Neutron scattering Materials research for modern life

Almost all of the major changes in our society, the dramaticrevolutions in transport and manufacturing, the growth ofcomputing and the internet and the steady increase in average lifespan, have their origin in understanding and exploiting the physicsand chemistry of materials.

The goal of modern materials science is to understand theproperties of matter on the atomic scale, and to use this knowledgeto optimise the properties or develop new materials.

In neutron scattering experiments, materials are exposed to intensebeams of neutrons inside specialised instruments at large researchcentres. The images that are made are used to reveal the molecularstructure inside the material which can be directly linked to thephysical and chemical properties experienced in the everyday world.From this knowledge emerges fascinating new science or anunderstanding of current problems in industry.

The information in this brochure is just a sample of the significant

social and economic impact that neutron scattering science

contributes to our lives. Because of the collaborative nature of

modern research, many of the experiments, research and

development programmes are joint efforts between UK Research

Councils, academia and industry.

The Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) ensures that

research using neutron scattering continues to make a valuable

contribution to society through its ongoing funding and development

of the ISIS Neutron and Muon Source in the UK and the

Institut Laue-Langevin in France.

Written by: Martyn Bull

Design and layout: Ampersand Design Limited

Production: STFC Media Services

Neutron scattering Materials research for modern life

Introduction

What is neutron scattering?What is neutron scattering?

A brief history

In 1932, in Cambridge, James Chadwick discoveredthe neutron, the missing part of the nucleus ofRutherford’s atom. Understanding of the use andusefulness of neutrons progressed rapidly.

The development of the nuclear reactor allowed beamsof neutrons for materials research to become routinelyavailable, culminating with the construction in 1972 ofthe world’s most powerful research reactor at the InstitutLaue-Langevin in Grenoble, France.

Since the 1980s, accelerator-based neutron sources havebecome the global technology of choice for newinvestment. The UK’s ISIS spallation neutron source nearOxford is the world’s most successful neutron source ofthis type, and new spallation neutron sources in Japan,America and China are founded on ISIS instrumentationand technology.

With the availability of intense neutron beams over thepast 40 years, the unique interaction of neutrons withmatter has been used for materials research tounderstand the physical and chemical properties ofmatter at the atomic scale. From the early days as atechnique rooted in physics, the science now making useof neutron scattering has grown to cover everything fromengineering to medicine, archaeology to zoology.

Where STFC fits into the picture

The UK has the largest community of neutron scatteringresearchers in the world and STFC enables them to haveaccess to the two best neutron sources in the world – ISIS inOxfordshire and the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) in France. UKresearchers working closely with their European colleaguesover the past 40 years have ensured that, through continuedinnovation in neutron source and instrument design, Europecontinues to be the most productive region in the world usingneutron scattering for materials science research, whetherthat is materials design and discovery or solving immediateproblems encountered in industry and society.

Every year over 1500 experiments are completed at the ILL andISIS, covering a wide variety of research ranging from clean energyand the environment, pharmaceuticals and health care, through tonanotechnology, materials engineering and IT.

These research centres serve an international community of some5000 scientists and each centre produces over 500 researchpublications each year. This brochure demonstrates the wide impact ofneutron scattering research on everyday life.

What is a neutron?Neutrons are abundant throughout nature. Alongwith protons and electrons, they form the basicbuilding blocks of the material world. Neutronsare tightly bound together with protons in thenucleus at the centre of an atom. The most commonmethods of making neutron beams for materialsresearch are nuclear fission using uraniumfuel in a reactor, or spallation, where ahigh-power particle accelerator fires aparticle beam into a metal target torelease neutrons.

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Introduction

ISIS

ILL

… from clean energy andthe environment,pharmaceuticals and healthcare, through tonanotechnology, materialsengineering and IT.

The unique informationthat the technique providesis essential in makingprogress in contemporarymaterials science and intrying to solve some of themajor global challenges ofour time.

Neutron scatteringresearch impactson much ofmodern life…

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A world of knowledge

Energy

Energy created from burningfossil fuels has underpinnedthe major industrialisation ofthe modern world over thelast 200 years. As we becomemore concerned with climatechange and the security ofour energy supply, the desireto harness other forms ofenergy from solar, wind,wave, hydrogen and nuclearbecomes more pressing.

Hydrogen is one of the mostpromising fuels for the future.Research programmes todiscover lightweight materialsthat can efficiently and safelystore and transport hydrogenrely heavily on neutronscattering.

Flexible solar cells based onplastics instead of silicon offerthe potential to cheaply coverwide areas of land andharness the abundant energyfrom the sun.

Engineering studies ofcomponents from nuclearpower stations allowoperating lifetimes to beconfidently extended.

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Environmentand climate

In recent times, we havebecome acutely aware of thevalue of a clean and safeenvironment for healthyliving, and the sensitivity ofthe climate to activity onEarth.

Neutron scattering is beingused to help scientistsunderstand the impact ofpollution, work towardssolutions for reducing orremoving carbon dioxide fromthe atmosphere and industrialprocesses, and make moreefficient use of naturalresources.

Taking a molecular view ofthe world allows the motorindustry to design lubricantsand fuel additives that arekinder to the environmentand to use lightweight alloysto improve fuel efficiency.

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Medicine and health

Bioactive glass, artificial hipsand gels for use in cleft palatesurgery have all benefitedfrom knowledge gained fromneutron scattering. Multi-disciplinary teams of medics,physicists, materials scientists,chemists and engineers cometogether at research centreslike ISIS and the ILL to makekey breakthroughs in usingmaterials in medicine.

