INDEX[See also the detailed TABLE OF CONTENTS]

ABUSEprocess, of, 642victim of, 514

ACCESSIBLElaw must be, 35

ACCESSORIES AFTER THE FACTauthor’s comments, 688generally, 685

ACTUS REUSaiding and abetting, 666attempts

author’s comments, 707existing tests, 700generally, 700

commission, act ofambiguously defined, 86generally, 86status offences, 91

consequences, causingcausation principles, codifying, 169causation rules, 144cause

factual, 154imputable, 157

code homicide causation rules, 144confusion, 151factual cause, 154generally, 142imputable cause, 157independent actors, 164Nette, 151principles, codifying, 169rationale, 143reconsideration, 151Smithers test

challenging, 147generally, 146

definitionambiguous, 86generally, 82

generally, 81

836 INDEX

ACTUS REUS — continuedhuman being, by, 108omission, act of

author’s comments, 105definition, 95existing law, 97generally, 95necessaries of life, to provide, 102

requirement of an act, 81voluntary

author’s comments, 140generally, 109intoxication, 136rationale, 113restrictions

generally, 117insanity, 117intoxication, voluntary, 136negligence, 138

AGE INCAPACITYchildren, special crimes for, 405rules of, 409

AGGRAVATED ASSAULTpredicate offences, 301

AIDING AND ABETTINGactus reus, 666generally, 666mens rea, 670special rules, 673

AIR OF REALITYconsent, mistaken belief in, 319excuse, 507justification, 507mistake of fact, 319provocation, 592

ASSAULTaggravated, 301causing bodily harm, 301predicate offences, 298sexual

consent, defence of, 616consent, mistaken belief in, 326mistake of fact, 326

INDEX 837

ATTEMPTED CRIMESabandonment of law re, 711actus reus

author’s comments, 707existing tests, 700generally, 700

combining, 747desistance, voluntary, 712generally, 695, 716impossible, 714mens rea, 696penalty, 717rationale, 695

AUTHORITY, PROTECTING PERSONS INchildren, discipline of, 546offence, to commit, 544physical discipline, 546, 552protection of persons in, 546ship, discipline aboard a, 552surgery, 553

AWARENESS — see KNOWLEDGE, MENS REA

BEARD RULESdegree of, 470incapacity or intent in fact, 468intoxication generally, 459specific intent, 462

BIKERScriminal organizations, 765

CAUSE/CAUSATIONcode homicide, 144confusion, 151consequences generally, 142death — see DEATH, CAUSINGfactual, 154imputable, 157independent actors, 164Nette, 151principles, codifying, 169rationale, 143reconsideration, 151rules, 144Smithers test

challenging, 147generally, 146

838 INDEX

CERTAINlaw must be

ideal, as an, 21imperative, as a constitutional, 27overbreadth, 27vagueness, 27

CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMSconsent, mistaken belief in, 348demonstrably justified reasonable limits, 18dialogue with Parliament, 15due diligence

liberty interests, threats to, 206minimum, 206qualified, not to be, 212reverse onus, 213security interests, threats to, 211

fault — see standards re faultgenerally, 14impact on criminal justice, 18mistaken belief in consent, challenges re, 348moral involuntariness as standard under, 502new defences under, 497public welfare offences — see due diligencepurposeful interpretation, 14standards re fault — see also due diligence

constructive murder, 217, 225first degree murder, 225foresight of harm, 229generally, 217intentional conduct vs. negligence, 228marked departure, 229moral involuntariness, 502negligence vs. intentional conduct, 228objective crimes, 229predicate offences, 229punishment, 226, 228subjective awareness required, 226

CHILDRENage incapacity, rules of, 409disciplining, 546immaturity generally, 405infanticide, 605physical discipline of, 546special crimes for, 405

COERCION — see DURESS

INDEX 839

COLOUR OF RIGHT, 379

COMMISSION, ACT OFactus reus

ambiguously defined, 86generally, 86status offences, 91

COMMON INTENT, DOCTRINE OFcommission of offence, 683common purpose, 679, 683generally, 677, 679knowledge of commission of offence, 682parties generally, 677probable commission of offence, 682

