Neurons: How the brain communicatesNeurons: How the brain communicates

Neurons – billions used to convey info. Neurons – billions used to convey info. Throughout the bodyThroughout the body

Dendrites – take in neurochemical infoDendrites – take in neurochemical info Axon – sends messages to next neuronAxon – sends messages to next neuron

– Sends message faster if mylenated Sends message faster if mylenated

Damage can occur from injury or diseaseDamage can occur from injury or disease– Most common for young adults?Most common for young adults?

Brain injuriesBrain injuries

1) Trauma (stable or recovery course)1) Trauma (stable or recovery course)– Damage at point of trauma, opposite side, and sides Damage at point of trauma, opposite side, and sides

due to axonal shearing)due to axonal shearing)

2) Disease (progressive course)2) Disease (progressive course)– Location may be localized, and localization defines Location may be localized, and localization defines

different diseases and pathologiesdifferent diseases and pathologies

Brain damage can be predicted by 1) duration of Brain damage can be predicted by 1) duration of unconsciousness, and/or 2) duration of amnesia, unconsciousness, and/or 2) duration of amnesia, and/or 3) location and extent of damageand/or 3) location and extent of damage

CommunicationCommunication

Neuronal impulse (electrical within & Neuronal impulse (electrical within & chemical between neurons)chemical between neurons)

Neurochemicals are also referred to as Neurochemicals are also referred to as neurotransmittersneurotransmitters– e.g., acetylcholine assists in motor functions, e.g., acetylcholine assists in motor functions,

serotonin assists with mood and sleep, serotonin assists with mood and sleep, dopamine plays role in movement, emotional dopamine plays role in movement, emotional control, alertness, etc. control, alertness, etc.

Divisions of the nervous systemDivisions of the nervous system The nervous system monitors/controls almost The nervous system monitors/controls almost

every organ system through a series of positive every organ system through a series of positive and negative feedback loops.and negative feedback loops.

CNS - brain & spinal cord. CNS - brain & spinal cord. Peripheral NSPeripheral NS (PNS) connects the CNS to other (PNS) connects the CNS to other

parts of the body, and is composed of nerves parts of the body, and is composed of nerves (bundles of sensory and motor neurons). (bundles of sensory and motor neurons). – VoluntaryVoluntary muscles and sensory info and muscles and sensory info and involuntaryinvoluntary

muscles -autonomic nervous systemmuscles -autonomic nervous system SympatheticSympathetic (expends energy) and (expends energy) and parasympatheticparasympathetic (conserves (conserves

energy) energy)

Divisions of the brainDivisions of the brain

The The lobeslobes: 1. : 1. Frontal Frontal (higher cognitive & (higher cognitive & motor functioning), 2.motor functioning), 2.OccipitalOccipital (visual (visual processing), 3. processing), 3. TemporalTemporal (auditory (auditory processing), & 4. processing), & 4. ParietaParietal (sensations of the l (sensations of the skin and muscles)skin and muscles)

Right hemisphere Right hemisphere – visual-spatial processingvisual-spatial processing

Left hemisphere Left hemisphere – language language productionproduction ( (Brocha’s areaBrocha’s area))– comprehensioncomprehension ( (Wernicke’s areaWernicke’s area))

How the brain worksHow the brain works Corpus callosumCorpus callosum – connects the two hemispheres of the – connects the two hemispheres of the

brain and allows them to communicatebrain and allows them to communicate– Severed (surgically) in some patients with severe forms of Severed (surgically) in some patients with severe forms of

epilepsy to prevent grand mal seizures from spreading to epilepsy to prevent grand mal seizures from spreading to both hemispheresboth hemispheres

Roger Sperry’s work on Roger Sperry’s work on split brain patients split brain patients – Each hemisphere has unique functions and can be Each hemisphere has unique functions and can be

autonomous autonomous – Hemispheric isolation creates potential for errorsHemispheric isolation creates potential for errors

Migration of functioning Migration of functioning – transfer of functioning that can – transfer of functioning that can occur when part of the brain is damaged (more likely if patient occur when part of the brain is damaged (more likely if patient is young)is young)

