Neil Armstrong 1

Neil ArmstrongNeil Armstrong

USN/NASA Astronaut

Status Retired astronaut

Born August 5, 1930Wapakoneta, Ohio, U.S.

Previous occupation Naval aviator, Test pilot

Time in space 8 days, 14 hours and 12 minutes

Selection 1958 MISS; 1960 Dyna-Soar; 1962 NASA Astronaut Group 2

Missions Gemini 8, Apollo 11

Mission insignia

Moon landing

Neil Alden Armstrong (born August 5, 1930 in Wapakoneta, Ohio) is a former Americanastronaut, test pilot, university professor, and United States Naval Aviator. He is the firstperson to set foot on the Moon. His first spaceflight was aboard Gemini 8 in 1966, for whichhe was the command pilot. On this mission, he performed the first manned docking of twospacecraft together with pilot David Scott. Armstrong's second and last spaceflight was asmission commander of the Apollo 11 moon landing mission on July 20, 1969. On thismission, Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin descended to the lunar surface and spent 2½ hoursexploring while Michael Collins remained in orbit in the Command Module. Armstrong is arecipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.Before becoming an astronaut, Armstrong was in the United States Navy and saw action inthe Korean War. After the war, he served as a test pilot at the National Advisory Committeefor Aeronautics (NACA) High-Speed Flight Station, now known as the Dryden FlightResearch Center, where he flew over 900 flights in a variety of aircraft. As a research pilot,Armstrong served as project pilot on the F-100 Super Sabre A and C aircraft, F-101 Voodoo,and the Lockheed F-104A Starfighter. He also flew the Bell X-1B, Bell X-5, North AmericanX-15, F-105 Thunderchief, F-106 Delta Dart, B-47 Stratojet, KC-135 Stratotanker andParesev. He graduated from Purdue University.

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Early yearsSon of Stephen Koenig Armstrong and Viola Louise Engel, Neil Armstrong was born inWapakoneta, Ohio.[1] [2] He is of Scots-Irish and German descent. Stephen Armstrongworked for the Ohio government, and the family moved around the state repeatedly for thenext 15 years, living in 20 different towns. Armstrong had two siblings, June and Dean. Hisfather's last forced move was to Wapakoneta in 1944. By this time, Armstrong was active inthe Boy Scouts and he eventually earned the rank of Eagle Scout. As an adult, he would berecognized by the Boy Scouts of America with their Distinguished Eagle Scout Award andSilver Buffalo Award.[3] In Wapakoneta, he attended Blume High School.In 1947, Armstrong began studying aerospace engineering at Purdue University, where hewas a member of Phi Delta Theta[4] and Kappa Kappa Psi[5] . He was only the second personin his family to attend college. He was also accepted to the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (MIT), but the only engineer he knew (who had attended MIT) dissuaded himfrom attending, telling Armstrong that it was not necessary to go all the way to Cambridge,Massachusetts for a good education.[6] His college tuition was paid for under the HollowayPlan; successful applicants committed to four years of study, followed by three years ofservice in the United States Navy, then completion of the final two years of the degree. AtPurdue, he received average marks in his subjects, with a GPA that rose and fell over theeight semesters. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineeringfrom Purdue University and a Master of Science degree in aerospace engineering fromUniversity of Southern California. He holds honorary doctorates from a number ofuniversities.

Navy serviceArmstrong's call-up from the Navy arrived on January 26, 1949, and required him to reportto Naval Air Station Pensacola for flight training. This lasted almost 18 months, duringwhich time he qualified for carrier landing aboard the USS Cabot and USS Wright. OnAugust 12, 1950, he was informed by letter he was now a fully qualified Naval Aviator.[7]

His first assignment was to Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron 7 at NAS San Diego (nowknown as NAS North Island). Two months later he was assigned to Fighter Squadron 51(VF-51), an all-jet squadron. He would make his first flight in a jet, a F9F-2B Panther onJanuary 5, 1951. Six months later, he made his first jet carrier landing on the USS Essex.The same week he was promoted from midshipman to ensign. By the end of the month, theEssex had set sail with VF-51 aboard, bound for Korea, where they would act asground-attack aircraft.[8] He made over 600 flights in a variety of aircraft.Armstrong first saw action in the Korean War on August 29, 1951, as an escort for a photoreconnaissance plane over Songjin. Five days later, he was shot down for the only time. Theprincipal targets for his armed reconnaissance flight were freight yards and a bridge on anarrow valley road south of the village of Majon-ni, west of Wonsan. While making a lowbombing run at about 350 mph (560 km/h) in his F9F Panther, Armstrong's plane was hit byanti-aircraft gunfire. The plane took a nose dive, and sliced through a cable strung about500 ft (150 m) up across the valley by the North Koreans. This sheared off an estimated sixfeet (2 m) of its right wing.

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A portrait of Armstrong takenNovember 20, 1956 while he was atest pilot at the NACA High-Speed

Flight Station at Edwards Air ForceBase, California.

Armstrong was able to fly the plane back to friendlyterritory, but could not land the plane safely due to theloss of the aileron, which left ejection as his only option.He planned to eject over water and await rescue bynavy helicopters, so he flew to an airfield near Pohang.Instead of a water rescue, winds forced his ejection seatback over land. Armstrong was picked up by a jeepdriven by a roommate from flight school. It is unknownwhat happened to the wreckage of No. 125122 F9F-2.[9]

Over Korea, Armstrong flew 78 missions for a total of121 hours in the air, most of which was in January1952. He received the Air Medal for 20 combatmissions, a Gold Star for the next 20, and the KoreanService Medal and Engagement Star.[10] Armstrong leftthe navy on August 23, 1952, and became a Lieutenant,Junior Grade in the United States Naval Reserve. Heresigned his commission in the Naval Reserve onOctober 20, 1960.[11]

Armstrong returned to Purdue after he separated fromthe Navy, and his best grades at the university came inthe four semesters following his return from Korea. Hepledged the Phi Delta Theta fraternity after his return, where he wrote and co-directedtheir musical as part of the all-student revue. His final GPA was 4.8 out of 6.0.[12] He wasalso a member of Kappa Kappa Psi National Honorary Band Fraternity. Armstronggraduated with a bachelor's degree in aeronautical engineering in 1955.