COMPLICITY, 684

COMPULSION — see DURESS

CONFUSIONcausation and, 151consequences and, 151

CONSENTdefence of

author’s comments, 638death, to, 623express, 613fraud, vitiated by, 627generally, 611given freely, 624implied, 613informed, 615juristic nature, 611nature of offence, not excluded by, 624“no means no”, codifying, 616policy considerations, vitiated by, 634sexual assault, 616subjectively determined, 613

mistaken belief inair of reality test, 319Charter challenges, 348Ewanchuk limits, 337, 343generally, 319honest belief, 323reasonable steps, duty to take, 332sexual assault and, 326

840 INDEX

CONSEQUENCES, CAUSINGactus reus generally, 142causation principles, codifying, 169causation rules, 144cause

factual, 154imputable, 157

code homicide causation rules, 144confusion, 151factual cause, 154imputable cause, 157independent actors, 164Nette, 151principles, codifying, 169rationale, 143reconsideration, 151Smithers test

challenging, 147generally, 146

CONSPIRACYabolition of, 720combining, 747common law, 717, 720desistance, voluntary, 741doctrine

agents provocateurs, 733agreement, 722common purpose, 722companies, one-person, 733generally, 721persons, two or more, 731purpose, prohibited

generally, 734indictable offence, 736summary conviction offence, 736

restricting, 739spouses, 732

history, 717impossible, 741incomplete crimes generally, 717legislation, 718merger, 742specialized, 743

CONSTRUCTIVE LIABILITY, 299

CONSTRUCTIVE MANSLAUGHTER, 299

INDEX 841

CONSTRUCTIVE MENS REA, 489

CONSTRUCTIVE MURDER, 217, 225

CORPORATE CULTURE, 761

CORPORATIONSapplying general principles to, 758author’s comments

corporate culture, shift focus to, 761directors, special standards for, 763generally, 761

common law, 751corporate culture, 761Criminal Code provisions, recent, 764directors, 763generally, 751United Kingdom, 755United States, 757

COUNSELLINGauthor’s comments, 747combining, 747commission of offence, 675incomplete crimes generally, 745

CRIMINAL CODEconspiracy, 734corporations, recent provisions re, 764history, 1, 2, 78indictable offence, 736insanity defence, 424section 16

disease of the mind, 428generally, 424incapacity to appreciate nature and quality of act/omission, 433incapacity to know conduct was wrong, 437juristic nature, 441onus, 426

section 34, 510section 465(1), 734, 736self-defence, 510summary conviction offence, 736

CRIMINAL ORGANIZATIONSauthor’s comments, 771bikers, 765gangsterism, 766, 771generally, 765Manitoba Warriors trial, 769

842 INDEX

CRIMINAL ORGANIZATIONS — continuedparticipation in, 766street gangs, 769

CRIMINOLOGY, 55

DAVIAULT DEFENCEabolition of, 483generally, 477

DEATH, CAUSINGcode homicide causation rules, 144consent to, 623constructive manslaughter, 299homicide causation rules, 144infanticide, 605murder

constructive, 217, 225deliberate, 273first degree, 225planned, 273provocation defence, 581

DEFENCESconsent

author’s comments, 638death, to, 623express, 613fraud, vitiated by, 627generally, 611given freely, 624implied, 613informed, 615juristic nature, 611nature of offence, not excluded by, 624“no means no”, codifying, 616policy considerations, vitiated by, 634sexual assault, 616subjectively determined, 613

dispensing powersde minimis non curat lex, 656discharges, 654generally, 654

entrapmentabuse of process, stay as, 642author’s comments, 652burden of proof, 651generally, 638mitigating sentence, 651

