥ ✭✹❴ ✭✩★✵★✳❴✛ ✐✔

✭✙✛✭ ✒12

♥ ✐

♦❃✿❂✠✿❅❆❄ ❨✌✠✾❃❀✿

♣✧ ♥q❍s tq s ❝ ✉ ✦✇

★✑✛✹2

42 acbbx

❾➧❾①

❚✠❆✡✌✞✌✾✟❅✠❆❄ ❨❃✞❄❅❆✌✞② ✌③ ◆✞✡❀✟ ④④

⑤⑥⑦ ⑧⑨⑤

⑩❶⑦ ⑧⑨⑩

⑤❷⑧ ⑧⑤⑧

❸ ❹

❺ ❺

❸ ❹

❹ ❸

❺ ❺

❹ ❸

❻ ❻

❻ ❻

❻ ❻

❼ ❼

❼ ❼

❼ ❼

☞☛❅✽✿✡✌✠✟✿✞ ❚✽✟✌✠✟✾

♣✹ ★✑✵✚ ✙✵▲✑★ ★✙✵✭✹▲✩✛✇ ✭❍❥ ✪

❍✒ ✬

❽❿➀➁ ➂ ➃➁➄

❚✠❆✿✞✡❀✟②

➅✹▲✩✛✚ ✭✙✛ ➆➇ ➈➇ ➉

➋✜✜✘✚✵★✛ ✚✵❴✛✚ ✭✙✛ ♥➇ t➇ ❝

➅✹▲✩✛✚ ➆ s ➈ s ➉ ✒ ✶✯✦➌

➒ ➓➔→➓➔→➓➔→➣➣

❝❍✒ ✭

❍❥ ✪

❍↔ ✱♥t ✬✘✚ ➉

↕➙★✛✙✵✘✙ ✭✹▲✩✛ ➛ ✉ ➆ s ➉❽❿➀➁ ➂ ➃➁➜

Page 211: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁❆✂✂✄☎✆✝✞✄✟

❋✠✡☛ ☞ ✌☛✍

▼✎✏✑✒✓✎✏✔✕✎✖ ✗✔✘✙✚ ✎✙✛ ✗✜✓✢✣✖✚

❂ ❡✤✥✦✧★✩ ❡✤✥✦✧★ ✦✪✪✫♦✬✭✮✦✯❡✧✰⑦ ✭★ ✯✐❡ ♦✫❞❡✫ ♦✱ ✮✦✲✳✭✯✥❞❡ ♦✱✴ ✭★ ✳♦✯ ❡✤✥✦✧ ✯♦✵ ✭★ ✭❞❡✳✯✭✶✦✧ ✯♦✸ ✭★ ❞❡✱✭✳❡❞ ✦★❃ ✭★ ✲✫❡✦✯❡✫ ✯✐✦✳ ✹❃❃ ✭★ ✮✥✶✐ ✲✫❡✦✯❡✫ ✯✐✦✳✺❁ ✭★ ✧❡★★ ✯✐✦✳ ✹❁❁ ✭★ ✮✥✶✐ ✧❡★★ ✯✐✦✳✺✻ ✭★ ✲✫❡✦✯❡✫ ✯✐✦✳ ♦✫ ❡✤✥✦✧ ✯♦ ✹♦✫✸ ✭★ ✳♦ ✧❡★★✯✐✦✳✺

✼ ✭★ ✧❡★★ ✯✐✦✳ ♦✫ ❡✤✥✦✧ ✯♦ ✹♦✫✸ ✭★ ✳♦ ✮♦✫❡✯✐✦✳✺

➧ ✪✧✥★ ♦✫ ✮✭✳✥★✽ ✭★ ✪✫♦✪♦✫✯✭♦✳✦✧ ✯♦✾ ✯✐❡ ★✥✮ ♦✱

① ♦✫ ❁ ✿ ❃ ♦✫ ✿❛❀ ✯✐❡ ✦❄❡✫✦✲❡ ❄✦✧✥❡ ♦✱ ✿

❚❅✔✘✣✙✣✓✒✏❅✔✕ ❇✛✒✙✏✔✏✔✒✚

★✭✳ ✹s❈❉ ➊ ✺ ❊ ✶♦★

✶♦★ ✹s❈❉ ➊ ✺ ❊ ★✭✳

★✭✳ ● ✶♦★ ❊ ✯✦✳

★✭✳❍ ■ ✶♦★❍ ❊❏

★❡✶❍ ➊ ✯✦✳❍ ❊ ❏

✶★✶❍ ➊ ✶♦✯❍ ❊ ❏

★✭✳❑ ❊ ❑ ★✭✳ ✶♦★

✶♦★❑ ❊ ✶♦★❍ ➊ ★✭✳❍ ❊ ❑✶♦★❍ ➊❏

❊ ❏➊ ❑ ★✭✳❍ ▲

★✭✳✹ ◆ ✺ ❊ ★✭✳ ✶♦★ ◆ ✶♦★ ★✭✳

✶♦★ ✹ ◆ ✺ ❊ ✶♦★ ✶♦★ ❖ ★✭✳ ★✭✳

✯✦✳ ✹ ◆ ✺ ❊P◗P◗

t❘❙t❘❙t❘❙t❘❙

❯❱❲

★✭✳ ◆ ★✭✳ ( ) ( )❨ ❨

❩ ❬❭♥ ❝❪❬❩ ❩

a b a b= ± m

✶♦★ ❫ ■ ✶♦★

❴ ❵ ❴ ❵❜❢❜❢ ❣❤❥

❦❧♠❤❥

❦❧♠❤ ♣q

✶♦★ ➊ ✶♦★

r ✉ r ✉✈✇✈②✇❾❳ ③④⑤

⑥⑧❙④⑤

⑥⑧❙④

⑨✔✙✣✓✔✎✖ ❚✑✒✣❅✒✓

⑩❶❷❸❸❸❸❸❹❺❻❷⑩❶❼❹❼

❺❶

❼❷❶⑩❷❶❹ ❽

❽❿ ➀➁

➂➁➃➄➃

➅➆➇➈➈➈➈➈➉➋➌➇➅➆➍➉➍

➋➆

➍➇➆➅➇➆➉ ➎

➎➏ ➐➑

➑➑➒➓ ➔ →

➣↔↕✣✙✒✙✏✔✎✖ ➣↔↕✎✙✚✔✣✙

❸❸❸❸❸❺➙❷

❺❻❷

❷❶➛➜❽

➝ ➁➁➁➁➄

➞✣✘✎❅✔✏✑✓✔✕ ➣↔↕✎✙✚✔✣✙

➟ ➠➡ ➢➤ ➤

➥➦ ➨➤➩①➫ ➭ ①➯ ① ➩ ① ➯➲➲➲➲➲ ① ➳➤➵ ➸

❚❅✔✘✣✙✣✓✒✏❅✔✕ ➣↔↕✎✙✚✔✣✙

➺▲ ✔✙ ❅✎✛✔✎✙✚➻

➼➼➼➼➼➽➾➚

➪➶➹➘➴

➼➼➼➼➼➷➬➷➚

➽➶➮➱✃

➼➼➼➼➼➷➾➷➪

➶✃❐➴

❒❮

❰Ï

❒❮

ÐÑÑ

ÐÑÐ

ÐÑÐ

ÒÒÒÒ

ÒÒÒ

ÒÒÒÒ

Ó❅✣✛Ô✕✏✚ ✣Õ Ö✒✕✏✣❅✚

×❡✯ ØØ Øi, j k and Ù❡ ✥✳✭✯ ❄❡✶✯♦✫★ ✭✳ ✯✐❡ ✿Ú Û ✦✳❞ Ü

❞✭✫❡✶✯✭♦✳★Ý Þ✐❡✳

ØØ ØØ ØØ ØØ ØØ ØØi i j j k k , i j j k k iß ß ß ß ß ß= = = 1 = = = 0

jik ,ikj ,kji ,kkjj ii ààààààààààààààà = = =0=== ááááááâ✳✰ ❄❡✶✯♦✫ ✎ ã✭✯✐ ✶♦✮✪♦✳❡✳✯★ äå✸ äæ✸ ✦✳❞ äç✦✧♦✳✲ ✯✐❡ ✿ÚÛÚ ✦✳❞ Ü ✦✬❡★ ✶✦✳ Ù❡ ã✫✭✯✯❡✳✸

a i + j + k= a a ax y zè è è

Page 212: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

▲✞✟ ❛✠ ✡ ✥☛☞ ❝ ✌✞ ✥✍✌✎✟✥✍✏ ✑✞✒✟✓✍✔ ✕✎✟✖

♠✥✗☛✎✟✘☞✞✔ ✙✱ ❜ ✥☛☞ ✚✳ ✛✖✞☛

✭ ✜ ✭ ✜ ✭ ✜a b c a b a c× ✢ × ✰ ×+

( a) b a ( b) (a b)s s s✣ ✤ ✣ ✤ ✣ ✦✔ ✎✔ ✥ ✔✒✥✧✥✍★

▲✞✟ ✩ ✌✞ ✟✖✞ ✔♠✥✧✧✞✍ ✓✪ ✟✖✞ ✟✕✓ ✥☛✗✧✞✔

✌✞✟✕✞✞☛ ❛ ✥☛☞ ✡✳ ✛✖✞☛

✫✬✮✯✲✴✴✲✴✲✴✲ ③③②②①① ❂✵✵❂✶❂✶ ✸✹✹✸

✺s✻✼✽✾✿❀ ❁❃

( ) ( ) ( )

❼ ❼ ❼

❼ ❼ ❼

❄ ❅ ❆

❄ ❅ ❆

❅ ❆ ❅ ❆ ❆ ❄ ❆ ❄ ❄ ❅ ❄ ❅

❇ ❇ ❇

❈ ❈ ❈

❇ ❈ ❈ ❇ ❇ ❈ ❈ ❇ ❇ ❈ ❈ ❇

´ = - ´ =

= - + - + -

✐ ❉ ❦

❊ ❋ ❋ ❊

✐ ❉ ❦

✸ ● ❍✹ ■ ❏❑ ▼ ✹● ◆❏ ■ ✸❑ ▼ ❏ ● ◆ ✸ ■ ✹❑

✸ ■ ◆✹ ■ ❏❑ ▼ ❍✸ ● ❏❑ ✹ ➊ ◆✸ ● ✹❑ ❏

❖◗◗❘❙❚❯❱ ❖ ❲

❳❯ ❚❘❨❯❩❘❚ ❬❙❯❭❳

❖ ❲❪❫ ❳❴❵❞ ❳❯ ❚❞❡❢❣❞❤ ❬❥❢❧♥ ❞♦♣❡❞♥♥❞❤ ❢❥ ❳❯ q❛♥❞ ❬❥❢❧♥

Page 213: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁❆✂✂✄☎✆✝✞✄✟

✠ ✡☛☞ ✥✌ ✍✎✏✑✒✎✓ ✔✕✑✖✗ ✘✑✖✙ ✗✚✎✛✑✜✢ ✕✜✣✎✗

✠ ✡☛✤ ✥❙✣✎ ✥✌ ✍✎✏✑✒✎✓ ✔✕✑✖✗ ✎✦✚✏✎✗✗✎✓ ✧★ ✣✎✜✕✗ ❙✩ ✥✌ ✔✕✑✖✗ ✘✑✖✙ ✗✚✎✛✑✜✢ ✕✜✣✎✗

Page 214: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❆✞✞✟✠✡☛☞ ❆ ✌

●✟✠✟✍❆✎ ●✏☛✡✟✎☛✠✟✑ ✒✓✍ ✏✑☛✠● ✑✔✕✖✓✎✑ ✒✓✍ ✞✗✔✑☛✘❆✎ ✙✏❆✠✚☛✚☛✟✑✛ ✘✗✟✕☛✘❆✎

✟✎✟✕✟✠✚✑ ❆✠✡ ✠✏✘✎☛✡✟✑

⑨ ❙✜✢✣✤✥✦ ✧✤★ ✩✪✜✦✫✬✭✥ ✮✯✭✰✱✫✱✫✲✦ ✭★✲ ✰✤★✢✭✥✥✜ ✦✫✰✳✥✲ ✥✲✱✱✲★✦ ✭✰✴ ✩★✫✰✱✲✴ ✫✰ ✫✱✭✥✫✬ ✵✤★ ✦✥✤✩✫✰✳✶ ✱✜✩✲✸

❍✤✹✲✺✲★✻ ✫✰ ✬✭✦✲ ✤✧ ✱✪✲ ✱✹✤ ✥✲✱✱✲★ ✦✜✢✣✤✥✦✻ ✭✩✩✲✭★✫✰✳ ✭✦ ✭ ✧✭✬✱✤★ ✫✰ ✭ ✩★✤✴✯✬✱✻ ✦✤✢✲ ✦✩✭✬✫✰✳ ✫✦

✰✲✬✲✦✦✭★✜ ✱✤ ✦✲✩✭★✭✱✲ ✱✪✫✦ ✦✜✢✣✤✥ ✧★✤✢ ✤✱✪✲★ ✦✜✢✣✤✥✦✸

⑨ ✼✣✣★✲✺✫✭✱✫✤✰✦✻ ✫✸✲✸✻ ✦✪✤★✱✲✰✲✴ ✧✤★✢✦ ✤✧ ✰✭✢✲✦ ✤★ ✲✽✩★✲✦✦✫✤✰✦✻ ✦✯✬✪ ✭✦ ✩✸✲✸ ✧✤★ ✩✤✱✲✰✱✫✭✥ ✲✰✲★✳✜✻

✭★✲ ✰✤✱ ✯✦✲✴ ✫✰ ✩✪✜✦✫✬✭✥ ✲✮✯✭✱✫✤✰✦✸ ❛✪✲✦✲ ✭✣✣★✲✺✫✭✱✫✤✰✦ ✫✰ ✱✪✲ ✱✲✽✱ ✭★✲ ✹★✫✱✱✲✰ ✫✰ ✤★✴✫✰✭★✜

✰✤★✢✭✥♥★✤✢✭✰ ✵✯✩★✫✳✪✱✶ ✱✜✩✲✸

⑨ ❱✲✬✱✤★✦ ✭★✲ ✩★✫✰✱✲✴ ✫✰ ✣✤✥✴ ✭✰✴ ✰✤★✢✭✥♥★✤✢✭✰ ✵✯✩★✫✳✪✱✶ ✱✜✩✲✸ ❍✤✹✲✺✲★✻ ✫✰ ✬✥✭✦✦ ★✤✤✢ ✦✫✱✯✭✱✫✤✰✦✻

✺✲✬✱✤★✦ ✢✭✜ ✣✲ ✫✰✴✫✬✭✱✲✴ ✣✜ ✭✰ ✭★★✤✹ ✤✰ ✱✪✲ ✱✤✩ ✤✧ ✱✪✲ ✦✜✢✣✤✥✸

⑨ ▼✯✥✱✫✩✥✫✬✭✱✫✤✰ ✤★ ✩★✤✴✯✬✱ ✤✧ ✱✹✤ ✩✪✜✦✫✬✭✥ ✮✯✭✰✱✫✱✫✲✦ ✫✦ ✹★✫✱✱✲✰ ✹✫✱✪ ✦✤✢✲ ✦✩✭✬✫✰✳ ✣✲✱✹✲✲✰ ✱✪✲✢✸

❉✫✺✫✦✫✤✰ ✤✧ ✤✰✲ ✩✪✜✦✫✬✭✥ ✮✯✭✰✱✫✱✜ ✣✜ ✭✰✤✱✪✲★ ✢✭✜ ✣✲ ✫✰✴✫✬✭✱✲✴ ✹✫✱✪ ✭ ✪✤★✫✾✤✰✱✭✥ ✣✭★ ✤★ ✹✫✱✪

✿❀❁❂❃❀❄❅ ❅❂❁❄ ❃r❇❄

Page 215: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷��❆✁✁✂✄☎✆✝✂✞

s✟✠✡☛☞s✌ ✍ s✠✍s✎ ✟✏ ✍ s✎✟✏✑ ✟✒✠✡✓☞✔ s✑✏✟✕✔ ✖✍✏✕ ✗✘✙ ✟✏ ✒✚ ✛✏✡✑✡✜✢ ✡✑ ✍s ✍ ✣✏✟☛☞✤✑ ✟✥ ✑✎✔

✜☞✖✔✏✍✑✟✏ ✍✜☛ ✑✎✔ ✡✜♥✔✏s✔ ✥✡✏s✑ ✣✟✛✔✏ ✟✥ ✑✎✔ ☛✔✜✟✖✡✜✍✑✟✏✌ ☞s✡✜✢ ✒✏✍✤✕✔✑s ✍✑ ✍✣✣✏✟✣✏✡✍✑✔

✣✠✍✤✔s ✑✟ ✤✠✔✍✏✠✚ ☛✡s✑✡✜✢☞✡s✎ ✒✔✑✛✔✔✜ ✑✎✔ ✜☞✖✔✏✍✑✟✏ ✍✜☛ ✑✎✔ ☛✔✜✟✖✡✜✍✑✟✏✳

⑨ ❙✚✖✒✟✠s ✥✟✏ ✤✎✔✖✡✤✍✠ ✔✠✔✖✔✜✑s ✍✏✔ ✛✏✡✑✑✔✜ ✡✜ ✜✟✏✖✍✠✘✏✟✖✍✜ ✗☞✣✏✡✢✎✑✙ ✑✚✣✔✳ ✦✎✔ s✚✖✒✟✠ ✡s

✜✟✑ ✥✟✠✠✟✛✔☛ ✒✚ ✍ ✥☞✠✠ s✑✟✣✳

❋✟✏ ✔✧✍✖✣✠✔✌ ★✍✌ ★✌ ✩✌ ✩✔✌ ✪✌ ✔✑✤✳

⑨ ✦✎✔ ✍✑✑✍✤✎✔☛ ✜☞✖✔✏✍✠s s✣✔✤✡✥✚✡✜✢ ✍ ✜☞✤✠✡☛✔ ✍✏✔ ✣✠✍✤✔☛ ✍s ✍ ✠✔✥✑ s☞✒s✤✏✡✣✑ ✗✍✑✟✖✡✤ ✜☞✖✒✔✏✙

✍✜☛ s☞✣✔✏s✤✏✡✣✑ ✗✖✍ss ✜☞✖✒✔✏✙✳

❋✟✏ ✔✧✍✖✣✠✔✌ ✍ ✪✫✬✭✮ ✜☞✤✠✡☛✔ ✡s ✔✧✣✏✔ss✔☛ ✍s 92235 U ✗✛✡✑✎ ✬✭✮ ✔✧✣✏✔ss✡✜✢ ✑✎✔ ✖✍ss ✜☞✖✒✔✏

✍✜☛ ❛✬ ✍s ✑✎✔ ✍✑✟✖✡✤ ✜☞✖✒✔✏ ✟✥ ☞✏✍✜✡☞✖ ✛✡✑✎ ✤✎✔✖✡✤✍✠ s✚✖✒✟✠ ✪✙✳

⑨ ✦✎✔ ✏✡✢✎✑ s☞✣✔✏s✤✏✡✣✑ ✣✟s✡✑✡✟✜ ✡s ☞s✔☛✌ ✡✥ ✏✔✓☞✡✏✔☛✌ ✥✟✏ ✡✜☛✡✤✍✑✡✜✢ ✍ s✑✍✑✔ ✟✥ ✡✟✜✡s✍✑✡✟✜ ✗✡✜

✤✍s✔ ✟✥ ✡✟✜s✙✳

❋✟✏ ✔✧✍✖✣✠✔✌ ★✍✯✰

✌ ❾✸✹P✱

✲✴✴✵✶✺✻✼ ✲ ✽

●✵✶✵✾✲✿ ●❀✻✺✵✿✻✶✵❁ ❂❃✾ ❀❁✻✶● ❁❄❅❇❃✿❁ ❂❃✾ ❁✻ ❀✶✻❈❁❉ ❁❃❅✵ ❃❈❊✵✾ ❀✶✻❈❁❉ ✲✶✺

❁✻ ✴✾✵❂✻✼✵❁

⑨ ❙✚✖✒✟✠s ✥✟✏ ☞✜✡✑s ✟✥ ✣✎✚s✡✤✍✠ ✓☞✍✜✑✡✑✡✔s ✍✏✔ ✣✏✡✜✑✔☛✘✛✏✡✑✑✔✜ ✡✜ ❍✟✏✖✍✠✘■✟✖✍✜ ✗☞✣✏✡✢✎✑✙ ✑✚✣✔✳

⑨ ❙✑✍✜☛✍✏☛ ✍✜☛ ✏✔✤✟✖✖✔✜☛✔☛ s✚✖✒✟✠s ✥✟✏ ☞✜✡✑s ✍✏✔ ✛✏✡✑✑✔✜ ✡✜ ✠✟✛✔✏ ✤✍s✔ ✏✟✖✍✜ ✗☞✣✏✡✢✎✑✙

