Negative Social Capital America s Urban Core

8/13/2019 Negative Social Capital America s Urban Core

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N E G A T I V E S O C I A L C A P I T A L : S T A T EB R E A K D O W N A N D S O C I A L D E S T I T U T I O N I NA M E R I C A S U R B A N C O R E 1L o i c J. D . W a c q u a n t

A B S T R A C T Pierre Bourdieu 's concept of social capital is deve loped and d eploye d tohighlight the majo r cause o f the continued degradation of social condit ions an d l i fechances in the black Am erican ghetto: the erosion of state social capital , that is, thefor m al organizations pre sum ed to prov ide c ivic goods an d services (physical safety,lega l protection, welfare, ed ucation, housing, a nd health care). These institutions hav eturn ed into instruments o f surveillance, suspicion, a nd exclusion ra ther than veh icles ofsocial integration an d trust-building. Together with the withdra wal of the wa ge-labo reconomy in the co ntext of extreme racial segregation, their debili tat ion has ac celeratedthe shrinking of the gh etto's indigenous organizational basis and h elped concentrate init the mo st dispossessed segm ents o f the urban (sub)proletariat. This suggests tha t statestructures and policies pla y a decisive role in the forma tion and distribution of bothformal and informal social capital .

1 I n t r o d u c t i o nOv er the pas t seve ra l yea rs , a new l ine o f inqu i ry in to soc ia l inequa l ity in the Am er icanc i ty has deve lop ed by d rawing on the no t ion o f soc ia l cap i ta l ( e .g . , Por te s andSensenbrenner , 1993 ; Fe rn andez-K e l ly , 1994; Pu tnam, 1994). These ana lyses typ ica l lyfocus on the co l l ec t ive p roper t i e s o f the population t rapped in the deter iora t ing racia lenc laves o f the u rban core , no tab ly the cha rac te r i s t i c s o f the i r in te rpe rsona l ne tworks ,in fo rmal a ssoc ia t ions , and loose ly a r rayed cu ltu ra l r e sources such as norm s o f r ec ip ro -ci ty , a l t ru is t ic values , and sent im ent of t rust (e .g . , Por te s , 1995: 12 -16) .

Th is i s an ex t remely va luab le co r rec t ive to the na r row ind iv idua l i s t i c and be -h a v i o ri s ti c a p p r o a c h t h a t h a s d o m i n a te d r e c e n t r e s ea r c h o n u r b a n p o v e r t y , a s f r a m e d f o rins tance by the academ ic m yth o f the underc lass (Wacquan t , 1996a) . Bu t i t too o f tenleaves ou t o f the p ic tu re the soc ia l cap i ta l r ep resen ted by a t t achments to , and e f fec t s o f ,t h e f o r ma l organizations presen t in (o r absen t f rom) the ghe t to and the i r p roper t i e s , andpar t i cu la r ly those publ i c in s ti tu tions tha t m os t u rban dw el le rs t ake fo r g ran ted bu t tha tghe t to re s iden t s canno t so read i ly re ly on in the e labora t ion o f the i r l i f e s t r a teg ies .

N e t h . J . o f H o u s i n g a n d t h e B u i lt E n v i r o n m e n t V o l. 1 3 1 9 9 8) N o . 1 .25


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In th i s a r t i c l e , I d raw on the concep t o f soc ia l cap i t a l deve loped by P ie r re Bourd ieu(1980 , 1986) to h igh l igh t wh a t I cons ide r to be the m a jo r soc ia l -o rgan iza t iona l causeof the con t inued deg rada t ion o f soc ial cond it ions and l i f e chances in the b lack A m er ica nghe t to : the erosion o f state social capital , tha t i s , o rgan iza t ions p resumed to p rov idec iv ic good s and se rv ices - -phys ica l sa fe ty , lega l p ro tec tion , w e l fa re , educa t ion , hous ing ,and hea l th ca re - -which have tu rned in to ins t ruments o f su rve i l l ance , susp ic ion , andexc lus ion ra the r than veh ic le s o f soc ia l in teg ra t ion and t rus t -bu i ld ing . The nea r - to ta lb rea kdo w n of pub l i c ins ti tu t ions, com bined wi th and abe t ting the wi thdrawal o f thewa g e - l a b o r e c o n o my i n t h e c o n t e x t o f e x t r e me a n d u n y i e l d i n g r a c i a l s e g r e g a t i o n(M assey and D en ton 1993), has acce le ra ted the sh r ink ing o f the ghe t to ' s ind igenousorgan iza t iona l bas i s and he lped concen t ra te in i t the m os t d i spossessed segm ents Of theurba n ( sub)pro le ta r i a t, the reby fu r the r deprec ia ting the in fo rmal soc ia l cap it a l ava i l ab lewithin i t .

C o n c e p t u a l p r e c i s : d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g s o c i a l c a p i t a lSpecies o f capital as forms o f pow erVa r ious approa ches to soc ia l cap i t a l have recen t ly been p roposed (e .g . , Co lem an , 1988 ;Por te s and Sensenbre rmer , 1993 ; Pu tnam , 1995). Thou gh they a re b road ly con verge n tin that they a l l seek to spot l ight proper t ies of the socia l s t ructure that fac i l i ta te (orh inder ) soc ia l ac t ion , these d ive r se concep t ions a re no t equ iva len t and they do no t r a i sethe sa m e i s sues 2. For th i s r eason , I beg in by c la r i fy ing the concep tua l pa ra m ete r s usedin th i s paper .

Bourd ieu ' s no t ion o f soc ia l cap i t a l i s pa r t o f a generalized theory of capital andbe longs to a sma l l se t o f t igh t ly r e la ted concep t s ( the ma in o the r s be ing hab i tus andf ie ld ) th rough which the F rench soc io log i s t has sough t to r e th ink the cons t i tu t ion o fsoc ia l space and the dynam ic a r t icu la t ion o f p rac ti ce , s t ruc tu re , and h i s to ry ( fo re labora t ions , see Bourd ieu , 1990 ; Bourd ieu and W acquan t , 1992). Bourd ieu (198 6 :24 1)de f ines cap i t a l a s

a c c u mu l a t e d l a b o r ( in i ts m a t e ri a li z e d f o r m o r i ts ' i n c o r p o r a t e d ' , e m b o d i e d , f o r m )which , when appropr ia ted on a p r iva te , i . e . , exc lus ive , bas i s by agen t s o r g roupsof agen t s , enab les them to appropr ia te socia l ene rgy in the fo rm of r e i f i ed o r l iv ingl a b o r .

A cap i t a l i s any resource e f fec t ive in a s t ruc tu red a rena o f soc ia l ac t ion (o r f i e ld ) tha ta l lows one to ob ta in the spec i f ic p ro f i ts tha t a r ise ou t o f ac t iv ity and con tes t wi th in tha ta rena . Th e overa l l vo lum e and s truc tu re o f cap i t a l( s ) de ta ined by an ind iv idua l , g roup ,o r ins t itu t ion d e f ines the i r pos i t ion in soc ia l space ; changes in the vo lum e and s t ruc tu reof one ' s endowment cha r t one ' s t r a j ec to ry th rough i t (Bourd ieu , 1985) .

Th ree m a in spec ies o f cap i t a l m ay be d i s tingu i shed : econom ic cap i ta l , co ns i s t ingof f inanc ia l and mate r i a l a s se t s and f lows ; cu l tu ra l (o r in fo rmat iona l ) cap i t a l , tha t i s ,in s t ruments o f appropr ia t ion o f va lued cu l tu ra l p roduc t s , wh ich ex i s t in the embodied ,ob jec t i f i ed , and ins t i tu t iona l i zed fo rm; and soc ia l cap i t a l . A four th spec ies , symbol ic2 6


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c a p i t a l, d e r i v e s f r o m t h e misrecognition o f t h e e f f ic a c y o f th e s e t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l k i n d so f c a p it a l. F o r m s o f c ap i ta l m a y b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o o n e a n o t h e r t h r o u g h a v a r i e ty o fi n s t it u t io n a l m e c h a n i s m s . S t r a te g i e s o f r e c o n v e r s i o n a re o n e o f t h e m e a n s t h r o u g h w h i c hi n d i v i d u a l s , f a m i l i e s , o r g r o u p s a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n o r i m p r o v e t h e i r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n .T h e c o n v e r s i o n r a t e b e t w e e n v a r i o u s s p e c i e s o f c a p i ta l , i n t u r n , i s o n e o f t h e c e n t r als t a k e s o f s t ru g g l e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s , e a c h s e e k i n g t o i m p o s e t h e h i e r a r c h y o f c a p i ta l sm o s t f a v o r a b l e t o it s o w n e n d o w m e n t o r p r o fi l e ( B o u r d ie u , 1 9 8 5 ).