Neurons in HippocampusNeurons in Hippocampus

15 10 5 0

Years Prior to Dementia Diagnosis

Neu

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s Optimal Aging

Dementia

Induction Latency

MCI

Trends in MCI and Alzheimer’sTrends in MCI and Alzheimer’s

Unvergatz et al, 2001

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

Year

Nu

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Alzheimer'sMCI

MCI

AD

Neither

Prevalence

Converters to AD

Non-converters

Annual % Conversion to AD

Converters to AD

Non-converters

Six-Year % Conversion

Neuronal Stem CellsNeuronal Stem Cells

Conditioning in everyday lifeConditioning in everyday life

Cancer patients receiving trials of chemotherapy Cancer patients receiving trials of chemotherapy show a weakening of their immune system when show a weakening of their immune system when exposed to the hospital room where they received exposed to the hospital room where they received chemotherapychemotherapy– Can we condition increases in immune system?Can we condition increases in immune system?

Placebo effects with drugs – If a pill has worked for Placebo effects with drugs – If a pill has worked for you before a similar pill (even an inert substance) you before a similar pill (even an inert substance) can not only cure a headache, but actually result in can not only cure a headache, but actually result in neurochemical changes in your bodyneurochemical changes in your body

Behavioral change: A Clockwork orange, Behavioral change: A Clockwork orange, reconditioning prisoners, buzzer pants, etc.reconditioning prisoners, buzzer pants, etc.

Salivating to the golden arches, etc.Salivating to the golden arches, etc.

Conditioning dogs and ratsConditioning dogs and rats

Watson & Raynor (1920) trained a young infant (Little Watson & Raynor (1920) trained a young infant (Little Albert) so that he would e afraid of a rat.Albert) so that he would e afraid of a rat.

Before conditioningBefore conditioning– Present white rat – no fear (neutral stimulus) Present white rat – no fear (neutral stimulus) – Loud noise – fear (unconditioned response)Loud noise – fear (unconditioned response)

ConditioningConditioning– Pair the white rat (neutral stimulus) with the loud Pair the white rat (neutral stimulus) with the loud

noise (unconditioned stimulus)noise (unconditioned stimulus) After conditioning After conditioning

– White rat = fear (conditioned response)White rat = fear (conditioned response)– The white rat is now a conditioned stimulusThe white rat is now a conditioned stimulus

Key conceptsKey concepts

What happens if we keep exposing Albert to the What happens if we keep exposing Albert to the rat with no loud sound? Eventually…rat with no loud sound? Eventually…

Extinction - CS no longer produces the CRExtinction - CS no longer produces the CR Spontaneous recovery - after a break, the Spontaneous recovery - after a break, the

previously extinct CS produces the CRpreviously extinct CS produces the CR Higher order conditioning - a CS is paired with Higher order conditioning - a CS is paired with

another CS to get the CRanother CS to get the CR What happens if we use something similar to a What happens if we use something similar to a

white rat? (a lesson from alcohol poisoning)white rat? (a lesson from alcohol poisoning)

Key concepts - continuedKey concepts - continued Generalization - producing the same CR for a similar Generalization - producing the same CR for a similar

CS (e.g., anything like a white rat)CS (e.g., anything like a white rat) Discrimination - produces a CR for only a very specific Discrimination - produces a CR for only a very specific

CS (e.g. only the specific white rat)CS (e.g. only the specific white rat) One time conditioning (Garcia effect) - learning occurs One time conditioning (Garcia effect) - learning occurs

after a single pairing (e.g., sheep and wolves)after a single pairing (e.g., sheep and wolves)– Why would this be adaptive for aversive CRs?Why would this be adaptive for aversive CRs?– This can occur even for reinforcers and lead to non-This can occur even for reinforcers and lead to non-

productive behavior (e.g., superstitious behavior)productive behavior (e.g., superstitious behavior)

Operant conditioningOperant conditioning

To explain most of your day-to-day behavior (non-To explain most of your day-to-day behavior (non-reflexive actions no required temporal association)reflexive actions no required temporal association)

Law of effect – every behavior has a Law of effect – every behavior has a consequence, and the consequence determines if consequence, and the consequence determines if the behavior will re-occur (temporal association is the behavior will re-occur (temporal association is no longer required)no longer required)

Reinforcement - Reinforcement - anythinganything that increase the that increase the incidence of the behavior to which it is linked incidence of the behavior to which it is linked

Punishment - Punishment - anythinganything that decreases the that decreases the incidence of the behavior to which it is linkedincidence of the behavior to which it is linked

Possible examples of reinforcers and Possible examples of reinforcers and punisherspunishers

To give praise, love, attention, money, etc.