✑✚✣✔✌ s✑✍✏✑✡✜✢ ✛✡✑✎ s✖✍✠✠ ✠✔✑✑✔✏s✳ ✦✎✔ s✎✟✏✑✔✏ ☛✔s✡✢✜✍✑✡✟✜s ✥✟✏ ☞✜✡✑s s☞✤✎ ✍s ✕✢✌ ✖✌ s✌ ✤☛✌

✔✑✤✳✌ ✍✏✔ s✚✖✒✟✠s ✍✜☛ ✜✟✑ ✑✎✔ ✍✒✒✏✔♥✡✍✑✡✟✜s✳ ✦✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ ✜✍✖✔s ✍✏✔ ✜✔♥✔✏ ✤✍✣✡✑✍✠✡s✔☛✳ ✩✟✛✔♥✔✏✌

✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ s✚✖✒✟✠s ✍✏✔ ✤✍✣✡✑✍✠✡s✔☛ ✟✜✠✚ ✡✥ ✑✎✔ s✚✖✒✟✠ ✥✟✏ ✍ ☞✜✡✑ ✡s ☛✔✏✡♥✔☛ ✥✏✟✖ ✍ ✣✏✟✣✔✏ ✜✍✖✔

✟✥ s✤✡✔✜✑✡s✑✌ ✒✔✢✡✜✜✡✜✢ ✛✡✑✎ ✍ ✤✍✣✡✑✍✠✌ ✜✟✏✖✍✠✘✏✟✖✍✜ ✠✔✑✑✔✏✳

❋✟✏ ✔✧✍✖✣✠✔✌ ✖ ✥✟✏ ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ ❏✖✔✑✏✔❑✌ ☛ ✥✟✏ ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ ❏☛✍✚❑✌ ✍✑✖ ✥✟✏ ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ ❏✍✑✖✟s✣✎✔✏✡✤

✣✏✔ss☞✏✔❑✌ ✩❡ ✥✟✏ ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ ❏✎✔✏✑❡❑✌ ▲✒ ✥✟✏ ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ ❏✛✔✒✔✏❑✌ ▼ ✥✟✏ ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ ❏◆✟☞✠✔❑✌ ❖ ✥✟✏ ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑

❏✍✖✣✔✏✔❑✌ ◗ ✥✟✏ ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ ❏♥✟✠✑❑✌ ✔✑✤✳ ✦✎✔ s✡✜✢✠✔ ✔✧✤✔✣✑✡✟✜ ✡s ❘✌ ✛✎✡✤✎ ✡s ✑✎✔ s✚✖✒✟✠ ✥✟✏ ✑✎✔

☞✜✡✑ ❏✠✡✑✏✔❑✳ ✦✎✡s ✔✧✤✔✣✑✡✟✜ ✡s ✖✍☛✔ ✑✟ ✍♥✟✡☛ ✤✟✜✥☞s✡✟✜ ✟✥ ✑✎✔ ✠✟✛✔✏ ✤✍s✔ ✠✔✑✑✔✏ ✠ ✛✡✑✎ ✑✎✔

❖✏✍✒✡✤ ✜☞✖✔✏✍✠ ✠✳

⑨ ❙✚✖✒✟✠s ✥✟✏ ☞✜✡✑s ☛✟ ✜✟✑ ✤✟✜✑✍✡✜ ✍✜✚ ✥✡✜✍✠ ✥☞✠✠ s✑✟✣ ✍✑ ✑✎✔ ✔✜☛ ✟✥ ✏✔✤✟✖✖✔✜☛✔☛ ✠✔✑✑✔✏ ✍✜☛

✏✔✖✍✡✜ ☞✜✍✠✑✔✏✔☛ ✡✜ ✑✎✔ ✣✠☞✏✍✠✌ ☞s✡✜✢ ✟✜✠✚ s✡✜✢☞✠✍✏ ✥✟✏✖ ✟✥ ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑✳

❋✟✏ ✔✧✍✖✣✠✔✌ ✥✟✏ ✍ ✠✔✜✢✑✎ ✟✥ ✬✮ ✤✔✜✑✡✖✔✑✏✔s ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ s✚✖✒✟✠ ✡s ✛✏✡✑✑✔✜ ✍s ✬✮ ✤✖

✍✜☛ ✜✟✑ ✬✮ ✤✖s ✟✏ ✬✮ ✤✖✳ ✟✏ ✬✮ ✤✖s✳✌ ✔✑✤✳

⑨ ✪s✔ ✟✥ s✟✠✡☛☞s ✗ ✘ ✙ ✡s ✏✔✤✟✖✖✔✜☛✔☛ ✟✜✠✚ ✥✟✏ ✡✜☛✡✤✍✑✡✜✢ ✍ ☛✡♥✡s✡✟✜ ✟✥ ✟✜✔ ✠✔✑✑✔✏ ☞✜✡✑ s✚✖✒✟✠ ✒✚

✍✜✟✑✎✔✏ ☞✜✡✑ s✚✖✒✟✠✳ ❍✟✑ ✖✟✏✔ ✑✎✍✜ ✟✜✔ s✟✠✡☛☞s ✡s ☞s✔☛✳

❋✟✏ ✔✧✍✖✣✠✔ ❚

✖✘s✯

✟✏ ✖ s➊✯

✗✛✡✑✎ ✍ s✣✍✤✡✜✢ ✒✔✑✛✔✔✜ ✖ ✍✜☛ s➊✯

✙ ✒☞✑ ✜✟✑ ✖✘s✘s❯

❱ ❲✠ ❳❱ ❍ s ✖➊✯

❳ ❱ ❍ s✘✖✯

❳ ❱ ✕✢✘s ✖❳❱ ✕✢ ✖➊❨

s➊❨

✌ ✒☞✑ ✜✟✑ ❱ ✕✢✘✖✘s❯

▼✘❩ ✖✟✠ ✟✏ ▼ ❩➊❨

✖✟✠➊❨

✌ ✒☞✑ ✜✟✑ ▼✘❩✘✖✟✠❯ ✔✑✤✳

⑨ ❲✏✔✥✡✧ s✚✖✒✟✠s ✍✏✔ ✣✏✡✜✑✔☛ ✡✜ ✜✟✏✖✍✠✘✏✟✖✍✜ ✗☞✣✏✡✢✎✑✙ ✑✚✣✔ ✛✡✑✎✟☞✑ s✣✍✤✡✜✢ ✒✔✑✛✔✔✜ ✑✎✔

✣✏✔✥✡✧ s✚✖✒✟✠ ✍✜☛ ✑✎✔ ☞✜✡✑ s✚✖✒✟✠✳ ✦✎☞s ✤✔✏✑✍✡✜ ✍✣✣✏✟♥✔☛ ✣✏✔✥✡✧✔s ✛✏✡✑✑✔✜ ♥✔✏✚ ✤✠✟s✔ ✑✟ ✑✎✔

☞✜✡✑ s✚✖✒✟✠ ✍✏✔ ☞s✔☛ ✑✟ ✡✜☛✡✤✍✑✔ ☛✔✤✡✖✍✠ ✥✏✍✤✑✡✟✜s ✟✏ ✖☞✠✑✡✣✠✔s ✟✥ ✍ ❙✉ ☞✜✡✑✌ ✛✎✔✜ ✡✑ ✡s

✡✜✤✟✜♥✔✜✡✔✜✑✠✚ s✖✍✠✠ ✟✏ ✠✍✏✢✔✳

❋✟✏ ✔✧✍✖✣✠✔ ❚

✖✔✢✍✛✍✑✑ ✗ ❱♠▲ ❳ ❱❬❭

▲✙❯ ✜✍✜✟s✔✤✟✜☛ ✗❱ ✜s ❳ ❱❬➊❪

s✙❯

✤✔✜✑✡✖✔✑✏✔ ✗❱ ✤✖ ❳ ❱❬➊✯

✖✙❯ ✣✡✤✟✥✍✏✍☛ ✗❱ ✣❋ ❳ ❱❬➊❨✯

❋✙❯✳

✕✡✠✟✖✔✑✏✔ ✗ ❱ ✕✖ ❳ ❱❬❫✖✙❯ ✖✡✤✏✟s✔✤✟✜☛ ✗❱➭s ❳ ❱❬

➊❭s✙❯

✖✡✠✠✡♥✟✠✑ ✗❱ ✖◗❳ ❱❬➊❫

◗✙❯ ✢✡✢✍✎✔✏✑❡ ✗❱❴✩❡ ❳ ❱❬❪✩❡✙❯

Page 216: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✷ P✁✂✄☎✆✄

❦✝✞✟✠✡☛☛☞✌✟✍✎ ✏✑ ❦✒ ✌ ✓ ✑✔✸✒ ✌ ✓ ✥✕✖ ✗✘ ✓ ✥✕✖ ✙ ✑✔

✻✘❏✚

♠✝✛✎✟✡♠✜✢✎✢ ✏✑➭ ❆ ✓ ✑✔➊✻❆❏✚ ♠✝✛✎✟✣ ✏✑➭♠ ✓ ✑✔

➊✻♠❏✚

✡✣❛✤☛✎✟♠ ✏✑ ✦➦✓✔✕✑ ✣♠ ✓ ✑✔

➊✧★♠❏✚ ✢☛✛✕

❚✌✢ ✍✣✝☛ ✩♠✝✛✎✟✣✪ ✠✌✝✛✌ ✢✫✍✡✞✤ ✑✔➊✻♠✬ ✝✕✢✕ ✡ ♠✝✛✎✟♠✢☛✎✢✬ ✝✤ ✤✝♠✜✞✭ ☛✌✢ ✣✡♠✢ ❛✝✮✢✣ ☛✟

✛✟✣✮✢✣✝✢✣☛ ✤✍❝☞♠✍✞☛✝✜✞✢ ✟✯ ☛✌✢ ♠✢☛✎✢✕ ✰✣ ☛✌✢ ✤✡♠✢ ✤✜✝✎✝☛✬ ☛✌✢ ✍✣✝☛ ✩✯✢✎♠✝✪✬ ✢✫✍✡✞ ☛✟ ✡

✯✢♠☛✟♠✢☛✎✢ ✟✎ ✑✔➊✧✱

♠ ✌✡✤ ❝✢✢✣ ✍✤✢✲ ✡✤ ☛✌✢ ✛✟✣✮✢✣✝✢✣☛ ✞✢✣❛☛✌ ✍✣✝☛ ✝✣ ✣✍✛✞✢✡✎ ✤☛✍✲✝✢✤✕

❙✝♠✝✞✡✎✞✭✬ ☛✌✢ ✍✣✝☛ ✩❝✡✎✣✪✬ ✢✫✍✡✞ ☛✟ ✑✔➊✳✴

♠✳✬ ✝✤ ✡ ✛✟✣✮✢✣✝✢✣☛ ♠✢✡✤✍✎✢ ✟✯ ✛✎✟✤✤☞✤✢✛☛✝✟✣✡✞

✡✎✢✡✤ ✝✣ ✤✍❝☞✡☛✟♠✝✛ ✜✡✎☛✝✛✞✢ ✛✟✞✞✝✤✝✟✣✤✕ ✵✟✠✢✮✢✎✬ ☛✌✢ ✍✣✝☛ ✩♠✝✛✎✟✣✪ ✝✤ ✜✎✢✯✢✎✎✢✲ ✟✮✢✎ ☛✌✢

✍✣✝☛ ✩♠✝✛✎✟♠✢☛✎✢✪ ☛✟ ✡✮✟✝✲ ✛✟✣✯✍✤✝✟✣ ✟✯ ☛✌✢ ✩♠✝✛✎✟♠✢☛✎✢✪ ✠✝☛✌ ☛✌✢ ✞✢✣❛☛✌ ♠✢✡✤✍✎✝✣❛

✝✣✤☛✎✍♠✢✣☛ ✛✡✞✞✢✲ ✩♠✝✛✎✟♠✢☛✢✎✪✕ ❚✌✢✤✢ ✣✢✠✞✭ ✯✟✎♠✢✲ ♠✍✞☛✝✜✞✢✤ ✟✎ ✤✍❝☞♠✍✞☛✝✜✞✢✤ ✏✛♠✬ ❦♠✬

➭♠✬ ➭✤✬ ✣✤❏ ✟✯ ❙✰ ✍✣✝☛✤✬ ♠✢☛✎✢ ✡✣✲ ✤✢✛✟✣✲✬ ✛✟✣✤☛✝☛✍☛✢ ✡ ✣✢✠ ✛✟♠✜✟✤✝☛✢ ✝✣✤✢✜✡✎✡❝✞✢ ✤✭♠❝✟✞

✯✟✎ ✍✣✝☛✤✕

⑨ ✒✌✢✣ ✡ ✜✎✢✯✝❲ ✝✤ ✜✞✡✛✢✲ ❝✢✯✟✎✢ ☛✌✢ ✤✭♠❝✟✞ ✟✯ ✡ ✍✣✝☛✬ ☛✌✢ ✛✟♠❝✝✣✡☛✝✟✣ ✟✯ ✜✎✢✯✝❲ ✡✣✲ ✤✭♠❝✟✞ ✝✤

✛✟✣✤✝✲✢✎✢✲ ✡✤ ✡ ✣✢✠ ✤✭♠❝✟✞✬ ✯✟✎ ☛✌✢ ✍✣✝☛✬ ✠✌✝✛✌ ✛✡✣ ❝✢ ✎✡✝✤✢✲ ☛✟ ✡ ✜✟✤✝☛✝✮✢ ✟✎ ✣✢❛✡☛✝✮✢

✜✟✠✢✎ ✠✝☛✌✟✍☛ ✍✤✝✣❛ ❝✎✡✛❦✢☛✤✕ ❚✌✢✤✢ ✛✡✣ ❝✢ ✛✟♠❝✝✣✢✲ ✠✝☛✌ ✟☛✌✢✎ ✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞✤ ☛✟ ✯✟✎♠

✛✟♠✜✟✍✣✲ ✍✣✝☛✕ ✶✍✞✢✤ ✯✟✎ ❝✝✣✲✝✣❛☞✝✣ ✝✣✲✝✛✢✤ ✡✎✢ ✣✟☛ ☛✌✟✤✢ ✟✯ ✟✎✲✝✣✡✎✭ ✡✞❛✢❝✎✡✕

❋✟✎ ✢❲✡♠✜✞✢ ✹

✛♠✸♠✢✡✣✤ ✡✞✠✡✭✤ ✏✛♠❏

✸✓ ✏✔✕✔✑ ♠❏

✸✓ ✏✑✔

➊✳♠❏

✸✓ ✑✔

➊✻♠✸✬ ❝✍☛ ✣✢✮✢✎ ✔✕✔✑ ♠

✸✟✎

✑✔➊✳♠✸✟✎ ✑✛♠

✸✏✜✎✢✯✝❲ ✛ ✠✝☛✌ ✡ ✤✜✡✛✝✣❛ ✠✝☛✌♠

✸✝✤ ♠✢✡✣✝✣❛✞✢✤✤ ✡✤ ✜✎✢✯✝❲ ✛ ✝✤ ☛✟ ❝✢ ✡☛☛✡✛✌✢✲

☛✟ ✡ ✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞ ✡✣✲ ✝☛ ✌✡✤ ✣✟ ✜✌✭✤✝✛✡✞ ✤✝❛✣✝✯✝✛✡✣✛✢ ✟✎ ✝✣✲✢✜✢✣✲✢✣☛ ✢❲✝✤☛✢✣✛✢ ✠✝☛✌✟✍☛

✡☛☛✡✛✌♠✢✣☛ ✠✝☛✌ ✡ ✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞❏✕

❙✝♠✝✞✡✎✞✭✬ ♠❆✳♠✢✡✣✤ ✡✞✠✡✭✤ ✏♠❆❏

✳✓ ✏✔✕✔✔✑❆❏

✳✓ ✏✑✔

➊✸❆❏✳✓✑✔

➊✻❆✳✬ ❝✍☛ ✣✢✮✢✎ ✔✕✔✔✑ ❆

✳✟✎

✑✔➊✸❆✳✟✎ ♠ ❆

✳✚

✑ ✛♠➊✧✓ ✏✑✔

➊✳♠❏

➊✧✓✑✔

✳♠➊✧✬ ❝✍☛ ✣✟☛ ✑✛ ♠

➊✧✟✎ ✑✔

➊✳♠➊✧✚

✑➭✤➊✧♠✢✡✣✤ ✡✞✠✡✭✤ ✏✑✔

➊✻✤❏➊✧✓✑✔

✻✤➊✧✬ ❝✍☛ ✣✟☛ ✑ ✙ ✑✔

➊✻✤➊✧✚

✑ ❦♠✳♠✢✡✣✤ ✡✞✠✡✭✤ ✏❦♠❏

✳✓ ✏✑✔

✸♠❏

✳✓✑✔

✻♠✳✬ ❝✍☛ ✣✟☛ ✑✔

✸♠✳✚

✑♠♠✳♠✢✡✣✤ ✡✞✠✡✭✤ ✏♠♠❏

✳✓ ✏✑✔

➊✸♠❏

✳✓✑✔

➊✻♠✳✬ ❝✍☛ ✣✟☛ ✑✔

➊✸♠✳✕

⑨ ❆ ✜✎✢✯✝❲ ✝✤ ✣✢✮✢✎ ✍✤✢✲ ✡✞✟✣✢✕ ✰☛ ✝✤ ✡✞✠✡✭✤ ✡☛☛✡✛✌✢✲ ☛✟ ✡ ✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞ ✡✣✲ ✠✎✝☛☛✢✣ ✟✎ ✯✝❲✢✲

❝✢✯✟✎✢ ✏✜✎✢☞✯✝❲❏ ☛✌✢ ✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞✕

❋✟✎ ✢❲✡♠✜✞✢ ✹

✑✔✸✺♠

✸♠✢✡✣✤ ✑✔✔✔✺♠

✸✟✎ ✑✔✔✔ ♠

✼✸✬ ❝✍☛ ✣✟☛ ❦✺♠

✸✟✎ ❦ ♠

✼✸✕

✑✔✻✺♠

✸♠✢✡✣✤ ✑✔✬✔✔✬✔✔✔✺♠

✸✟✎ ✑✔✬✔✔✬✔✔✔ ♠

➊✸✬ ❝✍☛ ✣✟☛ ✗✺♠

✸✟✎ ✗ ♠

➊✸

⑨ ✽✎✢✯✝❲ ✤✭♠❝✟✞ ✝✤ ✠✎✝☛☛✢✣ ✮✢✎✭ ✛✞✟✤✢ ☛✟ ☛✌✢ ✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞ ✠✝☛✌✟✍☛ ✤✜✡✛✝✣❛ ❝✢☛✠✢✢✣ ☛✌✢♠✬ ✠✌✝✞✢

✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞✤ ✡✎✢ ✠✎✝☛☛✢✣ ✤✢✜✡✎✡☛✢✞✭ ✠✝☛✌ ✤✜✡✛✝✣❛ ✠✌✢✣ ✍✣✝☛✤ ✡✎✢ ♠✍✞☛✝✜✞✝✢✲ ☛✟❛✢☛✌✢✎✕

❋✟✎ ✢❲✡♠✜✞✢ ✹

♠ ✤✼✧✏✤✭♠❝✟✞✤ ♠ ✡✣✲ ✤

➊✧✬ ✝✣ ✞✟✠✢✎ ✛✡✤✢✬ ✤♠✡✞✞ ✞✢☛☛✢✎ ♠ ✡✣✲ ✤✬ ✡✎✢ ✤✢✜✡✎✡☛✢ ✡✣✲ ✝✣✲✢✜✢✣✲✢✣☛

✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞✤ ✯✟✎ ♠✢☛✎✢ ✡✣✲ ✤✢✛✟✣✲ ✎✢✤✜✢✛☛✝✮✢✞✭✬ ✠✝☛✌ ✤✜✡✛✝✣❛ ❝✢☛✠✢✢✣ ☛✌✢♠❏♠✢✡✣✤ ✩♠✢☛✎✢

✜✢✎ ✤✢✛✟✣✲✪✬ ❝✍☛ ✣✟☛ ✩♠✝✞✞✝ ✜✢✎ ✤✢✛✟✣✲✪✕

❙✝♠✝✞✡✎✞✭✬ ♠✤➊✧✾✤✭♠❝✟✞ ♠ ✡✣✲ ✤ ✡✎✢ ✠✎✝☛☛✢✣ ✮✢✎✭ ✛✞✟✤✢ ☛✟ ✢✡✛✌ ✟☛✌✢✎✬ ✠✝☛✌ ✜✎✢✯✝❲ ✤✭♠❝✟✞ ♠