T h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t h is c o n c e p t u a l i z a t io n a r e t w o f o l d . F i r s t , i t p o r t r a y s c a p i t a l a sb o t h a relat ional ( a s opposed to subs tan t i a l i s t ) and an indexical not ion : c ap i ta l ex i s t s a ssuch , a nd i ts va lue i s de f ined o nly in relation t o a s p e c i f i c s o c i a l s p a c e o r a r e n a o fac t ion .

A s p e c i e s o f ca p i t a l is w h a t i s ef f i c ac i o u s i n a g i v e n f i e ld , b o t h a s a w e a p o n a n das a s t ake of s t ruggle , w ha t a l lows it s posse s so r s to w ie ld a pow er , an in f luence ,a n d t h u s t o e x is t , i n t h e f ie l d u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t io n , i n s te a d o f b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d an e g l i g i b l e q u a n t i t y . I n e m p i r i c a l w o r k , i t i s o n e a n d t h e s a m e t h i n g t o d e t e r m i n ewh a t the f i e ld i s , whe re i ts lim i t s li e , e t c . , an d to de te rm ine w ha t spe c ie s o f cap i ta la r e a c t i v e i n i t, w i t h in w h a t l im i t s, e t c . ( B o u r d i e u a n d W a c q u a n t , 1 9 9 2 : 1 1 4 ) .

T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e s a m e p r o p e r t y m a y t a k e o n a d i f f e r e n t v a l u e a n d h a v e d i v e r g e n te f f e c t s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a re n a o f a c t io n i n w h i c h i t i s i n v e s te d . O n e e x a m p l e : m a s t e r yo f t h e B l a c k E n g l i s h V e r n a c u l a r a n d o f th e l i n g u i st ic g a m e s i t p e r m i t s i s h i g h l y v a l u e do n t h e s t r e e t s a n d i n t h e g h e t t o p e e r - g r o u p b u t i ts u s e i s f e r o c i o u s l y s a n c t i o n e d i n s c h o o l( K o c h m a n , 1 9 7 3 ; G i l m o r e , 1 9 8 5 ; S o l o m o n , 1 9 9 2 ) . I t f u n c t i o n s as p o s i t i v e cu l t u r a lcap i ta l in the f i r s t contex t , neg a t ive in the second . L ikew ise , a f f i l i a t ive t i e s and bond so f o b l i g a t i o n w i t h f r i e n d s a n d a s s o ci a te s i n t h e g h e t t o c o n s t i tu t e a r e s o u r c e f o r s u r v i v a la n d s u c c e s s i n t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y , b u t t h e y c r e a t e i m p e d i m e n t s a n d o b s t a c l e s w h e na t t e m p t i n g t o m o v e u p a n d i n to th e o f f i ci a l l a b o r m a r k e t - - t i e s t h a t b i n d a n d k e e p y o ud o w n ( M o n r o e a n d G o l d m a n , 1 9 8 8 ; A n d e r s o n , 1 9 9 2 ; M c L e o d , 1 9 9 4 ) 3 .

S e c o n d , B o u r d i e u ' s a p p r o a c h d r a w s a t t en t i o n t o t h e e n t i re p o r t f o l i o o f c a p i ta l sd e t a i n e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s o r g r o u p s a n d t i g h t l y c o r r e l a t e s t h e e f f i c a c y o f s o c i a l t o o t h e rf o r m s o f c ap i t a l. I t d i r e c ts a t t e n t i o n t o c h a n g e s i n t h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f d i s tr i b u t i o no f t y p e s a n d s u b t y p e s o f ca p it a l a n d to t h e m e c h a n i s m s w h e r e b y o n e s p e ci e s m a yc o n v e r t e d i n t o a n o t h e r a s w e l l a s t o th e r e la t iv e c o s t s o f s u c h r e c o n v e r s i o n o v e r t i m ea n d a c r o s s s o c i a l p o s i t io n s . I t t h u s f i r m l y l i n k s t h e an a l y s is o f s o c i a l n e t w o r k s a n do t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a t t a c h m e n t s t o th a t o f s c h o o l s a n d l a b o r m a r k e t s a s t h e m a i ni n s ti t u ti o n a l s it es i n w h i c h t h e o t h e r t w o c o r e s p e c ie s o f c a p i ta l , c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m i c ,a r e f o r m e d , t r a d e d , a n d v i e d f o r (B o u r d i e u , 1 9 9 6 ).Social capital informal and form alI n t h i s s c h e m a , s o c i a l c a p i ta l c o n s i s ts o f th e s u m t o ta l o f t h e r e s o u r c e s , a c t u a l o rv i r t u a l, t h a t a c c ru e t o a n i n d i v id u a l ( o r a g r o u p ) b y v i r t u e o f b e i n g e n m e s h e d i n ad u r a b l e n e t w o r k o f m o r e o r l e ss i n s ti t u ti o n a li z ed r e la t i o n s h ip s o f m u t u a l a c q u a i n t a n c ea n d r e c o g n i t i o n - - o r , i n o t h e r w o r d s , t o m e m b e r s h i p i n a g r o u p ( B o u r d i e u , 1 9 8 6 : 2 4 8 ) .T h e m o r e p o w e r f u l o r re s o u r c e f u l th i s g r o u p , t h e g r e a t e r t h e v a l u e o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n s

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a n d o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t l i n k o n e w i t h i t . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e mo r e d i s p o s s e s s e d , t h e l o w e r t h ev a l u e o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l c a p it a l. E x c e p t f o r to t a l ly i s o la t e d , n o m a d i c i n d i v i d u a l sr e s e m b l i n g L e i b n i z i a n mo n a d s , e v e r y o n e p o s s e s s es f o r ms o f c a p i t a l, b e i t n e g a t i v e , i fo n l y b y v i r t u e o f i n h e r i ta n c e 4 .

T h i s n o t i o n m a y b e e x t e n d e d t o e n c o m p a s s a n i n d iv i d u al o r a g r o u p s a t t a c h m e n tt o , o r d e p e n d e n c e u p o n , e n v i r o n i n g fo r m a l o r g an i z at io n s . O n e m a y t h e n d i s ti n g u i s hb e t w e e n informal social capital c o n s i s ti n g o f r e so u r c e f u l s o c i a l t ie s b a s e d o ni n t e r p e r s o n a l n e t w o r k s o f e x c h a n g e , t r u st , a n d o b l i g a t i o n s , f rom form al social capi talm a d e u p o f t ie s ( p o s i t iv e o r n e g a t iv e , d e s i r e d o r n o t ) a n c h o r e d i n f o r ma l o r g a n i z a t i o n st o w h i c h o n e p a r t ic i p a t e s a s m e mb e r , c l i e n t, o r w a r d . B o t h t y p e s o f s o c i a l c a p i t a lc l e a r l y i m p a c t o n a p e r s o n s c a p a ci t ie s , o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a n d s t r at e g i es . N o w , w e h a v e af a i r l y g o o d i d e a o f h o w i n t e rp e r s o n a l t i es a f f e c t li fe c h a n c e s i n s o m e a r e a s s u c h a sf i n d i n g a j o b , r a i s in g c a p i t a l t o st a rt a s ma l l b u s in e s s , h i r i n g a n d r e t a in i n g w o r k e r s ,m i g r a t i n g o r g a i n i n g b a s i c s u b s i st e n c e ( G r a n o v e t t e r , 1 9 7 4 ; L i g h t , 1 9 7 4 ; M a r k s , 1 9 8 9 ;P o r t e s a n d S t e p i c k , 1 9 9 3 ) , a n d h o w t h e s tr u c t u re o f i n te r o r g a n i z a t io n a l t ie s a f f e c t sp r o c e s s e s o f a l l o c a t i o n a n d c o mp e t i t i o n (W h i t e , 1 9 8 1 ; B u r t , 1 9 9 2 ) . W e k n o w mu c h l e s sa b o u t h o w t h e organizational ecology of a neighborhood -- t h a t i s , t h e d e m o g r a p h y ,d e n s i t y , t y p e , g o a l s , a n d r o u t i n e p r a c ti c e s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t io n s t h a t r e si d e w i t h i n a g i v e nl o c a l e - - a f fe c t s t h e l i v es o f t h e r es i d en t s a n d t h e s t ru g g l e a m o n g t h e m f o r v a r i o u s s o c i a lg o o d s a n d p o s i t i o n s .