While at Purdue, he met Janet Elizabeth Shearon, who was majoring in home economics.According to the two there was no real courtship and neither can remember the exactcircumstances of their engagement, except that it occurred while Armstrong was workingat the NACA's Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory. They were married on January 28, 1956at the Congregational Church in Wilmette, Illinois. When he moved to Edwards Air ForceBase, he lived in the bachelor quarters of the base, while Janet lived in the Westwooddistrict of Los Angeles. After one semester, they moved into a house in Antelope Valley.Janet never finished her degree, a fact she regretted later in life.[13]

The couple had three children together – Eric, Karen, and Mark.[14] In June 1961, Karenwas diagnosed with a malignant tumor of the middle part of her brain stem. X-raytreatment slowed its growth but her health deteriorated to the point where she could nolonger walk or talk. Karen died of pneumonia, related to her weakened health, on January28, 1962.[15]

Test pilotAfter he graduated from Purdue, Armstrong decided to try to become an experimental,research test pilot. He applied at the National Advisory Committee for AeronauticsHigh-Speed Flight Station at Edwards Air Force Base, which had no open positions andforwarded the application to the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio.Armstrong began working at Lewis Field in February 1955.[16]

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On his first day at Edwards, Armstrong flew his first assignments, piloting chase planes ondrops of experimental aircraft from converted bombers. He also flew the convertedbombers, and on one of these missions had his first flight incident at Edwards. Armstrongwas in the right-hand seat of a B-29 Superfortress on March 22, 1956, which was toair-drop a Douglas Skyrocket D-558-2. As the right-hand seat pilot, Armstrong was incharge of the payload release, while the left-hand seat commander, Stan Butchart, flew theB-29.As they ascended to 30,000 ft (9 km), the number four engine stopped and the propellerbegan windmilling in the airstream. Hitting the switch that would stop the propellerspinning, Butchart found the propeller slowed but then started spinning again, this timeeven faster than the other engines; if it spun too fast, it would fly apart. Their aircraftneeded to hold an airspeed of 210 mph (338 km/h) to launch its Skyrocket payload, and theB-29 could not land with the Skyrocket still attached to its belly. Armstrong and Butchartnosed the aircraft down to pick up speed, then launched the Skyrocket. At the very instantof launch, the number four engine propeller disintegrated. Pieces of it careened throughpart of the number three engine and hit the number two engine. Butchart and Armstrongwere forced to shut down the number three engine, due to damage, and the number oneengine, due to the torque it created. They made a slow, circling descent from 30000 ft(9000 m) using only the number two engine, and landed safely.Armstrong's first flight in a rocket plane was on August 15, 1957, in the Bell X-1B, to analtitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). He broke the nose landing gear when he landed, which hadhappened on about a dozen previous flights of the aircraft due to the aircraft's design.[17]

He first flew the North American X-15 on November 30, 1960, to a top altitude of 48,840 ft(14.9 km) and a top speed of Mach 1.75 (1,150 mph or 1,810 km/h).In November 1960 Armstrong was chosen as part of the pilot consultant group for the X-20Dyna-Soar, a military space plane. On March 15, 1962 he was named as one of sixpilot-engineers who would fly the space plane when it got off the design board.[18]

Armstrong stands next to the X-15 ship #1 after aresearch flight.

Armstrong was involved in severalincidents that went down in Edwardsfolklore and/or were chronicled in thememoirs of colleagues. The first was anX-15 flight on April 20, 1962, whenArmstrong was testing a self-adjustingcontrol system. He flew to a height of207,000 ft (63 km), (the highest he flewbefore Gemini 8), but he held the aircraftnose up too long during descent, and theX-15 literally bounced off the atmosphereback up to 140,000 ft (43 km). At thataltitude, the atmosphere is so thin thataerodynamic surfaces have no effect. Heflew past the landing field at Mach 3 (2,000

mph, or 3,200 km/h) and over 100,000 ft (30.5 km) altitude. He ended up 45 miles (72 km)south of Edwards (legend has that he flew as far as the Rose Bowl). After sufficient descent,

he turned back toward the landing area, and barely managed to land without striking Joshua trees at the south end. It was the longest X-15 flight in both time and distance of the

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ground track.[19]

A second incident happened when Armstrong flew for the only time with Chuck Yeager,four days after his X-15 adventure. Flying a T-33 Shooting Star, their job was to test outSmith Ranch Dry Lake for use as an emergency landing site for the X-15. In hisautobiography, Yeager wrote that he knew the lake bed was unsuitable for landings afterrecent rains, but Armstrong insisted on flying out anyway. As they made a Touch-and-Go,the wheels became stuck and they had to wait for rescue. Armstrong tells a differentversion of events, where Yeager never tried to talk him out of it and they made a firstsuccessful landing on the east side of the lake. Then Yeager told him to try again, this timea bit slower. On the second landing they became stuck and according to Armstrong, Yeagerwas in fits of laughter.[20]

Many of the test pilots at Edwards praised Armstrong's engineering ability. Milt Thompsonsaid he was "the most technically capable of the early X-15 pilots." Bruce Peterson saidArmstrong "had a mind that absorbed things like a sponge." Those who flew for the AirForce tended to have a different opinion, especially people like Chuck Yeager and PeteKnight who did not have engineering degrees. Knight said that pilot-engineers flew in a waythat was "more mechanical than it is flying," and gave this as the reason why somepilot-engineers got into trouble: their flying skills did not come naturally.[21]

On May 21, 1962, Armstrong was involved in what Edwards' folklore called the "NellisAffair." He was sent in an F-104 to inspect Delamar Lake, again for emergency landings. Hemisjudged his altitude, and also did not realize that the landing gear hadn't fully extended.As he touched down, the landing gear began to retract. Armstrong applied full power toabort the landing, but the ventral fin and landing gear door struck the ground, whichdamaged the radio and released hydraulic fluid. Without radio communication, Armstrongflew to Nellis Air Force Base, past the control tower, and waggled his tail, the signal for ano-radio approach. The loss of hydraulic fluid caused the tail-hook to release, and uponlanding he caught the arresting wire attached to an anchor chain, and careened along therunway dragging chain. Thirty minutes were needed to clear the runway and rig anarresting cable. Meanwhile, Armstrong telephoned Edwards and asked for someone to pickhim up. Milt Thompson was sent in a F-104B, the only two-seater available, but a planeThompson had never flown. With great difficulty, Thompson made it to Nellis, but a strongcrosswind caused a hard landing and the left main tire suffered a blowout. The runway wasagain closed to clear it. Bill Dana was sent to Nellis in a T-33 Shooting Star, but he almostlanded long. The Nellis base operations office decided that it would be best to find the threeNASA pilots some transport back to Edwards, to avoid any further problems.[22]

Armstrong made seven flights in the X-15. He reached a top altitude of 207,500 ft (63.2 km)in the X-15-3, and a top speed of Mach 5.74 (4,000 mph or 6,615 km/h) in the X-15-1, andhe left the Dryden Flight Research Center with a total of 2,450 flying hours in more than 50types of aircraft.