The ability of neutronscattering to accuratelydetermine molecularstructures allows thebehaviour of proteins,enzymes and cell membranesto be understood. Interactionsof pharmaceuticals withbiological molecules can bestudied and compared withcomputer simulations,improving the chances offinding drugs to treat life-changing conditions such asAlzheimer’s.

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Electronics and IT

Over the past 50 years, theamount of information storedand processed has witnessedexplosive growth, allowinghundreds of gigabytes ofsongs, pictures and words tobe recorded onto deviceswhich are continuallyshrinking in size.

The unique ability of neutronscattering to map outmagnetism at the atomicscale is being used to packmore gigabytes into smallerareas, create ultra-sensitivesensors to read back the data,and develop new types ofcomputer memory.

Studies of ceramic processinghave improved theperformance of mobile phonecomponents, and testingsemiconductor chips todetermine the effects ofcosmic ray neutrons isallowing companies toconfirm the performance oftheir electronic systems.

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Manufacturingand industry

Millions of tonnes of materialsare processed every dayacross the planet tomanufacture the huge rangeof products that we need fordaily life, from soaps,cosmetics and drugs throughto cars, planes and industrialsolvents. A small amount ofmolecular knowledge fromneutron scatteringexperiments can go a longway in improving theefficiency, quality and price ofindustrial products.

Unique information fromexperiments at the ILL and ISISis used daily in themanufacture of products usedto keep people and theirhomes clean and fresh. Energyefficient mass production ofkey industrial chemicals isfounded on basic knowledgeof molecular interactions.Quality assurance ofcomponents in the aerospaceand motor industries relies onlong-term researchprogrammes confirming thebest conditions for makingprecision components.

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Natural world

Our world and universecontinue to fascinate, intrigueand surprise. We can learnmany lessons from plants andanimals on how to solvecommon problems and gaindeeper understanding of ourplace in the universe bystudying the geology andnatural processes of theplanets.

Neutron scattering is beingused to tease the secrets ofspinning silk from spiders andhow lizards avoid freezing inwinter. Understanding howplants can defend themselvesagainst disease offers newpotential for crop breedingand medicines.

Replicating the extremeconditions found in the deepearth or the planets of theSolar System is bringing newinsight to planetary science.Neutron beams can penetratethrough the heavyengineering equipment usedto generate high pressures tomeasure the properties ofrocks and fluids needed forcomputer modelling.

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Heritage science

The origins and history ofobjects from museums andarchaeological sites can besafely investigated usingneutron scattering withoutdamaging them or affectingtheir value.

Civil engineering projects relyon archaeologists to assessthe significance of ancientremains that will be disturbed.Neutron scattering has beenused to examine Romanobjects found under the A2 inKent which have similaritiesto those found at Pompeii.

Museums across Europe areusing neutron techniques tounderstand how ancientJapanese swords were madeduring the 14th to 17thcenturies.

Fresh thinking about theBattle of Towton is comingfrom neutron scatteringexperiments of battlefieldweapons. Fought nearTadcaster in Yorkshire in1461, it was the mostdramatic battle of the Warsof the Roses.

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Neutron scatteringMaterials research for modern life

A w

orld of knowledge

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Energy

Extending the lifetime of nuclear power stations

The lifetimes of two UK nuclear power stations havebeen extended allowing them to continue to supplyelectricity to the national grid.

Nuclear power stations contain thousands of weldedjoints which over time become vulnerable to materialageing. EDF Energy worked with the Open UniversityMaterials Engineering group studying critical weldedcomponents using the powerful Engin-X instrument atISIS to satisfy safety regulators of the integrity of repairwelds in four Advanced Gas Cooled Reactors.

This study helped demonstrate that the welds retainedtheir structural integrity, and supported 5 yearlife-extensions to be made for these power plants,deferring the need for decommissioning and replacementof two nuclear power stations at a cost of around£1.5 billion each.

Hydrogen-fuelledsociety

New materials that can efficiently and safely store hydrogen havebeen discovered using neutron scattering, promising a greener futurefor transport.

Petrol and diesel are the lifeblood of transport, fuelling family school runsand holidays and keeping supermarkets stocked with food. But emissionsinto the atmosphere and a dwindling supply of fossil fuels are causinggreater and greater concern. Clean-burning hydrogen offers a way todramatically reduce carbon emissions.

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and is a perfectfuel. It has three times more energy than petrol per unit of weight, andwhen it burns it produces nothing but water.

Today’s technology is capable of powering a car using hydrogen, but makingand storing hydrogen safely is a challenge. The automotive industry isworking to find safe, efficient and low-cost ways to store and transporthydrogen.

Scientists using neutron scattering have designed inexpensive hydrogen-richsolids to store and release hydrogen that can be safely used in cars andhomes.

With neutrons we are on the road to making hydrogen fuel a reality.

“Our new hydrogen storage materials offerreal potential for running cars, planes andother vehicles with little extra cost and noextra inconvenience to the driver.” Professor Stephen Bennington, chief scientist, Cella Energy

“Neutron scattering studies of weldingprocedures have enabled uninterruptedelectricity generation and allowed5−year life extensions to be made forfour Advanced Gas Cooled Reactors” EDF Energy

Energy

Super superconductors

Striking images collected in neutron scatteringexperiments may be the clue to understanding howadvanced ceramics can transmit electricity withoutlosing energy.