F o r m a l s o c i a l c a p i t a l i s t h e s e t o f r e so u r c e s a n d v a l u e s t h a t in d i v i d u a l s m a y d r a wu p o n b y v i r tu e o f m e m b e r s h i p i n, o r c o n n e c t i o n t o , f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t io n s ( th a t a r et h e m s e l v e s r e s o u r c e f u l a n d e f f i c ie n t o r n o t ). I t ma y b e c r u d e l y s u b d i v i d e d , i n tu r n , i n t op u b l i c a n d pr i va t e s u b t y p e s , d e p e n d i n g o n th e r e l ia n c e o f t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n o n m a r k e t -l i k e o r s t a t e - l i k e me c h a n i s ms , p r i v a t e l y e f f e c t u a t e d t r a n s a c t i o n s o r p u b l i c l yf u n d e d / m a n a g e d o p e r a t i o n s . W e k n o w t h a t t h e p r i v a t e i n st i tu t io n s t h a t s e r v i ce t h e g h e t t oa r e s e p a r a t e a n d ma s s i v e l y i n f e r i o r t o t h o s e t h a t p r o v i d e g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s t o t h e r e s to f th e m e t r o p o l i t a n s y s t e m ( S k o g a n , 1 9 9 0 ; M a s s e y a n d D e n t o n , 1 9 9 3 ; C a s k e y , 1 9 9 4 ).F o r i n s t a n c e , g h e t t o r e s i d e n t s d o n o t h a v e r e a d y a c c e s s t o b a s i c f i n a n c i a l s e r v i c e s( p e r s o n a l a n d b u s i n e s s ) o r t o i n s u ra n c e ; r e ta i l c o mm e r c i a l s e r v i c e s a n d g o o d s a r et y p i c a l l y m o r e e x p e n s i v e a n d o f le s s e r q u a l i ty w h i l e s o m e a r e s i mp l y u n a v a i l a b l e .

T h e l o w e r q u a l i t y a n d t r u n c a te d s p a n o f p r i v a t e p r o v i s i o n i n g i n t h e g h e t t o a r ea g g r a v a t e d , a n d i n p a r t c a u s e d , b y t h e ma r k e d i n f e r io r i t y an d c o n t i n u a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n o fp u b l i c s e r v i c e s i n th e i n n e r c i ty . T h e r e ma i n d e r o f th i s p a p e r o f f e r s a s n a p s h o t o f t h ee r o s i o n o f f o r ma l s o c i a l c a p i ta l i n A m e r i c a s u r b a n c o r e a i me d a t h i g h l i g h t i n g i tsd e l e t e r i o u s i mp a c t o n g h e t t o r e s i d e n t s .

3 F o r m a l s o c i a l c a p i t a l p u b l i c i n s t it u t i o n s a s s h a c k l e s a n d s n a r e sA n i mp o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i st i c o f i s o l at e d e n c l av e s o f p e r si s te n t p o v e r t y i s t h e e x t e n t t ow h i c h t h e y h a r b o r t h e i n s t it u t io n s d e s i g n e d t o m e e t t h e b a si c n e e d s o f th e i r r e s i d e n t sa n d i n c o r p o r a t e t h e m i n t o t h e su r r o u n d i n g s o c i e t y . A d i s t in c t i v e f e a tu r e o f A m e r i c a sr a c i a l i z e d u r b a n c o r e t o d a y i s t h e d e a rt h o f c o r e o r g a n i z a t io n s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n t r i b u t et o t h e c o m m u n i t y s f u n c t i o n in g a n d w e l l- b e in g . F o r t h e g h e tt o h a s e x p e r i e n c e d a n2 8


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acce le ra t ing p rocess o f o rgan iza t iona l dec l ine and invo lu t ion caused no t (on ly ) byecon om ic re s t ruc tu r ing bu t ( a l so ) by s ta te abandonm ent (W acquan t , 1992a : 109-111) 5.So m uc h so that i t can be argue d that publ ic ins ti tu t ions ope rate as n e g a t i v e s o c i a lc a p i t a l tha t ma in ta in ghe t to r e s iden t s in a marg ina l and dependen t pos i t ion .

S ince the ea r ly seven t i e s , the ghe t to ne ighborhoods o f Ch icago and o f o the r ma jo rc i t ie s ac ro ss the U ni ted S ta te s have wea the red no t on ly a sha rp r i se in job lessne ss andpov er ty due to the re s t ruc tu r ing o f cen t ra l -c ity econom ies (Wi l son , 1987) bu t a l so adeep an d w ide re t r ench m ent o f the pub l ic sec to r . Bru ta l cu t s in f ede ra l funds fo r u rbana n d c o m m u n i t y d e v e l o p m e n t (J o s ep h , 1 99 2) , t he r e d u ct io n o f we l f a r e p r o g r a m s , t h es h r i n k i n g o f u n e mp l o y me n t c o v e r a g e , i n c r e a s i n g l y r e g r e s s i v e t a x a t i o n s c h e me s , a n ds ta te and c i ty po l i c ie s o f p lanned sh r inkage have com bined to unrave l the we b o fp rog ram s tha t had he lped sus ta in inne r -c ity ( i . e . , po or minor i ty ) r e s iden t s s ince the daysof the Grea t Soc ie ty . The re su l t has been a d ras t i c degrada t ion o f r emain ing pub l icfac i l i t i e s and the rap id decompos i t ion o f the o rgan iza t iona l f ab r ic o f the ghe t to(W acqu ant , 1994; a lso Squires e t a l . , 1987; Ax inn and Stern , 1988; L ipsi tz , 1989;Or f ie ld and Ask inaze , 1992) . Th i s i s r ead i ly v i s ib le in the mass ive , sys temic , f a i l ingsof po l i ce and c r imin a l p ro tec t ion , w e l fa re suppor t , hea l th ca re p rov i s ion , and educa t ion .

o l i c e p r o t e c t i o n a n d t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e mIn the mid-s ix t i e s , on the eve o f the g rea tes t wave o f r io ts in A m er ican h i s to ry , Ken ne thCla r k (1965 : 86) r ema rked : The uns tated and som et imes s t a ted accep tanc e o f c r im eand v io lence as normal fo r a ghe t to communi ty i s a s soc ia ted wi th a lower ing o f po l i cev ig i l ance and e f f i c iency when the v ic t ims a re a l so lower - s ta tus peop le . Th i s i s ano the rexam ple o f the den ia l o f a governm enta l se rv ice - - the r igh t o f adequa te p ro tec t ion- -wh ichi s endured by the power less ghe t to . Th i s obse rva t ion con t inues to app ly to the B lackB e l ts o f u r b a n Am e r i c a 3 0 y e a r s l at e r.