✏✯✟✎ ✜✎✢✯✝❲ ♠✝✞✞✝❏ ✡✣✲ ✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞ ✤✬ ✝✣ ✞✟✠✢✎ ✛✡✤✢✬ ✤♠✡✞✞ ✞✢☛☛✢✎ ✏✯✟✎ ✍✣✝☛ ✩✤✢✛✟✣✲✪❏ ✠✝☛✌✟✍☛

✡✣✭ ✤✜✡✛✝✣❛ ❝✢☛✠✢✢✣ ☛✌✢♠ ✡✣✲♠✡❦✝✣❛♠✤ ✡✤ ✡ ✣✢✠ ✛✟♠✜✟✤✝☛✢ ✍✣✝☛✿♠✢✡✣✤ ✩✜✢✎♠✝✞✞✝✤✢✛✟✣✲✪✬

❝✍☛ ✣✢✮✢✎ ✩♠✢☛✎✢ ✜✢✎ ✤✢✛✟✣✲✪✕

♠❙➊✧✾✤✭♠❝✟✞ ♠ ✡✣✲ ❙ ✡✎✢ ✠✎✝☛☛✢✣ ✮✢✎✭ ✛✞✟✤✢ ☛✟ ✢✡✛✌ ✟☛✌✢✎✬ ✠✝☛✌ ✜✎✢✯✝❲ ✤✭♠❝✟✞ ♠ ✏✯✟✎ ✜✎✢✯✝❲

♠✝✞✞✝❏ ✡✣✲ ✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞ ❙✬ ✝✣ ✛✡✜✝☛✡✞ ✎✟♠✡✣ ✞✢☛☛✢✎ ❙ ✏✯✟✎ ✍✣✝☛ ✩✤✝✢♠✢✣✤✪❏ ✠✝☛✌✟✍☛ ✡✣✭ ✤✜✡✛✝✣❛

❝✢☛✠✢✢✣ ☛✌✢♠✬ ✡✣✲ ♠✡❦✝✣❛ ♠❙ ✡✤ ✡ ✣✢✠ ✛✟♠✜✟✤✝☛✢ ✍✣✝☛✿ ♠✢✡✣✤ ✩✜✢✎ ♠✝✞✞✝✤✝✢♠✢✣✤✪✬ ❝✍☛

✣✢✮✢✎ ✩✜✢✎ ♠✝✞✞✝✤✢✛✟✣✲✪✕

❈♠ ✾✤✭♠❝✟✞ ❈ ✡✣✲♠ ✡✎✢ ✠✎✝☛☛✢✣ ✤✢✜✡✎✡☛✢✞✭✬ ✎✢✜✎✢✤✢✣☛✝✣❛ ✍✣✝☛ ✤✭♠❝✟✞✤❈ ✏✯✟✎ ✍✣✝☛ ✩✛✟✍✞✟♠❝✪❏

✡✣✲ ♠ ✏✯✟✎ ✍✣✝☛ ✩♠✢☛✎✢✪❏✬ ✠✝☛✌ ✤✜✡✛✝✣❛ ❝✢☛✠✢✢✣ ☛✌✢♠✿ ♠✢✡✣✤ ✩✛✟✍✞✟♠❝ ♠✢☛✎✢✪✬ ❝✍☛ ✣✢✮✢✎

✩✛✢✣☛✝♠✢☛✎✢✪✬ ✢☛✛✕

⑨ ❚✌✢ ✍✤✢ ✟✯ ✲✟✍❝✞✢ ✜✎✢✯✝❲✢✤ ✝✤ ✡✮✟✝✲✢✲ ✠✌✢✣ ✤✝✣❛✞✢ ✜✎✢✯✝❲✢✤ ✡✎✢ ✡✮✡✝✞✡❝✞✢✕

❋✟✎ ✢❲✡♠✜✞✢ ✹

Page 217: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁❆✂✂✄☎✆✝✞✄✟

✶✠➊✡♠ ☛ ✶☞♠ ✌☞✍☞✎♠✏✑✒✏✓✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ✶♠➭♠ ✌♠✗✘✘✗♠✗✙✒✎♠✏✑✒✏✓✔

✶✠➊✚♠☛ ✶➭♠ ✌♠✗✙✒✎☞✓✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ✶♠♠♠✌♠✗✘✘✗♠✗✘✘✗♠✏✑✒✏✓✔

✶✠➊✛✜❋☛ ✶ ✢❋ ✌✢✗✙✎✣✍✒✍✤✓✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ✶➭➭❋ ✌♠✗✙✒✎♠✗✙✒✎✣✍✒✍✤✓✔

✶✠✡❲☛✶ ✥❲ ✌✦✗✦✍ ✧✍✑✑✓✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ✶ ★✩❲ ✌★✗✘✎♠✏✦✍✧✍✑✑✓✔ ✏✑✙✪

⑨ ❚✫✏ ✖✬✏ ✎✣ ✍ ✙✎♠✕✗☞✍✑✗✎☞ ✎✣ ✖☞✗✑ ✍☞✤ ✑✫✏ ✬✭♠✕✎✘✬ ✣✎✒ ✖☞✗✑✬ ✗✬ ✍✮✎✗✤✏✤ ✧✫✏☞ ✑✫✏ ✢✫✭✬✗✙✍✘ ✯✖✍☞✑✗✑✭

✗✬ ✏✐✢✒✏✬✬✏✤ ✕✭ ✙✎♠✕✗☞✗☞✦ ✑✧✎ ✎✒ ♠✎✒✏ ✖☞✗✑✬✪

❋✎✒ ✏✐✍♠✢✘✏ ✰

❥✎✖✘✏ ✢✏✒ ♠✎✘✏ ★✏✘✮✗☞ ✗✬ ✧✒✗✑✑✏☞ ✍✬ ✱✲♠✎✘ ✳ ✎✒ ✱ ♠✎✘➊✛✳➊✛✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ❥✎✖✘✏✲♠✎✘✏ ✳ ✎✒

✱✲ ♠✎✘ ★✏✘✮✗☞ ✎✒ ✱✲♠✎✘✏ ✳✔ ✏✑✙✪

❥✎✖✘✏ ✢✏✒ ✑✏✬✘✍ ✗✬ ✧✒✗✑✑✏☞ ✍✬ ✱✲❚ ✎✒ ✱ ❚➊✛✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ❥✎✖✘✏ ✲❚ ✎✒ ✱ ✢✏✒ ✑✏✬✘✍ ✎✒ ✱✲✑✏✬✘✍✔ ✏✑✙✪

☞✏✧✑✎☞ ♠✏✑✒✏ ✬✏✙✎☞✤ ✗✬ ✧✒✗✑✑✏☞ ✍✬ ♥ ♠ ✬✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ♥✏✧✑✎☞ ♠ ✬✏✙✎☞✤ ✎✒ ♥ ♠ ✬✏✙✎☞✤ ✎✒ ♥♠✏✑✒✏ ✬

✎✒ ☞✏✧✑✎☞ ♠✏✑✒✏ ✬✔ ✏✑✙✪

❥✎✖✘✏ ✢✏✒ ★✗✘✎✦✒✍♠ ★✏✘✮✗☞ ✗✬ ✧✒✗✑✑✏☞ ✍✬ ✱✲★✦ ✳ ✎✒ ✱ ★✦➊✛✳➊✛✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ✱✲★✗✘✎✦ ✳ ✎✒ ❥✎✖✘✏✲★✦ ✳ ✎✒ ✱✲

★✦ ★✏✘✮✗☞ ✎✒ ✱✲★✗✘✎✦✒✍♠ ✳✔ ✏✑✙✪

⑨ ❚✎ ✬✗♠✢✘✗✣✭ ✙✍✘✙✖✘✍✑✗✎☞✬✔ ✑✫✏ ✢✒✏✣✗✐ ✬✭♠✕✎✘ ✗✬ ✍✑✑✍✙✫✏✤ ✑✎ ✑✫✏ ✖☞✗✑ ✬✭♠✕✎✘ ✗☞ ✑✫✏ ☞✖♠✏✒✍✑✎✒ ✍☞✤

☞✎✑ ✑✎ ✑✫✏ ✤✏☞✎♠✗☞✍✑✎✒✪

❋✎✒ ✏✐✍♠✢✘✏ ✰

✶✠✚♥✲♠

✜✗✬ ✧✒✗✑✑✏☞ ♠✎✒✏ ✙✎☞✮✏☞✗✏☞✑✘✭ ✍✬ ✩♥✲♠

✜✔ ✗☞ ✢✒✏✣✏✒✏☞✙✏ ✑✎ ♥✲♠♠

✜✪

✴ ✢✒✏✣✏✒✏☞✙✏ ✫✍✬ ✕✏✏☞ ✏✐✢✒✏✬✬✏✤ ✣✎✒ ♠✖✘✑✗✢✘✏✬ ✎✒ ✬✖✕✵♠✖✘✑✗✢✘✏✬ ✗☞✮✎✘✮✗☞✦ ✑✫✏ ✣✍✙✑✎✒ ✶✠✠✠✔ ✶✠✸✹✺

✧✫✏✒✏ ☞ ✗✬ ✑✫✏ ✗☞✑✏✦✏✒✪

⑨ P✒✎✢✏✒ ✙✍✒✏ ✗✬ ☞✏✏✤✏✤ ✧✫✏☞ ✬✍♠✏ ✬✭♠✕✎✘✬ ✍✒✏ ✖✬✏✤ ✣✎✒ ✢✫✭✬✗✙✍✘ ✯✖✍☞✑✗✑✗✏✬ ✍☞✤ ✖☞✗✑✬ ✎✣ ✢✫✭✬✗✙✍✘

✯✖✍☞✑✗✑✗✏✬✪

❋✎✒ ✏✐✍♠✢✘✏ ✰

❚✫✏ ✢✫✭✬✗✙✍✘ ✯✖✍☞✑✗✑✭ ✧✏✗✦✫✑ ✌✻✓ ✏✐✢✒✏✬✬✏✤ ✍✬ ✍ ✢✒✎✤✖✙✑ ✎✣ ♠✍✬✬ ✌✼✓ ✍☞✤ ✍✙✙✏✘✏✒✍✑✗✎☞ ✤✖✏ ✑✎

✦✒✍✮✗✑✭ ✌❣✓ ♠✍✭ ✕✏ ✧✒✗✑✑✏☞ ✗☞ ✑✏✒♠✬ ✎✣ ✬✭♠✕✎✘✬ ✻✔ ✼ ✍☞✤ ❣ ✢✒✗☞✑✏✤ ✗☞ ✗✑✍✘✗✙ ✌ ✎✒ ✬✘✎✢✗☞✦✓ ✑✭✢✏ ✍✬ ✻

☛ ✼ ❣✔ ✢✒✏✣✏✒✍✕✘✭ ✧✗✑✫ ✍ ✬✢✍✙✗☞✦ ✕✏✑✧✏✏☞ ✼ ✍☞✤ ❣✪ ✽✑ ✬✫✎✖✘✤ ☞✎✑ ✕✏ ✙✎☞✣✖✬✏✤ ✧✗✑✫ ✑✫✏ ✖☞✗✑

✬✭♠✕✎✘✬ ✣✎✒ ✑✫✏ ✖☞✗✑✬ ✧✍✑✑ ✌❲✓✔ ♠✏✑✒✏ ✌♠✓ ✍☞✤ ✦✒✍♠ ✌✦✓✪ s✎✧✏✮✏✒✔ ✗☞ ✑✫✏ ✏✯✖✍✑✗✎☞ ✻☛✼ ❣✔ ✑✫✏

✬✭♠✕✎✘ ✻ ✏✐✢✒✏✬✬✏✬ ✑✫✏ ✧✏✗✦✫✑ ✧✗✑✫ ✍ ✖☞✗✑ ✬✭♠✕✎✘ ✱✔ ✼ ✍✬ ✑✫✏ ♠✍✬✬ ✧✗✑✫ ✍ ✖☞✗✑ ✬✭♠✕✎✘ ★✦ ✍☞✤

❣ ✍✬ ✑✫✏ ✍✙✙✏✘✏✒✍✑✗✎☞ ✤✖✏ ✑✎ ✦✒✍✮✗✑✭ ✧✗✑✫ ✍ ✖☞✗✑ ✬✭♠✕✎✘ ♠✲✬✜✪ ✾✗♠✗✘✍✒✘✭✔ ✗☞ ✏✯✖✍✑✗✎☞ ✿ ☛✼ ❀✔ ✑✫✏

✬✭♠✕✎✘ ✿ ✏✐✢✒✏✬✬✏✬ ✑✫✏ ✣✎✒✙✏ ✧✗✑✫ ✍ ✖☞✗✑ ✬✭♠✕✎✘ ♥✔ ✼ ✍✬ ✑✫✏ ♠✍✬✬ ✧✗✑✫ ✍ ✖☞✗✑ ✬✭♠✕✎✘ ★✦✔ ✍☞✤ ❀

✍✬ ✑✫✏ ✍✙✙✏✘✏✒✍✑✗✎☞ ✧✗✑✫ ✍ ✖☞✗✑ ✬✭♠✕✎✘ ♠✲✬✜✪ ❚✫✏✬✏ ✬✭♠✕✎✘✬ ✣✎✒ ✢✫✭✬✗✙✍✘ ✯✖✍☞✑✗✑✗✏✬ ✬✫✎✖✘✤ ☞✎✑

✕✏ ✙✎☞✣✖✬✏✤ ✧✗✑✫ ✑✫✏ ✖☞✗✑ ✬✭♠✕✎✘✬ ✣✎✒ ✑✫✏ ✖☞✗✑✬ ❜✣✍✒✍✤❁ ✌❋✓✔ ❜♠✏✑✒✏❁✌♠✓ ✍☞✤ ❜✍✒✏❁ ✌✍✓✪

P✒✎✢✏✒ ✤✗✬✑✗☞✙✑✗✎☞ ♠✖✬✑ ✕✏ ♠✍✤✏ ✧✫✗✘✏ ✖✬✗☞✦ ✑✫✏ ✬✭♠✕✎✘✬ ✫ ✌✢✒✏✣✗✐ ✫✏✙✑✎✔ ✍☞✤ ✖☞✗✑ ✫✎✖✒✓✔ ✙

✌✢✒✏✣✗✐ ✙✏☞✑✗✔ ✍☞✤ ✖☞✗✑ ✙✍✒✍✑✓✔ ✤ ✌✢✒✏✣✗✐ ✤✏✙✗ ✍☞✤ ✖☞✗✑ ✤✍✭✓✔ ❚ ✌✢✒✏✣✗✐ ✑✏✒✍✔ ✍☞✤ ✖☞✗✑ ✑✏✬✘✍✓✔ ✍ ✌✢✒✏✣✗✐

✍✑✑✎✔ ✍☞✤ ✖☞✗✑ ✍✒✏✓✔ ✤✍ ✌✢✒✏✣✗✐ ✤✏✙✍✔ ✍☞✤ ✖☞✗✑ ✤✏✙✗✍✒✏✓✔ ✏✑✙✪

⑨ ✾✽ ✕✍✬✏ ✖☞✗✑ ❜★✗✘✎✦✒✍♠❁ ✣✎✒ ♠✍✬✬ ✗✬ ✣✎✒♠✏✤ ✕✭ ✍✑✑✍✙✫✗☞✦ ✾✽ ✢✒✏✣✗✐ ✌✍ ♠✖✘✑✗✢✘✏ ✏✯✖✍✘ ✑✎ ✶✠✹✓ ❜★✗✘✎❁ ✑✎

✍ ✙✦✬ ✌✙✏☞✑✗♠✏✑✒✏✔ ✦✒✍♠✔ ✬✏✙✎☞✤✓ ✖☞✗✑ ❜✦✒✍♠❁ ✍☞✤ ✑✫✗✬ ♠✍✭ ✬✏✏♠ ✑✎ ✒✏✬✖✘✑ ✗☞ ✍☞ ✍☞✎♠✍✘✭✪ ❚✫✖✬✔

✧✫✗✘✏ ✍ ✑✫✎✖✬✍☞✤✑✫ ✢✍✒✑ ✎✣ ✖☞✗✑ ✎✣ ✘✏☞✦✑✫ ✌♠✏✑✒✏✓ ✗✬ ✙✍✘✘✏✤ ✍ ♠✗✘✘✗♠✏✑✒✏ ✌♠♠✓✔ ✍ ✑✫✎✖✬✍☞✤✑✫ ✢✍✒✑

✎✣ ✑✫✏ ✖☞✗✑ ✎✣ ♠✍✬✬ ✌★✦✓ ✗✬ ☞✎✑ ✙✍✘✘✏✤ ✍ ♠✗✘✘✗★✗✘✎✦✒✍♠✔ ✕✖✑ ❥✖✬✑ ✍ ✦✒✍♠✪ ❚✫✗✬ ✍✢✢✏✍✒✬ ✑✎ ✦✗✮✏ ✑✫✏

✗♠✢✒✏✬✬✗✎☞ ✑✫✍✑ ✑✫✏ ✖☞✗✑ ✎✣ ♠✍✬✬ ✗✬ ✍ ✦✒✍♠ ✌✦✓ ✧✫✗✙✫ ✗✬ ☞✎✑ ✑✒✖✏✪ ✾✖✙✫ ✍ ✬✗✑✖✍✑✗✎☞ ✫✍✬ ✍✒✗✬✏☞

✕✏✙✍✖✬✏ ✧✏ ✍✒✏ ✖☞✍✕✘✏ ✑✎ ✒✏✢✘✍✙✏ ✑✫✏ ☞✍♠✏ ❜★✗✘✎✦✒✍♠❁ ✕✭ ✍☞✭ ✎✑✫✏✒ ✬✖✗✑✍✕✘✏ ✖☞✗✑✪ ❚✫✏✒✏✣✎✒✏✔ ✍✬

✍☞ ✏✐✙✏✢✑✗✎☞✔ ☞✍♠✏ ✎✣ ✑✫✏♠✖✘✑✗✢✘✏✬ ✍☞✤ ✬✖✕✵♠✖✘✑✗✢✘✏✬ ✎✣ ✑✫✏ ✖☞✗✑ ✎✣ ♠✍✬✬ ✍✒✏ ✣✎✒♠✏✤ ✕✭✍✑✑✍✙✫✗☞✦

✢✒✏✣✗✐✏✬ ✑✎ ✑✫✏ ✧✎✒✤ ❜✦✒✍♠❁ ✍☞✤ ☞✎✑ ✑✎ ✑✫✏ ✧✎✒✤ ❜★✗✘✎✦✒✍♠❁✪

❋✎✒ ✏✐✍♠✢✘✏ ✰

✶✠✹★✦ ☛✶ ♠✏✦✍✦✒✍♠ ✌ ✶✩✦✓✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ✶ ★✗✘✎ ★✗✘✎✦✒✍♠ ✌✶ ★★✦✓❂

✶✠➊✚★✦ ☛ ✶ ♠✗✘✘✗✦✒✍♠ ✌ ✶ ♠✦✓✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ✶ ♠✗✙✒✎★✗✘✎✦✒✍♠ ✌ ✶➭★✦✓❂

✶✠➊✹★✦ ☛ ✶ ✦✒✍♠ ✌✶✦✓✔ ✕✖✑ ☞✎✑ ✶ ♠✗✘✘✗★✗✘✎✦✒✍♠ ✌✶ ♠★✦✓✔ ✏✑✙✪

✽✑ ♠✍✭ ✕✏ ✏♠✢✫✍✬✗✬✏✤ ✍✦✍✗☞ ✑✫✍✑ ✭✎✖ ✬✫✎✖✘✤ ✖✬✏ ✑✫✏ ✗☞✑✏✒☞✍✑✗✎☞✍✘✘✭ ✍✢✢✒✎✮✏✤ ✍☞✤ ✒✏✙✎♠♠✏☞✤✏✤

✬✭♠✕✎✘✬ ✎☞✘✭✪ ❃✎☞✑✗☞✖✍✘ ✢✒✍✙✑✗✙✏ ✎✣ ✣✎✘✘✎✧✗☞✦ ✦✏☞✏✒✍✘ ✒✖✘✏✬ ✍☞✤ ✦✖✗✤✏✘✗☞✏✬ ✗☞ ✖☞✗✑ ✬✭♠✕✎✘ ✧✒✗✑✗☞✦

✧✎✖✘✤♠✍★✏ ✭✎✖ ✘✏✍✒☞ ♠✍✬✑✏✒✗☞✦ ✑✫✏ ✙✎✒✒✏✙✑ ✖✬✏ ✎✣ ✾✽ ✖☞✗✑✬✔ ✢✒✏✣✗✐✏✬ ✍☞✤ ✒✏✘✍✑✏✤ ✬✭♠✕✎✘✬ ✣✎✒ ✢✫✭✬✗✙✍✘

✯✖✍☞✑✗✑✗✏✬ ✗☞ ✍ ✢✒✎✢✏✒ ✢✏✒✬✢✏✙✑✗✮✏✪

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✷�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