The ceramics, known as high-temperaturesuperconductors, lose all resistance to the flow ofelectricity when cooled below -150ºC. Wires made fromthe ceramics can conduct up to 140 times more powerthan conventional copper wires of the same dimension,carrying electricity with 100% efficiency.

Yet despite their growing use in applications ranging frommedical imaging scanners to revolutionary propulsionsystems, exactly how they work remains a mystery.

Uniquely sensitive neutron instruments available at ISISand the ILL are giving an unmatched clarity of vision intothe interior world of superconductors. The unique resultsare guiding the search for new materials in the quest tomake superconductivity take place at room temperature.

Neutron scatteringMaterials research for modern life

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Flexible plastic solar cells

Plastic solar cells are much cheaper to produce than conventionalsilicon solar cells and have the potential to be produced in largequantities.

In one hour, enough energy from sunlight falls on the Earth to satisfy theenergy needs of the planet for a year, but large-scale harvesting of thisenormous energy supply is only just starting.

Plastic polymer solar cells are much cheaper to produce than conventionalsilicon solar panels. Neutron scattering experiments have shown thatefficient solar cells can be made from very thin films, with a flexibility likecling-film. These can be manufactured using very simple and inexpensivemethods, by spreading a mix of polymers thinly over huge areas.

High-volume manufacturing could produce films of solar cells that are overa thousand times thinner than the width of a human hair. These films couldbe used to make light and easily transportable solar cell devices.

“Ultra-cheap and efficient polymer solar cellsthat can cover huge areas could help move usinto a new age of renewable energy”Professor Richard Jones, University of Sheffield “We are finding that electric current is carried

most efficiently in these materials when veryweak atomic-scale magnetic interactionspermeate the structure of the ceramics.”Professor Stephen Hayden, University of Bristol

Enhanced oil recovery

A harmless soap-like additive turns carbon dioxide into a viablecommercial solvent to increase the amount of crude oil that can beextracted from oil fields.

More than 40,000 oil fields are scattered around the world with the largestindividual fields in the Middle East estimated to each hold more than60 billion barrels of oil. Only a fraction of this oil can be brought to thesurface because of reservoir characteristics and limitations in petroleumextraction technologies. Enhanced oil recovery techniques such aswater-flooding or gas-injection are frequently used to improve the yield andeconomic return from a field.

High pressure carbon dioxide can be used in enhanced oil recovery as it isable to flow through the pores in the rock much more easily than water.Additives can thicken the carbon dioxide allowing it to flow through therock more efficiently and push oil out of very small rock pores, increasingthe oil field yield by up to 30%.

Previous advances in using carbon dioxide for oil recovery have usedadditives containing environmentally damaging fluorine. A new, safeadditive developed using the unique molecular information coming fromneutron scattering experiments contains no fluorine at all and is a harmlesshydrocarbon.

Getting longer life out of existing oil reserves will also give more time forresearch into non-carbon energy sources such as solar or hydrogen.

Antarctic fossils

Leafy branches of 50 million-year-old conifers lockedin rocks indicate a very different climate in Antarcticato the ice and snow found today.

Although Antarctica is now a land of ice and snow, formost of its history it was covered with lush forests. Theremains of the forests are now preserved in the rockrecord as fossil wood, leaves, flowers and pollen.

Neutron imaging allows the three-dimensional structureof conifer branches to be seen for the first time since theywere encased in sediment 50 million years ago, withoutbreaking open the rock and destroying the fragilestructures.

Alongside other studies, it has been established thatconifers were an important component of forests thatgrew on Antarctica millions of years ago. This newknowledge is being used to understand climate systems ina former warm greenhouse world, and plant evolutionand survival under the harsh polar light conditions.

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Environment and climate

“The discovery of a chemical capable ofmodifying the properties of carbon dioxide tomake it suitable for widespread use as a solventin enhanced oil recovery has been recognised asa game-changing technology.” Professor Bob Enick, University of Pittsburgh

“We take it for granted thatAntarctica has always been a frozenwilderness, but the ice caps onlyappeared relatively recently ingeological history. I find the idea thatAntarctica was once forestedabsolutely mind-boggling.” Professor Jane Francis, University of Leeds

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Cloudy skies

Air pollution fundamentally changes the way cloudsform by destroying the oily layers coating waterdroplets.

Clouds are made up of droplets that form when watervapour condenses on tiny particles (aerosols) suspendedin the air. Aerosols can come from many places: sea saltfrom the ocean, plants, or the burning of fossil fuels andvegetation.

The more aerosols there are, the easier it is for clouds toform. The droplets grow in size until they are largeenough to fall as rain.

Modelling cloud formation is one of hardest jobs inforecasting climate change. The potential for aerosols toform clouds and raindrops is dictated by little-knownchemical reactions within the atmosphere.

Neutron scattering experiments have demonstrated thatozone created in the lower atmosphere from vehiclepollution can attack the oily films coating water dropletsin the air and reduce the speed at which they can grow.

This newly-discovered mechanism is being used toupdate models of organic aerosols in the atmosphere andtheir impact on cloud reflectivity and drizzlepotential, rainfall patterns and thewater cycle.

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Medicine and health

Cleft palate

A new hydrogel material can make cleft palate surgeryeasier and less painful for the patient.

Cleft palates are the most common birth defect in Britain,with one in every 700 babies affected. Babies born with cleftpalates usually have problems feeding, and may have speechdifficulties in later life, as well as issues with their hearing,teeth and facial growth. In severe cases radical surgery isrequired to correct the problem and complications can occuras the child grows into an adult.

