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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

EFFECTS OF COAL MINING ON GROUNDWATER

IN MUKAH, SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

JOSEPH JUBIN ANAK ARUH @ ARO

FPAS 2013 19

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EFFECTS OF COAL MINING ON GROUNDWATER

IN MUKAH, SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

By

JOSEPH JUBIN ANAK ARUH @ ARO

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfilment of the

Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

June 2013

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COPYRIGHT

All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons, photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material may only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra Malaysia. Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia

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Abstract of thesis presented to the senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

EFFECTS OF COAL MINING ON GROUNDWATER IN MUKAH, SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

By

JOSEPH JUBIN ANAK ARUH @ ARO

June 2013

Chairman: Associate Professor Shaharin Ibrahim, PhD

Faculty: Environmental Studies

With the present trend of increasing crude oil price globally, coal will be an

attractive alternative of energy resource for electricity power generation in

Malaysia. The presence of major elements such as SiO2 Al2O3, Na2O, K2O,

Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, P2O5 and SO3 and several trace elements such as (As), Cu

and Pb in the coal bodies contaminate both groundwater and surface water. The

hydrocarbon waste from workshops, leaching of heavy metals from coal

preparation plants, coal stockpiles, overburden dumps and refuse emplacement

within coal mining area elevated further the content of contaminants. Coal mine

tailings such as aggravated mud and organics substances filling oxbows contain

ferric sulphides (FeS2). The shallow and unconfined groundwater aquifers in the

study area with water table ranging from 0.1m to 1.23m below vadose zone are

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exposed to the influx of these contaminants. The production of acid mine

drainage which contains arsenic, iron compound, nitrate and carbonate

compound will pose problem to the existing biodiversity and the surrounding

environment, with no exemption to surface water and groundwater to the on

going coal mining area of about 192 km2. The problem of acid drainage due to

the presence of sulphur in coal bodies is a common in coal mining areas. Coal

waste, which oxidized to acid residue, will eventually lead to surface water and

groundwater problems. Visual features such as workshops, preparation plants,

coal stockpiles, overburden dumps and refuse emplacement within vicinity of

mining area can be a threat to the surrounding environment.

This research investigate the effects of opencast coal mining on the groundwater

quality and the surrounding watershed including seepage of mining

contaminants, transportation mechanisms of pollutants and its pathway into

groundwater aquifer. The geological, stratigraphy, bore holes logging and the

water quality data are analyzed and explored to the objectives of the research.

The geology of study area is simple. The Balingian Formation which is

unconformable overderlain by Begrih Formation covers most of the study area.

The southern part is underlain by younger Liang Formation hosted massive

lignite bed. The Quaternary deposits, mudstone/shale, and sandstone with

subordinate of mudstone, Begrih Conglomerate, and coal seam are common.

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The primary data of groundwater is obtained by laboratory analysis of

groundwater samples from the wells. The sampling of groundwater is done by

storing it in polyethylene bottle and treated with bactericide to prevent

contamination of the water samples. The groundwater is analyzed for major and

minor elements including Cl-, SO42- , HCO3, NO3-(anions), Ca+, Na+, K+,

Mg2+(cations), Fe, As, Mn, Cu, Cyanide, Zn, and Pb (heavy metals). Other

properties of groundwater analyzed are odour, pH, colour, turbidity, electrical

conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), hardness (CaCO3, DO, COD,

and BOD)

The physico-chemical data of groundwater properties, clay, and coal from the

coal mining area in Mukah are explored and analyzed by using IBM Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. The multivariate analysis of

variance (MANOVA) and principal component analysis (PCA) are computed to

investigate the important variables and the relationship among the variables.

The Principle component analysis (PCA) explains the acidity and the presence

of Fe, Mn, Ca, K, SO4, HCO3, CO3, Cl and total dissolved solids in groundwater

samples and to extract the important major elements such as SiO2 , Al2O3, Na2O,

K2O, TiO2, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, P2O5 and SO3 in both coal ash and clay

deposits.

The values of Mn, Mg and Fe are higher and slightly more acidic than

groundwater outside coal mining area. The production of acidic water is due to

ferric sulphide produces sulphate and free sulphuric acid under aerobic condition

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in the presence of water. The statistical analysis reveal that coal and clay

deposits contributed to the elevated values of metals elements and production of

acid mine water. The principal components of clay are TiO2, Na2O, K2O, and

MgO where as the principal component of coal ash are MgO, CaO, P2O5, SiO2,

Al2O3, TiO2, Fe2O3, MnO and SO3. The groundwater affected by coal mining

shows relatively low the concentrations of metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, and Al)

except for Fe having value of 1.4 mg/l and slightly higher than Malaysian water

quality standards. Mukah groundwater is classified into SO4 type, HCO3 type

and no dorminant type (intermediate).

The analysis lithologic data, wireline logging, resistivity imaging lines and from

the Ground Penetrating Radar runs are used to interpret the hydrostratigrahic

and the groundwater flow within the study area. The results of geological,

geophysical, stratigraphic correlation facilitate in creating conceptual model for

the intrusion of pollutant into groundwater aquifer.

The elevation and groundwater heads data were computed in surfer programme

to create the 3D image by gridding method using kriging point method. The

modflow vistas and MapInfo programme are used to predict the general flow

direction of groundwater within Mukah coal field. The locations of the drill holes

and groundwater wells are plotted on the digitized map by using Arcgis software.

The elevation and groundwater heads plots indicate that groundwater flows from

northeast to southwest and from central part of the mining area the direction of

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flow is westerly. In the central part of the Coal mining area groundwater flows

radially.

The problems arise from many coal producing countries has given extra

dimension in protecting groundwater from being contaminated by coal mining.