INDEX 843

DEFENCES — continuedstandard of proof, 651stay as abuse of process, 642substantive requirements, 645trial judge, matter for, 650United States, defence in, 639

excuse — see EXCUSEgenerally, 611immaturity — see IMMATURITYincapacity — see INCAPACITYinsanity — see INSANITYintoxication — see INTOXICATIONjustification — see JUSTIFICATIONmental disorder — see INSANITYunfit to stand trial — see INCAPACITY

DEPARTURECharter and, 229correct, failing to, 402danger, failing to correct, 402innocent act, intent superimposed upon, 401intent, superimposing, 401intoxication for purpose of crime, 403marked, 229, 286, 293negligence offences, 404objective crimes, 286, 293series of acts as single transaction, treating, 402simultaneous principle and, 401substantial, 293

DIRECTORScorporate, 763

DISPENSING POWERSde minimis non curat lex, 656discharges, 654generally, 654

DIVERSION, 71

DRUNKEN MENS REA, 489

DUE DILIGENCEauthor’s comments re, 303public welfare offences

Charter standard, 206 — see also due diligence, standard ofgenerally, 181real vs. regulatory offences, 205Sault Ste. Marie

absolute liability, 198

844 INDEX

DUE DILIGENCE — continuedapplying, 199decision, 189half-way house approach, 194offences, classification of, 192prior to, 181

standard ofliberty interests, threats to, 206low, 303minimum, 206qualified, not to be, 212reverse onus, 213security interests, threats to, 211

DURESSauthor’s comments, 533belief of accused, 531conspiracy, whether party to, 533defence generally, 521escape, no safe avenue of, 531excluded offences, 525proportionality, 531threat, nature of, 528

ENTRAPMENTabuse of process, stay as, 642author’s comments, 652burden of proof, 651generally, 638mitigating sentence, 651standard of proof, 651stay as abuse of process, 642substantive requirements, 645trial judge, matter for, 650United States, defence in, 639

ERRONEOUS STATEMENT OF LAW, 383

EWANCHUK LIMITS, 337, 343

EXCUSEair of reality, 507Charter

defences under, new, 497moral involuntariness as standard, 502

defencesadministering the law, protection of persons, 538authority

children, discipline of, 546

INDEX 845

EXCUSE — continuedoffence, to commit, 544physical discipline, 546, 552protection of persons in, 546ship, discipline aboard a, 552surgery, 553

Charter, under the, 497common law, at, 497duress

author’s comments, 533belief of accused, 531conspiracy, whether party to, 533escape, no safe avenue of, 531excluded offences, 525generally, 521proportionality, 531threat, nature of, 528

enforcing the law, protection of persons, 538excuse, reasonable, 544impossibility — see necessityindividual generally, of, 509moral involuntariness, 502murder — see partialnecessity

generally, 557, 569generous defence, a more, 578impossibility defence, separate from, 573Latimer, 563Morgentaler, 560Perka, 557residual defence of, 574

orders, following or obeying, 609partial

cumulative effect on intent, 604diminished responsibility, 600excessive force, 602generally, 580infanticide, 605intent, cumulative effect on, 604intoxication, voluntary, 600provocation

act, wrongful, 583air of reality, 592anger alone, 581extenuating circumstances, 596generally, 580immediacy of response, 591

846 INDEX

EXCUSE — continuedinsult, wrongful, 583murder only, 581response to provocation, acting in, 590self-control, loss of, 584suddenness of response, 591voluntariness and, 581

rolled up charge, 604person, of

abuse, victims of, 514complexity of rules, 510section 34, 510umbrella approach, 510

prank, 608property, of, 520protection of persons in authority — see authorityself-defence — see person of

generally, 497justification, distinguished from, 499moral involuntariness, 502objective, 505onus of proof, 507principle of, 499putative, 506subjective, 505