A new hydrogel material similar to that used in contact lenseshas been developed by a team of surgeons and materialsscientists in Oxford. They used neutron scattering to confirmthe performance of the gel at the molecular level.

A small plate of the hydrogel material is inserted into the roofof the patient’s mouth. The gel absorbs fluid and graduallyexpands over several weeks, encouraging new skin to grow.When enough skin has been generated, the plate is removedand the cleft is repaired using the new tissue. The newmaterials will improve the patient experience by reducing thenumber of hospital visits and simplifying surgical procedures.

A spin-out company from the University of Oxford has beenformed to commercialise the materials.

Tracking cholesterol

Precise measurements of cholesterol transport rates are giving new hopefor treating Alzheimer’s, a disease that affects around half a millionpeople every year in the UK.

Cholesterol forms part of the outer membrane that surrounds every cell. Itplays a vital role, carrying chemical and nerve signals around the body byinsulating nerve fibres, and aids the production of important hormones.

Problems in cholesterol production and transport in the brain can lead tobuild-ups of the chemicals causing Alzheimer’s disease. As well as Alzheimer’s,abnormalities in cholesterol transport can lead to several other fatal diseases,such as narrowing of the arteries and heart disorders.

Neutron scattering experiments demonstrated that the movement ofcholesterol between cells takes several hours longer than previously thought,and also showed how the errors in previous results had arisen.

The results are changing opinion on how disorders linked to abnormalcholesterol transport should be treated and how the neurochemistrythroughout the central nervous system is affected.

“Neutrons revealed the true rate ofcholesterol transport in cells. Inaccuraterates from previous studies havehampered our understanding of howhealthy concentrations of cholesterolwithin cells are maintained.” Dr Lionel Porcar, Institut Laue-Langevin

“ISIS is an incredible facility and weare very fortunate to have it on our

doorstep. It allowed us to show thatthe molecules in our hydrogel are

aligned in the right way.” Marc Swan, surgeon, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford

Medicine and health

Antibody armour

A combination of neutron and X-ray scattering hasdetermined the structure of the most abundanthuman antibody for the first time in 40 years.

The most abundant human antibody is called secretoryimmunoglobulin A (SIgA). It acts as the immune system’sfirst line of defence when the body comes into contactwith the outside world. It is secreted in the lungs, genitalsystem, saliva and gut to deal with bacteria, viruses andother microorganisms that cause diseases such aspneumonia and diarrhoea.

The antibody is so big, complex and fragile that it hasproved extremely difficult to study, and despite itsimportance and prevalence, no new information has beenavailable since the early 1970s.

A combination of neutron scattering and X-rayexperiments have now successfully revealed how theantibody is secreted and how its structure affects how itworks.

For the very young, the elderly and others whose immunesystem is less efficient, the ability to make efficientvaccines or artificial versions of these antibodies willbecome increasingly important in defending their healthfrom new types of infection.

Neutron scatteringMaterials research for modern life

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Strength of hip replacements

Neutron stress measurements of artificial hip coatings will help toreduce failures.

Over 50,000 hip replacements are performed in Britain each year, and thenumber is expected to double by 2030.

Implants are commonly made using titanium coated with a thin layer ofhydroxyapatite, which is the main constituent of human bone. The coating,which is around the thickness of a sheet of paper, encourages bone to bondto the implant and hold it in place.

Small changes to the coating procedure can cause the implant to fail inunder six months leading to further painful operations for patients when theimplant is replaced.

Differences in the thermal and mechanical properties of titanium andhydroxyapatite at the interface between the two materials cause residualstresses to form in the coating after spraying. Neutron scattering is beingused to investigate hip implant coatings, collecting vital stressmeasurements to determine how this relates to implant failure.

With a clearer understanding of the microscopic structure, researchers areoptimistic that the number of failed implants can be significantly reduced.

“Using neutron scattering, we are collecting vitalstress measurements to investigate hip implantcoatings. Combined with computer modelling weare optimistic that the number of failed implantscan be reduced.”Dr Rehan Ahmed, Heriot-Watt University

“By mapping together data from neutronscattering and X-ray experiments weuncovered the molecular structure of secretoryimmunoglobulin. By combining bothtechniques we got the complete picture. Usingonly one technique alone there would havebeen gaps.”Professor Steve Perkins, UCL Structural Immunology Group

Mobile phone ceramics

The performance of components inside mobile phones is closelyrelated to material properties. Neutron scattering can helpmanufacturers get the right specification.

Mobile phones use small ceramic antennas to give each one a dedicatedoperating frequency. They are used in base stations and handsets to carrythe correct communication signals.

Consumer demand and evolving design of mobile phones has created aneed to improve performance and lower the costs of these ceramiccomponents. This includes reducing their power loss,which makes quality assurance essential duringmanufacture.

Device performance is closely related tomaterial properties. Wireless solutionscompany Powerwave UK has re-created acritical manufacturing stage, inside a neutronscattering facility where the ceramiccomponents are heated to over 1000°C.

The research was able to identify atomic-scaledifferences between materials processed underidentical conditions, but having differentelectrical properties. This testing wassignificantly more efficient than previoustrial-and-error methods, and has aidedthe manufacture of thesecomponents to the rightspecification.

Infection sensors

Biosensor quality control gets green light fromneutron scattering experiments.