D ue to a com bina t ion o f shor tages o f finances and pe r sonne l , po l i t i ca l ind i f fe rence ,and o rgan iza t iona l inep tness , pub l i c au thor i ty p rov ides ne i the r min imal phys ica lsecur i ty , no r e f fec t ive l ega l p ro tec t ion , nor the rou t ine munic ipa l se rv ices a s soc ia tedwi th sa fe ty tha t c i ty r es iden t s ou ts ide the ghe t to t ake fo r g ran ted (Kot low i tz , 1991). OnCh icag o ' s So u th S ide , the po l i ce comes woefu l ly shor t o f fu l fi l l ing i ts miss ion fo r wan to f the m anp ow er and ma te r i a l means needed to heed a l l r eques t s fo r in te rven t ion . Pa t ro lo f f i ce r s in the Wentwor th d i s t r i c t (which spor t s a homic ide ra te exceed ing 100 pe r100 ,000 res iden t s , 15 t imes the c i ty ave rage) answer emergency ca l l s wi thou t in te r -rup t ion f rom the moment they beg in to work to the end o f the i r sh i f t . Ye t the d i s t r i c tf r equen t ly runs ou t o f ca r s and has to s imulcas t incoming ca l l s in the hope that ,som ew here in the c i ty , a de tec tive wi l l be ava il ab le to re spond . No won der : the num berof o f f i ce r s pe r v io len t c r ime i s one -seven th tha t a s s igned to the Go ld Co as t , the whi teupper -c la ss sec t ion on the c i ty ' s Near Nor th S ide .

Work ing-c lass Amer icans in genera l have a ve ry d i f f iden t and (a t bes t ) s t r a inedre la t ion wi th the cour t sys tem. When they reso r t to i t , t hey typ ica l ly exper ience rap idloss o f pe r sona l con t ro l , hum i l ia t ion , and a sense o f be t raya l (Me r ry , 1990). Th i s i seven t rue r in the ghe t to where the c r imina l jus t i ce sys tem i s who l ly ine f fec t ive andgross ly b iased aga ins t bo th b lacks and the poor . Th i s i s due to a combina t ion o fbureaucra t i c ove r load and in f ras t ruc tu ra l de f i c iency . Ch icago ' s c r imina l cour t s have

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b e e n o v e r w h e l m e d b y t h e s ta g g e r in g g r o w t h o f ca s es p r o s e c u t e d : t h e s e h a v e s h o t u pf r o m 1 3 , 0 0 0 i n 1 9 8 2 t o so m e 2 0 , 0 0 0 i n 1 9 9 0 , f o r c in g a n o v e r f l o w o f c a se s i n to f o u rs u b u r b a n j u r i s d i c ti o n s . T h e C o o k C o u n t y j a i l , w h i c h h a n d l e s t h e in i ti a l i n ta k e o fp e r s o n s a r r e s t e d a n d c o n v i c t s se n t e n c e d to a y e a r o f d e t e n ti o n a n d l e s s, i s s o o v e r -c r o w d e d t h a t i n 1 9 8 8 a l o n e o v e r 2 5 , 0 0 0 c r i m i n a ls h a d t o b e r e le a se d o n t h e ir o w nr e c o g n i z a n c e f o r l a c k o f s p a c e.

O r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a n g e s i n p o l i c i n g t e c h n i q u e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s t i e d t o p r o f e s -s i o n a l i z a t i o n a n d b u r e a u c r a t i z a t i o n h a v e f u r t h e r r e mo v e d t h e p o l i c e f r o m t h e l o c a lp o p u l a t i o n a n d l e d t o a n e mp h a s i s o n ( q u a n t if i ab l e ) r e p r e s s i o n o f h i g h - v i s i b i l i t y c r i mer a t h e r t h a n o n p r e v e n t io n o f c o m m o n d is o r d e r ( S k o g a n , 1 9 9 0 ). T h e r e i s m o r e : i n t h ev a c u u m c r e a t e d b y t h e l a c k o f me a n i n g f u l p o l it i ca l l i n k a g e s a n d t h e a b s e n c e o fl e g i t i ma t e me d i a t i o n s b e t w e e n p o o r u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n s a n d d o m i n a n t i n s t it u t io n s f r o mw h i c h t h e y f e e l r e j e c t e d , r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e p o l i c e h a v e b e c o me e x t r e me l y s a l i e n t ,b e l l i c o s e , a n d d i f f i d e n t . G h e t t o r e s i d e n t s t h u s c o mp l a i n t h a t t h e p o l i c e a r e bothi n s u f f i c i e n t l y p r e s e n t a n d a n i n t o le r a b le i mp o s i t i o n o f a f o r e i g n a n d a r b i t r a r y a u t h o r i t y .U n d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s , p o l i c e i n t e r v e n t i o n t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e r a t h e r t h a n d e c r e a s e l e v e l so f v i o l e n c e ( C a s h m o r e a n d M c L a u g h l i n , 1 9 9 2 ) 6. I t is n o w o n d e r t h a t i n c i d e n t s w i t h t h e

f o r c e s o f o r d e r a r e th e d e t o n a t o r o f p e r i o d i c e x p l o s i o n s o f p o p u l a r v i o l e n c e i n t h eu r b a n c o r e a n d t h a t s o ma n y g h e t t o d w e l l e r s t h i n k t w i c e a b o u t r e l y i n g o n t h e s t a t e ,c h o o s i n g i n s te a d t o t a k e j u s t ic e i n t o t h e ir o w n h a n d s ( K o t l o w i t z , 1 9 9 1 : 4 7 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 3 ) .

O w i n g i n g o o d p a r t to t h e fa i li n g s o f p o l i c e a n d t h e c o u r t s , p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e ise n d e mi c i n t h e g h e t t o , w h e r e i t h a s f o r c e d a w h o l e s a l e r e s t r u c t u r in g o f t h e s o c i a l,t e mp o r a l , a n d s p a t ia l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f e v e r y d a y l if e . I n s e c u r i t y i s s o d e e p t h a t s imp l ym a n e u v e r i n g o n e ' s w a y t h r o u g h t h e s t r e e t s h a s b e c o m e a m a j o r d i l e m m a i n t h e d a i l yl i fe o f i n n e r - c i t y r e s id e n t s ( D u b r o w a n d G a r b a r i n o , 1 9 8 9 ; B o u r g o i s , 1 9 8 9 ) . T h i s f o s t e rsa c l ima te o f susp ic ion , d i s t rus t , an d inc iv i l i ty tha t c annot bu t a f f ec t a ll a spec t s o fn e i g h b o r h o o d l i f e .Turn ing welfare into an apparatus of surveillanceT h e c o n t r a c t i o n a n d d e t e r i o r a t io n o f w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s i n th e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 8 0 s is a n o t h e rpol i t i c a l c au se o f the seve re de te r iora t ion o f l i fe chanc es in the ghe t to , a s i t s apped am a j o r s o u r c e o f fo r m a l s o c ia l s u p p o rt a m o n g t h e d is p o s se s se d . C o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r n e o -c o n s e r v a t i v e r h e t o r i c , t h e p a s t t w o d e c a d e s h a v e n o t b e e n a p e r i o d o f e x p a n s i o n a n dg e n e r o s i t y f o r p u b l i c a s s is t an c e b u t o n e o f b l a n k e t r e t r a c ti o n .

A i d t o F a mi l i e s w i t h D e p e n d e n t C h i l d r e n h a s g r o w n s t e a d i l y l e s s h e l p f u l t o p o o rf a mi l i e s f o r f a i l u r e t o i n d e x g r a n t s o n i n f l a t i o n a n d i n s u f f i c i e n t f u n d i n g : p r o g r a mo u t l a y s p e a k e d a t 1 . 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e f e d e ra l b u d g e t i n 1 9 7 3 a n d h a v e d e c l i n e d s t e a d i lye v e r s in c e . T h e w e l f a r e r e f o r m s i g n ed b y C l i n t o n a s a m mu n i t i o n f o r h i s r e e l e c t io nc a mp a i g n g u a r a n t e e s t h a t t h e s e b u d g e t s w i l l f u r t h e r d e c r e a s e i n y e a r s t o c o me ,i r r e s p e c t i v e o f n e e d . G o v e r n m e n t ca s h t ra n s f e rs h a v e t h u s c e a s e d to p l a y th e c o m p e n -s a t i n g r o l e t h e y f u l f i l l e d i n t h e s i x t i e s , w h e n p o v e r t y a mo n g g h e t t o b l a c k s w a s s l o w l yd e c r e a s i n g . B a s e d o n a d e t a il e d a n a l y si s o f t h e r a t e s o f e f f e c ti v e n e s s o f g o v e r n m e n tw e l f a r e p r o g r a m s m e a s u r i n g t h e i r ab i l it y t o l i ft re c i p i e n ts a b o v e t h e p o v e r t y l i n e , A x i n na n d S t e r n ( 1 9 8 8 : 1 0 2 ) c o n t e n d t h a t t h e e x p l o s i o n o f c e n t r a l c i t y p o v e r t y w a s mu c hm o r e t h e r e s u l t o f d e cl in i n g p r o g r a m e f fe c ti v e n e ss t h a n e c o n o m i c b r e a k d o w n .3 0