❆✞✞✟✠✡☛☞ ❆ ✌

✡☛❉✟✠✍☛✎✠❆✏ ✑✎✒❉✓✏❆✟✎✑ ✞✔✕✍☛✖❆✏ ✗✓❆✠✘☛✘☛✟✍

Page 219: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁❆✂✂✄☎✆✝✞✄✟

Page 220: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

Page 221: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁❆✂✂✄☎✆✝✞✄✟

Page 222: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

✷�✁ P✂✄☎✆✝☎

Page 223: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❈�✁✂✄☎✆ ✝

✝✷✞ ✭✟✠ ✡☛➊☞ ✥ ✭✌✠ ✡✍✎ ✏ ✡☛✹ ✥ ✭❀✠ ✎ ✥ ✭✑✠ ✡✡✍✒✓ ✡✍✡✒ ✏ ✡☛✹✍

✝✷✝ ✭✟✠ ✡☛✼ ✥ ✭✌✠ ✡☛➊✔☞ ✥ ✭❀✠ ✒✍✕ ✏ ✡☛✹ ✥ ✭✑✠ ✖✍✖✗ ✏ ✡☛➊✘✍

✝✷✙ ✎☛☛

✝✷✚ ✭❀✠

✝✷✛ ☛✍☛✒✎ ✵✵

✝✷✜ ✕✾✍✡

✝✷✞✢ ✭✟✠ ✡ ✥ ✭✌✠ ✒ ✥ ✭❀✠ ✾ ✥ ✭✑✠ ✾ ✥ ✭✣✠ ✾ ✥ ✭✤✠ ✾✍

✝✷✞✞ ✽✍✗✦ ✵✧✥ ☛✍☛✽✎✎ ✵✸

✝✷✞✝ ✭✟✠ ✦✍✒ ★✩ ✥ ✭✌✠ ☛✍☛✦ ✩

✝✷✞✪ ✡✒✶✥ ✒✍✽

✝✷✞✫ ✭✌✠ ✟✬✑ ✭❀✠ ✟✮✣ ✯✮✰✬✩ ✰✬ ✑✱✵✣✬✲✱✰✬✟✳ ✩✮✰✴✬✑✲✍ ✺✱✬✻✿ ❁❂✣ ✟✮✩✴✵✣✬✻ ✰✤ ✟ ✻✮✱✩✰✬✰✵✣✻✮✱❀✤✴✬❀✻✱✰✬ ✵✴✲✻ ✟✳✯✟❢✲ ✌✣ ✑✱✵✣✬✲✱✰✬✳✣✲✲✍

✝✷✞✙ ❁❂✣ ❀✰✮✮✣❀✻ ✤✰✮✵✴✳✟ ✱✲ ♠ ❃ ♠❄ ✭✡ ❅ ✈✧❆❝✧✠➊❇

✝✷✞✚ ❉ ✒ ✏ ✡☛➊✼ ✵✸

✝✷✞✛ ❉ ✡☛✹✥ ✱✬✻✣✮✵✰✳✣❀✴✳✟✮ ✲✣❊✟✮✟✻✱✰✬ ✱✬ ✟ ✩✟✲ ✱✲ ✵✴❀❂ ✳✟✮✩✣✮ ✻❂✟✬ ✻❂✣ ✲✱❋✣ ✰✤ ✟ ✵✰✳✣❀✴✳✣✍

✝✷✞● ◆✣✟✮ ✰✌❍✣❀✻✲ ✵✟★✣ ✩✮✣✟✻✣✮ ✟✬✩✳✣ ✻❂✟✬ ✑✱✲✻✟✬✻ ✭✤✟✮ ✰✤✤✠ ✰✌❍✣❀✻✲ ✟✻ ✻❂✣ ✣❢✣ ✰✤ ✻❂✣ ✰✌✲✣✮■✣✮✍❲❂✣✬ ❢✰✴ ✟✮✣ ✵✰■✱✬✩✓ ✻❂✣ ✟✬✩✴✳✟✮ ❀❂✟✬✩✣ ✱✲ ✳✣✲✲ ✤✰✮ ✑✱✲✻✟✬✻ ✰✌❍✣❀✻✲ ✻❂✟✬ ✬✣✟✮✣✮ ✰✌❍✣❀✻✲✍❙✰✓ ✻❂✣✲✣ ✑✱✲✻✟✬✻ ✰✌❍✣❀✻✲ ✲✣✣✵ ✻✰ ✵✰■✣ ✟✳✰✬✩ ✯✱✻❂ ❢✰✴✓ ✌✴✻ ✻❂✣ ✬✣✟✮✣✮ ✰✌❍✣❀✻✲ ✱✬ ✰❊❊✰✲✱✻✣✑✱✮✣❀✻✱✰✬✍

✝✷✞✜ ❉ ✒ ✏ ✡☛✔☞ ✵✥ ✟✲ ✟ ✴✬✱✻ ✰✤ ✳✣✬✩✻❂ ✡ ❊✟✮✲✣❀ ✱✲ ✑✣✤✱✬✣✑ ✻✰ ✌✣ ✣❏✴✟✳ ✻✰ ✒✍☛✽✾ ✏ ✡☛✔☞ ✵✍

✝✷✝✢ ✡✍✒✦ ❊✟✮✲✣❀✥ ✦✍✖✾❑ ✭✲✣❀✰✬✑ ✰✤ ✟✮❀✠

✝✷✝✪ ✡✍✾ ✏ ✡☛✸ ★✩ ✵▲✸✥ ✻❂✣ ✵✟✲✲ ✑✣✬✲✱✻❢ ✰✤ ✻❂✣ ❙✴✬ ✱✲ ✱✬ ✻❂✣ ✮✟✬✩✣ ✰✤ ✑✣✬✲✱✻✱✣✲ ✰✤ ✳✱❏✴✱✑✲ ❆✲✰✳✱✑✲ ✟✬✑ ♥▼❖ ✩✟✲✣✲✍ ❁❂✱✲ ❂✱✩❂ ✑✣✬✲✱✻❢ ✟✮✱✲✣✲ ✑✴✣ ✻✰ ✱✬✯✟✮✑ ✩✮✟■✱✻✟✻✱✰✬✟✳ ✟✻✻✮✟❀✻✱✰✬✰✬ ✰✴✻✣✮ ✳✟❢✣✮✲ ✑✴✣ ✻✰ ✱✬✬✣✮ ✳✟❢✣✮✲ ✰✤ ✻❂✣ ❙✴✬✍

✝✷✝✫ ✡✍✾✦✕ ✏ ✡☛P ★✵

◗❘❚❯❱❳❚

Page 224: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✷✆

✝✞✝✟ ❍✠✡☛☞ ☛✌✡ ✍ ✥✎✏☛ ✑✒ ✓✠✥✒✡✏✠✔✡✕✒✏✏✖ ✗✘✒ ✙✔✚✚✒✙☛ ✛✔✚✥✎✕✌ ✠✏ ☛✌✡ ✍ ❂ ✈✴✈ ✜✜ ✢✘✒✚✒ ✈ ✜✜ ✠✏ ☛✘✒

✏s✒✒✓ ✔✛ ✚✌✠✡✛✌✕✕✖

✝✞✝✣ ✤✙✙✎✚✌✙✦ ✔✛ ✧ s✌✚☛ ✠✡ ✧★✶✶☛✔ ✧★

✶✩

✝✞✝✪ ✫ ★✖✬ ✭ ✧★✸✮✯ ✥

➊✸✖ ✳✡ ☛✘✒ ✏✔✕✠✓ s✘✌✏✒ ✌☛✔✥✏ ✌✚✒ ☛✠✯✘☛✕✦ s✌✙✮✒✓✰ ✏✔ ☛✘✒ ✌☛✔✥✠✙ ✥✌✏✏

✓✒✡✏✠☛✦ ✠✏ ✙✕✔✏✒ ☛✔ ☛✘✒ ✥✌✏✏ ✓✒✡✏✠☛✦ ✔✛ ☛✘✒ ✏✔✕✠✓✖

✝✞✝✱ ✫ ★✖✵ ✭ ✧★✶✲✥➊✸✹ ✺✎✙✕✒✌✚ ✓✒✡✏✠☛✦ ✠✏ ☛✦s✠✙✌✕✕✦ ✧★

✶✻☛✠✥✒✏ ✌☛✔✥✠✙ ✓✒✡✏✠☛✦ ✔✛ ✥✌☛☛✒✚✖

✝✞✝✼ ✵✖✽✾ ✭ ✧★✲✥

✝✞✿❀ ❁❁✖✽ ✮✥

✝✞✿❃ ❄✖✽ ✭ ✧★✩✩✮✥

✝✞✿✝ ✵✰❁✽✧✮✥

✝✞✿✿ ❍✠✡☛☞ ☛✘✒ ❅✎✌✡☛✠☛✦ ❡❇✴ ❈✧❉ ❊

❋●■❏♠♣ ✥❑

✩✙✸▲ ▼ ✘✌✏ ☛✘✒ ✓✠✥✒✡✏✠✔✡ ✔✛ ☛✠✥✒✖

◆❖P◗❘❙❚ ✿

✿✞❃ ❈✌▼✰ ❈✑▼

✿✞✝ ❈✌▼ ✤✞✞✞✞❯✰ ❈✑▼ ✤✞✞✞✞❯✰ ❈✙▼ ❯✞✞✞✞✤✰ ❈✓▼ ❱✌✥✒✰ ❈✒▼ ❯✞✞✞✞✤✞✞✞✞✔✡✙✒✞

✿✞❲ ✵✬ ✏

✿✞✟ ✧★★★ ✮✥✴✘

✿✞✣ ✵✖★❉ ✥ ✏➊✩❳ ✧✧✖✾ ✏

✿✞✪ ✧❄❁★ ✥ ❈❍✠✡☛☞ ❨✠✒✢ ☛✘✒ ✥✔☛✠✔✡ ✔✛ ❯ ✚✒✕✌☛✠❨✒ ☛✔ ✤▼

✿✞✱ ✧ ✥ ✏➊✩❈❍✠✡☛☞ ❨✠✒✢ ☛✘✒ ✥✔☛✠✔✡ ✔✛ ❯ ✌✡✓ ❩ ✚✒✕✌☛✠❨✒ ☛✔ ✤▼

✿✞✼ ❬ ❂ ❭ ✥✠✡✰ ✏s✒✒✓ ❂ ✾★ ✮✥✴✘✖ ❍✠✡☛☞ ✈ ❬ ✴ ❈ ✈ ✹ ❄★ ▼ ❂✧✽❳ ✈ ❬ ✴ ❈ ✈ ❪ ❄★ ▼ ❂ ❉

✿✞❃❀ ❈✌▼ ❫✒✚☛✠✙✌✕✕✦ ✓✔✢✡✢✌✚✓✏❳ ❈✑▼ ❴✒✚✔ ❨✒✕✔✙✠☛✦✰ ✌✙✙✒✕✒✚✌☛✠✔✡ ✔✛ ❭✖✽ ✥ ✏❵✩✓✔✢✡✢✌✚✓✏❳

❈✙▼ ① ❛ ★ ❈✎s✢✌✚✓ ✌✡✓ ✓✔✢✡✢✌✚✓ ✥✔☛✠✔✡▼❳ ✈ ❜ ★ ❈✎s✢✌✚✓▼✰ ✈ ❛ ★ ❈✓✔✢✡✢✌✚✓▼✰ ❝ ❛ ★

☛✘✚✔✎✯✘✔✎☛❳ ❈✓▼ ✾✾✖✧ ✥✰ ❉ ✏✖

✿✞❃❃ ❈✌▼ ✗✚✎✒❳✰ ❈✑▼ ❞✌✕✏✒❳ ❈✙▼ ✗✚✎✒ ❈✠✛ ☛✘✒ s✌✚☛✠✙✕✒ ✚✒✑✔✎✡✓✏ ✠✡✏☛✌✡☛✕✦ ✢✠☛✘ ☛✘✒ ✏✌✥✒ ✏s✒✒✓✰ ✠☛

✠✥s✕✠✒✏ ✠✡✛✠✡✠☛✒ ✌✙✙✒✕✒✚✌☛✠✔✡ ✢✘✠✙✘ ✠✏ ✎✡s✘✦✏✠✙✌✕▼❳ ❈✓▼ ❞✌✕✏✒ ❈☛✚✎✒ ✔✡✕✦ ✢✘✒✡ ☛✘✒ ✙✘✔✏✒✡

s✔✏✠☛✠❨✒ ✓✠✚✒✙☛✠✔✡ ✠✏ ✌✕✔✡✯ ☛✘✒ ✓✠✚✒✙☛✠✔✡ ✔✛ ✥✔☛✠✔✡▼

✿✞❃❲ ❈✌▼ ❁ ✮✥ ✘➊✶✰ ❁ ✮✥ ✘

➊✶❳ ❈✑▼ ★✰ ❉ ✮✥ ✘

➊✶❳ ❈✙▼

15

8✮✥ ✘

➊✶✰

45

8✮✥ ✘

➊✶

✿✞❃✟ ❯✒✙✌✎✏✒✰ ✛✔✚ ✌✡ ✌✚✑✠☛✚✌✚✠✕✦ ✏✥✌✕✕ ✠✡☛✒✚❨✌✕ ✔✛ ☛✠✥✒✰ ☛✘✒✥✌✯✡✠☛✎✓✒ ✔✛ ✓✠✏s✕✌✙✒✥✒✡☛ ✠✏ ✒❅✎✌✕

☛✔ ☛✘✒ ✕✒✡✯☛✘ ✔✛ ☛✘✒ s✌☛✘✖

✿✞❃✣ ✤✕✕ ☛✘✒ ✛✔✎✚ ✯✚✌s✘✏ ✌✚✒ ✠✥s✔✏✏✠✑✕✒✖ ❈✌▼ ✌ s✌✚☛✠✙✕✒ ✙✌✡✡✔☛ ✘✌❨✒ ☛✢✔ ✓✠✛✛✒✚✒✡☛ s✔✏✠☛✠✔✡✏ ✌☛

☛✘✒ ✏✌✥✒ ☛✠✥✒❳ ❈✑▼ ✌ s✌✚☛✠✙✕✒ ✙✌✡✡✔☛ ✘✌❨✒ ❨✒✕✔✙✠☛✦ ✠✡ ✔ss✔✏✠☛✒ ✓✠✚✒✙☛✠✔✡✏ ✌☛ ☛✘✒ ✏✌✥✒

☛✠✥✒❳ ❈✙▼ ✏s✒✒✓ ✠✏ ✌✕✢✌✦✏ ✡✔✡t✡✒✯✌☛✠❨✒❳ ❈✓▼ ☛✔☛✌✕ s✌☛✘ ✕✒✡✯☛✘ ✔✛ ✌ s✌✚☛✠✙✕✒ ✙✌✡ ✡✒❨✒✚

✓✒✙✚✒✌✏✒ ✢✠☛✘ ☛✠✥✒✖ ❈✺✔☛✒✰ ☛✘✒ ✌✚✚✔✢✏ ✔✡ ☛✘✒ ✯✚✌s✘✏ ✌✚✒ ✥✒✌✡✠✡✯✕✒✏✏▼✖

✿✞❃✪ ✺✔✰ ✢✚✔✡✯✖ ①t❢ s✕✔☛ ✓✔✒✏ ✡✔☛ ✏✘✔✢ ☛✘✒ ☛✚✌❣✒✙☛✔✚✦ ✔✛ ✌ s✌✚☛✠✙✕✒✖ ❩✔✡☛✒❤☛☞ ✤ ✑✔✓✦ ✠✏ ✓✚✔ss✒✓

✛✚✔✥ ✌ ☛✔✢✒✚ ❈① ❂ ★▼ ✌☛ ❢ ❂ ★✖

✿✞❃✱ ✧★❁ ✥ ✏❵✶

Page 225: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✷✆

✸✝✞✟ ✭✠✡ ☛ ☞✠✌✌ ✠✍ ✎✏✑✍ ✒✓ ✠ ✑✔✒✒✍✕ ✖✌✒✒✎ ✗✑ ✘✗✙✘✏✚✛ ✗✍ ✎✏☞✒✜✓✚✑ ✖✎✒✔ ✠ ✢✠✌✌ ✢✗✍✕ ✎✏✚✜✙✏✚ ✑✣✏✏✚

✠✓✚ ✔✒❛✏✑ ✍✒ ✍✕✏ ✒✣✣✒✑✗✍✏ ✢✠✌✌ ✢✕✗✙✕ ✑✍✒✣✑ ✗✍✤ ✭☞✡ ☛ ☞✠✌✌ ✍✕✎✒✢✓ ✜✣ ✢✗✍✕ ✑✒✔✏ ✗✓✗✍✗✠✌

❛✏✌✒✙✗✍✈ ✎✏☞✒✜✓✚✗✓✥ ✖✎✒✔ ✍✕✏ ✖✌✒✒✎ ✢✗✍✕ ✎✏✚✜✙✏✚ ✑✣✏✏✚ ✠✖✍✏✎ ✏✠✙✕ ✕✗✍✤ ✭✙✡ ☛ ✜✓✗✖✒✎✔✌✈

✔✒❛✗✓✥ ✙✎✗✙✘✏✍ ☞✠✌✌ ✍✜✎✓✏✚ ☞✠✙✘ ☞✈ ✕✗✍✍✗✓✥ ✗✍ ✢✗✍✕ ✠ ☞✠✍ ✖✒✎ ✠ ❛✏✎✈ ✑✕✒✎✍ ✍✗✔✏♠✗✓✍✏✎❛✠✌✦

✸✝✧★ ① ✩ ✪✛ ✫ ✩ ✪✛ ✬ ✮ ✪✤ ① ✮ ✪✛ ✫ ✮ ✪✛ ✬ ✩ ✪✤ ① ✩ ✪✛ ✫ ✮ ✪✛ ✬ ✮ ✪✦

✸✝✧✞ ●✎✏✠✍✏✑✍ ✗✓ ✯✛ ✌✏✠✑✍ ✗✓ ✰✤ ✫ ✮ ✪ ✗✓ ✱ ✠✓✚ ✰✛ ✫ ✩ ✪ ✗✓ ✯✦

✸✝✧✧ ☛✙✙✏✌✏✎✠✍✗✒✓ ✔✠✥✓✗✍✜✚✏ ✥✎✏✠✍✏✑✍ ✗✓ ✰✤ ✑✣✏✏✚ ✥✎✏✠✍✏✑✍ ✗✓ ✯✤ ✫ ✮ ✪ ✗✓ ✱✛ ✰ ✠✓✚ ✯✤ ✬ ✮ ✪ ✗✓ ✱

✠✓✚ ✯✛ ✬ ✩ ✪ ✗✓ ✰✤ ✬ ✲ ✪ ✠✍ ☛✛ ✳✛ ✴✛ ✵✦

✸✝✧✸ ☛ ✑✍✎✠✗✥✕✍ ✌✗✓✏ ✗✓✙✌✗✓✏✚ ✢✗✍✕ ✍✕✏ ✍✗✔✏♠✠✶✗✑ ✖✒✎ ✜✓✗✖✒✎✔✌✈ ✠✙✙✏✌✏✎✠✍✏✚ ✔✒✍✗✒✓✤ ✣✠✎✠✌✌✏✌ ✍✒

✍✕✏ ✍✗✔✏♠ ✠✶✗✑ ✖✒✎ ✜✓✗✖✒✎✔✔✒✍✗✒✓✦

✸✝✧✹ ✱✪ ✑✛ ✱✪ ✑

✸✝✧✺ ✭✠✡ ✱✯ ✘✔ ✕➊✻✤ ✭☞✡ ✼ ✘✔ ✕

➊✻✤ ✭✙✡ ✰✪ ✑ ✗✓ ✏✗✍✕✏✎ ✚✗✎✏✙✍✗✒✓✛ ❛✗✏✢✏✚ ☞✈ ✠✓✈ ✒✓✏ ✒✖ ✍✕✏ ✣✠✎✏✓✍✑✛

✍✕✏ ✑✣✏✏✚ ✒✖ ✍✕✏ ✙✕✗✌✚ ✗✑ t ✘✔ ✕➊✻✗✓ ✏✗✍✕✏✎ ✚✗✎✏✙✍✗✒✓✤ ✠✓✑✢✏✎ ✍✒ ✭✙✡ ✗✑ ✜✓✠✌✍✏✎✏✚✦