Sensors to monitor living systems are made up of a mix ofbiological elements and electronics. When diagnosinginfectious diseases, these biosensors must be sensitiveand quick enough to distinguish between a virus and abacterial infection. For example meningitis comes inbacterial or viral forms and can be fatal if diagnosedincorrectly.

Orla Protein Technologies, a spin-out from NewcastleUniversity, makes bespoke protein surfaces for largecompanies developing the next generation of biosensors.Neutron scattering is the only technique that enables Orlato test the quality of its bio-engineered surfaces at scales

10,000 times smaller than a human hair.

Orla’s biosensors have a high performance proteinsurface, an invisible engineered biological film that

detects the tell-tale molecules in a sample. Thisengineered biological film is so thin that a stack of

30,000 would only be as thick as a sheet ofpaper. Neutron scattering gives the information

necessary to ensure that the protein surfacesare reliable for manufacturing.

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Electronics and IT

“With neutron scattering we canintroduce label molecules inreactions to help us tell where eachcomponent part is. These resultsreassure our customers and areessential for the success of ourbusiness.”Professor Jeremy Lakey, Orla ProteinTechnologies

“Neutron scattering experiments generated the datanecessary to understand the structure of these complexceramic materials.”David Iddles, development manager, Powerwave UK

Electronics and IT

Magnetic electronics

Creating a powerful new breed of electronics by controlling themagnetic properties of electrons flowing around silicon chips.

Conventional electronics relies on electrical currents caused bymoving electrons around minute circuits etched on silicon. Anemerging technology called ‘spintronics’ uses the magnetic propertiesof electrons at the same time to create a powerful new class ofcomponents. This technology has potential for a variety ofapplications in IT, motoring and healthcare.

The most widely used spintronic device is found in the read-head ofmagnetic hard-disk drives used inside desktop and laptop computers.

The spintronic read-head senses changes in the magnetism of layersonly a few atoms thick allowing it to read smaller data bits than oldertechnology. This has given a 40-fold increase in data-storage densityin the last five years.

But many of the most promising materials, which industry hopes todeploy in future devices, only work under extreme conditions such asvery low temperatures or large magnetic fields. The aim is tounderstand the complex physics of these new materials to get them towork at room temperature.

A number of UK universities and companies are attacking the problemto get a layer-by-layer understanding of the chemical and magneticstructure to connect the fundamental physics of spintronic materialswith their actual behaviour. Neutron scattering is critical in exploitingspintronics for a powerful new generation of applications.

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Neutron rain

ISIS is helping aerospace companies to manage theeffects of cosmic radiation on microchips flown inaircraft.

Cosmic rays hitting the earth’s atmosphere generateshowers of high energy neutrons that rain down onearth.

At normal aircraft flying altitudes of 30,000 to35,000 feet, a silicon chip can be struck by a neutronevery few seconds disrupting aircraft electronics whichcan cause problems ranging from wiping a device’smemory to damaging the electronics.

Using neutrons, leading aerospace companies such asBAE, Aero Engine Controls, QinetiQ and MBDA are ableto test components and manage the effects of cosmicradiation.

Dedicated testing facilities at ISIS can replicate hundredsof years of flying time in one hour of testing.

As the dimensions of electronic chip componentscontinue to shrink, neutron effects are also being seen atground-level in other areas such as transport,communications, medicine, and computing systems.

“Our aim is to understand the complex physics of these new materials to get them to work at room temperature. Neutron scattering is critical in exploiting spintronics for a powerful new generation ofapplications.” Professor Sean Langridge, STFC ISIS

“ISIS is one of few facilities in the world capable of producingenough very high energy neutrons to perform acceleratedtesting. The new Chipir instrument at ISIS will be the bestscreening facility in the world.” Andrew Chugg, MBDA

Stress relief in the air

Neutron scattering helps major aerospace companies assure thequality of engineering components.

Understanding stress distributions in aircraft parts after manufacturing isparticularly important for the aircraft industry.

Neutron scattering can be used to map internal stresses giving informationabout the effectiveness of different manufacturing and processingtechniques. The technique is well-suited for these studies as it isnon-destructive and can look deep inside components.

Aircraft manufacturer Airbus has used neutron scattering formany years to research the integrity of welds in

aluminium alloys, and to assess their suitability forfuture aircraft. This enables engineers to adjust themanufacturing process and make lighter and safer

aircraft parts at a lower cost.

Molecular makeover

Energy savings and cleaner manufacturing follow amolecular makeover.

Ineos ChlorVinyls is Europe's largest PVC manufacturer.More than 100,000 tonnes of methyl chloride aresynthesised at its Runcorn site every year to make a widerange of everyday materials from plastics topharmaceuticals.

Methyl chloride is made by passing methanol andhydrogen chloride over a catalyst that accelerates thechemical reaction. But Ineos ChlorVinyls found that a sideproduct was also produced wasting energy and whichwas expensive to recycle back to methanol.

A collaboration between the University of Glasgow andIneos ChlorVinyls used neutron scattering to understandwhat was happening at a molecular scale on the surfaceof the catalyst.

With this new insight, the catalyst surface was modified,significantly reducing the cost of the manufacturingprocess by almost completely eliminating the unwantedside product and avoiding construction of a new wastehandling plant.

The new catalyst has now been operating continuouslyon both of the Runcorn methyl chloride reactors forseveral years.