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t e n mi l e s a w a y t o t h e d e c r e p i t C o o k C o u n t y H o s p i t a l . F o r n e a r l y a d e c a d e , t h e S o u t hS i d e h a s n o t h a d a s i n g l e h e a lt h f a c i l it y p r o v i d i n g p r e n a t al h e a l t h s e r v i c e s t o u n i n s u r e dm o t h e r s - t o - b e . S i mi l a r l y t h e r e e x i st s n o d r u g r e h a b i l it a t io n p r o g r a m a c c e s s i b l e t o th o s ew h o c a n n o t p a y f o r a c u r e , e v e n t h o u g h d r u g a b u se i s r a m p a n t a n d r is in g . T h e b u r e a u -c r a t i c ta n g l e o f r e g u l a ti o n s a n d c o n d i t i o n s t o me e t f u r t h e r c o n s t r ic t s t h e p r o v i s i o n o fs e r v i c e s e v e n t o t h o s e e n t it l e d t o i t. A m e d i c a l e x p e r t a s k e d a b o u t t h e s t a te o f h e a l t hs e r v ic e s f o r t h e c i t y ' s d is p o s se s se d q u i p s : S h o w m e th e p o o r w o m a n w h o f i n d s a w a yt o g e t e v e r y t h i n g s h e ' s e n t it le d t o i n th e s y s te m , a n d I ' l l s h o w y o u a w o m a n w h o c o u l dr u n G e n e r a l M o t o r s . ,,s

S y s t e mi c f a i l u r e t o d e l i v e r e v e n t h e mo s t b a s i c h e a l t h c a r e ( i mmu n i z a t i o n s f o rc h i l d r e n , p a p t es t s, b l o o d p r e s s u r e a n d c h o l e s t e ro l s c r e e n i n g , a n d n u r s e s t o v i s i th o me b o u n d p a t i e n t s ) e n s u r e s h i g h mo r b i d i t y r a t e s a n d e x p l a i n s t h e rise o f i n f a n tmo r t a l i t y o b s e r v e d i n s e v e r a l g h e t t o n e i g h b o r h o o d s i n t h e p a s t d e c a d e . E p i d e mi o l o g i c a lr e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d b y R o d r i c k a n d D e b o r a h W a l l a c e ( 1 9 9 0 ) i n t h e p o o r d i s t r i c t s o fN e w Y o r k C i t y t u r n e d u p a c l o s e a n d s y s t e m a t i c a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n n e i g h b o r h o o d

d e u r b a n i z a t i o n a s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e l o s s o f b a s ic c i t y s e r v i ce s s u c h a s fi r e p r o t e c t i o n ,p o l i c e , a n d s a n i t a ti o n , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e r is e o f v i o l e n t d e a t h , A I D S i n f e c t i o n ,a n d s u b s t a n c e a b u s e t o l e v e l s f a r e x c e e d i n g t h o s e o f o t h e r a re a s .

ublic schools as educational reservationsN o o r g a n i z a t i o n b e t t e r e x e mp l i f i e s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e b i l i t a t i o n a n d p o l i t i c a la b a n d o n m e n t s u f f e re d b y t h e g h e tt o t h an p u b l i c sc h o o l s ( C h i ca g o T r i b u n e , 1 9 9 2 ; K a n t o ra n d B r e n z e l , 1 9 9 2 ) . I n C h i c a g o , a s i n mo s t o t h e r l a r g e R u s t b e l t c it i es , t h e p u b l i ce d u c a t i o n s y s t e m h a s b e c o m e a v e r it a b le academic reservation f o r p o o r mi n o r i t i e s , a sw h i t e s a n d mi d d l e - c l a s s f a mi l i e s f l e d i n t o t h e p r i v a t e s c h o o l s y s t e m o r o u t s i d e t h e c i t ya l t o g e t h e r ( o r in t o th e s e p a r at e p u b l ic p r e s e r v e o f ma g n e t s c h o o l s ) .

T o d a y , o v e r s e v e n o f e v e ry t e n p u b l i c s c h o o l st u de n ts i n t h e W i n d y C i t y c o m e f r o mf a mi l i e s l i v i n g u n d e r t h e f e d e r a l p o v e r t y l i n e a n d n e a r l y n i n e i n t e n a r e b l a c k a n dL a t i n o . G h e t t o s c h o o l s a r e p l a g u e d b y o v e r c r o w d e d f a c i l i t i e s , u n d e r t r a i n e d a n du n d e r p a i d t e a c h e r s , a n d o u t d a t e d a n d g r o s s l y i n s u f f ic i e n t s u p p l ie s . M o s t e s ta b l i s h me n t sl a c k s t a f f , d e s k s , s p a c e , a n d e v e n a d e q u a t e b a t h r o o ms ; t h e y o f t e n f u n c t i o n w i t h o u t al i b r a r y , w o r k i n g p h o t o c o p y i n g ma c h i n e , s c i e n c e l a b a n d c h e mi c a l s u p p l i e s; t h et e x t b o o k s t h e y u s e , i f t h e y a r e lu c k y t o h a v e e n o u g h o f t h e m, a r e o u t d a t e d r e j e c t s f r o ms u b u r b a n s c h o o l s - - r e c e n t l y s t u d e n t s i n a h i s t o r y c o u r s e w e r e f o u n d t o u s e a b o o k i nw h i c h R i c h a r d N i x o n w a s s t il l t h e c o u n t r y ' s P r e s i d e n t ( K o z o l , 1 9 9 1 ) .

T h e r e i s v i r t u a l l y n o c o u n s e l i n g a n d n o p r o g r a ms t o e a s e t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m s c h o o lt o w o r k : t h e D u S a b l e h i g h s c h o o l a t t h e h e ar t o f t h e c i t y ' s S o u t h S i de h a s o n e c o u n s e l o rf o r 4 2 0 s t u d e n t s , c o m p a r e d t o o n e f o r 2 0 t o 3 0 p u p i l s i n a f f l u e n t s u b u r b a n p u b l i cs c h o o l s . W o r s e y e t , r o u t i n e p r a c ti c e s o f i n s ti tu t io n a l s i l e n c i n g a n d c e n s o r s h i p e n s u r es t u d e n t m i s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t j o b o p t i o n s a n d s e a r c h w h i le f i n a n c i n g a n d a d m i n i s t r a ti v ep r o c e d u r e s r e w a r d t h e e x c l u s i o n o f p r o b l e m s tu d e n t s , t h e r e b y d i r e c t ly c o n t r i b u t i n gt o t h e d r o p - o u t r a t e - - w h i c h is m o r e a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d a s a p u s h - o u t r a t e ( F i n e ,1 9 9 1 ) . F o r t h e l a r g e ma j o r i t y , c o l l e g e i s o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n s i n c e m o s t e s t a b li s h me n t sd o n o t o f f e r c o l l e g e p r e p a r a t o r y c l a s s e s a n d s t u d e n t s a r e ma s s e d i n v o c a t i o n a l t r a c k sa n y w a y . M o s t o f th o s e w h o e n t e r c o l le g e a r e f u n n el e d i n t o m u n i c i p a l j u n i o r c o l l e g e s3 2


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t h a t a r e e q u a l l y s e g r e g a t e d b y r a c e a n d c l a s s a n d p r o v i d e a t b e s t a r e me d i a l s e c o n d a r ye d u c a t i o n 9 .