✸✝✧✽ ①✾ ✿ ①✻ ✲ ✱✼ ❀ ✭✌✗✓✏✠✎ ✣✠✎✍✡✤ ①✾ ✿ ①✻ ✲ ✰✪✪ ❂ ✯✪ ❀ ✿ ✼ ❀✾✭✙✜✎❛✏✚ ✣✠✎✍✡✦

✸✝✧❁ ✭✠✡ ❃✪ ✔✛ ❃ ✔ ✑❄✻

✤ ✭☞✡ ✯❃ ✔✛ t ✔ ✑❄✻

✸✝✧❅ ✭✙✡✛ ✭✚✡✛ ✭✖✡

❈❇❉❊❋❍■ ✹

✹✝✞ ❱✒✌✜✔✏✛ ✔✠✑✑✛ ✑✣✏✏✚✛ ✚✏✓✑✗✍✈✛ ✓✜✔☞✏✎ ✒✖ ✔✒✌✏✑✛ ✠✓✥✜✌✠✎ ✖✎✏♦✜✏✓✙✈ ✠✎✏ ✑✙✠✌✠✎✑✤ ✍✕✏ ✎✏✑✍

✠✎✏ ❛✏✙✍✒✎✑✦

✹✝✧ ❲✒✎✘✛ ✙✜✎✎✏✓✍

✹✝✸ ❏✔✣✜✌✑✏

✹✝✹ ❖✓✌✈ ✭✙✡ ✠✓✚ ✭✚✡ ✠✎✏ ✣✏✎✔✗✑✑✗☞✌✏

✹✝✺ ✭✠✡ ❑✛ ✭☞✡ ▲✛ ✭✙✡ ▲✛ ✭✚✡ ❑✛ ✭✏✡ ❑

✹✝✽ ▼✗✓✍◆ ❑✕✏ ✑✜✔ ✭✚✗✖✖✏✎✏✓✙✏✡ ✒✖ ✠✓✈ ✍✢✒ ✑✗✚✏✑ ✒✖ ✠ ✍✎✗✠✓✥✌✏ ✗✑ ✓✏❛✏✎ ✌✏✑✑ ✭✥✎✏✠✍✏✎✡ ✍✕✠✓ ✍✕✏

✍✕✗✎✚ ✑✗✚✏✦ P♦✜✠✌✗✍✈ ✕✒✌✚✑ ✖✒✎ ✙✒✌✌✗✓✏✠✎ ❛✏✙✍✒✎✑✦

✹✝❁ ☛✌✌ ✑✍✠✍✏✔✏✓✍✑ ✏✶✙✏✣✍ ✭✠✡ ✠✎✏ ✙✒✎✎✏✙✍

✹✝❅ ◗✪✪ ✔ ✖✒✎ ✏✠✙✕✤ ✳

✹✝✟ ✭✠✡ ❖✤ ✭☞✡ ❖✤ ✭✙✡ ✰✱✦◗ ✘✔ ✕➊✻

✹✝✞★ ✵✗✑✣✌✠✙✏✔✏✓✍ ✒✖ ✔✠✥✓✗✍✜✚✏ ✱ ✘✔ ✠✓✚ ✚✗✎✏✙✍✗✒✓ ❃✪❘✢✗✍✕ ✍✕✏ ✗✓✗✍✗✠✌ ✚✗✎✏✙✍✗✒✓✤ ✍✒✍✠✌ ✣✠✍✕

✌✏✓✥✍✕ ✲ ✱✦✼ ✘✔ ✭✍✕✗✎✚ ✍✜✎✓✡✤ ✓✜✌✌ ✚✗✑✣✌✠✙✏✔✏✓✍ ❛✏✙✍✒✎✤ ✣✠✍✕ ✌✏✓✥✍✕ ✲ ✯ ✘✔ ✭✑✗✶✍✕ ✍✜✎✓✡✤

❙❃❃✔✛ ✯✪❘✛ ◗ ✘✔ ✭✏✗✥✕✍✕ ✍✜✎✓✡

✹✝✞✞ ✭✠✡ ◗t✦✯ ✘✔ ✕➊✻✤ ✭☞✡ ✰✱✦◗ ✘✔ ✕

➊✻✦ ❚✒✛ ✍✕✏ ✠❛✏✎✠✥✏ ✑✣✏✏✚ ✏♦✜✠✌✑ ✠❛✏✎✠✥✏ ❛✏✌✒✙✗✍✈ ✔✠✥✓✗✍✜✚✏

✒✓✌✈ ✖✒✎ ✠ ✑✍✎✠✗✥✕✍ ✣✠✍✕✦

✹✝✞✧ ☛☞✒✜✍ ✱❙❘✢✗✍✕ ✍✕✏ ❛✏✎✍✗✙✠✌✛ ✍✒✢✠✎✚✑ ✍✕✏ ✑✒✜✍✕✦

✹✝✞✸ ✱✼✔✗✓✛ ❯✼✪✔

✹✝✞✹ P✠✑✍ ✭✠✣✣✎✒✶✗✔✠✍✏✌✈✡

✹✝✞✺ ✱✼✪✦✼✔

✹✝✞✽ ✼✪✔

Page 226: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✷✷

✹✆✝✞ ✾✟✾ ✠ ✡✲☛✱ ☞✌✍✎✏ ✑✒✓ ✔☞✕✖✗✡ ☞✑ ✓✘✓✔✙ ✚✍✖✎✑ ✑✍✛☞✔✕✡ ✑✒✓ ✜✓✎✑✔✓✟

✹✆✝✢ ✻✟✣ ✏

✹✆✝✤ ✭☞✥ ✦☞✌✡✓ ✭✑✔✗✓ ✍✎✌✙ ✧✍✔ ✗✎✖✧✍✔✠ ✜✖✔✜✗✌☞✔ ✠✍✑✖✍✎✥

✭★✥ ✩✔✗✓✱ ✭✜✥ ✩✔✗✓✟

✹✆✪✫ ✭☞✥ v i j( ) ( . ✬ ✬)t t✮ ✯3 0 4.0 ✬ ( ) ✬a jt ✮ ✯ 4.0

✭★✥ ✰✟✳✣ ✠ ✡➊✴✱ ✵✶✸ ✛✖✑✒ ①✺☞✼✖✡✟

✹✆✪✝ ✭☞✥ ✽ ✡✱ ✽✣ ✠✱ ✽✿✟✽✻ ✠ ✡➊✴

✹✆✪✪ 2 ✱ ✣✳♦ ✛✖✑✒ ✑✒✓ ①✺☞✼✖✡❀ 2 ✱ ❁ ✣✳♦ ✛✖✑✒ ✑✒✓ ① ✺ ☞✼✖✡✱ ❂ ❃5 2 1 2/ , /✯ ✟

✹✆✪❄ ✭★✥ ☞✎✕ ✭✓✥

✹✆✪✹ ❖✎✌✙ ✭✓✥ ✖✡ ✑✔✗✓

✹✆✪❅ ✿✰✽ ✠ ✡➊✴

✹✆✪✞ ◆✍✟ ❇✍✑☞✑✖✍✎✡ ✖✎ ❣❈❉❈❊❋● ✜☞✎✎✍✑ ★✓ ☞✡✡✍✜✖☞✑✓✕ ✛✖✑✒ ✘✓✜✑✍✔✡

✹✆✪✢ ❍ ✘✓✜✑✍✔ ✜☞✎ ★✓ ☞✡✡✍✜✖☞✑✓✕ ✛✖✑✒ ☞ ✚✌☞✎✓ ☞✔✓☞

✹✆✪✤ ◆✍

✹✆❄✫ ❍✑ ☞✎ ☞✎✏✌✓ ✍✧ ✡✖✎✲✴ ✭✿■❏✥ ❑ ✿✾✟✳✸ ✛✖✑✒ ✑✒✓ ✘✓✔✑✖✜☞✌❀ ✿✻ ▲✠✟

✹✆❄✝ ✶✟✰✻ ✠ ✡➊☛✱ ✳✣✟✳✸ ✛✖✑✒ ✑✒✓ ✕✖✔✓✜✑✖✍✎ ✍✧ ✘✓✌✍✜✖✑✙

▼P◗❘❙❚❯ ❅

❅✆✝ ✭☞✥ ✑✍ ✭✕✥ ◆✍ ✎✓✑ ✧✍✔✜✓ ☞✜✜✍✔✕✖✎✏ ✑✍ ✑✒✓ ✦✖✔✡✑ ❱☞✛✭✓✥ ◆✍ ✧✍✔✜✓✱ ✡✖✎✜✓ ✖✑ ✖✡ ✧☞✔ ☞✛☞✙ ✧✔✍✠ ☞✌✌ ✠☞✑✓✔✖☞✌ ☞✏✓✎✜✖✓✡ ✚✔✍✕✗✜✖✎✏ ✓✌✓✜✑✔✍✠☞✏✎✓✑✖✜☞✎✕ ✏✔☞✘✖✑☞✑✖✍✎☞✌ ✧✍✔✜✓✡✟

❅✆✪ ✩✒✓ ✍✎✌✙ ✧✍✔✜✓ ✖✎ ✓☞✜✒ ✜☞✡✓ ✖✡ ✑✒✓ ✧✍✔✜✓ ✍✧ ✏✔☞✘✖✑✙✱ ✭✎✓✏✌✓✜✑✖✎✏ ✓✧✧✓✜✑✡ ✍✧ ☞✖✔✥ ✓❲✗☞✌ ✑✍✶✟✳ ◆ ✘✓✔✑✖✜☞✌✌✙ ✕✍✛✎✛☞✔✕✟ ✩✒✓ ☞✎✡✛✓✔✡ ✕✍ ✎✍✑ ✜✒☞✎✏✓✱ ✓✘✓✎ ✖✧ ✑✒✓ ✠✍✑✖✍✎ ✍✧ ✑✒✓ ✚✓★★✌✓✖✡ ✎✍✑ ☞✌✍✎✏ ✑✒✓ ✘✓✔✑✖✜☞✌✟ ✩✒✓ ✚✓★★✌✓ ✖✡ ✎✍✑ ☞✑ ✔✓✡✑ ☞✑ ✑✒✓ ✒✖✏✒✓✡✑ ✚✍✖✎✑✟ ✐✑ ✒☞✡ ☞ ✜✍✎✡✑☞✎✑✒✍✔✖❤✍✎✑☞✌ ✜✍✠✚✍✎✓✎✑ ✍✧ ✘✓✌✍✜✖✑✙ ✑✒✔✍✗✏✒✍✗✑ ✖✑✡ ✠✍✑✖✍✎✟

❅✆❄ ✭☞✥ ✿ ◆ ✘✓✔✑✖✜☞✌✌✙ ✕✍✛✎✛☞✔✕✡ ✭★✥ ✡☞✠✓ ☞✡ ✖✎ ✭☞✥✭✜✥ ✡☞✠✓ ☞✡ ✖✎ ✭☞✥❀ ✧✍✔✜✓ ☞✑ ☞✎ ✖✎✡✑☞✎✑ ✕✓✚✓✎✕✡ ✍✎ ✑✒✓ ✡✖✑✗☞✑✖✍✎ ☞✑ ✑✒☞✑ ✖✎✡✑☞✎✑✱ ✎✍✑ ✍✎✒✖✡✑✍✔✙✟✭✕✥ ✶✟✿ ◆ ✖✎ ✑✒✓ ✕✖✔✓✜✑✖✍✎ ✍✧ ✠✍✑✖✍✎ ✍✧ ✑✒✓ ✑✔☞✖✎✟

❅✆✹ ✭✖✥ ✩

❅✆❅ ❋ ❑ ❁ ✽✟✳ ✠ ✡➊☛✟ ❳✡✖✎✏ ✈ ❑ ✉ ❨ ❋❛✱ ✶ ❑ ✿✳ ❁ ✽✟✳ ❛ ✖✟✓✟✱ ❛ ❑ ✻✟✶ ✡

❅✆❩ ❋ ❑ ✿✟✳■✽✳ ❑ ✶✟✶✻ ✠ ✡➊☛

❬ ❑ ❏ ❭ ✶✟✶✻ ❑ ✶✟✿✰ ◆ ✖✎ ✑✒✓ ✕✖✔✓✜✑✖✍✎ ✍✧ ✠✍✑✖✍✎✟

❅✆✞ ❇✓✡✗✌✑☞✎✑ ✧✍✔✜✓ ❑ ✿✶ ◆ ☞✑ ☞✎ ☞✎✏✌✓ ✍✧ ✑☞✎➊✴ ✭❏■✣✥ ❑ ❏✵✸ ✛✖✑✒ ✑✒✓ ✕✖✔✓✜✑✖✍✎ ✍✧ ✰ ◆ ✧✍✔✜✓✟❍✜✜✓✌✓✔☞✑✖✍✎ ❑ ✽ ✠ ✡➊☛ ✖✎ ✑✒✓ ✕✖✔✓✜✑✖✍✎ ✍✧ ✑✒✓ ✔✓✡✗✌✑☞✎✑ ✧✍✔✜✓✟

❅✆✢ ❋ ❑ ❁ ✽✟✳ ✠ ✡➊☛ ✱ ❇✓✑☞✔✕✖✎✏ ✧✍✔✜✓ ❑ ✣✻✳ ❭ ✽✟✳ ❑ ✿✟✽ ❭ ✿✶❪ ◆

❅✆✤ ❬ ❁ ✽✶✱✶✶✶ ❭ ✿✶ ❑ ✽✶✶✶✶ ❭ ✳✟✶✱ ✖✟✓✟✱ ❬ ❑ ❏✟✶ ❭ ✿✶❫ ◆

❅✆✝✫ ❋ ❑ ❁ ✽✶ ✠ ✡➊☛ ✶ ❴ ❛ ❴ ❏✶ ✡

Page 227: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✷✆

t ✥ ✝✞ ✟ ✠ ① ✥ ✉ t ✥ ✝ ✡☛ ☞ ✞ ✥ ✝✞☛ ✌

t ✥ ✍✞ ✟ ✠ ① ✥ ✉ t ✎ ✏✑✒ ❛ t✓✥ ✏✡☛ ☞ ✍✞ ✝ ✡☛ ☞ ✔✍✞✒✌ ✥ ✝ ✔ ✕✌

t ✥ ✡☛☛ ✟ ✠ ❋✖✗✟✘ ✙✚✛✟✖✜✢✗ ✌✚✘✖✚✛ ✣✤ ✘✚ ✦☛ ✟

①✶ ✥ ✡☛ ☞ ✦☛ ✝ ✡☛ ☞ ❂☛☛ ✥ ✝ ✧★☛☛ ✌

✩✘ t ✥ ✦☛ ✟✪ ✈ ✥ ✡☛ ✝ ✍☛ ☞ ✦☛ ✥ ✝✞❂☛ ✌ ✟✲✶

❋✚✗ ✌✚✘✖✚✛ ✫✗✚✌ ✦☛ ✟ ✘✚ ✡☛☛ ✟ ✠ ①✓✥ ✝ ✞❂☛ ☞ ★☛ ✥ ✝ ✬✡✦☛☛ ✌

① ✥ ①✶ ✎ ①✓ ✥ ✝ ✞☛ ✕✌

✺✭✮✮ ✏✯✒ ✰✢❡✚✙✖✘✱ ✚✫ ✙✯✗ ✏ ✯✘ t ✥ ✡☛ ✟ ✒ ✥ ☛ ✎ ✍ ☞ ✡☛ ✥ ✍☛ ✌ ✟➊✶

❇✱ ✘✳✢ ❋✖✗✟✘ ✴✯✵✪ ✘✳✢ ✳✚✗✖✸✚✛✘✯❡ ✙✚✌✤✚✛✢✛✘ ✚✫ ✹✢❡✚✙✖✘✱ ✖✟ ✍☛ ✌ ✟➊✶✘✳✗✚✣✻✳✚✣✘✼

✰✢✗✘✖✙✯❡ ✙✚✌✤✚✛✢✛✘ ✚✫ ✹✢❡✚✙✖✘✱ ✏✯✘ t ✥ ✡✡✟✒ ✥ ☛ ✎ ✡☛ ☞ ✡ ✥ ✡☛ ✌ ✟➊✶

✰✢❡✚✙✖✘✱ ✚✫ ✟✘✚✛✢ ✏✯✘ t ✥ ✡✡✟✒ ✥ ✽✾ ✿✾ ❀✾✾ ✽✽ ❁❃ ❃❄ ❅ ❅ ❈

❉❊♠ ● ✯✘ ✯✛ ✯✛✻❡✢ ✚✫ ✘✯✛

➊✶✏ ✑✒ ✵✖✘✳

✘✳✢ ✳✚✗✖✸✚✛✘✯❡✼

✏❍✒✡☛ ✌ ✟✲✓✹✢✗✘✖✙✯❡❡✱ ✜✚✵✛✵✯✗✜✟✼

✺✭✮■ ✏✯✒ ✩✘ ✘✳✢ ✢❏✘✗✢✌✢ ✤✚✟✖✘✖✚✛✪ ✘✳✢ ✟✤✢✢✜ ✚✫ ✘✳✢ ❍✚❍ ✖✟ ✸✢✗✚✼ ❑✫ ✘✳✢ ✟✘✗✖✛✻ ✖✟ ✙✣✘✪ ✖✘ ✵✖❡❡ ✫✯❡❡

✹✢✗✘✖✙✯❡❡✱ ✜✚✵✛✵✯✗✜✟✼

✏❍✒ ✩✘ ✘✳✢ ✌✢✯✛ ✤✚✟✖✘✖✚✛✪ ✘✳✢ ❍✚❍ ✳✯✟ ✯ ✳✚✗✖✸✚✛✘✯❡ ✹✢❡✚✙✖✘✱✼ ❑✫ ✘✳✢ ✟✘✗✖✛✻ ✖✟ ✙✣✘✪ ✖✘ ✵✖❡❡ ✫✯❡❡

✯❡✚✛✻ ✯ ✤✯✗✯❍✚❡✖✙ ✤✯✘✳✼

✺✭✮▲ ❚✳✢ ✗✢✯✜✖✛✻ ✚✛ ✘✳✢ ✟✙✯❡✢ ✖✟ ✯ ✌✢✯✟✣✗✢ ✚✫ ✘✳✢ ✫✚✗✙✢ ✚✛ ✘✳✢ ✫❡✚✚✗ ❍✱ ✘✳✢ ✌✯✛✼ ❇✱ ✘✳✢ ❚✳✖✗✜

✴✯✵✪ ✘✳✖✟ ✖✟ ✢▼✣✯❡ ✯✛✜ ✚✤✤✚✟✖✘✢ ✘✚ ✘✳✢ ✛✚✗✌✯❡ ✫✚✗✙✢ ◆ ✚✛ ✘✳✢ ✌✯✛ ❍✱ ✘✳✢ ✫❡✚✚✗✼

✏✯✒ ◆ ✥ ★☛ ☞ ✡☛ ✥ ★☛☛ ❖ P ❘✢✯✜✖✛✻ ✖✟ ★☛ ✕✻

✏❍✒ ★☛ ☞ ✡☛ ✝ ◆ ✥ ★☛ ☞ ✞ P ❘✢✯✜✖✛✻ ✖✟ ✦✞ ✕✻

✏✙✒ ◆ ✝ ★☛ ☞ ✡☛ ✥ ★☛ ☞ ✞ P ❘✢✯✜✖✛✻ ✖✟ ✡☛✞ ✕✻

✏✜✒ ★☛ ☞ ✡☛ ✝ ◆ ✥ ★☛ ☞ ✡☛P ❘✢✯✜✖✛✻ ✵✚✣❡✜ ❍✢ ✸✢✗✚P ✘✳✢ ✟✙✯❡✢ ✵✚✣❡✜ ✗✢✯✜ ✸✢✗✚✼

✺✭✮◗ ✏✯✒ ❑✛ ✯❡❡ ✘✳✢ ✘✳✗✢✢ ✖✛✘✢✗✹✯❡✟✪ ✯✙✙✢❡✢✗✯✘✖✚✛ ✯✛✜✪ ✘✳✢✗✢✫✚✗✢✪ ✫✚✗✙✢ ✯✗✢ ✸✢✗✚✼

✏❍✒ ✦ ✕✻ ✌ ✟➊✶✯✘ t ✥ ☛ P ✏✙✒ ✝✦ ✕✻ ✌ ✟

➊✶✯✘ t ✥ ✬ ✟✼

✺✭✮✺ ❑✫ ✘✳✢ ✍☛ ✕✻ ✌✯✟✟ ✖✟ ✤✣❡❡✢✜✪

✔☛☛ ✝ ❙ ✥ ✍☛ ❛✪ ❙ ✥ ✡☛ ❛

❛ ✥ ✍☛ ✌ ✟➊✓✪ ❙ ✥ ✍☛☛ ❖

❑✫ ✘✳✢ ✡☛ ✕✻ ✌✯✟✟ ✖✟ ✤✣❡❡✢✜✪ ✯ ✥ ✍☛ ✌ ✟➊✓✪ ❙ ✥ ✬☛☛ ❖

✺✭✮❯ ❙ ✝ ✧ ☞ ✡☛ ✥ ✧ ❛✪✡✍ ☞ ✡☛ ✝ ❙ ✥ ✡✍❛

✖✼✢✼ ❛ ✥ ✍ ✌ ✟➊✓✪ ❙ ✥ ❂✔ ❖

✺✭✮❱ ❇✱ ✌✚✌✢✛✘✣✌ ✙✚✛✟✢✗✹✯✘✖✚✛ ✤✗✖✛✙✖✤❡✢✪ ✘✚✘✯❡ ✫✖✛✯❡ ✌✚✌✢✛✘✣✌ ✖✟ ✸✢✗✚✼ ❚✵✚ ✌✚✌✢✛✘✣✌