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Manufacturing and industry

“Residual stress measurementsusing neutron scattering are

invaluable for researching anddeveloping existing and novel

material manufacturing andprocessing techniques.”

Richard Burguete, experimental mechanics specialist, Airbus

Manufacturing and industry

Tackling chemical waste in thepharmaceutical industry

Ionic liquids have the potential to revolutionise thepharmaceutical industry.

Chemical waste is an expensive problem for thepharmaceutical industry, but researchers have used neutronscattering to develop a new approach that makes manychemicals easier to work with and helps reduce waste.

The vast majority of processes for making pharmaceuticalingredients are carried out in some form of organic solvent.However, organic solvents vapourise easily and can catch fire,making process safety an issue. Pharmaceutical ingredientsalso have to be free from all traces of solvent to make surethe drugs are safe.

Professor Chris Hardacre at Queen’s University Belfast hasdeveloped a new approach using ionic liquids. Ionic liquidsare highly stable, non-flammable solvents that don’t emitdangerous volatile organic components, and don’t get caughtup in the final product.

Neutron scattering data was essential in obtaining amolecular view of the liquid structure and to develop thecorrect formulation.

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Molecular insight gives industry a competitive edge

State-of-the art neutron experiments unlock thesecret of a major industrial process.

The Lindlar catalyst is used in the commercialmanufacture of vitamins and a range of otherapplications. Evonik Industries, a manufacturer of Lindlarand many other catalysts, wanted to acquire acompetitive edge by developing a unique understandingof the Lindlar catalyst.

The catalyst incorporates the metals palladium and lead.Both the palladium and the lead play key roles. Thepalladium splits molecules in hydrogen gas into separatehydrogen atoms needed for chemical production, whilethe lead enables the catalyst to stop the reaction at therequired point.

Neutron scattering provided the missing piece of thejigsaw by shedding light on what exactly happens on thesurface of the catalyst during a chemical reaction. Evoniknow know precisely how the Lindlar catalyst behavesand why it is so effective.

“Applying new analytical methods is one keystep to understanding the critical parametersthat control the performance of a catalyst.This will help us to improve further ourindustrial catalysts for the benefit of ourcustomers.”Dr Konrad Möbus, Evonik Industries

Spinning yarns

Neutron scattering is playing a key role in discovering how silk canbe made artificially.

Spider-silk is five times as strong as steel and absorbs three times moreenergy than the material used in bullet-proof vests. The strength andelasticity of silk could be harnessed for new plastics and biomedicalimplants if it could be made artificially.

Spiders spin silk from a mix of water and proteins stored as a gel inspecialised silk glands inside their bodies. As the gel is pulled through theirspinning glands it becomes a very resilient solid that could have manypotential uses in the industrial world.

Research teams are using neutron beams tuned for studying biological materials to shine a light on the atomic scale structural changes as the gel transforms into solid fibre. Experiments have unlocked some answers, and continue to reveal more of nature’s secrets.

Sub-zero survival

Food storage, fertility treatment and transportingmedicines could benefit from a new understanding ofhow lizards survive at low temperatures.

Cold-blooded lizards have only limited ability to regulatetheir own body temperature. When temperatures fall inwinter, so does their body temperature, putting tissuesand cells at risk of irreparable damage from internal ice.

To prevent lethal ice crystals forming in and betweencells in their body, lizards use chemical compounds suchas glycerol to reduce the freezing temperature of water.During prolonged exposure to sub-zero temperatures, cellactivity is paused until temperatures rise again andnormal activity can safely resume.

Molecular structure data collected with neutronscattering shows how mixing glycerol with waterprevents rigid ice networks from forming. This newfundamental understanding of the role of glycerol will behelpful in a range of applications.

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Natural world

“We are asking how naturemakes such amazingmaterials. Neutron scatteringis an excellent technique for understanding the spider’smagic tricks.”Dr Chris Holland, Oxford University Silk Group

“Improving our fundamental knowledge oflizard cryopreservation may lead toimproved storage and recovery of tissue for

fertility treatment, better storage ofdrugs in the pharmaceutical industry andtransport of organs for surgery, and betterstorage of food in the agricultural industry.”Dr Lorna Dougan, University of Leeds

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Disease resistant crops

Anti-microbial plant defence proteins could be used intransgenic crop species to increase disease resistanceand food yield.

Food security is becoming a major concern in the UK andacross the world, as harvest yields are challenged byclimate change, pests, diseases and the demands of arising world population.

A quarter of the world’s crops are lost to pests anddisease. Understanding how plants defend themselvescould be one way to reduce losses.

Common crops like rye, barley, oats, and wheat makeantimicrobial proteins to defend themselves againstdisease, fungi and bacteria. In wheat, the defenceproteins play an additional role in giving the endospermtexture, an economically important quality thatdetermines the milling characteristics of the wheat.

Food scientists are using neutron scattering to learn aboutthe molecular action of defence proteins and theirinteraction with the cell membranes of invaders. They canwatch defence proteins punch their way through a cellmembrane to kill hostile bacteria or strip vitalcomponents from its surface.

As regional climates change, this knowledge will alsohelp farmers and breeders to adapt plants tocounteract shifting weather patterns.

Planetary science

Geologists have developed novel high-pressureneutron scattering experiments to model the Earth’sinterior or predict the geology of the icy moons of theSolar System.

Satellite missions to the giant gas planets Jupiter andSaturn have revealed that our Solar System displays a richvariety of bodies, each with a complex and diverseevolutionary history.