To give a shock, a spanking, a fine, etc.

To remove an aversive stimulus like pain, noise, etc.

To remove something valued like freedom, attention, etc.

Reinforcer Punisher

Positive

Negative

Delivery (Schedules) of reinforcement & Delivery (Schedules) of reinforcement & punishmentpunishment

Continuous - best way to acquire a new behavior Continuous - best way to acquire a new behavior (or extinguish an existing behavior)(or extinguish an existing behavior)– Why not ideal to maintain the new learning?Why not ideal to maintain the new learning?

Ratio - Ratio - numbernumber of responses for the reinforcement of responses for the reinforcement Interval – there is an interval of Interval – there is an interval of timetime before the before the

next response is reinforced/punishednext response is reinforced/punished Variable - Variable - changingchanging schedule schedule Fixed - Fixed - stablestable schedule schedule

Other schedulesOther schedules

Pay checks, boss who “checks in” at 9am and 4pm, etc.

- lengthy breaks until interval approaches (bursts of activity)

Real estate agent, busy phone line, etc.

- slow but steady rate (busy phone)

Assembly line worker

- decrease in work after reinforced

Slot machines

- very productive schedule with minimal pausing

Fixed Variable

Interval

Ratio

Behavioral ApplicationsBehavioral Applications

Treatment of OCD & Simple phobias – Phobias are intense Treatment of OCD & Simple phobias – Phobias are intense fears (or non-normative fears) that lead to dysfunctionfears (or non-normative fears) that lead to dysfunction– Systematic desensitization – developed by J. WolpeSystematic desensitization – developed by J. Wolpe

Establish a fear hierarchy – from least feared to most Establish a fear hierarchy – from least feared to most fearedfeared

Systematically expose the individual to each stimulus Systematically expose the individual to each stimulus on the fear hierarchy beginning with the lowest (up to on the fear hierarchy beginning with the lowest (up to several months)several months)

Must be in a relaxed state while exposed to the Must be in a relaxed state while exposed to the stimulusstimulus

Must NOT remove the feared stimulus until fear is Must NOT remove the feared stimulus until fear is diminished otherwise the fear is reinforceddiminished otherwise the fear is reinforced

For OCD – have obsession with response preventionFor OCD – have obsession with response prevention

Personality: A stable pattern of Personality: A stable pattern of behaviors, cognitions, and affectbehaviors, cognitions, and affect

What determined your personality? (explanation)What determined your personality? (explanation)Some examples..Some examples..

Internal and unknown conflicts?Internal and unknown conflicts?– Freud and the psychodynamic movement (ID, Ego, Freud and the psychodynamic movement (ID, Ego,

Superego)Superego)– Defense mechanisms of denial, intellectualization, Defense mechanisms of denial, intellectualization,

displacement, sublimation, projection, and reaction displacement, sublimation, projection, and reaction formation formation

– Research by Adams, Wright & Lore, 1986 on arousal in Research by Adams, Wright & Lore, 1986 on arousal in homophobic and non-homophobic maleshomophobic and non-homophobic males

Personality Theory and ResearchPersonality Theory and Research

Biological processesBiological processes– Eysenck’s research on arousal in the Ascending Reticular Eysenck’s research on arousal in the Ascending Reticular

Activating System (ARAS)Activating System (ARAS)– Extraverts show less responsiveness to stimulationExtraverts show less responsiveness to stimulation– Introverts show heightened response to stimulationIntroverts show heightened response to stimulation– Implications for socialization frequency and interpersonal Implications for socialization frequency and interpersonal

distancedistance

Measuring personality (description)Measuring personality (description)- Early examples were decidedly non-scientific- Early examples were decidedly non-scientific