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Astronaut selection and early training

Armstrong in an early (pre-Gemini) spacesuit.

There was no defining moment inArmstrong's decision to become anastronaut. In the months after theannouncement that applications were beingsought for the second group of astronauts,he became more and more excited aboutthe prospect of the Apollo program and theprospect of investigating a newaeronautical environment. Many yearslater, it was disclosed that Armstrong'sastronaut application had arrived about aweek past the June 1, 1962 deadline. DickDay, with whom Armstrong had workedclosely at Edwards, worked at the MannedSpacecraft Center, saw the late arrival ofthe application, and slipped it into the pilebefore anyone noticed.[23] At BrooksCity-Base at the end of June he underwenta medical exam that many of the applicantsdescribed as painful and at times seeminglypointless.[24]

Deke Slayton called Armstrong on September 13, 1962 and asked if he was interested injoining the astronaut corps as part of what the press dubbed "the New Nine". Withouthesitation, Armstrong said yes. The selections were kept secret until three days later,although newspaper reports had been circulating since the middle of summer that year thathe would be selected as the "first civilian astronaut".[25]

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Gemini program

Gemini 8

Recovery of the Gemini 8 spacecraft from the westernPacific Ocean.

The crew assignments for Gemini 8 wereannounced on September 20, 1965, withArmstrong as Command Pilot with PilotDavid Scott. Scott was the first member ofthe third group of astronauts to receive aprime crew assignment. The missionlaunched March 16, 1966. It was to be themost complex yet, with a rendezvous anddocking with the unmanned Agena targetvehicle, the second American (and thirdever) extra-vehicular activity (EVA)(Armstrong himself dislikes the term"spacewalk") by Scott. In total the missionwas planned to last 75 hours and 55 orbits.After the Agena lifted off at 10 a.m. EST,the Titan II carrying Armstrong and Scottignited at 11:41:02 a.m. EST, putting theminto an orbit from where they would chase

the Agena.[26]

The rendezvous and first ever docking between two spacecraft was successfully completedafter 6.5 hours in orbit. Contact with the crew was intermittent due to the lack of trackingstations covering their entire orbits. Out of contact with the ground, the docked spacecraftbegan to roll, which Armstrong attempted to correct with the Orbital Attitude andManeuvering System (OAMS) of the Gemini spacecraft. Following the earlier advice ofMission Control, they undocked, but found that the roll increased dramatically to the pointwhere they were turning about once per second, which meant the problem was in theirGemini's attitude control. Armstrong decided the only course of action was to engage theReentry Control System (RCS) and turn off the OAMS. Mission rules dictated that once thissystem was turned on, the spacecraft would have to reenter at the next possibleopportunity. It was later thought that damaged wiring made one of the thrusters becomestuck on.

Throughout the astronaut office, there were a few people, most notably WalterCunningham, who publicly stated that Armstrong and Scott had ignored the malfunctionprocedures for such an incident, and that Armstrong could have salvaged the mission if hehad turned on only one of the two RCS rings and saved the other for mission objectives.These criticisms were unfounded – no malfunction procedures were written and it was onlypossible to turn on both RCS rings, not one or the other. Gene Kranz wrote, "the crewreacted as they were trained, and they reacted wrong because we trained them wrong."The mission planners and controllers had failed to realize that when two spacecraft aredocked together they must be considered to be one spacecraft.[27]

Armstrong himself was depressed and annoyed that the mission had been cut short, which cancelled most mission objectives and robbed Scott of his EVA. Armstrong did not hear the criticism of other astronauts, but he did speculate after the flight that RCS activation might

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not have been necessary had the Gemini capsule stayed docked to the Agena – the Agena'sattitude control system possibly could have been used to regain control.

Gemini 11The last crew assignment for Armstrong during the Gemini program was as backupCommand Pilot for Gemini 11, announced two days after the landing of Gemini 8. Havingalready trained for two flights, Armstrong was quite knowledgeable about the systems andwas more in a teaching role for the rookie backup Pilot, William Anders. The launch was onSeptember 12, 1966 with Pete Conrad and Dick Gordon on board. The pair successfullycompleted the mission objectives, while Armstrong served as CAPCOM.Following the flight, President Lyndon B. Johnson asked Armstrong and his wife to takepart in a 24-day goodwill tour of South America. Also on the tour were Dick Gordon, GeorgeLow, their wives, and other government officials. They traveled to 11 countries and 14major cities. Armstrong impressed everyone involved when he greeted dignitaries in theirlocal language. In Brazil he talked about the exploits of the Brazilian-born AlbertoSantos-Dumont, regarded in the country as having beaten the Wright brothers with the firstflying machine.

Apollo programOn January 27, 1967, Armstrong was in Washington, D.C. with Gordon Cooper, DickGordon, Jim Lovell and Scott Carpenter for the signing of the United Nations Outer SpaceTreaty. The astronauts chatted with the assembled dignitaries until 6:45 p.m. Carpenterwent to the airport, and the others returned to the Georgetown Inn, where they each foundmessages to phone the Manned Spacecraft Center. They learned of the deaths of GusGrissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee in the Apollo 1 fire during these telephone calls.Armstrong and the group spent the rest of the night drinking scotch and discussing whathad happened. [28]