Understanding the evolution of the planets and moonspresents one of the major challenges in Earth andplanetary sciences

Unique equipment developed by university groups in theUK and France for neutron scattering instruments cansqueeze rocks and other materials to very high pressures.These high pressures reproduce the conditions foundinside Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, or inside the mantle ofthe Earth at depths of up to 700 km.

The precise data derived from neutron scatteringexperiments allows planetary scientists to better interpretthe geology seen in surface images taken fromspacecraft, or create robust interpretations of seismicdata recorded on Earth.

Origins of Pompeii-style artefacts from Kent

Neutron scattering offers a non-destructive way to analyse rareRoman objects.

Road and civil engineering projects rely on archaeologists to assess thesignificance of ancient remains that may be disturbed and plan how toprotect them.

During work to widen the A2 in Kent, two high status Roman pit-burialswere discovered containing 2,000-year-old bronze artefacts. Thewine-mixing vessel, jugs and ceremonial pan-shaped objects are among thebest examples ever seen in Britain.

These 1st century AD artefacts are similar to ancient remains found atPompeii so the excavators wanted to know if they were imported from Italyor manufactured locally using similar techniques.

Using neutron scattering, the items found in Kent are being compared at amolecular level with similar items from Pompeii. The technique allowsdetailed analysis of rare objects without cutting out a sample of thematerial for testing. The measurements are extremely delicate andnon-destructive, so the objects are unharmed by the analysis.

The finest steel

Museums across Europe are using neutrontechniques to understand how Japaneseswords in their collections were madeduring the 14th to 17th centuries.

Japanese swords are made from some of thefinest steels known. Skilled craftsmen used thebest available materials in order to provide thecorrect mechanical characteristics for everypart of the blade according to its function.These ancient weapons were hand-madewithout any of the scientific processes used inmodern steel manufacturing.

Non-destructive neutron scatteringmeasurements map the distribution andchemical composition of hard and soft steelthrough the blades. With many swords notcarrying identification of the sword-maker,neutron measurements reveal characteristics ofthe sword-making traditions and the steel-making process.

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Heritage science

“Neutron scattering experiments have helped us tocharacterise different Roman metalworking practices.They have allowed us to distinguish between goodsimported from southern Italy and copies produced inthe UK by skilled local craftsmen.”Dana Goodburn-Brown, ancient metals specialist, Oxford Archaeology

“The sword blades are of incrediblyhigh quality comparable to those thatare made today. In Japan in the14th century, they were making themby instinct, and we’re very interestedin how they were making such highquality steel without modern controlprocesses in place.”Jeremy Uden, senior conservator, Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford

Britain’s bloodiest battlefield

Fresh thinking about key events in theWars of the Roses is coming from neutronscattering measurements of battlefieldweapons.

The Battle of Towton, fought near Tadcaster inYorkshire in 1461, saw up to 28,000 soldierskilled on a single day and was the bloodiestconflict of the Wars of the Roses.

Archaeologists are using neutron scattering toanalyse bronze cannon fragments and lead shotfound during a field survey at the NorthYorkshire battlefield.

The fragments and the shot fired from themcontain large amounts of lead, which absorbsX-rays very strongly. Neutron scatteringtechniques are the best-suited method forlooking at these samples since they can seethrough lead.

Heritage science

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"The manufacturing of firearms in the 15th century was notoriously unreliable. The neutron scattering data we have gathered can helpus to establish how and where the guns were made.”Tim Sutherland, archaeologist, University of York

Structure analysis has revealed that the cannonfragments were made of two different alloys andwere from two different guns. The guns wereprobably not found intact because it was commonfor guns at the time to explode in the users’ handsbecause of metal casting faults. The neutronscattering experiments are helping to piece togetherthe history of the battles, giving clues to how andwhere the weapons were made.

Training tomorrow’sscientists

40% of scientists using neutronscattering at ISIS and the ILL are PhDstudents, and 20% are post-doctoralresearchers. The tight workingschedules and team environmentprovide real-world training inscientific and personal skills.

Training schools are run regularly by bothresearch centres for UK and EU studentsteaching practical techniques and dataanalysis skills.

Early-career researchers using these largeresearch facilities gain valuableconfidence in pursuing ambitious newresearch programmes at the start of theirprofessional careers.

Engineering the future

As part of STFC’s training programme,a graduate position in neutronscattering offers exceptionalopportunities and training and is agreat place to start a career inscience, technology, engineering ormathematics.

We want the very best people to help usdeliver the very best science andengineering. Graduates with gooddegrees in mechanical, electrical andelectronic engineering are eligible for ourgraduate training schemes involving amix of formal and tailored training,placements and project work working onreal projects for real customers fromday one.

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Skills and careers

Science and technologyprogrammes using neutronscattering deliver knowledge andresults having long-lasting impact.But researching and improving themodern world can only be asuccess if there is a continual flowof experienced scientists who caneffectively use these facilities.Training the next generation ofscientists and engineers isabsolutely crucial.

Working at large,multidisciplinary researchcentres like ISIS and the ILLgives students valuabletechnical and personal skillswhich are an advantage inany workplace

“As a graduate mechanicalengineer in ISIS, I enjoyed thediverse range of projects, and ISISprovided the necessary training forme to achieve chartered statuswith the Institute of MechanicalEngineers. It is very supportive indeveloping the careers of its staff.”Steph, mechanical engineer, STFC ISIS

“It’s a high-pressure environment with otherpeople depending on the quality of yourwork. Beam time is a precious resource. Rapidproblem solving, team working and goodcommunication are essential. It forces you tostop and think about your priorities and thinkclearly as a chemist.”Craig, PhD student, University of Bristol

A year in industry

Undergraduate students can spendfrom 6 months to a year at ISIS andthe ILL as part of their universitycourses. Taking time out fromstudying to work at the forefront ofscience and technology builds skills,confidence and experience and givesstudents the space and time to workout the best path for their futurecareers.