Early AssessmentEarly Assessment

Roots of AssessmentRoots of Assessment

Early attempts..Early attempts.. Palm readingPalm reading Astrology - stars as gods vs. planetsAstrology - stars as gods vs. planets

All of these (non-standardized, unreliable and non-validated) All of these (non-standardized, unreliable and non-validated) techniques rely on…techniques rely on…

Barnum effect - broad and slightly positive statements; Barnum effect - broad and slightly positive statements; – Stock statements - true in all circumstancesStock statements - true in all circumstances– Fishing statements – general statements that can be interpreted in Fishing statements – general statements that can be interpreted in

many ways (e.g., “you’ve experienced a loss”)many ways (e.g., “you’ve experienced a loss”)– Research (Glick, 1985) suggests that people are more likely to Research (Glick, 1985) suggests that people are more likely to

believe Barnum-type false feedback vs. real personality believe Barnum-type false feedback vs. real personality assessments.assessments.

PhrenologyPhrenology

Body MorphologyBody Morphology

Morphological assessments: From the Morphological assessments: From the head to the bodyhead to the body

Phrenology (Gall, early 1800s) – skull shape = Phrenology (Gall, early 1800s) – skull shape = personalitypersonality

Sheldon’s body types (1950)Sheldon’s body types (1950)– Based on photographs of all incoming freshmen at Ivy Based on photographs of all incoming freshmen at Ivy

league schools in the 1930sleague schools in the 1930s– EndomorphEndomorph – jolly/happy, lazy – jolly/happy, lazy– MesomorphMesomorph – dominant, athletic – dominant, athletic – EctomorphEctomorph – smart, shy – smart, shy

Body type and criminality (Lombroso)Body type and criminality (Lombroso)

Current AssessmentCurrent Assessment

Clinical settings:Clinical settings: Psychodynamic methods: word association, TAT, Psychodynamic methods: word association, TAT,

Rorschach (2Rorschach (2ndnd most common test), etc. most common test), etc.

MMPI - developed in 1940 using an empirical MMPI - developed in 1940 using an empirical approach, revised in 1989 (MMPI-2) and has 567 T/F approach, revised in 1989 (MMPI-2) and has 567 T/F items items – Most widely used inventory in clinical settings Most widely used inventory in clinical settings – items generally lack face validity (not obvious)items generally lack face validity (not obvious)– 3 validity scales (lying, defensiveness, infrequency)3 validity scales (lying, defensiveness, infrequency)– Assesses m/f, Si, Hs, Pa, etc. (psychopathology= Assesses m/f, Si, Hs, Pa, etc. (psychopathology=

personality)personality)

Assessment - continuedAssessment - continued

Non-clinical settingsNon-clinical settings NEO-PI – developed for use in the non-clinical NEO-PI – developed for use in the non-clinical

populationpopulation– Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to new Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to new

experience, Agreeableness, & Conscientiousnessexperience, Agreeableness, & Conscientiousness– Neuroticism is associated with psychological Neuroticism is associated with psychological

problems (depression, anxiety), but also success problems (depression, anxiety), but also success in school and work.in school and work.

– Internal control beliefs result in better adaptation Internal control beliefs result in better adaptation and health (studies in old age home; Rodin, 1977)and health (studies in old age home; Rodin, 1977)

Intelligence - what is it?Intelligence - what is it?

Cognitive abilities such as memory, vocabulary, Cognitive abilities such as memory, vocabulary, reasoning, general knowledge, speed of reasoning, general knowledge, speed of responding, etc.responding, etc.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) – Verbal and Performance IQVerbal and Performance IQ– Mean IQ = 100, SD = 15 Mean IQ = 100, SD = 15 – Like all IQ measures, it is considered to be Like all IQ measures, it is considered to be

culturally biased (no such thing as a culturally biased (no such thing as a culture free culture free testtest))

Alternatives to traditional intelligenceAlternatives to traditional intelligence

Gould: Intelligence does not = IQ; does not reflect Gould: Intelligence does not = IQ; does not reflect innate skills, nor is intelligence unchangeable innate skills, nor is intelligence unchangeable (video)(video)

Broader definitions of intelligence: Gardner’s Broader definitions of intelligence: Gardner’s multiple intelligences (abilities in music, art, multiple intelligences (abilities in music, art, language, social skills, coordination, etc.)language, social skills, coordination, etc.)