✹✢✙✘✚✗✟ ✙✯✛✛✚✘ ✟✣✌ ✘✚ ✯ ✛✣❡❡ ✌✚✌✢✛✘✣✌ ✣✛❡✢✟✟ ✘✳✢✱ ✯✗✢ ✢▼✣✯❡ ✯✛✜ ✚✤✤✚✟✖✘✢✼

✺✭✮❲ ❑✌✤✣❡✟✢ ✚✛ ✢✯✙✳ ❍✯❡❡ ✥ ☛✼☛✞ ☞✡✍ ✥ ☛✼✔ ✕✻ ✌ ✟✲✶✖✛ ✌✯✻✛✖✘✣✜✢✼ ❚✳✢ ✘✵✚ ✖✌✤✣❡✟✢✟ ✯✗✢

✚✤✤✚✟✖✘✢ ✖✛ ✜✖✗✢✙✘✖✚✛✼

✺✭✮❳ ❨✟✢ ✌✚✌✢✛✘✣✌ ✙✚✛✟✢✗✹✯✘✖✚✛ ✠ ✡☛☛ ✈ ✥ ☛✼☛✍ ☞ ✧☛

✈ ✥ ☛✼☛✡✔ ✌ ✟➊✶✥ ✡✼✔ ✙✌ ✟

➊✶

✺✭■❩ ❑✌✤✣❡✟✢ ✖✟ ✜✖✗✢✙✘✢✜ ✯❡✚✛✻ ✘✳✢ ❍✖✟✢✙✘✚✗ ✚✫ ✘✳✢ ✖✛✖✘✖✯❡ ✯✛✜ ✫✖✛✯❡ ✜✖✗✢✙✘✖✚✛✟✼ ❑✘✟ ✌✯✻✛✖✘✣✜✢ ✖✟

☛✼✡✞ ☞ ✍ ☞ ✡✞ ☞ ✙✚✟ ✍✍✼✞❬ ✥ ✬✼✍ ✕✻ ✌ ✟➊✶

✺✭■✮❭❪❫❴

❵ ❜❝❞ ❵ ❢s❣❴

✐ ✐❥❦❧♥ ♦

♣❦♣ qr❦♥

✇②③

Page 228: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✷✆

✝➊✞

✟✵✵ ✱✇❤✐❝❤ ❣✐✈✠✡ ✸✺♠✡☛☞✌

☛☞✌✍✎

✎❘

✏✑✒✒ ✓✔✕✖✗✘✙✕✚✛✖ ✜✢✣ ✚✤ ✥✦✗✗✖✥✕✧ ✙✥✥✦✗★✚✘✩ ✕✦ ✕✪✖ ✫✚✗✤✕ ✬✙✭

✏✑✒✮ ✜✙✣ ✯✪✖ ✪✦✗✤✖✰✥✙✗✕ ✤✲✤✕✖✳ ✪✙✤ ✘✦ ✖✴✕✖✗✘✙✔ ✶✦✗✥✖ ✚✘ ✖✳✹✕✲ ✤✹✙✥✖✻ ✯✪✖ ✳✼✕✼✙✔ ✶✦✗✥✖✤

✢✖✕✭✖✖✘ ✕✪✖ ✪✦✗✤✖ ✙✘★ ✕✪✖ ✥✙✗✕ ✥✙✘✥✖✔ ✜✯✪✚✗★ ✬✙✭✣✻ ❜✘ ✕✪✖ ✩✗✦✼✘★✧ ✕✪✖ ✥✦✘✕✙✥✕ ✶✦✗✥✖

✢✖✕✭✖✖✘ ✕✪✖ ✤✲✤✕✖✳ ✙✘★ ✕✪✖ ✩✗✦✼✘★ ✜✶✗✚✥✕✚✦✘✣ ✥✙✼✤✖✤ ✕✪✖✚✗ ✳✦✕✚✦✘ ✶✗✦✳ ✗✖✤✕✻

✜✢✣ ✽✼✖ ✕✦ ✚✘✖✗✕✚✙ ✦✶ ✕✪✖ ✢✦★✲ ✘✦✕ ★✚✗✖✥✕✔✲ ✚✘ ✥✦✘✕✙✥✕ ✭✚✕✪ ✕✪✖ ✤✖✙✕✻

✜✥✣ ✓ ✔✙✭✘ ✳✦✭✖✗ ✚✤ ✹✼✔✔✖★ ✦✗ ✹✼✤✪✖★ ✢✲ ✙✹✹✔✲✚✘✩ ✶✦✗✥✖ ✙✕ ✙✘ ✙✘✩✔✖✻ ✾✪✖✘ ✲✦✼ ✹✼✤✪✧ ✕✪✖

✘✦✗✳✙✔ ✶✦✗✥✖ ✜◆✣ ✳✼✤✕ ✢✖ ✳✦✗✖ ✕✪✙✘ ✚✕✤ ✭✖✚✩✪✕✧ ✶✦✗ ✖✿✼✚✔✚✢✗✚✼✳ ✚✘ ✕✪✖ ✛✖✗✕✚✥✙✔ ★✚✗✖✥✕✚✦✘✻

✯✪✚✤ ✗✖✤✼✔✕✤ ✚✘ ✩✗✖✙✕✖✗ ✶✗✚✥✕✚✦✘ ❢ ✜ ❢ ❀ ◆✣ ✙✘★✧ ✕✪✖✗✖✶✦✗✖✧ ✙ ✩✗✖✙✕✖✗ ✙✹✹✔✚✖★ ✶✦✗✥✖ ✕✦ ✳✦✛✖✻

❏✼✤✕ ✕✪✖ ✦✹✹✦✤✚✕✖ ✪✙✹✹✖✘✤ ✭✪✚✔✖ ✹✼✔✔✚✘✩✻

✜★✣ ✯✦ ✗✖★✼✥✖ ✕✪✖ ✗✙✕✖ ✦✶ ✥✪✙✘✩✖ ✦✶ ✳✦✳✖✘✕✼✳ ✙✘★ ✪✖✘✥✖ ✕✦ ✗✖★✼✥✖ ✕✪✖ ✶✦✗✥✖ ✘✖✥✖✤✤✙✗✲

✕✦ ✤✕✦✹ ✕✪✖ ✢✙✔✔✻

✏✑✒❁ ✓ ✢✦★✲ ✭✚✕✪ ✙ ✥✦✘✤✕✙✘✕ ✤✹✖✖★ ✦✶ ❂ ✥✳ ✤❃❄

✗✖✥✖✚✛✖✤ ✚✳✹✼✔✤✖ ✦✶ ✳✙✩✘✚✕✼★✖

❅✻❅❇ ❈✩ ❉ ❅✻❅❊ ✳ ✤❋❄● ❍ ❉ ❂❅

❋■❈✩ ✳ ✤

❋❄✙✶✕✖✗ ✖✛✖✗✲ ❊ ✤ ✶✗✦✳ ✕✪✖ ✭✙✔✔✤ ✙✕ ① ● ❅ ✙✘★

① ● ❊ ✥✳✻

✏✑✒✏ ❑✖✕ ✶✦✗✥✖ ● ▲▼ ❈✩ ❉ ❂ ✳ ✤❋❖● ▲▼ ❑

❛P◗❙ ❚ ➭s ❯ ● ❊ ✳ ✤❋❖

✏✑✒❱ ✓✔✕✖✗✘✙✕✚✛✖ ✜✙✣ ✚✤ ✥✦✗✗✖✥✕✻ ❑✦✕✖ ❲❯ ❳ ❨❖ ● ❲❩❖❖❬❭ ❪ ❨❄ ❫ ❲❯ ● ❲❩❄

❖❬❭

✯✪✖ ✳✦✗✙✔ ✚✤ ❴ ★✦ ✘✦✕ ✥✦✘✶✼✤✖ ✕✪✖ ✙✥✕✼✙✔ ✳✙✕✖✗✚✙✔ ✶✦✗✥✖✤ ✦✘ ✙ ✢✦★✲ ✜✕✖✘✤✚✦✘✧ ✩✗✙✛✚✕✙✕✚✦✘✙✔

✶✦✗✥✖✧ ✖✕✥✣ ✭✚✕✪ ✕✪✖ ✖✶✶✖✥✕✤ ✕✪✖✲ ✹✗✦★✼✥✖ ❴ ✥✖✘✕✗✚✹✖✕✙✔ ✙✥✥✖✔✖✗✙✕✚✦✘ ❩❖❖❬❭ ✦✗ ❩❄

❖❬❭ ✚✘ ✕✪✚✤

✖✴✙✳✹✔✖✻

✏✑✒❵ ✜✙✣ ❞✫✗✖✖ ✢✦★✲❡ ❴ ✥✗✖✭ ✙✘★ ✹✙✤✤✖✘✩✖✗✤

✫✦✗✥✖ ✦✘ ✕✪✖ ✤✲✤✕✖✳ ✢✲ ✕✪✖ ✶✔✦✦✗ ● ❥ ✼✹✭✙✗★✤❪ ✭✖✚✩✪✕ ✦✶ ✤✲✤✕✖✳ ● ✳✩ ★✦✭✘✭✙✗★✤❪

❦ ❥ ❧ ❲❯ ❚ ❲❛

❥ ❫ ♥❅❅ ❉ ❂❅ ● ♥❅❅ ❉ ❂▼

❥ ● ♦✻▼ ❉ ❂❅♣❑ ✼✹✭✙✗★

q✲ ✕✪✖ ✯✪✚✗★ ✬✙✭✧ ✶✦✗✥✖ ✦✘ ✕✪✖ ✶✔✦✦✗ ✢✲ ✕✪✖ ✥✗✖✭ ✙✘★ ✹✙✤✤✖✘✩✖✗✤ ● ♦✻▼ ❉ ❂❅♣❑ ★✦✭✘✭✙✗★✤✻

✜✢✣ ❞✫✗✖✖ ✢✦★✲❡ ❴ ✪✖✔✚✥✦✹✕✖✗ ✹✔✼✤ ✕✪✖ ✥✗✖✭ ✙✘★ ✹✙✤✤✖✘✩✖✗✤

✫✦✗✥✖ ✢✲ ✙✚✗ ✦✘ ✕✪✖ ✤✲✤✕✖✳ ● ❭ ✼✹✭✙✗★✤❪ ✭✖✚✩✪✕ ✦✶ ✤✲✤✕✖✳ ● ✳✩ ★✦✭✘✭✙✗★✤

❦ r ❧ ❲❯ ❚ ❲❛

r ❫ ❂♥❅❅ ❉ ❂❅ ● ❂♥❅❅ ❉ ❂▼

r ● ♥✻❊▼ ❉ ❂❅■❑ ✼✹✭✙✗★✤

q✲ ✕✪✖ ✯✪✚✗★ ✬✙✭✧ ✶✦✗✥✖ ✜✙✥✕✚✦✘✣ ✦✘ ✕✪✖ ✙✚✗ ✢✲ ✕✪✖ ✪✖✔✚✥✦✹✕✖✗ ● ♥✻❊▼ ❉ ❂❅■❑ ★✦✭✘✭✙✗★✤✻

✜✥✣ ♥✻❊▼ ❉ ❂❅■❑ ✼✹✭✙✗★✤

✏✑✒t ✉✙✤✤ ✦✶ ✭✙✕✖✗ ✪✚✕✕✚✘✩ ✕✪✖ ✭✙✔✔ ✹✖✗ ✤✖✥✦✘★

● ❂❅♣❈✩ ✳

❋♣❉ ❂❅

❋❖✳❖❉ ❂▼ ✳ ✤

❋❄● ❂▼❅ ❈✩ ✤

❋❄

✫✦✗✥✖ ✢✲ ✕✪✖ ✭✙✔✔ ● ✳✦✳✖✘✕✼✳ ✔✦✤✤ ✦✶ ✭✙✕✖✗ ✹✖✗ ✤✖✥✦✘★ ● ❂▼❅ ❈✩ ✤❋❄❉ ❂▼ ✳ ✤

❃❄● ❊✻❊▼

❉ ❂❅♣❑

✏✑✒② ✜✙✣ ♥ ❲ ❯ ✜★✦✭✘✣ ✜✢✣ ♥ ❲ ❯ ✜★✦✭✘✣ ✜✥✣ ❇ ❲ ❯ ✜✼✹✣

✏✑✮③ ④✶ ◆ ✚✤ ✕✪✖ ✘✦✗✳✙✔ ✶✦✗✥✖ ✦✘ ✕✪✖ ✭✚✘✩✤✧

Page 229: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✷✆

❝✟s ✱ s✠♥

✡☛☛ ✡☛☛✇☞✠❝☞ ✥✠✈❡ ✶✌❦✍

t✎♥ ✶☛ t✎♥✶✌

♠✏◆ ♠❣ ◆

✏❘

✑ ✑

✒ ✒

✓✒ ✒ ✒

✓ ✔

✺✕✖✗ ❚✘✙ ✚✙✛✜✢✣✤✙✜✦✧ ★✩✢✚✙ ✣✪ ✤✢✩✫✣✬✙✬ ✭✮ ✜✘✙ ✧✦✜✙✢✦✧ ✜✘✢✯✪✜ ✭✮ ✜✘✙ ✢✦✣✧ ✩✛ ✜✘✙ ★✧✦✛✰✙✪ ✩★ ✜✘✙✲✘✙✙✧✪✳ ✴✮ ✜✘✙ ❚✘✣✢✬ ✵✦✲✸ ✜✘✙ ✜✢✦✣✛ ✙✹✙✢✜✪ ✦✛ ✙✻✯✦✧ ✦✛✬ ✩✤✤✩✪✣✜✙ ✜✘✢✯✪✜ ✩✛ ✜✘✙ ✢✦✣✧✚✦✯✪✣✛✰ ✣✜✪ ✲✙✦✢ ✦✛✬ ✜✙✦✢✳

✼✛✰✧✙ ✩★ ✭✦✛✽✣✛✰ ✾✿

➊❀ ➊❀ ❁❂ ❁❂❃❄❅ ❃❄❅ ❇❈

❇❉ ❁❉

❋ ●

❍ ■ ❏❍ ■❑ ▲▼ ❖ ▼ ❖

❏P ◗P ◗❙

✺✕✖❯ ❱✩✛✪✣✬✙✢ ✜✘✙ ★✩✢✚✙✪ ✩✛ ✜✘✙ ❲✦✛ ✣✛ ✙✻✯✣✧✣✭✢✣✯❲ ❳ ✘✣✪ ✲✙✣✰✘✜✸ ★✩✢✚✙ ✬✯✙ ✜✩ ✜✘✙ ✢✩✤✙ ✦✛✬✛✩✢❲✦✧ ★✩✢✚✙ ✬✯✙ ✜✩ ✜✘✙ ★✧✩✩✢✳

❨✦❩ ❬❭❪ ❫ ❨✭❩ ❴❭❪ ❫❵ ❲✩✬✙ ❨✭❩ ✪✘✩✯✧✬ ✭✙ ✦✬✩✤✜✙✬✳

✺✕✖✖ ❨✦❩ ❛ ❜ ❞❪❪ ✾ ❴❞❪✸ ❛ ✾ ❢❞❪ ❫

❨✭❩ ❞❪❪ ❜ ❛ ✾ ❤❢❪✸ ❛ ✾ ❴❞❪ ❫

❨✚❩ ❛ ✾ ❞❪❪ ❫

❨✐❩ ❛ ✾ ❪

❚✘✙ ✢✩✤✙ ✲✣✧✧ ✭✢✙✦✽ ✣✛ ✚✦✪✙ ❨✦❩✳

✺✕✖❥ ❧✙ ✦✪✪✯❲✙ ✤✙✢★✙✚✜ ✚✩✛✜✦✚✜ ✭✙✜✲✙✙✛ ✭✩✬✣✙✪ ✼ ✦✛✬ ✴ ✦✛✬ ✜✘✙ ✢✣✰✣✬ ✤✦✢✜✣✜✣✩✛✳ ♦✛ ✜✘✦✜✚✦✪✙✸ ✜✘✙ ✪✙✧★♣✦✬q✯✪✜✣✛✰ ✛✩✢❲✦✧ ★✩✢✚✙ ✩✛ ✴ ✭✮ ✜✘✙ ✤✦✢✜✣✜✣✩✛ ❨✢✙✦✚✜✣✩✛❩ ✙✻✯✦✧✪ ❴❪❪ ❫✳❚✘✙✢✙ ✣✪ ✛✩ ✣❲✤✙✛✬✣✛✰ ❲✩✜✣✩✛ ✦✛✬ ✛✩ ★✢✣✚✜✣✩✛✳ ❚✘✙ ✦✚✜✣✩✛♣✢✙✦✚✜✣✩✛ ★✩✢✚✙✪ ✭✙✜✲✙✙✛ ✼✦✛✬ ✴ ✦✢✙ ✦✧✪✩ ❴❪❪ ❫✳ ❧✘✙✛ ✜✘✙ ✤✦✢✜✣✜✣✩✛ ✣✪ ✢✙❲✩✫✙✬✸ ✽✣✛✙✜✣✚ ★✢✣✚✜✣✩✛ ✚✩❲✙✪ ✣✛✜✩ ✤✧✦✮✳

✼✚✚✙✧✙✢✦✜✣✩✛ ✩★ ✼ r ✴ ✾ ✉ ❴❪❪ ❜ ❨ ❤❭❪ ① ❪✳❤❭ ❩ ② ③ ❤❭ ✾❤❤✳④ ❲ ✪⑤⑥

⑦✢✣✚✜✣✩✛ ✩✛ ✼ ✾ ❪✳❤❭ ① ❭❪ ✾ ❬✳❭ ❫

❴❪❪ ❜ ❬✳❭ ❜ ⑦⑧⑨ ✾ ❭ ① ❤❤✳④

⑩⑧⑨ ✾ ❤✳❶ ① ❤❪⑥ ❫❵ ✩✤✤✩✪✣✜✙ ✜✩ ❲✩✜✣✩✛ ✳

⑩⑨⑧ ✾ ❤✳❶ ① ❤❪⑥ ❫❵ ✣✛ ✜✘✙ ✬✣✢✙✚✜✣✩✛ ✩★ ❲✩✜✣✩✛✳

✺✕✖✺ ❨✦❩ ❷✦✹✣❲✯❲ ★✢✣✚✜✣✩✛✦✧ ★✩✢✚✙ ✤✩✪✪✣✭✧✙ ★✩✢ ✩✤✤✩✪✣✛✰ ✣❲✤✙✛✬✣✛✰ ✢✙✧✦✜✣✫✙ ❲✩✜✣✩✛ ✭✙✜✲✙✙✛✜✘✙ ✭✧✩✚✽ ✦✛✬ ✜✘✙ ✜✢✩✧✧✙✮ ✾ ❤❭❪ ① ❪✳❤④ ✾ ❴❬ ❫✸ ✲✘✣✚✘ ✣✪ ❲✩✢✙ ✜✘✦✛ ✜✘✙ ★✢✣✚✜✣✩✛✦✧ ★✩✢✚✙ ✩★❤❭ ① ❪✳❭ ✾ ❬✳❭ ❫ ✛✙✙✬✙✬ ✜✩ ✦✚✚✙✧✙✢✦✜✙ ✜✘✙ ✭✩✹ ✲✣✜✘ ✜✘✙ ✜✢✩✧✧✙✮✳ ❧✘✙✛ ✜✘✙ ✜✢✩✧✧✙✮ ❲✩✫✙✪✲✣✜✘ ✯✛✣★✩✢❲ ✫✙✧✩✚✣✜✮✸ ✜✘✙✢✙ ✣✪ ✛✩ ★✩✢✚✙ ✩★ ★✢✣✚✜✣✩✛ ✦✚✜✣✛✰ ✩✛ ✜✘✙ ✭✧✩✚✽✳