FAULT — see also MENS REA, NEGLIGENCEauthor’s comments

deficiencies as a basis for lawcodified definitions needed, 305due diligence, low standard of, 303generally, 303objective standards, need for further restricted, 304standard, guidelines needed for fault, 308

generally, 308categories

generally, 232objective crimes

criminal negligence, 293express, 285implied, 285incapacity, 289individual factors, 289individualised objective standards, 282marked departure, requirement of, 286, 293substantial departure, 293

predicate offences, crimes based on

INDEX 847

FAULT — continuedaggravated assault, 301assault causing bodily harm, 301constructive liability, 299constructive manslaughter, 299generally, 298limited fault required, 298

subjective mens rea, 233deliberate murder, 273dishonesty, 268express, 233foresight of consequences, 268implied, 233indirect intent/knowledge, 249intent, 242, 244, 249, 271knowledge, 242, 249knowledge of wrongness, 268motive, 244murder, planned and deliberate, 273planned murder, 273policy favouring, 242recklessness, defined, 256recklessness, extension to, 251specific intent, 271states of mind, 268transferred malice, 278United Kingdom courts, 265wilful blindness, 261

Charter standards, 217constructive murder, 217, 225first degree murder, 225foresight of harm, 229intentional conduct vs. negligence, 228marked departure, 229negligence vs. intentional conduct, 228objective crimes, 229predicate offences, 229punishment, 226, 228subjective awareness required, 226

crimes, generally for, 217mistake of fact and, 311requirement of, 171

FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES, 75

FITNESS TO STAND TRIALincapacity generally, 419mental disorder, unfitness due to, 422

848 INDEX

GANGSTERISM, 766, 771

GROUP RESPONSIBILITYcorporations

applying general principles to, 758author’s comments

corporate culture, shift focus to, 761directors, special standards for, 763generally, 761

common law, 751Criminal Code provisions, recent, 764generally, 751United Kingdom, 755United States, 757

criminal organizationsauthor’s comments, 771bikers, 765, 769gangsterism, 766, 771generally, 765Manitoba Warriors trial, 769participation in, 766

generally, 751terrorist groups

9/11 Attacks, 775generally, 775offences, new, 778terrorism defined, 776three-year review, 782

GUILTY BUT INTOXICATED, 494

HISTORYCriminal Code, 1, 2, 78criminal law sources

Charter of Rights and Freedomsdialogue with Parliament, 15demonstrably justified reasonable limits, 18generally, 14impact on criminal justice, 18purposeful interpretation, 14

judge-made, 9statutory, 8

criminology, 55diversion, 71evidentiary context

contrasting issues, 52generally, 42offences, classification of, 53

INDEX 849

HISTORY — continuedpresumption of innocence, 42substantive issues, 52

feminist perspectives, 75nullum crimen sine lege, nulla poena sine lege

accessibility, 35certainty

ideal, as an, 21imperative, as a constitutional, 27overbreadth, 27vagueness, 27

generally, 20non-retroactivity, 36presumption favouring liberty, 38strict construction, 38

penal sanctions, restraint with, 59procedural context

contrasting issues, 52generally, 42offences, classification of, 53presumption of innocence, 42substantive issues, 52

restorative justice, 71sentencing

aims, 64principles, 64

victims’ rights, 72

IGNORANCEfact, of, 311

distinguishing from mistakes of law, 393fault, question of, 311generally, 312materiality, 353objective, 313 — see also subjective vs. objectivesubjective vs. objective

air of reality test, 319Canadian view, 316Charter challenges, 348consent, mistaken belief in, 319Ewanchuk limits, 337, 343generally, 313honest belief, 323reasonable steps, duty to take, 332sexual assault and, 326UK law, 313

generally, 311

850 INDEX

IGNORANCE — continuedlaw, of

distinguishing from mistakes of fact, 393general rule

colour of right, 379erroneous statement of law, 383exceptions, 374generally, 366impossibility, 374incapacity, 393non-publication, 374rationale, 367reliance on law, 383

generally, 366omissions and, 398

IMMATURITYage incapacity, rules of, 409children, special crimes for, 405incapacity generally, 405

IMPOSSIBILITY — see also NECESSITYattempts and, 714conspiracies and, 741mistake of law, 374necessity, separate from, 573