On April 5, 1967, the same day the Apollo 1 investigation released its report on the fire,Armstrong assembled with 17 other astronauts for a meeting with Deke Slayton. The firstthing Slayton said was, "The guys who are going to fly the first lunar missions are the guysin this room." According to Eugene Cernan, Armstrong showed no reaction to thestatement. To Armstrong it came as no surprise — the room was full of veterans of ProjectGemini, the only people who could fly the lunar missions. Slayton talked about the plannedmissions and named Armstrong to the backup crew for Apollo 9, which at that stage wasplanned to be a high-Earth orbit test of the Lunar Module-Command/Service Modulecombination. After design and manufacturing delays in the Lunar Module (LM), Apollo 9and Apollo 8 swapped crews. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong wouldcommand Apollo 11.To give the astronauts experience with the way the LM flew, Bell Aircraft built two Lunar Landing Research Vehicles, which were later converted to Lunar Landing Training Vehicles (LLTV). Nicknamed the 'Flying Bedsteads', they simulated the one-sixth g of the Moon by using a turbofan engine to cancel out most of the craft's weight. On May 6, 1968, about 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, Armstrong's controls started to degrade and the LLTV began banking. He ejected safely (later analysis would suggest if he had ejected 0.5 seconds later, his parachute would not have opened in time). His only injury was from biting his tongue. Even though he was nearly killed on one, Armstrong maintains that without the LLRV and

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LLTV, the lunar landings would not have been successful as they gave commandersvaluable experience in the behavior of lunar landing craft.

Apollo 11

The Apollo 11 crew portrait. Left to right are Armstrong, MichaelCollins, and Buzz Aldrin.

After Armstrong served as backupcommander for Apollo 8, Slaytonoffered him the post of commanderof Apollo 11 on December 23,1968, as 8 orbited the Moon. In ameeting that was not made publicuntil the publication ofArmstrong's biography in 2005,Slayton told him that although theplanned crew was Armstrong ascommander, lunar module pilotBuzz Aldrin and command modulepilot Michael Collins, he wasoffering the chance to replaceAldrin with Jim Lovell. Afterthinking it over for a day,Armstrong told Slayton he wouldstick with Aldrin, as he had nodifficulty working with him and

thought Lovell deserved his own command. Replacing Aldrin with Lovell would have madeLovell the Lunar Module Pilot, unofficially ranked as number three on the crew. Armstrongcould not justify placing Lovell, the commander of Gemini 12, in the number 3 position ofthe crew.

Initially, Aldrin thought that he would be first to walk on the Moon, based on the experienceof Gemini; during that program, the pilot conducted the EVAs while the command pilot,who had greater responsibilities and less time to train for an EVA, stayed on board.However, when that actual procedure was tried with suited-up astronauts in an Apollo LMmockup, the LM was damaged – in order for Aldrin (LM Pilot) to get out first, he had toclimb over Armstrong (commander) to get to the door.A March 1969 meeting between Slayton, George Low, Bob Gilruth, and Chris Kraftdetermined that Armstrong would be the first person on the Moon, in some part becauseNASA management saw Armstrong as a person who did not have a large ego. A pressconference held on April 14, 1969 gave the design of the LM cabin as the reason forArmstrong being first; the hatch opened inwards and to the right, making it difficult for thelunar module pilot, on the right-hand side, to egress first. Slayton added, "Secondly, just ona pure protocol basis, I figured the commander ought to be the first guy out. . . . I changedit as soon as I found they had the time line that showed that. Bob Gilruth approved mydecision."[29] At the time of their meeting, the four men did not know about the hatch issue.The first knowledge of the meeting outside the small group came when Kraft wrote his2001 autobiography.[30]

On July 16, 1969, Armstrong received a crescent moon carved out of Styrofoam from the pad leader, Guenter Wendt, who described it as a key to the Moon. In return, Armstrong

Neil Armstrong 10

gave Wendt a ticket for a "space taxi" "good between two planets".

Voyage to the MoonDuring the Apollo 11 launch, Armstrong's heart reached a top rate of 109 beats per minute.He found the first stage to be the loudest — much noisier than the Gemini 8 Titan II launch– and the Apollo CSM was relatively roomy compared to the confinement of the Geminicapsule. This ability to move around was suspected to be the cause of space sickness thathad hit members of previous crews, but none of the Apollo 11 crew suffered from it.Armstrong was especially happy, as he had been prone to motion sickness as a child andcould experience nausea after doing long periods of aerobatics.The objective of Apollo 11 was to land safely rather than touch down with precision on aparticular spot. Three minutes into the lunar descent burn he noted that craters werepassing about two seconds too early, which meant the Eagle would likely land beyond theplanned landing zone by several miles. As the Eagle's landing radar acquired the surface,several computer error alarms appeared. The first was a code 1202 alarm and even withtheir extensive training Armstrong or Aldrin were not aware of what this code meant.However, they promptly received word from CAPCOM in Houston that the alarms were nota concern. The 1202 and 1201 alarms were caused by a processing overflow in the lunarmodule computer. As described by Buzz Aldrin in the documentary In the Shadow of theMoon, the overflow condition was caused by his own counter-checklist choice of leaving thedocking radar on during the landing process. Aldrin stated that he did so with the objectiveof facilitating re-docking with the CM should an abort become necessary, not realizing thatit would cause the overflow condition.

Aldrin took this picture of Armstrongin the cabin after the completion of the

EVA.

Armstrong took over manual control of the LM, foundan area which to him seemed safe for a landing andtouched down on the moon at 20:17:39 UTC on July 20,1969.[31] Some accounts of the Apollo 11 landingdescribe the LM's fuel situation as having been dire,with only a few seconds remaining when they toucheddown. Armstrong had landed the LLTV with less than15 seconds left on several occasions and he was alsoconfident the LM could survive a straight-down fallfrom 50 feet (15 m) if needed. Analysis after the missionshowed that because of the moon's lower gravity, fuelhad sloshed about in the tank more than anticipated,which led to a misleadingly low indication of theremaining propellant; at touchdown there were about50 seconds of propellant burn time left.