Apprentices

Not everyone wants to be a scientist,but working in science, engineeringand technology is perfectly possiblewithout having a PhD or otheruniversity qualifications.

School-leavers and others with the rightschool-level qualifications can apply foran apprenticeship in electrical, electronicor mechanical engineering. A mix ofcollege study and on-the-job trainingteaches innovative techniques needednot only within ISIS and the ILL but alsoin high-tech industry.

Inspiring young people

Inspiring young people in school tofollow careers in science,engineering and technology isessential for the future well-being ofthe UK and Europe. Workexperience placements for schoolstudents offer a unique view intothe working world of science.

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“Working at ISIS helped me to realise thatscience was definitely the one for me. I gotmy honours degree in Environmental Scienceand now I'm starting a PhD.”Beth, PhD student, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology,NERC

“I thought ‘what could I do where I’m outand earning money?’ I left school at 16,started my apprenticeship. It took me 3 yearsand from then on I’ve worked in ISIS doingelectronic engineering. I really like theenvironment and the challenges that gowith it.”Steve, electronics engineer, STFC ISIS

“It’s been a great eight days in thebig wide world. The things I mostlike about this kind of job, is thatyou’re not repeating the sameactions all day long like in a shopcheck-out. It’s different. Everythingis new territory and everythingbuilds towards something biggerand better.”David, STFC ISIS work experience student

1932James Chadwick discovers the neutron in Cambridge. He receives the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935 for discovering this missing part of the atom.

1946Ernest Wollan and Clifford Shull, using the Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA, establish the basic principles of the neutron diffraction technique. They prove the existence of antiferromagnetism, as predicted by Louis Néel who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1970.

1956The Dido research reactor comes online at the Harwell Laboratory. This helped the UK to develop neutron scattering techniques for materials research.

1938Enrico Fermi receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work investigating the atomic scattering and absorption cross-sections of slow and thermal neutrons.

1955The first measurements of phonons from a prototype triple-axis spectrometer built by Bertram N Brockhouse confirm the quantum theory of solids.

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80 years of neutrons timeline

Neutron facility

Nobel prize relatedto neutronscattering

1974Small angle neutron scattering shows that polymer chains in the liquid state have a random coil conformation, as predicted by Paul J Flory who wins the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his fundamental achievements in understanding macromolecules.

1984The ISIS pulsed spallation neutron source opens at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. It is the first major neutron user facility based on a high-energy proton accelerator.

1991Pierre-Gilles de Gennes receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on liquid crystals and polymers. Neutron spin-echo spectroscopy was used to validate his models of the snake-like polymer reptation dynamics of polymers.

2009Next-generation accelerator-based pulsed neutron sources come online in the UK (ISIS Target Station 2), Japan (J-PARC) and, USA (SNS) opening up new areas of science.

2001ILL Millennium upgrade begins with over a 20-fold increase in detection rate within a decade.

1972ZING-P and ZING-P' pulsed spallation neutron source concepts demonstrated by Jack Carpenter at Argonne National Laboratory.

1972The Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) in Grenoble, one of the most intense thermal neutron sources in the world, comes into operation. It exploits the use of neutron optics (guides) to substantially increase the experimental capacity of a neutron source.

1987J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alexander Müller receive the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovery of high tempera-ture supercon-ductors. Later, neutron spectroscopy shows that magnetic interactions are crucial to this phenomenon.

1994Clifford Shull and Bertram Brockhouse receive the Nobel Prize in Physics for pioneering the development of neutron scattering techniques that can show “where atoms are” and “what atoms do”.

2010Lund, Sweden, is chosen as the site for the European Spallation Source. Construction is planned to be completed by the end of the decade.

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Head office: Polaris House, North Star Avenue, Swindon SN2 1SZ, United Kingdom.

Establishments at: Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxfordshire; Daresbury Laboratory, Cheshire;UK Astronomy Technology Centre, Edinburgh; Chilbolton Observatory, Hampshire; Isaac Newton Group,La Palma; Joint Astronomy Centre, Hawaii.

ISIS Neutron and Muon SourceSTFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory

Harwell OxfordDidcot OX11 0QXUnited Kingdom

T: +44 (0)1235 445592F: +44 (0)1235 445103

E: isisuo@stfc.ac.ukwww.isis.stfc.ac.uk

Institut Laue-LangevinBP 156

6, rue Jules Horowitz38042 Grenoble Cedex 9

France

T:+ 33 (0)4 76 20 71 11F: + 33 (0)4 76 48 39 06

E: welcome@ill.euwww.ill.eu

www.stfc.ac.uk/neutrons

The information in this brochure is just a sample of the significant social and economic impact that neutron scattering science contributes to our lives.Because of the collaborative nature of modern research, many of the experiments, research and development programmes are joint efforts between UKResearch Councils, academia and industry.

The Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) ensures that research using neutron scattering continues to make a valuable contribution to societythrough its ongoing funding and development of the ISIS Neutron and Muon Source in the UK and the Institut Laue-Langevin in France.