INCAPACITYfault and, 289fitness to stand trial

generally, 419mental disorder, unfitness due to, 422

immaturityage incapacity, rules of, 409children, special crimes for, 405generally, 405

insanityalternatives re disposition, limited, 416civil commitment procedures, dangers of, 415defence of

author’s comments, 446disease of the mind, 428evidence negating mens rea, 441generally, 423incapacity to appreciate nature and quality of act/omission, 433incapacity to know conduct was wrong, 437juristic nature, 441onus, 426

INDEX 851

INCAPACITY — continuedsection 16, 424

generally, 411psychiatry, limits of, 411unfitness to stand trial, 422

intoxicationauthor’s comments

constructive mens rea, 489drunken mens rea, 489generally, 488guilty but intoxicated, verdict of, 494independent offence, 491mens rea determinations, allow for, 488negligence, not allow for, 488special verdict akin to insanity, 490

automatism, akin to, 477Daviault defence

abolition of, 483generally, 477

degrees of, 487generally, 458insanity, akin to, 477specific intent crimes, defence to

degree of, 470generally, 459incapacity or intent in fact, 468specific intent, 462

specific vs. general intent, 473mistake of law and, 393nature of act/omission, knowing, 443objective mens rea and, 289quality of act/omission, knowing, 433wrongness of conduct, knowing, 437

INCOMPLETE CRIMESattempts

abandonment of law of, 711actus reus

author’s comments, 707existing tests, 700generally, 700

desistance, voluntary, 712generally, 695, 716impossible, 714mens rea, 696penalty, 717rationale, 695

852 INDEX

INCOMPLETE CRIMES — continuedcombining, 747conspiracy

abolition of, 720common law, 717, 720desistance, voluntary, 741doctrine

agents provocateurs, 733agreement, 722common purpose, 722companies, one-person, 733generally, 721indictable offence, 736persons, two or more, 731purpose, prohibited, 734restricting, 739spouses, 732summary conviction offence, 736

generally, 717history, 717impossible, 741legislation, 718merger, 742specialized, 743

counsellingauthor’s comments, 747generally, 745

generally, 695

INDEPENDENT ACTORS/ACTIONScausation and, 164consequences and, 164

INSANITYalternatives re disposition, limited, 416civil commitment procedures, dangers of, 415defence of

author’s comments, 446evidence negating mens rea, 441generally, 423section 16

disease of the mind, 428generally, 424incapacity to appreciate nature and quality of act/omission, 433incapacity to know conduct was wrong, 437juristic nature, 441onus, 426

incapacity generally, 411

INDEX 853

INSANITY — continuedintoxication and, 477, 490psychiatry, limits of, 411unfitness to stand trial, 422verdict re intoxication, 490voluntariness, restriction on, 117

INTENT / INTENTIONALBeard rules — see specific intent crimescommon, doctrine of

commission of offence, 683common purpose, 679, 683generally, 677, 679knowledge of commission of offence, 682parties generally, 677probable commission of offence, 682

conduct distinguished from negligence, 228cumulative effect on, 604indirect, 249innocent act, superimposing on, 401specific intent crimes

degree of, 470general intent distinguished, 473generally, 271, 459incapacity or intent in fact, 468specific intent, 462

subjective mens rea, 242, 244, 249, 271superimposing on innocent act, 401

INTOXICATIONauthor’s comments

constructive mens rea, 489drunken mens rea, 489generally, 488guilty but intoxicated, verdict of, 494independent offence, 491mens rea determinations, allow for, 488negligence, not allow for, 488special verdict akin to insanity, 490

automatism, akin to, 477Daviault defence

abolition of, 483generally, 477

degrees of, 487incapacity generally, 458insanity, akin to, 477purpose, for criminal, 403specific intent crimes, defence to

854 INDEX

INTOXICATION — continueddegree of, 470generally, 459incapacity or intent in fact, 468specific intent, 462

specific vs. general intent, 473voluntary

actus reus, restrictions re, 136partial defence, 600

JUSTIFICATIONSair of reality, 507Charter

defences under, new, 497moral involuntariness as standard, 502

defencesadministering the law, protection of persons, 538authority

children, discipline of, 546offence, to commit, 544physical discipline, 546, 552protection of persons in, 546ship, discipline aboard a, 552surgery, 553