When a sensor attached to the legs of the still hovering Lunar Module made lunar contact,a panel light inside the LM lit up and Aldrin called out, "Contact light." As the LM settled onthe surface Aldrin then said, "Okay. Engine stop," and Armstrong said, "Shutdown." Thefirst words Armstrong intentionally spoke to Mission Control and the world from the lunarsurface were, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed". Aldrin andArmstrong celebrated with a brisk handshake and pat on the back before quickly returningto the checklist of tasks needed to ready the lunar module for liftoff from the Moon shouldan emergency unfold during the first moments on the lunar surface.[32] [33] [34]

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Postage stamp commemorating Apollo 11.Armstrong is not honored "by portrayal" in

accordance with U.S. Postal Servicecriteria pertaining to postage stamps not

honoring living people.[35]

First Moon walk

thumbNeil Armstrong describes the lunar surfacebefore setting foot on it.Although the official NASAflight plan called for a crew rest period beforeextra-vehicular activity, Armstrong requested thatthe EVA be moved earlier in the evening, Houstontime. Once Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to gooutside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch wasopened and Armstrong made his way down theladder first. He placed his left foot on the surface at2:56 UTC July 21, 1969, then spoke the followingwords:

“ That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind. ”

It has long been assumed that Armstrong had mistakenly omitted the word "a" from hisfamous remark ("one small step for a man"), rendering the phrase a contradiction, as manin such use is synonymous with mankind. Armstrong is quoted as saying that he "wouldhope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that itwas certainly intended, even if it was not said – although it might actually have been."It has since been claimed that acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of themissing "a".[36] A digital audio analysis conducted by Peter Shann Ford, an Australia-basedcomputer programmer, claims that Armstrong did, in fact, say "a man", but the "a" wasinaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time.[37] [38] [39] Fordand James R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings toArmstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis.[40] The article byFord, however, is published on Ford's own web site rather than in a peer-reviewedscientific journal, and linguists David Beaver and Mark Liberman at Language Log wereskeptical of Ford's claims.[41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] Armstrong has expressed his preferencethat written quotations include the "a" in parentheses.[47]

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Armstrong prepares to take the first step on theMoon.

Armstrong's first words were declared afterhe said "I'm going to step off the LM now."He then turned and set his boot on thesurface.[48] When Armstrong made hisproclamation, Voice of America wasrebroadcast live via the BBC and manyother stations the world over. The globalaudience at that moment was estimated at450 million listeners,[49] out of a thenestimated world population of 3.631 billionpeople.[50] The simple "one small step..."statement came from a train of thoughtthat Armstrong had after launch and duringthe hours after landing.[51]

About 15 minutes after the first step, Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface and becamethe second human to set foot on the Moon. The duo began their tasks of investigating howeasily a person could operate on the lunar surface. Early on they also unveiled a plaquecommemorating their flight, and also planted the flag of the United States. The flag used onthis mission had a metal rod to hold it horizontal from its pole. Since the rod did not fullyextend, and the flag was tightly folded and packed during the journey, the flag ended upwith a slightly wavy appearance, as if there were a breeze.[52] On Earth there had beensome discussion as to whether it was appropriate to plant the flag at all, something aboutwhich Armstrong did not care. He did think that any flag should have been left to drape asit would on Earth, but decided it wasn't worth making a big deal about. Slayton had warnedArmstrong that they would receive a special communication, but did not tell him thatPresident Richard Nixon would contact them just after the flag planting.

Armstrong works at the Apollo Lunar Module in one ofthe few photos showing him during the EVA.

Aldrin later gave the flag planting andsubsequent phone call from PresidentNixon as reasons why there were nointentional photographs of Armstrong. Inthe entire Apollo 11 photographic record,there are only five images of Armstrongpartly shown or reflected. Aldrin said planswere to take a photo of Armstrong after thefamous image of Aldrin was taken, but theywere interrupted by the Nixoncommunication. There were just over fiveminutes between these two events. Themission was planned to the minute, withthe majority of photographic tasks to beperformed by Armstrong with their singleHasselblad camera.

After helping to set up the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package, Armstrong went for a walk to what is now known as East Crater, 65 yards (60 m) east of the LM, the greatest distance traveled from the LM on the mission. Armstrong's final task was to leave a small

Neil Armstrong 13

package of memorial items to deceased Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and VladimirKomarov, and Apollo 1 astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee. The timespent on EVA during Apollo 11 was about two-and-a-half hours, the shortest of any of thesix Apollo lunar landing missions. Each of the subsequent five landings were allottedgradually longer periods for EVA activities. The crew of Apollo 17, by comparison, spentover 21 hours exploring the lunar surface.

Return to EarthAfter re-entering the LM, the hatch was closed and sealed. While preparing for the liftofffrom the lunar surface, Armstrong and Aldrin discovered that in their bulky spacesuits, theyhad broken the ignition switch for the ascent engine. The ascent engine had no switch tofire. Using part of a pen, they pushed the circuit breaker in to activate the launch sequence.Aldrin still possesses the pen which they used to do this. The lunar module then continuedto its rendezvous and docked with Columbia, the command and service module, andreturned to Earth. The command module splashed down in the Pacific ocean and the Apollo11 crew was picked up by the USS Hornet (CV-12).

The Apollo 11 crew and President RichardNixon.

After being released from an 18-day quarantine toensure that they had not picked up any infections ordiseases from the Moon, the crew were feted acrossthe United States and around the world as part of a45-day "Giant Leap" tour. Armstrong then took partin Bob Hope's 1969 USO show, primarily toVietnam, where some soldiers asked questionsabout how a man could be sent to the Moon whilethey were still stuck fighting the war. Tabloidnewspapers printed stories that romantically linkedArmstrong to Connie Stevens who was also on thetour, but the reports were unsubstantiated.[53]

In May 1970, Armstrong traveled to the SovietUnion to present a talk at the 13th annualconference of the International Committee on SpaceResearch. Arriving in Leningrad from Poland, he traveled to Moscow where he met PremierAlexey Kosygin. He was the first westerner to see the supersonic Tupolev Tu-144 and wasgiven a tour of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonauts Training Center, which Armstrong describedas "a bit Victorian in nature." At the end of the day, he was surprised to view delayed videoof the launch of Soyuz 9. It had not occurred to Armstrong that the mission was takingplace, even though Valentina Tereshkova had been his host and her husband, AndriyanNikolayev, was on board.[54]

Neil Armstrong 14

Life after Apollo

Teaching

Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering atPurdue University.

Armstrong on July 16, 1999 at the KennedySpace Center.

Armstrong announced shortly after the Apollo 11flight that he did not plan to fly in space again. Hewas appointed Deputy Associate Administrator foraeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research andTechnology (DARPA). He served in this position foronly 13 months, and resigned from it and NASA as awhole in August 1971. He accepted a teachingposition in the Department of AerospaceEngineering at the University of Cincinnati.