❨✭❩ ⑦✩✢ ✜✘✙ ✦✚✚✙✧✙✢✦✜✙✬ ❨✛✩✛♣✣✛✙✢✜✣✦✧❩ ✩✭✪✙✢✫✙✢✸ ★✢✣✚✜✣✩✛✦✧ ★✩✢✚✙ ✣✪ ✩✤✤✩✪✙✬ ✭✮ ✜✘✙ ✤✪✙✯✬✩♣★✩✢✚✙ ✩★ ✜✘✙ ✪✦❲✙ ❲✦✰✛✣✜✯✬✙✸ ✽✙✙✤✣✛✰ ✜✘✙ ✭✩✹ ✦✜ ✢✙✪✜ ✢✙✧✦✜✣✫✙ ✜✩ ✜✘✙ ✩✭✪✙✢✫✙✢✳ ❧✘✙✛ ✜✘✙✜✢✩✧✧✙✮ ❲✩✫✙✪ ✲✣✜✘ ✯✛✣★✩✢❲ ✫✙✧✩✚✣✜✮ ✜✘✙✢✙ ✣✪ ✛✩ ✤✪✙✯✬✩♣★✩✢✚✙ ★✩✢ ✜✘✙ ❲✩✫✣✛✰ ❨✣✛✙✢✜✣✦✧❩✩✭✪✙✢✫✙✢ ✦✛✬ ✛✩ ★✢✣✚✜✣✩✛✳

✺✕✖❸ ✼✚✚✙✧✙✢✦✜✣✩✛ ✩★ ✜✘✙ ✭✩✹ ✬✯✙ ✜✩ ★✢✣✚✜✣✩✛ ✾ ➭❹ ✾ ❪✳❤❭ ① ❤❪ ✾ ❤✳❭ ❲ ✪⑤⑥✳ ✴✯✜ ✜✘✙ ✦✚✚✙✧✙✢✦✜✣✩✛✩★ ✜✘✙ ✜✢✯✚✽ ✣✪ ✰✢✙✦✜✙✢✳ ❚✘✙ ✦✚✚✙✧✙✢✦✜✣✩✛ ✩★ ✜✘✙ ✭✩✹ ✢✙✧✦✜✣✫✙ ✜✩ ✜✘✙ ✜✢✯✚✽ ✣✪ ❪✳❭ ❲ ✪❺⑥

✜✩✲✦✢✬✪ ✜✘✙ ✢✙✦✢ ✙✛✬✳ ❚✘✙ ✜✣❲✙ ✜✦✽✙✛ ★✩✢ ✜✘✙ ✭✩✹ ✜✩ ★✦✧✧ ✩★★ ✜✘✙ ✜✢✯✚✽ ✾ ❻ ❂❻❉ ❼

❉❽❂✳

❾✯✢✣✛✰ ✜✘✣✪ ✜✣❲✙✸ ✜✘✙ ✜✢✯✚✽ ✚✩✫✙✢✪ ✦ ✬✣✪✜✦✛✚✙ ✾ ❿ ① ❴ ① ❴❪ ✾ ❴❪ ❲✳

Page 230: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✷✆

✺✝✞✟ ❋✠✡ ☛☞✌ ✍✠✎✏ ☛✠ ✡✌✑✠✒✑✌ ✓✎☛☞ ☛☞✌ ✔✎✕✍✖ ☛☞✌ ✗✠✡✍✌ ✠✗ ✗✡✎✍☛✎✠✏ ✕☞✠✘✒✔ ✙✌ ✌✏✠✘✚☞ ☛✠ ✛✡✠✑✎✔✌ ☛☞✌

✏✌✍✌✕✕♥✡✜ ✍✌✏☛✡✎✛✌☛♥✒ ✗✠✡✍✌✖ ✎✢✌ gm✣r

m✤

2v

✢ ✳✠✓ ✈ ✥ r✦✖ ✓☞✌✡✌T

✧2★ ✩ ✎✕ ☛☞✌ ♥✏✚✘✒♥✡

✗✡✌❢✘✌✏✍✜ ✠✗ ☛☞✌ ✔✎✕✍✢ ❋✠✡ ♥ ✚✎✑✌✏ ➭ ♥✏✔ ✪✖ ☛☞✌ ✍✠✏✔✎☛✎✠✏ ✎✕ r ✫ ➭✚ ❣ ✪✬✢ ✭☞✌ ✍✠✏✔✎☛✎✠✏ ✎✕

✕♥☛✎✕✗✎✌✔ ✙✜ ☛☞✌ ✏✌♥✡✌✡ ✍✠✎✏ s ✮ ✍✯ ✗✡✠✯ ☛☞✌ ✍✌✏☛✡✌✰✢

✺✝✞✱ ✲☛ ☛☞✌ ✘✛✛✌✡✯✠✕☛ ✛✠✎✏☛✖ ,2

R

mmgN

v✴✵ ✓☞✌✡✌ ◆ ✎✕ ☛☞✌ ✏✠✡✯♥✒ ✗✠✡✍✌ s✔✠✓✏✓♥✡✔✕✰ ✠✏ ☛☞✌

✯✠☛✠✡✍✜✍✒✎✕☛ ✙✜ ☛☞✌ ✍✌✎✒✎✏✚ ✠✗ ☛☞✌ ✍☞♥✯✙✌✡✢ ✭☞✌✯✎✏✎✯✘✯✛✠✕✕✎✙✒✌ ✕✛✌✌✔ ♥☛ ☛☞✌ ✘✛✛✌✡✯✠✕☛

✛✠✎✏☛ ✍✠✡✡✌✕✛✠✏✔✕ ☛✠ ◆ ✥ ✶✢

➊✸♠✹✻✐✼❡✼ ✽✾ ✿❀ ✿❁❂ ❃❄ ❅ ❇

✺✝✞❈ ✭☞✌ ☞✠✡✎❚✠✏☛♥✒ ✗✠✡✍✌ ◆ ✙✜ ☛☞✌✓♥✒✒ ✠✏ ☛☞✌ ✯♥✏ ✛✡✠✑✎✔✌✕ ☛☞✌ ✏✌✌✔✌✔ ✍✌✏☛✡✎✛✌☛♥✒ ✗✠✡✍✌ ❉ ◆

✥ ❊ ● ✪✬✢ ✭☞✌ ✗✡✎✍☛✎✠✏♥✒ ✗✠✡✍✌ ❍ s✑✌✡☛✎✍♥✒✒✜ ✘✛✓♥✡✔✕✰ ✠✛✛✠✕✌✕ ☛☞✌ ✓✌✎✚☞☛ ❊■✢ ✭☞✌ ✯♥✏

✡✌✯♥✎✏✕ ✕☛✘✍❏ ☛✠ ☛☞✌✓♥✒✒ ♥✗☛✌✡ ☛☞✌ ✗✒✠✠✡ ✎✕ ✡✌✯✠✑✌✔ ✎✗ ❊■ ❑ ❍ ▲ ▼ ◆ ✎✢✌✢ ❊■ ▲ ▼❊ ● ✪✬✢ ✭☞✌

✯✎✏✎✯✘✯ ♥✏✚✘✒♥✡ ✕✛✌✌✔ ✠✗ ✡✠☛♥☛✎✠✏ ✠✗ ☛☞✌ ✍✜✒✎✏✔✌✡ ✎✕ ❖❖ RP/gmin◗ ❘ ✕❙❯

✺✝❱❲ ❳✠✏✕✎✔✌✡ ☛☞✌ ✗✡✌✌❨✙✠✔✜ ✔✎♥✚✡♥✯ ✠✗ ☛☞✌ ✙✌♥✔ ✓☞✌✏ ☛☞✌ ✡♥✔✎✘✕ ✑✌✍☛✠✡ ❩✠✎✏✎✏✚ ☛☞✌ ✍✌✏☛✡✌ ✠✗

☛☞✌ ✓✎✡✌ ✯♥❏✌✕ ♥✏ ♥✏✚✒✌ ❬ ✓✎☛☞ ☛☞✌ ✑✌✡☛✎✍♥✒ ✔✠✓✏✓♥✡✔ ✔✎✡✌✍☛✎✠✏✢ ❞✌ ☞♥✑✌

❊■ ✥ ◆ ✍✠✕ ❬ ♥✏✔❊● ✕✎✏ ❬ ✪✬✥◆ ✕✎✏ ❬✢ ✭☞✌✕✌ ✌❢✘♥☛✎✠✏✕ ✚✎✑✌ ✍✠✕ ❬ ✥ ■❭●✪

✬✢ ❪✎✏✍✌ ✍✠✕ ❬ ✫ ❫✖

☛☞✌ ✙✌♥✔ ✡✌✯♥✎✏✕ ♥☛ ✎☛✕ ✒✠✓✌✡✯✠✕☛ ✛✠✎✏☛ ✗✠✡R

g❴★ ✢

❋✠✡060❵.e.i

2

1❵cos,

2✩✩✩

R

g❛ ✢

❜❝❤❥❦❧♦ ♣

♣✝q s♥✰ t✑✌ s✙✰ ✉✑✌ s✍✰ ✉✑✌ s✔✰ t ✑✌ s✌✰ ✉ ✑✌

♣✝✇ s♥✰ ①①② ③ ④ s✙✰ ✉②✮⑤ ③④ s✍✰ ⑥⑦❘ ③ ④ s✔✰ ⑥⑦❘ ③④

❞✠✡❏ ✔✠✏✌ ✙✜ ☛☞✌ ✏✌☛ ✗✠✡✍✌ ✠✏ ♥ ✙✠✔✜ ✌❢✘♥✒✕ ✍☞♥✏✚✌ ✎✏ ✎☛✕ ❏✎✏✌☛✎✍ ✌✏✌✡✚✜✢

♣✝✞ s♥✰ ⑧ ⑨ ⑩ ④ ✶ s✍✰ ⑧ ❶ ⑩✖ ⑧ ⑨ ❷ ④ ❨ ❸❯s✙✰ ❾❹ ❶ ⑧ ❶ ❹❺ ❸❯ s✔✰ ❨ ❷❣② ❶ ⑧ ❶ ❨ ⑩ ❣ ②✖ ⑩ ❣ ② ❶ ⑧ ❶ ❷ ❣ ②④ ❨❸❯

♣✝✺ s♥✰ ✡✠✍❏✌☛④ s✙✰ ❋✠✡ ♥ ✍✠✏✕✌✡✑♥☛✎✑✌ ✗✠✡✍✌ ✓✠✡❏ ✔✠✏✌ ✠✑✌✡ ♥ ✛♥☛☞ ✎✕ ✯✎✏✘✕ ✠✗ ✍☞♥✏✚✌ ✎✏

✛✠☛✌✏☛✎♥✒ ✌✏✌✡✚✜✢ ❻✑✌✡ ♥ ✍✠✯✛✒✌☛✌ ✠✡✙✎☛✖ ☛☞✌✡✌ ✎✕ ✏✠ ✍☞♥✏✚✌ ✎✏ ✛✠☛✌✏☛✎♥✒ ✌✏✌✡✚✜④ s✍✰ ❼✢❽✢

✎✏✍✡✌♥✕✌✕✖ ✙✘☛ ❿✢❽✢ ✔✌✍✡✌♥✕✌✕✖ ♥✏✔ ☛☞✌ ✕✘✯ ✔✌✍✡✌♥✕✌✕ ✔✘✌ ☛✠ ✔✎✕✕✎✛♥☛✎✠✏ ♥✚♥✎✏✕☛ ✗✡✎✍☛✎✠✏④

s✔✰ ✎✏ ☛☞✌ ✕✌✍✠✏✔ ✍♥✕✌✢

♣✝♣ s♥✰ ✔✌✍✡✌♥✕✌④ s✙✰ ❏✎✏✌☛✎✍ ✌✏✌✡✚✜④ s✍✰ ✌➀☛✌✡✏♥✒ ✗✠✡✍✌④ s✔✰ ☛✠☛♥✒ ✒✎✏✌♥✡ ✯✠✯✌✏☛✘✯✖ ♥✏✔ ♥✒✕✠

☛✠☛♥✒ ✌✏✌✡✚✜ s✎✗ ☛☞✌ ✕✜✕☛✌✯ ✠✗ ☛✓✠ ✙✠✔✎✌✕ ✎✕ ✎✕✠✒♥☛✌✔✰✢

♣✝✟ s♥✰ ❋ ④ s✙✰ ❋ ④ s✍✰ ❋ ④ s✔✰ ❋ s☛✡✘✌ ✘✕✘♥✒✒✜ ✙✘☛ ✏✠☛ ♥✒✓♥✜✕✖ ✓☞✜➁✰

♣✝✱ s♥✰ ✳✠

s✙✰ ➂✌✕

s✍✰ ➃✎✏✌♥✡ ✯✠✯✌✏☛✘✯ ✎✕ ✍✠✏✕✌✡✑✌✔ ✔✘✡✎✏✚ ♥✏ ✎✏✌✒♥✕☛✎✍ ✍✠✒✒✎✕✎✠✏✖ ❏✎✏✌☛✎✍ ✌✏✌✡✚✜ ✎✕✖ ✠✗

✍✠✘✡✕✌✖ ✏✠☛ ✍✠✏✕✌✡✑✌✔ ✌✑✌✏ ♥✗☛✌✡ ☛☞✌ ✍✠✒✒✎✕✎✠✏ ✎✕ ✠✑✌✡✢

s✔✰ ✌✒♥✕☛✎✍✢

♣✝❈ s✙✰ t

Page 231: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✷✆

✻✝✞✟ ✭✠✡

2/3t

✻✝✞✞ ✶☛ ☞

✻✝✞✌ ❚✍✎ ✎✏✎✠✑✒♦✓ ✔✕ ✖✗✕✑✎✒✱ ✈❡✴ ✈♣ ❂ ✶✘✙✚

✻✝✞✛ ✵✙✵✜☛ ☞ ✔✓ ✎✗✠✍ ✍✗✏✖ ✢ ✣ ✵✙✶✤✘ ☞

✻✝✞✥ ❨✎✕✱ ✦♦✦✎✓✑✧✦ ♦✖ ✑✍✎ ✦♦✏✎✠✧✏✎ ★ ✩✗✏✏ ✕✪✕✑✎✦ ✔✕ ✠♦✓✕✎✒✫✎✬✙ ❚✍✎ ✩✗✏✏ ✍✗✕ ✗ ✒✎✠♦✔✏

✦♦✦✎✓✑✧✦ ✕✧✠✍ ✑✍✗✑ ✑✍✎ ✦♦✦✎✓✑✧✦ ♦✖ ✑✍✎ ✩✗✏✏ ★ ✦♦✦✎✓✑✧✦ ♦✖ ✑✍✎ ♦✧✑♠♦✔✓♠ ✦♦✏✎✠✧✏✎

✎✮✧✗✏✕✦♦✦✎✓✑✧✦ ♦✖ ✑✍✎ ✔✓✠♦✦✔✓♠✦♦✏✎✠✧✏✎✱ ✗✕✕✧✦✔✓♠ ✑✍✎ ✩✗✏✏ ✑♦ ✯✎ ✕✑✗✑✔♦✓✗✒✪ ✔✓✔✑✔✗✏✏✪✙

❍♦✩✎✫✎✒✱ ✑✍✎ ✒✎✠♦✔✏ ✦♦✦✎✓✑✧✦ ✰✒♦✬✧✠✎✕ ✓✎♠✏✔♠✔✯✏✎ ✫✎✏♦✠✔✑✪ ✯✎✠✗✧✕✎ ♦✖ ✑✍✎ ✏✗✒♠✎ ✦✗✕✕ ♦✖

✑✍✎ ✩✗✏✏✙ t✔✓✠✎ ✲✔✓✎✑✔✠ ✎✓✎✒♠✪ ✔✕ ✗✏✕♦ ✠♦✓✕✎✒✫✎✬✱ ✑✍✎ ✠♦✏✏✔✕✔♦✓ ✔✕ ✎✏✗✕✑✔✠✙

✻✝✞✳ ✹✘✙✤ ✲✸

✻✝✞✻ ✭✯✡

✻✝✞✺ ■✑ ✑✒✗✓✕✖✎✒✕ ✔✑✕ ✎✓✑✔✒✎ ✦♦✦✎✓✑✧✦ ✑♦ ✑✍✎ ✯✗✏✏ ♦✓ ✑✍✎ ✑✗✯✏✎✱ ✗✓✬ ✬♦✎✕ ✓♦✑ ✒✔✕✎ ✗✑ ✗✏✏✙

✻✝✞✼ ✚✙✘ ✦ ✕✽✾

✻✝✞✿ ☛❀ ✲✦ ✍➊✾✭✓♦ ✠✍✗✓♠✎ ✔✓ ✕✰✎✎✬✡

✻✝✌✟ ✚✵ ☞

✻✝✌✞ ✭✗✡ ❁ ❃❄❅ ✭✯✡❇❈❉❑ ❊❋ ● ✭✠✡ P ❏ ✹✙✚ ✲✸

✻✝✌✌ ✭✗✡ ✹▲✱✵✵✵ ☞ ✭✯✡ ✤✙✹✚ ✶✵✽▼✲♠

✻✝✌✛ ✭✗✡ ☛✵✵ ✦◆✭✯✡ ✠♦✦✰✗✒✗✯✏✎ ✑♦ ✑✍✎ ✒♦♦✖ ♦✖ ✗ ✏✗✒♠✎ ✍♦✧✕✎ ♦✖ ✬✔✦✎✓✕✔♦✓ ✶✹✦ ❖ ✶✹✦✙

✻✝✌✥ ☛✶✙☛ ✠✦✱ ☛✜✙✚ ☞

✻✝✌✳ ◗♦✱ ✑✍✎ ✕✑♦✓✎ ♦✓ ✑✍✎ ✕✑✎✎✰ ✰✏✗✓✎ ✒✎✗✠✍✎✕ ✑✍✎ ✯♦✑✑♦✦ ✎✗✒✏✔✎✒✢ ✪✎✕✱ ✑✍✎✪ ✒✎✗✠✍ ✩✔✑✍ ✑✍✎

✕✗✦✎ ✕✰✎✎✬ ✈❘ ❙✕✔✓✠✎ ❯❱❲ ❂✭✶✴☛✡ ❯ ✈◆❳

✈❩ ❂ ✈❬ ❂ ✶✹✙✶ ✦ ✕➊✾✱ ❭❩ ❏ 2 2 ✕ ✱ ❭❬ ❏ 2 2 ✕

✻✝✌✻ ✵✙✶☛✚

✻✝✌✺ ✜✙✜☛ ☞ ✖♦✒ ✯♦✑✍ ✠✗✕✎✕✙

✻✝✌✼ ❚✍✎ ✠✍✔✏✬ ♠✔✫✎✕ ✗✓ ✔✦✰✧✏✕✎ ✑♦ ✑✍✎ ✑✒♦✏✏✎✪ ✗✑ ✑✍✎ ✕✑✗✒✑ ✗✓✬ ✑✍✎✓ ✒✧✓✕ ✩✔✑✍ ✗ ✠♦✓✕✑✗✓✑

✒✎✏✗✑✔✫✎ ✫✎✏♦✠✔✑✪ ♦✖ ✹ ✦ ✕➊✾✩✔✑✍ ✒✎✕✰✎✠✑ ✑♦ ✑✍✎ ✑✒♦✏✏✎✪❪✕ ✓✎✩ ✫✎✏♦✠✔✑✪✙ ❫✰✰✏✪ ✦♦✦✎✓✑✧✦

✠♦✓✕✎✒✫✗✑✔♦✓ ✖♦✒ ✗✓ ♦✯✕✎✒✫✎✒ ♦✧✑✕✔✬✎✙ ✶✵✙✘✤ ✦ ✕➊✾✱ ☛✚✙▲ ✦✙

✻✝✌✿ ❫✏✏ ✎❴✠✎✰✑ ✭❵✡ ✗✒✎ ✔✦✰♦✕✕✔✯✏✎✙

❛❜❝❞❢❣❤ ✺

✺✝✞ ❚✍✎ ♠✎♦✦✎✑✒✔✠✗✏ ✠✎✓✑✒✎ ♦✖ ✎✗✠✍✙ ◗♦✱ ✑✍✎ ✐❥ ✦✗✪ ✏✔✎ ♦✧✑✕✔✬✎ ✑✍✎ ✯♦✬✪✱ ✗✕ ✔✓ ✠✗✕✎ ♦✖ ✗

✒✔✓♠✱ ✗ ✍♦✏✏♦✩ ✕✰✍✎✒✎✱ ✗ ✍♦✏✏♦✩ ✠✪✏✔✓✬✎✒✱ ✗ ✍♦✏✏♦✩ ✠✧✯✎ ✎✑✠✙

✺✝✌ L♦✠✗✑✎✬ ♦✓ ✑✍✎ ✏✔✓✎ ❦♦✔✓✔✓♠ ❍ ✗✓✬ ✐✶ ✓✧✠✏✎✔ ✗✑ ✗ ✬✔✕✑✗✓✠✎ ♦✖ ✶✙☛✹ Å ✖✒♦✦ ✑✍✎ ❍ ✎✓✬✙

✺✝✛ ❚✍✎ ✕✰✎✎✬ ♦✖ ✑✍✎ ✐❥ ♦✖ ✑✍✎ ✭✑✒♦✏✏✎✪ ★ ✠✍✔✏✬✡ ✕✪✕✑✎✦ ✒✎✦✗✔✓✕ ✧✓✠✍✗✓♠✎✬ ✭✎✮✧✗✏ ✑♦ ✈✡