T h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n is b e s t s e e n i n t h e a c t u a l p r o b l e m s s c h o o l se n c o u n t e r i n th e i r d a y - t o - d a y o p er a ti o n . A g o o d p a r t o f t h e ir m e a g e r r e s o u r c es m u s t b ed e v o t e d t o t a s k s t h a t h a v e n o t h i n g t o w i t h t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . A t a n e l e me n t a r ys c h o o l I o b s e r v e d i n W o o d l a w n , o n l y t w o b lo c k s f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f C h i c a g o ' sb u s i n e s s s c h o o l , t h e p r i o r i ti e s o f th e d a i ly r o u n d a r e , f i rs t , t o f e e d c h i l d r e n s o t h a t t h e yd o n o t f a l l a s l e e p o r b e h a v e a g g r e s s i v e l y d u r i n g c l a s s e s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e h u n g r y a n d ,s e c o n d , t o e n s u r e t h e p h y s i c a l s e c u r it y o f t h e p u p i l s a n d s t a f f b y m e a n s o f a m i l it i a o fp a r e n t v o l u n t e e r s w h o p a t r o l t h e s c h o o l g r o u n d s w i t h b a s e b a l l b a t s . T o c o mp l e t e t h i sp i c t u re , W o o d l a w n h a s n o h i g h s c h o o l, n o m u s e u m , n o m o v i e t h ea t e r o r o t h e r c u l tu r a lf a c i li t ie s , a n d t h e o n l y l i b r a r y o f t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d i s b o t h g r o s s l y u n d e r e q u i p p e d a n du n d e r - u t i l i z e d , l i mp i n g a l o n g w i t h a m i s e r l y b u d g e t t h a t d o e s n o t a l l o w i t t o r e a c h o u ti n t o t h e c o mm u n i t y . L a c k o f f o r ma l s o c i al ca p i t a l in th e g h e t t o t h u s p r e v e n t s t h et r a n s m i s s i o n a n d a c c u m u l a t i o n o f th e f o r ms o f c u lt u r a l c a p i ta l v a l u e d i n t h e b r o a d e rs o c i e t y a n d e c o n o m y .T h e p o l i t i c a l d e v a l u a t i o n o f th e g h e t to s p u b l i c s o c i a l c a p i t a lT h e d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e g h e t t o ' s s ta te s o c ia l c a p i t al is n o t s o l e ly a p r o d u c t o f t h eg e n e r a l h o l l o w i n g o u t o f c i ti e s c o r r e l at i v e w i t h t h e o n s e t o f p o s t f o r d i s t e c o n o m i cre s t ruc tur ing (Zukin , 1991; Sassen , 1990) . I t i s a l so due to i t s e lec tora l marg ina l i za t iona n d t o t h e g r o w i n g a d m i n i s tr a t iv e f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f th e me t r o p o l i s t h a t h a s a l l o w e dw h i t e s a n d t h e r i c h t o e s c a p e t h e b u r d e n s o f f i n a n c i n g p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s b y mo v i n g t os e c l u d e d s u b u r b s ( E d s a l l a n d E d s a ll , 1 9 9 2 ; W e i r , 1 9 9 3 ). T h e d r i v e t o p u s h p o l it i c alr e s p o n s i b i l i t y d o w n f r o m t h e f e d e r a l t o t h e s t a t e l e v e l , a n d t h e n c e t o t h e c o u n t y a n dmu n i c i p a l i t y , h a s s t r ip p e d p o o r u r b a n p o p u l a t io n s o f all l e v e r s o f i n f l u e n c e w h i l e t h ed e l i v e r y s y s t e m o f k e y so c i a l g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s w a s b e i n g d o w n s i z e d a n d o f t e npr iva t i zed . I t i s a s i f s t a t e p o l i c i e s w e r e d e s i g n e d t o f u r t h e r d e b a s e p u b l i c i n s t it u t io n sa n d t o e n c o u r a g e e x it in t o t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r b y a l l t h o s e w h o c a n l e a v e t h e s i n k i n g s h ipof the gh e t to a nd i t s s epa ra te and uneq ua l f ac i l it i e s .

Thus c i ty and s ta te l e ade r s a s we l l a s bus iness a s soc ia t ions have cons i s ten t lyr e s i s t e d , o r e v e n l o b b i e d a g a i n s t , t a x i n c r e me n t s n e e d e d t o i mp r o v e e d u c a t i o n f o rc h i l d r e n o f c o l o r a n d t he p o o r . R e a g a n ' s S e c r e t a ry o f E d u c a t i o n l a b e ll e d C h i c a g o ' sp u b l i c s c h o o l s y s t e m t h e w o r s t i n A m e r i c a ( C h i c a g o T r i b u n e , 1 9 9 2 ) b u t d i s mi s s e dd e m a n d s f o r m o r e f u n d i n g a n d s o c ia l s e rv i ce s f r o m t h e f e d er a l g o v e r n m e n t e v e n t h o u g hd w i n d l i n g f e d e r a l f u n d s a n d t h e g l a ri n g i n e q u i ti e s o f l o c a l f i n a n c i n g o f p u b l i c s c h o o l sa r e a ma j o r c a u s e o f t h e d e t e ri o r a t i o n o f in n e r - c i t y s c h o o l s ( K a n t o r a n d B r e n z e l , 1 9 9 2 ) .A s a r e s u l t o f th e e r o s i o n o f its t ax b a s e , t h e c i t y ' s p u b l i c s c h o o l s y s t e m r e c e i v e s9 0 , 0 0 0 d o l l a r s l e s s p e r p u p i l o v e r h i s o r h e r a c a d e mi c c a r e e r t h a n t h e ( e q u a l l y p u b l i c )s c h o o l s y s t e m o f t h e r i c h n o r t h e r n s u b u rb s o f C h i c a g o . W e c a n ' t k e e p t h r o w i n g m o n e yi n t o a b l a c k h o l e d e c l a r e d G o v e r n o r T h o m p s o n in 1 9 8 8 , i n a n e x p r e s s i o n w i t h t e ll in gr a c i a l o v e r t o n e s , w h e n c a l l e d u p o n t o j u s t i f y t h e r e f u sa l o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a ti o n t o f u n n e la d d i t i o n a l mo n i e s t o C h i c a g o ' s p u b l i c s c h o o l s t o c o r r e c t s u c h e g r e g i o u s i mb a l a n c e .

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E f f e c t s o f s t a te r e t r e n c h m e n t u p o n th e l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f a b r icT h e r e t r e n c h me n t o f p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y f r o m t h e g h e t t o i s a t o n c e a c o mp o n e n t a n d am a j o r d e t e r mi n a n t o f a w i d e r p r o c e ss o f org n i z t ion l deser t i f i c t ion tha t has v i r tua l lyem pt ied the h i s to r i c B lack Be lt o f i ts fo rmal ins ti tu tions . T hus the nu m ber o f bus inessesopera t ing in Woo dlaw n d ropped f rom 700 in 1950 to abou t 100 in 1990. W herea s int h e p o s t w a r d e c a d e t h e n e i g h b o rh o o d f e a tu r e d b a n k s , h o t e l s , d e p a r t me n t s t o r e s , mo v i ethea te r s , and l igh t manufac tu r ing , today the remain ing commerc ia l e s tab l i shments a rec o m p r i s e d m a i n l y o f l i q u o r s to r e s an d s ma l l l ou n g e s , l a u n d r o ma t s a n d b e a u t y p a r l o r s ,f a s t food ou t l e ts and fam i ly -own ed ea te r ie s , a sma t te r ing o f cu r rency exc han ges , anasso r tm en t o f th r i f t sto res , and cheap c lo th ing and fu rn i tu re ou t l e t s - -man y o f wh ich a reopera ted by As ian o r Midd le -Eas te rn en t rep reneurs and the i r k in . In te rmi t t en temployment in such smal l , marg ina l f i rms does no t a l low ghe t to r e s iden t s to bu i ld upthe re se rv o i r o f con tac t s (Granov e t t e r , 1974) l iab le to d raw and anchor them in to thecore se gm ents o f the o f f i c ia l l abor marke t .

Indeed , i t i s no exaggera t ion to say tha t , in much o f the con tempora ry B lack Be l t ,t h e r e g u l a r , wa g e - l a b o r e c o n o my h a s b e e n su p e r s e d ed b y t h e i r r eg u l a r - - a n d o f t e ni l l ega l - - s t r ee t economy. Th i s twofo ld wi thdrawal o f s t a t e and marke t accoun ts fo r theex t reme soc ia l des t i tu t ion and the war - l ike a tmosphere tha t pe rvade the ghe t to(W acquan t , 1992a , 1996b). For they have deb i l it a ted the p rox im ate m eans o f fo rmaland in fo rmal soc ia l con t ro l th rough which mos t i l l ega l and c r imina l behav io r i so rd ina r i ly checked and u rban d i so rde r he ld in abeyan ce (Su l l ivan , 1991) .