He decided on Cincinnati over other universities,including his alma mater, Purdue University,because it had a small Aerospace department – hehoped that the faculty members would not beannoyed that he came straight into a professorshipwithout a doctorate. His highest qualification was aMaster's in aerospace engineering from theUniversity of Southern California.[55] He began thework while stationed at Edwards years before, andhe finally completed it after Apollo 11 by presentinga report on various aspects of Apollo, instead of athesis on simulation of hypersonic flight. The officialjob title he received at Cincinnati was UniversityProfessor of Aerospace Engineering. After teachingfor eight years, he resigned in 1979 due to othercommitments and changes in the universitystructure from independent municipal school tostate-school.[56]

NASA accident investigationsArmstrong served on two spaceflight accidentinvestigations. The first was in 1970, after Apollo13. As part of Edgar Cortwright's panel, heproduced a detailed chronology of the flight.Armstrong personally opposed the report's recommendation to re-design the servicemodule's oxygen tanks, the source of the explosion.[57] In 1986 President Ronald Reaganappointed him to the Rogers Commission, which investigated the Space Shuttle Challengerdisaster of that year. As vice-chairman, Armstrong was in charge of the operational side ofthe commission.[58]

Neil Armstrong 15

Business activitiesAfter Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971, he avoided offers from businesses to act as aspokesman. The first company to successfully approach him was Chrysler, for whom heappeared in advertising starting in January 1979. Armstrong thought they had a strongengineering division, plus they were in financial difficulty. He acted as a spokesman forother companies, including General Time Corporation and the Bankers Association ofAmerica. He only acts as a spokesman for United States businesses.[59]

Along with spokesman duties, he also served on the board of directors of severalcompanies, including Marathon Oil, Learjet, Cincinnati Gas & Electric Company, TaftBroadcasting, United Airlines, Eaton Corporation, AIL Systems, and Thiokol. He joinedThiokol's board after he served on the Rogers Commission; Challenger was destroyed dueto a problem with the Thiokol-manufactured Solid Rocket Boosters. He retired as chairmanof the board of EDO Corporation in 2002.[60]

Personal lifeThe first man to walk on the Moon was also approached by political groups from both endsof the spectrum. Unlike former astronauts and United States Senators John Glenn andHarrison Schmitt, Armstrong has turned down all offers. Personally, he is in favor of states'rights and against the United States acting as the "world's policeman."[61] In 1971,Armstrong was awarded the Sylvanus Thayer Award by the United States Military Academyat West Point for his service to the country.In 1972, Armstrong was welcomed into the town of Langholm, Scotland, the traditional seatof Clan Armstrong. The astronaut was made the first freeman of the burgh, and happilydeclared the town his home. The Justice of the Peace read from an unrepealed 400-year-oldlaw that required him to hang any Armstrong found in the town.[62]

In the fall of 1979, Armstrong was working at his farm near Lebanon, Ohio. As he jumpedoff of the back of his grain truck, his wedding ring caught in the wheel, tearing off his ringfinger. However, he calmly collected the severed digit, packed it in ice, and managed tohave it reattached by microsurgeons at the Jewish Hospital in Louisville, Kentucky.[63]

While skiing with friends at Aspen, Colorado in February 1991, he suffered a mild heartattack. It came a year after his father had died and nine months after the death of hismother.

Neil Armstrong 16

Quincy Jones presents platinum copies of "Fly Me tothe Moon" (from It Might as Well Be Swing) to Neil

Armstrong and Senator John Glenn.

Armstrong's first wife of 38 years, Janet,divorced him in 1994. [64] . He met hissecond wife, Carol Held Knight, in 1992 ata golf tournament. Seated together at thebreakfast, she said little to Armstrong, buta couple of weeks later, she received a callfrom him asking what she was doing. Shereplied she was cutting down a cherry tree,and 35 minutes later Armstrong was at herhouse to help out. They were married onJune 12, 1994 in Ohio, and then had asecond ceremony at San Ysidro Ranch inCalifornia.

Since 1994, Armstrong has refused allrequests for autographs, after he found that his signed items were selling for large amountsof money and that many forgeries are in circulation. Often items reach prices of US$1,000on auction sites like eBay. Signed photographs of the Apollo 11 crew can sell for $5,000.Any requests sent to him receive a form letter in reply saying that he has stopped signing.Although his no-autograph policy is well-known, author Andrew Smith observed people atthe 2002 Reno Air Races still try to get signatures, with one person even claiming, "If youshove something close enough in front of his face, he'll sign."[65] Along with autographs, hehas stopped sending out congratulatory letters to new Eagle Scouts. The reason is that hethinks these letters should come from people who know the Scout personally.[66]

Usage of Armstrong's name, image, and famous quote has caused him problems over theyears. He sued Hallmark Cards in 1994 after they used his name and a recording of "onesmall step" quote in a Christmas ornament without permission. The lawsuit was settled outof court for an undisclosed amount of money which Armstrong donated to Purdue. The casecaused Armstrong and NASA to be more careful about the usage of astronaut names,photographs and recordings, and to whom he has granted permission. For non-profit andgovernment public-service announcements, he will usually give permission.In May 2005 Armstrong became involved in an unusual legal battle with his barber of 20years, Marx Sizemore. After cutting Armstrong's hair, Sizemore sold some of it to acollector for $3,000 without Armstrong's knowledge or permission. Armstrong threatenedlegal action unless the barber returned the hair or donated the proceeds to a charity ofArmstrong's choosing. Sizemore, unable to get the hair back, decided to donate theproceeds to the charity of Armstrong's choice.[67]

Some of Armstrong's ancestors come from Ballygawley, County Tyrone in NorthernIreland.[68]

Neil Armstrong 17

Legacy

Michael Collins, President George W. Bush,Armstrong, and Aldrin in the White House Oval Office

during celebrations of the 35th anniversary of theApollo 11 flight, July 21, 2004

Armstrong and presidential dog Barney in the WhiteHouse Garden Room, July 2004

Armstrong has received many honors andawards, including the Presidential Medal ofFreedom, the Congressional Space Medalof Honor, the Robert H. Goddard MemorialTrophy, the Sylvanus Thayer Award, andthe Collier Trophy from the NationalAeronautics Association. The lunar craterArmstrong, 50 km (31 miles) from theApollo 11 landing site, and asteroid 6469Armstrong[69] are named in his honor.Armstrong was also inducted into theAerospace Walk of Honor and theAstronaut Hall of Fame.

Throughout the United States, there aremore than a dozen elementary, middle andhigh schools named in his honor.[70] Manyplaces around the world have streets,buildings, schools, and other places namedfor Armstrong and/or Apollo.[71] In 1969,folk songwriter and singer John Stewartrecorded "Armstrong", a tribute toArmstrong and his first steps on the moon.