Charter, under the, 497common law, at, 497duress

author’s comments, 533belief of accused, 531conspiracy, whether party to, 533escape, no safe avenue of, 531excluded offences, 525generally, 521proportionality, 531threat, nature of, 528

enforcing the law, protection of persons, 538excuse, reasonable, 544individual generally, of, 509moral involuntariness, 502murder — see partialnecessity

generally, 557, 569generous defence, a more, 578impossibility defence, separate from, 573Latimer, 563Morgentaler, 560Perka, 557

INDEX 855

JUSTIFICATIONS — continuedresidual defence of, 574

orders, following or obeying, 609partial

act, wrongful, 583air of reality, 592anger alone, 581cumulative effect on intent, 604diminished responsibility, 600excessive force, 602extenuating circumstances, 596generally, 580immediacy of response, 591infanticide, 605insult, wrongful, 583intent, cumulative effect on, 604intoxication, voluntary, 600murder only, 581provocation, 580response to provocation, acting in, 590rolled up charge, 604self-control, loss of, 584suddenness of response, 591voluntariness and, 581

person, ofabuse, victims of, 514complexity of rules, 510section 34, 510umbrella approach, 510

prank, 608property, of, 520protection of persons in authority — see authorityself-defence — see person, of

excuse, distinguished from, 499generally, 497moral involuntariness, 502objective, 505onus of proof, 507principle of, 499putative, 506subjective, 505

KNOWLEDGEcommon intent, doctrine of, 682incapacity re wrongness of conduct, 437indirect, 249subjective mens rea, 242, 249, 268

856 INDEX

KNOWLEDGE — continuedwrongness of conduct, of, 268, 437

LIBERTY

law presumed to favour, 38

MANSLAUGHTER — see DEATH, CAUSING

MATERIALITYmistake of fact, 353

MENS REA — see also FAULT, NEGLIGENCEaiding and abetting, 670attempted crimes, 696constructive, 489determinations, 488drunken, 489evidence negating, 441fault — see also fault categories

author’s commentscodified definitions needed, 305due diligence, low standard of, 303generally, 303, 308objective standards, need for further restricted, 304standard, guidelines needed for fault, 308

Charter standards, 217constructive murder, 217, 225first degree murder, 225foresight of harm, 229intentional conduct vs. negligence, 228marked departure, 229negligence vs. intentional conduct, 228objective crimes, 229predicate offences, 229punishment, 226, 228subjective awareness required, 226

crimes, generally for, 217requirement of, 171

fault categoriesgenerally, 232objective

criminal negligence, 293express, 285implied, 285incapacity, 289individual factors, 289individualised objective standards, 282marked departure, requirement of, 286, 293

INDEX 857

MENS REA — continuedsubstantial departure, 293

predicate offences, crimes based onaggravated assault, 301assault causing bodily harm, 301constructive liability, 299constructive manslaughter, 299generally, 298limited fault required, 298

subjective mens rea, 233deliberate murder, 273dishonesty, 268express, 233foresight of consequences, 268implied, 233indirect intent/knowledge, 249intent, 242, 244, 249, 271knowledge, 242, 249knowledge of wrongness, 268motive, 244murder, planned and deliberate, 273planned murder, 273policy favouring, 242recklessness, defined, 256recklessness, extension to, 251specific intent, 271states of mind, 268transferred malice, 278UK courts, 265wilful blindness, 261

generally, 171objective

criminal negligence, 293express, 285implied, 285incapacity, 289individual factors, 289individualised objective standards, 282marked departure, requirement of, 286, 293proof, approach to, 176subjective distinguished from, 175substantial departure, 293

public welfare offencesCharter standard, 206 — see also due diligence, standard ofdue diligence, standard of