✯✎✠✗✧✕✎ ✓♦ ✎❴✑✎✒✓✗✏ ✖♦✒✠✎ ✗✠✑✕ ♦✓ ✑✍✎ ✕✪✕✑✎✦✙ ❚✍✎ ✖♦✒✠✎✕ ✔✓✫♦✏✫✎✬ ✔✓ ✒✧✓✓✔✓♠ ♦✓ ✑✍✎

✑✒♦✏✏✎✪ ✗✒✎ ✔✓✑✎✒✓✗✏ ✑♦ ✑✍✔✕ ✕✪✕✑✎✦✙

✺✝✻ ❧③ ❏ ♥q② r sq①❘ ❧① ❏ sq③ r ✉q②❘ ❧② ❏ ✉q① r ♥q③✺✝✼ ❀☛ ✠✦

✺✝✿ ✘✤❀✚ ◗ ♦✓ ✎✗✠✍ ✖✒♦✓✑ ✩✍✎✎✏✱ ✚✶✹✚ ◗ ♦✓ ✎✗✠✍ ✯✗✠✲ ✩✍✎✎✏✙

✺✝✞✟ ✭✗✡ ❀✴✚ ❥✇◆ ✭✯✡ ✘✴☛ ❥✇◆

Page 232: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✷✆

✼✝✞✞ ❙✟✠✡☛✡

✼✝✞☞ ❑✌✍✡✎✌✏ ✑✍✡☛✒✓ ✔ ✕✖✗✘ ✙✚ ✛✍✒✜✢✣☛ ✤✥✦✡✍✎✜✦ ✔ ✧✗★✘ ✙ ✩

✼✝✞✪ ✭✣✫ ✖✬✬ ☛✡✮✯✦✌✍ ✭✜✩✡ ✣✍✒✜✢✣☛ ✦✥✦✡✍✎✜✦ ✏✥✍✩✡☛✮✣✎✌✥✍✫★

✭✰✫ ✱✠✡ ✍✡✲ ✳✌✍✡✎✌✏ ✡✍✡☛✒✓ ✌✩ ✗★✘ ✎✌✦✡✩ ✎✠✡ ✌✍✌✎✌✣✢ ✳✌✍✡✎✌✏ ✡✍✡☛✒✓ ✥✴ ☛✥✎✣✎✌✥✍★ ✱✠✡ ✏✠✌✢✵

✜✩✡✩ ✠✌✩ ✌✍✎✡☛✍✣✢ ✡✍✡☛✒✓ ✎✥ ✌✍✏☛✡✣✩✡ ✠✌✩ ☛✥✎✣✎✌✥✍✣✢ ✳✌✍✡✎✌✏ ✡✍✡☛✒✓★

✼✝✞✶ ✗✘ ✩-2✚ ✖✬ ✦ ✩

-2

✼✝✞✸ ✕✧ ✳✹

✼✝✞✺ ✣✎ ❛✯✧ ✴☛✥✦ ✎✠✡ ✏✡✍✎✡☛ ✥✴ ✥☛✌✒✌✍✣✢ ✵✌✩✏ ✥✟✟✥✩✌✎✡ ✎✥ ✎✠✡ ✏✡✍✎✡☛ ✥✴ ✏✜✎ ✟✥☛✎✌✥✍★

✼✝✞✼ ✧✧★✬ ✒

✼✝✞✻ ✭✣✫ ✽✡✩✚ ✭✰✫ ✽✡✩❡ ✭✏✫ ✎✠✡ ✟✢✣✍✡ ✲✌✎✠ ✩✦✣✢✢✡☛ ✌✍✏✢✌✍✣✎✌✥✍ ✭✾✣ ✿ ✩✌✍ ❀✫

✼✝✞❁ ❂✙

✼✝☞❃ ✧★❄✘❅✖✬❇❈ ☛✣✵ ✩➊❇

✼✝☞✞ ✭✣✫ ✕★❉ ✦ ✭✰✫ ✕★✬ ✩

✼✝☞☞ ✱✡✍✩✌✥✍ ✔ ❚❉ ❊❡ ❊❋ ✔ ✗❂✘ ❊❡ ❊● ✔ ✖❂❄ ❊★

✼✝☞✪ ✭✣✫ ✘❚ ☛✡✮✯✦✌✍❡ ✭✰✫ ❊✥❡ ✎✠✡ ❑★✑★ ✌✩ ✌✍✏☛✡✣✩✡✵ ✣✍✵ ✌✎ ✏✥✦✡✩ ✴☛✥✦ ✲✥☛✳ ✵✥✍✡ ✰✓ ✦✣✍ ✌✍

✎✠✡ ✟☛✥✏✡✩✩★

✼✝☞✶ ✬★✧✗✘ ☛✣✵ ✩➊❇

✼✝☞✼ ✭✣✫ ❍✓ ✣✍✒✜✢✣☛ ✦✥✦✡✍✎✜✦ ✏✥✍✩✡☛✮✣✎✌✥✍❡ ✎✠✡ ✏✥✦✦✥✍ ✣✍✒✜✢✣☛ ✩✟✡✡✵

■ ✔ ✭❏1■

1▲ ❏

2■

2✫ ✯ ✭❏

1▲ ❏

2✫

✭✰✫ ✱✠✡ ✢✥✩✩ ✌✩ ✵✜✡ ✎✥ ✡✍✡☛✒✓ ✵✌✩✩✌✟✣✎✌✥✍ ✌✍ ✴☛✌✏✎✌✥✍✣✢ ✏✥✍✎✣✏✎ ✲✠✌✏✠ ✰☛✌✍✒✩ ✎✠✡ ✎✲✥

✵✌✩✏✩ ✎✥ ✣ ✏✥✦✦✥✍ ✣✍✒✜✢✣☛ ✩✟✡✡✵ ▼★ ◆✥✲✡✮✡☛❡ ✩✌✍✏✡ ✴☛✌✏✎✌✥✍✣✢ ✎✥☛q✜✡✩ ✣☛✡ ✌✍✎✡☛✍✣✢

✎✥ ✎✠✡ ✩✓✩✎✡✦❡ ✣✍✒✜✢✣☛ ✦✥✦✡✍✎✜✦ ✌✩ ✜✍✣✢✎✡☛✡✵★

✼✝☞✻ ❱✡✢✥✏✌✎✓ ✥✴ ✛ ✔ ■o❘ ✌✍ ✎✠✡ ✩✣✦✡ ✵✌☛✡✏✎✌✥✍ ✣✩ ✎✠✡ ✣☛☛✥✲✚ ✮✡✢✥✏✌✎✓ ✥✴ ❍ ✔ ■

o ❘ ✌✍ ✎✠✡

✥✟✟✥✩✌✎✡ ✵✌☛✡✏✎✌✥✍ ✎✥ ✎✠✡ ✣☛☛✥✲✚ ✮✡✢✥✏✌✎✓ ✥✴ ♦ ✔ ■o❘✯✗ ✌✍ ✎✠✡ ✩✣✦✡ ✵✌☛✡✏✎✌✥✍ ✣✩ ✎✠✡

✣☛☛✥✲★ ✱✠✡ ✵✌✩✏ ✲✌✢✢ ✍✥✎ ☛✥✢✢ ✥✍ ✣ ✴☛✌✏✎✌✥✍✢✡✩✩ ✟✢✣✍✡★

✼✝☞❁ ✭✣✫ ❖☛✌✏✎✌✥✍✣✢ ✴✥☛✏✡ ✣✎ ❍ ✥✟✟✥✩✡✩ ✮✡✢✥✏✌✎✓ ✥✴ ❍★ ✱✠✡☛✡✴✥☛✡❡ ✴☛✌✏✎✌✥✍✣✢ ✴✥☛✏✡ ✌✩ ✌✍ ✎✠✡ ✩✣✦✡

✵✌☛✡✏✎✌✥✍ ✣✩ ✎✠✡ ✣☛☛✥✲★ ✱✠✡ ✩✡✍✩✡ ✥✴ ✴☛✌✏✎✌✥✍✣✢ ✎✥☛q✜✡ ✌✩ ✩✜✏✠ ✣✩ ✎✥ ✥✟✟✥✩✡ ✣✍✒✜✢✣☛

✦✥✎✌✥✍★ ▼ooooo✣✍✵ PP ✣☛✡ ✰✥✎✠ ✍✥☛✦✣✢ ✎✥ ✎✠✡ ✟✣✟✡☛❡ ✎✠✡ ✴✌☛✩✎ ✌✍✎✥ ✎✠✡ ✟✣✟✡☛❡ ✣✍✵ ✎✠✡ ✩✡✏✥✍✵

✏✥✦✌✍✒ ✥✜✎ ✥✴ ✎✠✡ ✟✣✟✡☛★

✭✰✫ ❖☛✌✏✎✌✥✍✣✢ ✴✥☛✏✡ ✵✡✏☛✡✣✩✡✩ ✎✠✡ ✮✡✢✥✏✌✎✓ ✥✴ ✎✠✡ ✟✥✌✍✎ ✥✴ ✏✥✍✎✣✏✎ ❍★ ◗✡☛✴✡✏✎ ☛✥✢✢✌✍✒

✡✍✩✜✡✩ ✲✠✡✍ ✎✠✌✩ ✮✡✢✥✏✌✎✓ ✌✩ ❯✡☛✥★ ❲✍✏✡ ✎✠✌✩ ✌✩ ✩✥❡ ✎✠✡ ✴✥☛✏✡ ✥✴ ✴☛✌✏✎✌✥✍ ✌✩ ❯✡☛✥★

✼✝✪❃ ❖☛✌✏✎✌✥✍✣✢ ✴✥☛✏✡ ✏✣✜✩✡✩ ✎✠✡ ♦✤ ✎✥ ✣✏✏✡✢✡☛✣✎✡ ✴☛✥✦ ✌✎✩ ✌✍✌✎✌✣✢ ❯✡☛✥ ✮✡✢✥✏✌✎✓★ ❖☛✌✏✎✌✥✍✣✢

✎✥☛q✜✡ ✏✣✜✩✡✩ ☛✡✎✣☛✵✣✎✌✥✍ ✌✍ ✎✠✡ ✌✍✌✎✌✣✢ ✣✍✒✜✢✣☛ ✩✟✡✡✵ ■o★ ✱✠✡ ✡q✜✣✎✌✥✍✩ ✥✴ ✦✥✎✌✥✍ ✣☛✡

❳ ❨k♠ ❩ ✔♠ ❬ ✣✍✵❨

k♠ ❩❘ ✔ ❭ ❏❪❡ ✲✠✌✏✠ ✓✌✡✢✵ ✈ ✔ ❨

k❩ ❣❡ ■ ✔ ■

o❭ ❨

k ♠ ❩❘ ❣ ❫ ❏★ ❛✥✢✢✌✍✒

✰✡✒✌✍✩ ✲✠✡✍ ✈ ✔ ❘ ▼★ ❖✥☛ ✣ ☛✌✍✒❡ ❏ ✔ ♠ ❘2❡ ✣✍✵ ☛✥✢✢✌✍✒ ✰✡✒✌✍✩ ✣✎ ❣ ✔ ■o❘✯✗ ❨

k ❩★ ❖✥☛ ✣

✵✌✩✏❡ ❏ ✔ ❴ ♠❘2 ✣✍✵ ☛✥✢✢✌✍✒ ✩✎✣☛✎✩ ✣✎ ✰☛✡✣✳ ✢✌✍✡ ❣ ✔ ❘ ▼o✯✕ ➭

k❩★ ✱✠✜✩❡ ✎✠✡ ✵✌✩✏ ✰✡✒✌✍✩ ✎✥

☛✥✢✢ ✡✣☛✢✌✡☛ ✎✠✣✍ ✎✠✡ ☛✌✍✒❡ ✴✥☛ ✎✠✡ ✩✣✦✡ ❘ ✣✍✵ ■o★ ✱✠✡ ✣✏✎✜✣✢ ✎✌✦✡✩ ✏✣✍ ✰✡ ✥✰✎✣✌✍✡✵ ✴✥☛

❘ ✔ ✖✬ ✏✦❡ ■o✔ ✖✬ ❵ ☛✣✵ ✩–1❡ ➭

k✔ ✬★✗

Page 233: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✷✆

✼✝✞✟ ✭✠✡ ☛☞✌✍ ✎

✭✏✡ ✑✒✓✔

✭✕✡ ✖✗✘ ✠✙✙✓✔✚✌

❈✛✜✢✣✤✥ ✦

✦✝✟ ✭✠ ✡ ✎✔✌

✭✏✡ ✧✒❡★ ✐✩ ✪✫✒ ❡✐✬✒ ✔✩ ✪✫✒ ❡✙✠✕✒ ❡✫✐✙ ✐❡ ✮✠✓❣✒ ✒✯✔✰❣✫ ✩✔✓ ✫✐✱ ✪✔ ✲✒✪✒✕✪ ✪✫✒ ✳✠✓✐✠✪✐✔✯ ✐✯ ❣✌

✭✕✡ ✴✐✲✠✮ ✒✩✩✒✕✪ ✲✒✙✒✯✲❡ ✐✯✳✒✓❡✒✮❢ ✔✯ ✪✫✒ ✕✰✏✒ ✔✩ ✪✫✒ ✲✐❡✪✠✯✕✒ ✰✯✮✐✵✒ ✩✔✓✕✒★ ❝✫✐✕✫ ✲✒✙✒✯✲❡

✐✯✳✒✓❡✒✮❢ ✔✯ ✪✫✒ ❡✶✰✠✓✒ ✔✩ ✪✫✒ ✲✐❡✪✠✯✕✒✌

✦✝✽ ✭✠✡ ✲✒✕✓✒✠❡✒❡✸ ✭✏✡ ✲✒✕✓✒✠❡✒❡✸ ✭✕✡ ✱✠❡❡ ✔✩ ✪✫✒ ✏✔✲❢✸ ✭✲✡ ✱✔✓✒✌

✦✝✞ ❙✱✠✮✮✒✓ ✏❢ ✠ ✩✠✕✪✔✓ ✔✩ ✹✌☞✖✌

✦✝✺ ✖✌✻✍ ✾ ☛✹✿❢✒✠✓❡✌

✦✝❀ ✭✠✡ ❁✐✯✒✪✐✕ ✒✯✒✓❣❢★ ✭✏✡ ✮✒❡❡★

✦✝✼ ✭✠✡ ✎✔★ ✭✏✡ ✎✔★ ✭✕✡ ✎✔★ ✭✲✡ ✧✒❡

❬✴✫✒ ✒❡✕✠✙✒ ✳✒✮✔✕✐✪❢ ✐❡ ✐✯✲✒✙✒✯✲✒✯✪ ✔✩ ✱✠❡❡ ✔✩ ✪✫✒ ✏✔✲❢ ✠✯✲ ✪✫✒ ✲✐✓✒✕✪✐✔✯ ✔✩ ✙✓✔❂✒✕✪✐✔✯✌

■✪ ✲✒✙✒✯✲❡✰✙✔✯ ✪✫✒ ❣✓✠✳✐✪✠✪✐✔✯✠✮ ✙✔✪✒✯✪✐✠✮ ✠✪ ✪✫✒ ✙✔✐✯✪ ✩✓✔✱❝✫✒✓✒ ✪✫✒✏✔✲❢ ✐❡ ✮✠✰✯✕✫✒✲✌

❙✐✯✕✒ ✪✫✐❡ ✙✔✪✒✯✪✐✠✮ ✲✒✙✒✯✲❡ ✭❡✮✐❣✫✪✮❢✡ ✔✯ ✪✫✒ ✮✠✪✐✪✰✲✒ ✠✯✲ ✫✒✐❣✫✪ ✔✩ ✪✫✒ ✙✔✐✯✪★ ✪✫✒ ✒❡✕✠✙✒

✳✒✮✔✕✐✪❢ ✭❡✙✒✒✲✡ ✲✒✙✒✯✲❡ ✭❡✮✐❣✫✪✮❢✡ ✔✯ ✪✫✒❡✒ ✩✠✕✪✔✓❡✌✈

✦✝✦ ❃✮✮ ✶✰✠✯✪✐✪✐✒❡ ✳✠✓❢ ✔✳✒✓ ✠✯ ✔✓✏✐✪ ✒✚✕✒✙✪ ✠✯❣✰✮✠✓ ✱✔✱✒✯✪✰✱ ✠✯✲ ✪✔✪✠✮ ✒✯✒✓❣❢✌

✦✝❄ ✭✏✡★ ✭✕✡ ✠✯✲ ✭✲✡

✦✝✟❅ ✠✯✲ ✦✝✟✟ ❋✔✓ ✪✫✒❡✒ ✪❝✔ ✙✓✔✏✮✒✱❡★ ✕✔✱✙✮✒✪✒ ✪✫✒ ✫✒✱✐❡✙✫✒✓✒ ✪✔ ❡✙✫✒✓✒✌ ❃✪ ✏✔✪✫ ❇★ ✠✯✲ ❉★

✙✔✪✒✯✪✐✠✮ ✐❡ ✕✔✯❡✪✠✯✪ ✠✯✲ ✫✒✯✕✒ ✐✯✪✒✯❡✐✪❢ ♣ ✹✌ ✴✫✒✓✒✩✔✓✒★ ✩✔✓ ✪✫✒ ✫✒✱✐❡✙✫✒✓✒★ ✭✕✡ ✠✯✲ ✭✒✡

✠✓✒ ✕✔✓✓✒✕✪✌

✦✝✟✽ ❊✌☞ ✾ ☛✹✿✱

✦✝✟✞ ❊✌✹ ✾ ☛✹●❍

✵❣

✦✝✟❏ ☛✌✍✖ ✾ ☛✹❑▲

✦✝✟✺ ❊▼ ✎

✦✝✟❀ ☛❊✻ ✎

✦✝✟✼ ▼✌✹ ✾ ☛✹◆✱ ✩✓✔✱ ✪✫✒ ✒✠✓✪✫❖❡ ✕✒✯✪✓✒

✦✝✟✦ ✖☛✌✗ ✵✱P❡

✦✝✟❄ ✻✌◗ ✾ ☛✹❘❚

❇ ❉

Page 234: Ncert class 11 physics part 1

❆�✁✂✄☎✁ ✷✆✝

✽✞✟✠ ✡☛☞ ✌ ✍✎✻✥✏✑

✽✞✟✒ ✎✵ ✡☛✓ ✌ ✍✎✲✔✕✏✖✗✘ ✙✚ ✛✜✢✣✤✦ ✧★✙✤✣✩ ✙✦ ✦✪✣ ✥✫✩ ✧✛✫✚✦ ✫✑ ✫✚ ✙✚ ✬✚✑✦✙✜★✣ ✣✭✬✫★✫✜✮✫✬✥

✽✞✟✟ ➊✯☛✰ ✌ ✍✎✻✕✏✖✗

✽✞✟✱ ● ✳ ✏ ✴✶✸ ✡☛✹ ✌ ✍✎

✺✶✥ ✑✲✶✵ ✼✶✴ ✸ ✍☛✍ ✌ ✍✎

✻✥ ✑✲✶✘ ✪✣✮✣ ✼ ✫✑ ✦✪✣ ✙✚✗✬★✙✮ ✑✧✣✣✩ ✛✾ ✮✛✦✙✦✫✛✚☛

❚✪✬✑ ✫✚ ✦✪✣ ✮✛✦✙✦✫✚✗ ✾✮✙✥✣ ✛✾ ✦✪✣ ✑✦✙✮✵ ✦✪✣ ✫✚✿✙✮✩ ✾✛✮✤✣ ✫✑✥✬✤✪ ✗✮✣✙✦✣✮ ✦✪✙✚ ✦✪✣ ✛✬✦✿✙✮✩

✤✣✚✦✮✫✾✬✗✙★ ✾✛✮✤✣ ✙✦ ✫✦✑ ✣✭✬✙✦✛✮☛ ❚✪✣ ✛✜✢✣✤✦ ✿✫★★ ✮✣✥✙✫✚ ✑✦✬✤✖ ❀✙✚✩ ✚✛✦ ✾★❁ ✛✾✾ ✩✬✣ ✦✛

✤✣✚✦✮✫✾✬✗✙★ ✾✛✮✤✣❝☛ ❂✛✦✣✵ ✫✾ ✙✚✗✬★✙✮ ✑✧✣✣✩ ✛✾ ✮✛✦✙✦✫✛✚ ✫✚✤✮✣✙✑✣✑ ✑✙❁ ✜❁ ✙ ✾✙✤✦✛✮ ✛✾ ✡✎✎✎✵

✦✪✣ ✛✜✢✣✤✦ ✿✫★★ ✾★❁ ✛✾✾☛

✽✞✟❃ ✹ ✌ ✍✎✺✺✕

✽✞✟❄ ✰✯❅ ✖✥