Purdue University announced in October2004 that their new engineering buildingwould be named Neil Armstrong Hall ofEngineering in his honor.[72] The buildingcost $53.2 million and was dedicated onOctober 27, 2007. Armstrong was joined byfourteen other Purdue Astronauts at the ceremony.[73] The Neil Armstrong Air and SpaceMuseum is located in his hometown of Wapakoneta, Ohio, although it has no official ties toArmstrong, and the airport in New Knoxville where he took his first flying lessons is namedfor him.[74]

Armstrong's authorized biography, First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong, was publishedin 2005. For many years, Armstrong turned down biography offers from authors such asStephen Ambrose and James A. Michener. He agreed to work with James R. Hansen afterreading one of Hansen's other biographies.[75]

The press often asks Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005,Armstrong said that a manned mission to Mars will be easier than the lunar challenge ofthe 1960s: "I suspect that even though the various questions are difficult and many, theyare not as difficult and many as those we faced when we started the Apollo [space program]in 1961." Armstrong also recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission. He hadbelieved there was only a 50 percent chance of landing on the moon. "I was elated, ecstaticand extremely surprised that we were successful", he said.

Neil Armstrong 18

See also•  Space accidents and incidents•  Mission Control Center•  Project Mercury•  Space Shuttle program•  List of Eagle Scouts (Boy Scouts of America)

Bibliography•  Hansen, James R. (2005). First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong. Simon & Schuster.

ISBN 0-7432-5631-X.•  Kranz, Gene (2000). Failure is not an Option: Mission Control From Mercury to Apollo 13

and Beyond. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0079-9.•  Andrew Smith (2005). In Search of the Men Who Fell to Earth: Moondust. Bloomsbury.

ISBN 0-7475-6368-3.•  Francis French and Colin Burgess (2007). In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging

Journey to Tranquility, 1965-1969.•  Thompson, Milton (April 1992). At The Edge Of Space: The X-15 Flight Program.

Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1-56098-107-5.•  Sherrod, Robert (1975-07-30). "Men for the Moon" [76]. Apollo Expeditions to the Moon.

NASA. http:/ / history. nasa. gov/ SP-350/ toc. html.•  Jones, Eric (1995). "One Small Step" [77]. Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal. NASA. http:/ /

www. hq. nasa. gov/ office/ pao/ History/ alsj/ a11/ a11. step. html. Retrieved on2007-08-28.

•  Cornish, Scott; Rahman, Tahir, McLeon, Bob, Havekotte, Ken, Reznikoff, John. "NeilArmstrong Signature Exemplars" [78]. CollectSpace.com. http:/ / www. collectspace. com/resources/ autographs_armstrong. html. Retrieved on 2007-08-28.

•  Cambridge Biographical Dictionary (1990). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

External links•  Neil Armstrong's Official NASA Biography [79]

•  Neil Armstrong Honored as an Ambassador of Exploration [80]

•  Book New Yorker [81]

•  Cosmos magazine, October 2006 [82]

•  Neil Armstrong- U.S. Spaceflight History Biography [83]

Preceded byEllsworth Bunker

Sylvanus Thayer Award recipient1971

Succeeded byBilly Graham

arz:جنورتسمرا لين

Neil Armstrong 19

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[5]   (http:/ / www. kkpsi. org/ prominentmembers. asp) Kappa Kappa Psi website[6]  Hansen, p. 55.[7]  Hansen, ch. 7.[8]  Hansen ch. 8.[9]  Hansen, ch. 9.[10]  Hansen, page 112.[11]  Hansen, p. 118.[12]  Hansen, p. 61.[13]  Hansen, pages 124–127.[14]  Hansen, p. 128.[15]  Hansen ch. 14.[16]  Hansen, ch. 11.[17]  Hansen, page 145.[18]  Hansen, p. 173.[19]  Hansen, pages 178–184.[20]  Hansen, pages 184–189.[21]  Hansen, pages 138–139.[22]  Hansen, pages 189–192.[23]  Hansen, page 195.[24]  Hansen, p. 203.[25]  Hansen, p. 201–202.[26]  Hansen, ch. 19.[27]  Kranz, p. 174.[28]  Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey (2000). Apollo 13. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 24–25. ISBN

0-618-05665-3.[29]  Expeditions to the Moon, chapter 8, p. 7.[30]  Hansen, chapter 25.[31]  Jones, Eric M.. "The First Lunar Landing, time 109:24:48" (http:/ / www. history. nasa.

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Neil Armstrong 20

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[37]  Ford, Peter Shann (2006-09-17). "Electronic Evidence and Physiological ReasoningIdentifying the Elusive Vowel "a" in Neil Armstrong's Statement on First Stepping ontothe Lunar Surface" (http:/ / www. collectspace. com/ news/ news-100306a. html) (reprint).CollectSpace.com. http:/ / www. collectspace. com/ news/ news-100306a. html. Retrievedon 2007-08-28.

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[40]  Smith, Veronica (2006-10-02). "Armstrong's Moon landing speech rewritten" (http:/ /www. cosmosmagazine. com/ node/ 717). Cosmos Magazine. Agence France-Presse.http:/ / www. cosmosmagazine. com/ node/ 717. Retrieved on 2007-08-29.

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[42]  Language Log. "One 75-millisecond step before a "man"" (http:/ / itre. cis. upenn. edu/~myl/ languagelog/ archives/ 003632. html). http:/ / itre. cis. upenn. edu/ %7Emyl/languagelog/ archives/ 003632. html.

[43]  Language Log. "Armstrong's abbreviated article: the smoking gun?" (http:/ / itre. cis.upenn. edu/ ~myl/ languagelog/ archives/ 003634. html). http:/ / itre. cis. upenn. edu/~myl/ languagelog/ archives/ 003634. html.

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[45]  Language Log. "First Korean on the moon!" (http:/ / itre. cis. upenn. edu/ ~myl/languagelog/ archives/ 003639. html). http:/ / itre. cis. upenn. edu/ ~myl/ languagelog/archives/ 003639. html.

[46]  Language Log. "What Neil Armstrong said" (http:/ / itre. cis. upenn. edu/ ~myl/languagelog/ archives/ 003645. html). http:/ / itre. cis. upenn. edu/ ~myl/ languagelog/archives/ 003645. html.