liberty interests, threats to, 206minimum, 206

858 INDEX

MENS REA — continuedqualified, not to be, 212reverse onus, 213security interests, threats to, 211

generally, 181real vs. regulatory offences, 205Sault Ste. Marie

absolute liability, 198applying, 199decision, 189half-way house approach, 194offences, classification of, 192prior to, 181

subjectivecommon law tradition, 179deliberate murder, 273dishonesty, 268express, 233foresight of consequences, 268implied, 233indirect intent/knowledge, 249intent, 242, 244, 249, 271knowledge, 242, 249knowledge of wrongness, 268motive, 244murder, planned and deliberate, 273objective distinguished from, 175planned murder, 273policy favouring, 242recklessness, defined, 256recklessness, extension to, 251specific intent, 271states of mind, 268tests, 175transferred malice, 278UK courts, 265wilful blindness, 261

MISTAKEfact, of, 311

distinguishing from mistakes of law, 393fault, question of, 311generally, 312materiality, 353objective, 313 — see also subjective vs. objectivesubjective vs. objective

air of reality test, 319

INDEX 859

MISTAKE — continuedCanadian view, 316Charter challenges, 348consent, mistaken belief in, 319Ewanchuk limits, 337, 343generally, 313honest belief, 323reasonable steps, duty to take, 332sexual assault and, 326UK law, 313

generally, 311law, of

distinguishing from mistakes of fact, 393general rule

colour of right, 379erroneous statement of law, 383exceptions, 374generally, 366impossibility, 374incapacity, 393non-publication, 374rationale, 367reliance on law, 383

generally, 366omissions and, 398

MITIGATING SENTENCE, 651

MORAL INVOLUNTARINESS, 502

MOTIVE, 244

MURDER — see DEATH, CAUSING

NECESSARIES OF LIFEact of omission to provide, 102

NECESSITYdefence of, 557, 569generous defence, a more, 578impossibility defence, separate from, 573Latimer, 563Morgentaler, 560Perka, 557residual defence of, 574

NEGLIGENCE — see also FAULT, MENS REAactus reus, 138Charter standards, 228criminal, 293

860 INDEX

NEGLIGENCE — continuedincapacity and, 289intentional conduct, contrasted with, 228intoxication and, 488objective crimes

criminal negligence, 293express, 285implied, 285incapacity, 289individual factors, 289individualised objective standards, 282marked departure, requirement of, 286, 293substantial departure, 293

offences, 404simultaneous principle and, 404voluntariness, 138

NETTEcausation and, 151consequences and, 151reconsideration, 151

NON-RETROACTIVElaw must be, 36

NULLUM CRIMEN SINE LEGE, NULLA POENA SINE LEGEaccessibility, 35certainty

ideal, as an, 21imperative, as a constitutional, 27overbreadth, 27vagueness, 27

generally, 20non-retroactivity, 36presumption favouring liberty, 38strict construction, 38

OBEDIENCE, 609

OBJECTIVE MENS REAcriminal negligence, 293express, 285implied, 285incapacity, 289individual factors, 289individualised objective standards, 282marked departure, requirement of, 286, 293proof, approach to, 176subjective distinguished from, 175

INDEX 861

OBJECTIVE MENS REA — continuedsubstantial departure, 293

OMISSIONact of

author’s comments, 105definition, 95existing law, 97generally, 95necessaries of life, to provide, 102

ignorance and, 398mistake and, 398

ORDERS, FOLLOWING, 609

OVERBREADTH, 27

PARTIAL DEFENCEScumulative effect on intent, 604diminished responsibility, 600excessive force, 602generally, 580infanticide, 605intent, cumulative effect on, 604intoxication, voluntary, 600provocation

act, wrongful, 583air of reality, 592anger alone, 581extenuating circumstances, 596generally, 580immediacy of response, 591insult, wrongful, 583murder only, 581response to provocation, acting in, 590self-control, loss of, 584suddenness of response, 591voluntariness and, 581

rolled up charge, 604

PARTIES TO OFFENCEaccessories after the fact

author’s comments, 688generally, 685

aiding and abettingactus reus, 666generally, 666mens rea, 670special rules, 673

862 INDEX

PARTIES TO OFFENCE — continuedcommon intent, doctrine of

commission of offence, 683common intent, 679common purpose, 679, 683generally, 677knowledge of commission of offence, 682probable commission of offence, 682

complicity, reforming law of, 684counselling, 675generally, 663history, 663principals, 665procuring, 675vicarious responsibility, 688