Mo s t o f t h e c h u r c h e s t h a t u s e d t o f o r m t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b a c k b o n e o f C h i c a g o ' sBronz ev i l l e in i ts heyda y have a lso c losed down . T hose tha t r em ain a re smal l and

f rag i l e o rgan iza t ions wi th on ly a handfu l o f members and c ramped fac i l i t i e s , i f no ts to re f ron t ope ra t ions who se ex i st ence h inges on the t i re l e s s ac t iv i ty o f the i r ind iv idua l

founders . They s t i l l a t t empt to make up fo r the g la r ing l ack o f governmenta l se rv icesby o rgan iz ing pan t r i e s to f eed the hungry , she l t e r s fo r the g rowing ranks o f theh o m e l e s s , a n d d r u g c o u n s e l in g p r o g r a ms , jo b b a n k s , l it e ra c y c a mp a i g n s , a n d c o m -m uni ty c lean-ups o r soc ia l ga the r ings . Bu t the i r m os t p ress ing p rob lem toda y i s su rv iva lin the face o f dwind l ing a t t endance and sagg ing resources .

The vacuum c rea ted by the deprec ia t ion o f fo rmal soc ia l cap i t a l a t t endan t upon thec o n c u r r e n t w i t h e r in g a wa y o f th e wa g e - l a b o r ma r k e t , t h e d e mi s e o f i n d ig e n o u s o r g a -n iza t ions , and the c rumb l ing o f pub l i c ins ti tu t ions has supp l ied the room and im pe tusf o r t h e b l o s s o mi n g o f a n u n d e r g r o u n d e c o n o my d o mi n a t e d b y t h e o n l y e x p a n d i n g e m-p l o y me n t s e c t o r t o wh i c h p o o r mi n o r i t y y o u t h s mi s e d u c a t e d b y p u b l i c s c h o o l s c a nread i ly accede : the r e ta i l t r ade o f d rugs . T h i s , in tu rns , fue l s the depac i f i ca t ion o feve ryday l i f e which fu r the r f eeds the o rgan iza t iona l dec l ine o f the ghe t to . Much o f thec r im e tha t has tu rned inne r -c ity s t ree t s in to thea te r s o f d read and dea th i s l inked to theg r o w t h o f a f o r m o f b o o t y c a p i ta l is m i n wh i c h ea c h c a n a t te mp t to b e c o m e a n i nd i -v idua l e n t r e p r e n e u r i n v i o le n t p r e d t i o n so as to genera te an economy where the re i snone wi th the on ly a sse t l e f t a t h i s d i sposa l , namely , phys ica l fo rce . These th reeprocesses , o rgan iza t iona l dese r t i f i ca t ion , the depac i f i ca t ion o f eve ryday l i f e , economicin fo rmal iza t ion , become locked in an apparen t ly se l f - sus ta in ing cyc le tha t g ives a l lapp ea ran ces o f be ing in te rna lly de te rmined and takes on the appearan ce o f co l l ec t ive3 4


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p a t h o l o g y , a l l t h e b e t te r t o m a k e o u t s id e r s ( a n d e v e n i n s id e r s ) f o r g e t a b o u t t h e c a u s a lr o l e o f t h e b r e a k d o w n o f p u b l i c i n s t it u ti o n s i n t r i g g e r i n g a n d s u s t a i n in g t h e m .

C o d a : t he p o l i ti c a l s o ur c e s o f so c i a l c a p i t a lO v e r t h e p a s t t h re e d e c a d e s , t h e u r b a n c o r e o f th e A m e r i c a n m e t r o p o l i s h a s u n d e r g o n en o t o n l y c u l t u r a l a n d s t r u c tu r a l d i s i n v e s tm e n t ( H a g a n , 1 9 9 3 ) b u t a l s o m a s s i v e s o c i a ld i s i n v e s t m e n t a s t h e p r e s e n c e , r e a c h , a n d c a p a c it y o f p u b l i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s w a s s h a r p l yc u r t ai l e d b y c o n v e r g i n g e c o n o m i c a n d p u b li c p o l ic y c h a n g e s . T h e s h r i n k i n g o f a na l r e a d y n a r r o w p u b l i c s p h e r e i n t h e g h e t to h a s d e p r e s s e d t h e v a l u e o f t h e s o c i a l c a p i ta li n c i r c u l a t i o n t h e r e b y l o w e r i n g i t s a g g r e g a t e v o l u m e , i n c r e a s i n g t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o ft h e d i s p o s s e s s e d , h e i g h t e n i n g s t i g m a t i z a t i o n , i n s e c u r i t y a n d c r i m e , a n d t h e r e b ye x a c e r b a t i n g i n t e r p e r so n a l d i s tr u s t a n d f e e l in g s o f i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o l l e c t i v e a l ie n a t i o n .

I n s t e a d o f f o r m i n g a p r o t e c t i v e b u f f e r a n d a p a n o p l y o f m e c h a n i s m s l i a b l e t o p r o pu p i t s m o s t v u l n e r a b l e m e m b e r s a n d t i e t h e m i n t o t h e n a t i o n a l c o l l e c t i v i t y , t h e p u b l i ci n s t it u t io n s o f t o d a y ' s g h e t t o , f r o m s c h o o l s , h o u s i n g , a n d h e a l t h c a r e t o t h e p o l ic e ,c o u r t s , a n d w e l f a r e , s e r v e t o f u r th e r i s o la t e, s t i g m a t i z e , a n d e x c l u d e t h e m . N o t b e c a u s et h e y h a v e e x p a n d e d a n d b l o c k e d t h e w o r k i n g s o f t h e m a r k e t b u t , o n t he c o n t r a r y ,b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e b e e n s o w e a k e n e d t h a t t h e y c a n n o l o n g e r p r o t e c t t h e p o o r f r o m i t ss a n c t i o n s o r e v e n l i n k t h e m m e a n i n g f u l l y t o it. T h e d e r e l ic t p u b l i c s e c t o r o f A m e r i c a ' su r b a n c o r e i s p a t e n t l y u n f i t t o f u l f i l l t h e i n t e g r a t i v e m i s s i o n b e s t o w e d u p o n i t i n o t h e ra d v a n c e d s o c i e ti e s , a s i t c a n n o t p r o v i d e t h e b as i c o r g a n i z a t io n a l i n f r a s t ru c t u r e r e q u i r e df o r t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f a n y c o m p l e x u r b a n s o ci al f o r m a t io n .

Th is su gges t s tha t the ana lys i s o f soc ia l c ap i t a l in the inn e r c i ty , and o f it s impac to n n a t i o n a l u r b a n i s s u e s , s h o u l d fo c u s n o t o n l y o n d i re c t , i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s a m o n gghe t to r e s ident s and the i r ind igen ous ins ti tu tions , bu t a l so up on the ind i re c t soc ia lr e l a t io n s ( C a l h o u n , 1 9 9 1 ) m e d i a t e d b y p u b l i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s an d b y t h e p r i v a t e in -s t i tu t ions tha t the se in tu rn suppor t . For s ta te s t ruc tures and po l ic ie s p lay a d ec i s ive ro lein the form at ion and d i s tr ibu tion o f bo th form al and in formal soc ia l cap i ta l In the ca seo f A m e r i c a ' s h y p e r g h e t t o , t h e y a r e d i r e c t ly r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s h a r p d e v a l u i n g o f t h er e s o u r c e s c o l l e c t i v e l y h e l d b y its r e s id e n t s a n d f o r th e r e s u l t i n g i n t e n s i f ic a t i o n o fd e s t i t u t i o n a n d d e s p a i r a m o n g t h e m .