[47]  Carreau, Mark (2006-09-29). "High-tech analysis may rewrite space history" (http:/ /www. chron. com/ disp/ story. mpl/ front/ 4225505. html). Houston Chronicle. http:/ /www. chron. com/ disp/ story. mpl/ front/ 4225505. html. Retrieved on 2006-09-30.

Neil Armstrong 21

[48]  David Harland Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions. 1999, ISBN1-85233-099-6

[49]  Alan L. Heil. Voice of America: A History. 2003, ISBN 0-231-12674-3[50]  "Information Please world statistics" (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ year/ 1969. html).

http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ year/ 1969. html. Retrieved on 2007-10-02.[51]  Hansen, James (2006-10-03). "Armstrong's Abbreviated Article: Notes from the

Expert" (http:/ / itre. cis. upenn. edu/ ~myl/ languagelog/ archives/ 003635. html).Language Log. http:/ / itre. cis. upenn. edu/ %7Emyl/ languagelog/ archives/ 003635. html.Retrieved on 2007-08-28.

[52]  Greene, Nick. "A Lunar Odyssey" (http:/ / space. about. com/ cs/ missions/ a/apollo11_3. htm). Apollo 11 Mission. About.com. 3. http:/ / space. about. com/ cs/missions/ a/ apollo11_3. htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-28.

[53]  Hansen, pages 566–582.[54]  Hansen, pages 582–584.[55]   "Apollo 11 Crew Information" (http:/ / www. hq. nasa. gov/ alsj/ a11/ a11. crew. html).

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[56]  Hansen, pages 590–594.[57]  Hansen, pages 60–603.[58]  Hansen, pages 610–616.[59]  Hansen, pages 595–596.[60]  EDO Corporation (2000-02-08). EDO Corporation CEO James M. Smith to become

Chairman upon retirement of Neil A. Armstrong (http:/ / www. edocorp. com/ pr2002/02r0208. htm). Press release. http:/ / www. edocorp. com/ pr2002/ 02r0208. htm.Retrieved on 2006-07-01.

[61]  Hansen, pages 600–601.[62]  Hansen, p. 13.[63]  Sawyer, Kathy (1999-07-11). "Armstrong's Code" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/

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[64]  CBS News web site (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2005/ 11/ 03/ 60minutes/main1008288_page3. shtml)

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Neil Armstrong 22

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[72]  Holsapple, Matt (2004-10-16). "Purdue launching Neil Armstrong Hall forengineering's future" (http:/ / news. uns. purdue. edu/ html3month/ 2004/ 041016.Jischke. Armstrong. html). Purdue University News. Purdue University. http:/ / news. uns.purdue. edu/ html3month/ 2004/ 041016. Jischke. Armstrong. html. Retrieved on2007-08-28.

[73]  Venere, Emil (2007-10-27). "Neil Armstrong Hall is new home to Purdue engineering"(http:/ / news. uns. purdue. edu/ x/ 2007b/ 071027CelArmstrongDedication. html). PurdueUniversity News. Purdue University. http:/ / news. uns. purdue. edu/ x/ 2007b/071027CelArmstrongDedication. html. Retrieved on 2008-01-05.

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[76]  http:/ / history. nasa. gov/ SP-350/ toc. html[77]  http:/ / www. hq. nasa. gov/ office/ pao/ History/ alsj/ a11/ a11. step. html[78]  http:/ / www. collectspace. com/ resources/ autographs_armstrong. html[79]  http:/ / www. jsc. nasa. gov/ Bios/ htmlbios/ armstrong-na. html[80]  http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ vision/ space/ features/

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Neil Armstrong 23

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License 24

LicenseVersion 1.2, November 2002 Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 51 Franklin St, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA Everyone is permitted to copyand distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

0. PREAMBLEThe purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyonethe effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this Licensepreserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others. This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements theGNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software. We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program shouldcome with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for anytextual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purposeis instruction or reference.

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed underthe terms of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions statedherein. The "Document", below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept thelicense if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law. A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/ortranslated into another language. A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers orauthors of the Document to the Document's overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject.(Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matterof historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them. The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that theDocument is released under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant.The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none. The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Documentis released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specification is available to the general public,that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (fordrawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formatssuitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged tothwart or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount oftext. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque". Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML usinga publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of transparent imageformats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGMLor XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by someword processors for output purposes only. The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this Licenserequires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means the text near the most prominentappearance of the work's title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text. A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text thattranslates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements", "Dedications","Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title" of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ"according to this definition. The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimersare considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these WarrantyDisclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning of this License.

2. VERBATIM COPYING You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices,and the license notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever tothose of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute.However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions insection 3. You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display copies.

3. COPYING IN QUANTITY If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document'slicense notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on thefront cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The frontcover must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copyingwith changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying inother respects. If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover,and continue the rest onto adjacent pages. If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copyalong with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general network-using public hasaccess to download using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latteroption, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy willremain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents orretailers) of that edition to the public. It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them achance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

4. MODIFICATIONS You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the ModifiedVersion under precisely this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of theModified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version: A.  Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there

were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of that versiongives permission.

B.  List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, togetherwith at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you from thisrequirement.

C.  State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher.D.  Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.E.  Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices.F.  Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this

License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.G.  Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.H.  Include an unaltered copy of this License.I.  Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the

Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, andpublisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.

License 25

J.  Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the networklocations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" section. You may omit a networklocation for a work that was published at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to givespermission.

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5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions,provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as InvariantSections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers. The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there aremultiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, inparentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the sectiontitles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work. In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewisecombine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements."

6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of thisLicense in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatimcopying of each of the documents in all other respects. You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License intothe extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distributionmedium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyondwhat the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate whichare not themselves derivative works of the Document. If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entireaggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of coversif the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.

8. TRANSLATION Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing InvariantSections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections inaddition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document,and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices anddisclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version willprevail. If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) willtypically require changing the actual title.

9. TERMINATION You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify,sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have receivedcopies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will besimilar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http:/ / www. gnu. org/ copyleft/ .Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License "orany later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that hasbeen published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose anyversion ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

How to use this License for your documents To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license noticesjust after the title page: Copyright (c) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU FreeDocumentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts,and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the "with...Texts." line with this: with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation. If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free softwarelicense, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software.