PENAL SANCTIONS, RESTRAINT WITH, 59

PRANK, 608

PREDICATE OFFENCESaggravated assault, 301assault causing bodily harm, 301Charter standards, 229constructive liability, 299constructive manslaughter, 299crimes based on, 298limited fault required, 298

PRESUMPTION OF INNOCENCEevidentiary and procedural context, 42reverse onus, 213

PRINCIPALS, 665 — see also PARTIES TO OFFENCE

PROCURINGcommission of offence, 675

PROTECTIONadministering the law, of persons, 538authority, persons in

children, discipline of, 546offence, to commit, 544physical discipline, 546, 552protection of persons in, 546ship, discipline aboard a, 552surgery, 553

enforcing the law, of persons, 538person, of

abuse, victims of, 514

INDEX 863

PROTECTION — continuedcomplexity of rules, 510section 34, 510umbrella approach, 510

property, of, 520self-defence — see person, of

PROVOCATIONact, wrongful, 583air of reality, 592anger alone, 581extenuating circumstances, 596generally, 580immediacy of response, 591insult, wrongful, 583murder only, 581response to, acting in, 590self-control, loss of, 584suddenness of response, 591voluntariness and, 581

RECKLESSNESSdefined, 256extension of subjective mens rea to, 251

RECONSIDERATIONcausation and, 151consequences and, 151

RESTORATIVE JUSTICE, 71

ROLLED UP CHARGE, 604

SENTENCINGaims of, 64entrapment and,651mitigation of, 651principles of, 64

SERIES OF ACTSsingle transaction, treated as, 402

SIMULTANEOUS PRINCIPLEdepartures

correct danger, failing to, 402danger, failing to correct, 402generally, 401innocent act, intent superimposed upon, 401intent, superimposing, 401intoxication for purpose of crime, 403negligence offences, 404

864 INDEX

SIMULTANEOUS PRINCIPLE — continuedseries of acts as single transaction, treating, 402

generally, 399

SMITHERS TESTchallenging, 147generally, 146

STRICT CONSTRUCTION, 38

SUBJECTIVE MENS REAcommon law tradition, 179deliberate murder, 273dishonesty, 268express, 233foresight of consequences, 268implied, 233indirect intent/knowledge, 249intent, 242, 244, 249, 271knowledge, 242, 249knowledge of wrongness, 268motive, 244murder, planned and deliberate, 273objective distinguished from, 175planned murder, 273policy favouring, 242recklessness, defined, 256recklessness, extension to, 251specific intent, 271states of mind, 268tests, 175transferred malice, 278UK courts, 265wilful blindness, 261

SURGERY, 553

TERRORISMdefined, 776

TERRORIST GROUPS9/11 Attacks, 775generally, 775offences, new, 778terrorism defined, 776three-year review, 782

TRANSFERRED MALICE, 278

INDEX 865

UNITED KINGDOMcorporations, 755mistake of fact, 313subjective mens rea, 265

UNITED STATEScorporations, 757entrapment in, 639

VAGUENESS, 27

VICARIOUS LIABILITY, 688

VICTIMabuse of, 514accused as, 514rights of, 72

VOLUNTARY / VOLUNTARINESSactus reus

author’s comments, 140generally, 109insanity, 117intoxication, 136negligence, 138rationale, 113restrictions generally, 117

desistanceattempted crime generally, 712conspiracy, 741

intoxicationexcuse or justification, 600partial defence, as, 600restrictions re actus reus, 136

morally, whether, 502provocation and, 581

WILFUL BLINDNESS, 261