N o t e sT h i s a r t ic l e d r a w s o n a m e m o p r e p a r e d f o r t h e W o r k s h o p o n S o c i a l C a p i t a l a n dN a t i o n a l U r b a n I s su e s c o n v e n e d b y R o b e r t P u t n a m a t t h e A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y o ft h e A r t s a n d S c i e n c e s i n t h e F a l l o f 1 9 9 4 .W i t h o u t e n t e r i n g in t o v a i n p r i o r it y d i s p u t e s, i t s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a tB o u r d i e u ' s n o t i o n p r e d a t e s its m a i n U . S . c o u n t e r p a r t s b y a d e c a d e . J a m e s C o l e m a n( 1 9 8 8 ) , w h o t h r u st t h e c o n c e p t to t h e f o r e fr o n t o f A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g y , e l a b o r a te dh i s a n a l y s i s o f S o c i a l C a p i t a l i n t h e C r e a t i o n o f H u m a n C a p i t a l a f t e r c o m i n g i n t od i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h B o u r d i e u ' s w o r k ( h e c it es B o u r d i e u ' s 1 9 8 0 N o t e s o n S o c ia l

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C a p i t a l b u t t h e l a tt e r c u r i o u s l y d i s a p p e a r f r o m s u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n s o n th etopic ) .

3 T y p e s o f c a p i ta l a l s o v a r y g r e a t l y i n t h e i r d e g r e e o f e m b e d d e d n e s s a n d th u s i n t h eg e n e r a l i t y a n d s c o p e o f t h e ir e f f e ct s . T h i n k o f s k il ls t h a t a r e f i r m - s p e c i f i c v e r s u su n i v e r s a l l y t r a n s f e r a b l e : t h e s a m e a p p l i e s t o g h e t t o - s p e c i f i c v e r s u s g e n e r a l i z a b l es k i ll s ( e . g . , t h e a b i l it y t o m a n i p u l a t e o t h e r s o r t o u s e p h y s i c a l f o r c e a s o p p o s e dt o m a s t e r y o f t h e m i d d l e -c l a s s c o d e s o f f a c e - to - f a c e n e g o t i a t i o n a n a t o m i z e d b yE r v i n g G o f f m a n ) .

4 G 6 r a r d M a u g e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) h a s s h o w n t h a t t h e r e i s n o su c h t h i n g a s i n h e r i ti n g n o t h i n g :e v e n t h e m o s t d e s t i t u t e g r o u p s p a s s o n c e r t a i n s k i l l s a n d p r o p e r t i e s t o t h e i ro f f s p r i n g s - - s u c h a s t h e s t i g m a o f b e in g o u t c a s t s .

5 T h e an a l y s i s t h a t f o l l o w s , b a s e d o n f ie l d , s u r v e y , a n d a d m i n i s t r a ti v e d a t a c o l l e c t e di n C h i c a g o b y m y s e l f an d o t h e r s , i s i n f o rm e d b y a c o n t ra s t iv e s t u d y o f t h es o c i o p o l i t i c a l d y n a m i c s o f u r b a n r e l e g a t io n i n F r a n c e ' s R e d B e l t b a n l i e u e s , t h ed e c l in i n g w o r k i n g - c la s s b o r o u g h s o f th e F r e n c h u r b a n p e r i p h e r y w h e r e s i m i la ri s su e s o f i m p o v e r i s h m e n t , i s o la t i o n , a n d s e g r e g a t i o n e m e r g e d i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , a l b e ito n a m o r e m o d e s t s c a l e a n d w i t h d i f f e r e n t e m p h a s e s ( W a c q u a n t , 1 9 9 6 b ) .T h e r e n o w e x i s ts a la r g e a m o u n t o f e v i d e n c e o f s y s t e m i c p o l i c e b ru t a l it y . A r e c e n tF B I r e p o r t t u r n e d u p e v i d e n c e o f r o u t i n e t o r t u r e a t s e v e r al p o l i c e s t a ti o n s o n t h eS o u t h S i d e o f C h i c a g o . A n o n g o i n g m u n i c i p al i n v e st i g at io n i n to p o l i c e g r a ft i n N e wY o r k C i t y h a s u n c o v e r e d a p e r v a s i v e p a tt e rn o f u n l a w f u l , v i o l e n t h a r a s s m e n t o fm i n o r i t y r es i d e n ts s u s p e c t ed o f a s s o c i a ti o n w i t h t h e d r u g t r ad e a n d o f t h e u s e o fm a s s i v e l y e x c e s s i v e p h y s i c a l f o r c e a s a r it e o f o c c u p a t i o n a l i n c o r p o r a t i o n . I n L o sA n g e l e s , t h e p o l i c e a c t as i f t h e y w e r e w a g i n g a t r e n c h w a r w i t h t h e i n h a b i ta n t s o fm i n o r i t y a r e a s : t h e y t r e a t t h e l a t t e r a s a n a r m y o f o c c u p a t i o n w o u l d i t s e n e m i e s( D a v i s , 1 9 9 0 ) . I n J u n e o f 1 9 9 2 , A m n e s t y I n t e rn a t i o n a l r el e a se d a r e p o r t c o m p i l i n ge v i d e n c e o f a d e e p - s e a te d p a t t e r n o f r o u t i n e p o l i c e b r u t al i ty a g a i n s t p o o r A f r i c a n -A m e r i c a n s a n d H i s p a n i c s i n L o s A n g e l e s g o i n g o n u n c h e c k e d f o r y e a r s i n n e a r -c o m p l e t e i m p u n i t y f r o m l o c a l a n d f e d e r a l a u t h o r i t i e s .

7 O n e e x a m p l e a m o n g m a n y : B o u r g o i s ( 1 9 9 2 ) r e c o u n t s h o w a P u e r t o R i c a n f am i l yo f E a s t H a r l e m s e e s it s p u b l i c a i d c u t o f f a f t e r it b e c o m e s h o m e l e s s o n g r o u n d s t h a ti t n o l o n g e r n e e d s r e n t s u b s i d y , t h e r e b y p l u n g i n g i t i n t o f u r t h e r h a r d s h i p . T h ef a th e r , w h o w o r k s a s a l o w - le v e l e m p l o y e e o f th e N e w Y o r k S t o c k E x c h a n g e , isf o r c e d t o g o i n t o t h e n i g h t d r u g t r a d e a n d i s s e p a r a t e d f r o m h i s f a m i l y b e c a u s es h e l t e r s a r e g e n d e r - s e g r e g a t e d .

8 R e a d th e f ir s t - h a n d a c c o u n t s o f t h e n i g h t m a r i s h e x p e r ie n c e s o f u s e r s o f p u b l i ch e a l th f a ci li ti es o n C h i c a g o ' s W e s t S i d e i n M i g h t B e B e t te r O f f D e a d ( A b r a h a m ,1993) .

9 I n d e e d , J e r r y K a r a b el ( 1 9 8 6 ) h a s s h o w n t h a t a t te n d i n g an u r b a n c o m m u n i t y c o ll e g ere su l t s in a low ring o f o n e ' s o c c u p a t i o n a l a n d i n c o m e l e v el , e n s u r i n g t h a t e v e nt h o s e w h o a t te n d c o l l eg e i n t h e i n n e r c i t y h a v e f e w c h a n c e s o f d e v e l o p i n g s o c i a lt i e s o u t s i d e o f t h e i r o w n m i l i e u .

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Z u k in , S h aro n (1 9 9 1 ) T h e H o l lo w C en te r : U .S . C i t i es in th e G lo b a l E ra , i n Wo l fe ,A l a n , A m e r i c a a t C e n t u r y ' s E n d , p p . 2 4 5- 2 61 , B e r k el e y: U n i ve r s it y o f C a l i f o r n iaPress .

b o u t t h e a u t h o rL o 'fc W ac q u an t is R esea rch er a t t h e C en te r fo r E u ro p ean S o c io lo g y o f th e C o l l eg e d eF ran ce an d an A sso c ia t e P ro fesso r o f S o c io lo g y a t t h e U n iv e r s i ty o f C a l i fo rn ia . H i sin teres ts include comparat ive u rban marg inal i ty , rac ia l dominat ion , cu l tu re andeco nom y, the uses o f carcera l ins ti tu tions in the governm ent o f misery in advanc edsocie ty , and socia l theory . In 1998-99 , he wi l l be a Fel low at the W issensch af tsko l legzu Ber l in .

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