Creativity - a way to assess alternative forms of Creativity - a way to assess alternative forms of intelligence (flexibility in how one thinks about a intelligence (flexibility in how one thinks about a problem- allows for problem- allows for novel responses and divergent novel responses and divergent thinking thinking –the consequences test)–the consequences test)

Stunted intellectual developmentStunted intellectual development Associated with several developmental disorders including Associated with several developmental disorders including Autism: Autism: extremely low IQ, minimal verbalizations, isolative, repetitious extremely low IQ, minimal verbalizations, isolative, repetitious

(rocking) and sometimes self-damaging (head banging) behavior (rocking) and sometimes self-damaging (head banging) behavior Autism spectrum disorders: 6 in 1,000 and these include Rett syndrome Autism spectrum disorders: 6 in 1,000 and these include Rett syndrome

(small heads, hands, feet, repetitive movements, cog delay), Asperger’s (small heads, hands, feet, repetitive movements, cog delay), Asperger’s (high functioning AD?), etc.(high functioning AD?), etc.

More common in males (4:1), but females are more severe casesMore common in males (4:1), but females are more severe cases

Savant syndromeSavant syndrome Very rare (only 1% of all autistic individuals: approx. 1 in a million)Very rare (only 1% of all autistic individuals: approx. 1 in a million) An extraordinary ability (either in absolute or relative to daily functioning), An extraordinary ability (either in absolute or relative to daily functioning),

severe cognitive deficits, over attentionsevere cognitive deficits, over attentionStimulus over-selectivityStimulus over-selectivity – over attention to only one aspect of a stimulus – over attention to only one aspect of a stimulus

(can explain both autism and savant syndrome)(can explain both autism and savant syndrome)

Biases and heuristics in judgmentBiases and heuristics in judgment

General rules we apply in reasoning to be efficient General rules we apply in reasoning to be efficient (can result in erroneous conclusions when (can result in erroneous conclusions when improperly applied)improperly applied)

% violent crimes? = 10-11% % violent crimes? = 10-11% – The availability heuristic The availability heuristic

Biases - contBiases - cont

The representative heuristic (ignores base The representative heuristic (ignores base rates)rates)– Over 1 million truck drivers vs. 1 chairOver 1 million truck drivers vs. 1 chair– 10% are quiet, 1% like cognac, classical music 10% are quiet, 1% like cognac, classical music

(1%) = 10(1%) = 10 What is your chance of getting skin cancer in the next What is your chance of getting skin cancer in the next

two years? What is the chance of someone of the two years? What is the chance of someone of the same age/gender as you getting skin cancer in the same age/gender as you getting skin cancer in the next 2 years?next 2 years?– Overconfidence biasOverconfidence bias

Biases and heuristics in judgment – cont.Biases and heuristics in judgment – cont.

What are the next three numbers (2,4,6, _,_,_)?What are the next three numbers (2,4,6, _,_,_)?– Confirmation biasConfirmation bias

The odds of winning at black jack are 50%. Assuming you have The odds of winning at black jack are 50%. Assuming you have just lost 10 hands in a row, what are your odds of winning the just lost 10 hands in a row, what are your odds of winning the next one?next one?– Gambler’s fallacy (luck will change) – in reality, these are Gambler’s fallacy (luck will change) – in reality, these are

random and random and unrelatedunrelated events. Luck doesn’t change. events. Luck doesn’t change. All-star team vs. a regular team, who should win? All-star team vs. a regular team, who should win?

– Fallacy of composition (the whole is = sum of its parts)Fallacy of composition (the whole is = sum of its parts) Buying beef with 25% fat or 75% fat free? Buying beef with 25% fat or 75% fat free?

– Error from framing effects – context provides information that Error from framing effects – context provides information that results in different conclusionsresults in different conclusions