The planting of trees or top soil cover plants, the construction of sediment trap or

filter and settlement pond are recommended as the best practice in maintaining

and protecting of the groundwater from being polluted.

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Abstrak tesis dikemukakan kepada senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor of Falsafah

KESAN PELOMBONGAN ARANG BATU KE ATAS AIR BAWAH TANAH DI

MUKAH, SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

Oleh

JOSEPH JUBIN ANAK ARUH @ ARO

Jun 2013

Pengurusi: Associate Professor Shaharin Ibrahim, PhD

Fakulti: Pengajian Alam Sekitar

Dengan trend semasa peningkatan harga minyak mentah dunia, arang batu

akan jadi satu alternatif yang menarik sebagi sumber tenaga bagi penjanaan

kuasa elektrik di Malaysia. Kehadiran unsur-unsur yang utama seperti SiO2

Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, Fe2O3, MnO, P2O5, SO3 dan beberapa unsur surih seperti

(As), Cu dan Pb dalam arang batu mercermari air permukaan dan air bawah

tanah. Bahan buangan hidrokarbon dari bengkel, larut lesap logam berat dari

penyediaan loji arang batu, kawasan simpanan arang batu, longgokan dan

tinggalan pembuangan tanah-tanih dalam kawasan perlombongan arang batu

meningkatkan lagi kandungan bahan cemar. Bahan buangan pelombongan

arang batu seperti hancuran lumpur dan bahan bahan organik yang mengisi

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kolam kolam lazimnya mengandungi sulphides (FeS2). Akuifer air bawah tanah

yang cetek dan terbuka di kawasan kajian dengan kedalaman paras air dari

0.1m ke 1.23m di bawah zon vadose terdedah kepada kemasukan bahan cemar

ini. Penghasilan saliran lombong berasid yang mengandungi arsenik, sebatian

besi, nitrat dan sebatian karbonat akan menimbulkan masalah kepada

biodiversiti yang sedia ada dan persekitaran, dengan tiada pengecualian kepada

air permukaan dan air bawah tanah di kawasan pelombongan arang batu seluas

kira-kira 192 km2. Masalah saliran berasid disebabkan kehadiran sulfur dalam

arang batu adalah satu perkara biasa di kawasan kawasan pelombongan arang

batu. Sisa arang batu yang teroksida kepada sisa asid, akhirnya akan membawa

kepada masalah-masalah air permukaan dan air bawah tanah.

Kajian ini menyiasat kesan pelombongan arang batu terbuka ke atas kualiti air

bawah tanah dan kawasan perairan dipersekitarannya termasuk resapan bahan

cemar pelombongan, mekanisme pengangkutan bahan pencemar dan laluan ke

aquifer air bawah tanah. Geologi, stratigrafi, log lubang lubang gerudi dan data

kualiti air adalah dianalisis dan diterokai untuk objektif kajian ini.

Geologi kawasan kajian adalah mudah. Pembentukan pertindihan

ketakselarasan formasi Balingian yang mendasari formasi Begrih meliputi

kebanyakan kawasan kajian. Bahagian selatan adalah didasari oleh formasi

Liang yang lebih muda dan mempunyai singkapan lignit yang massif. Enapan

kuaternari, batuan lumpur/syal, dan batu pasir dengan kandungan batu lumpur

yang rendah, Begrih Konglomerat dan lipit arang batu adalah biasa.

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Data-data utama air bawah tanah dari telaga-telaga air diperolehi melalui

analisis sampel air bawah tanah di makmal. Persampelan air bawah tanah

dilakukan dengan menyimpannya dalam botol polietilena dan dirawat dengan

bacterisid untuk mengelakkan pencemaran sampel air. Air bawah tanah

dianalisis untuk unsur-unsur utama dan minor termasuk Cl-, SO42- , HCO3, NO3-

(anions), Ca+, Na+, K+, Mg2+(cations), Fe, As, Mn, Cu, Cyanide, Zn, dan Pb

(logam berat). Sifat-sifat lain air bawah tanah yang dianalisis adalah bau, pH,

warna, kekeruhan, pengaliran elektrik (EC), jumlah pepejal terlarut (TDS) dan

kekerasan (CaCO3, DO, COD dan BOD).

Data fisiko-kimia, sifat sifat air bawah tanah, tanah liat dan arang batu dari

kawasan pelombongan di Mukah diterokai dan dianalisis dengan menggunakan

pakej statistik IBM perisian untuk sains sosial (SPSS) versi 20. Multivariate

analisis varians (MANOVA) dan analisis komponen utama (PCA) akan dikira

untuk menyiasat pembolehubah penting dan hubungan antara pembolehubah.

Analisis komponen utama (PCA) menerangkan keadaan berasid dan kehadiran

Fe, Mn, Ca, K, SO4, HCO3, CO3, Cl dan jumlah pepejal terlarut dalam sampel

air bawah tanah dan untuk mengeluarkan elemen utama yang penting seperti

SiO2 , Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, TiO2, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, P2O5 dan SO3 dalam

simpanan kedua-dua abu arang batu dan tanah liat.

Nilai-nilai Mn, Mg dan Fe adalah lebih tinggi dan lebih berasid pada air bawah

tanah dalam kawasan pelombongan arang batu daripada air bawah tanah di luar

kawasan pelombongan arang batu. Pengeluaran air berasid adalah kerana

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lazimnya sulphide menghasilkan sulfat dan asid sulfurik bebas di bawah

keadaan aerobik dengan kehadiran air. Analisis statistik menyokong bahawa

arang batu dan tanah liat menyumbang kepada ketinggian nilai nilai unsur logam

dan penghasilan air saliran lombong berasid. Komponen komponen utama

tanah liat adalah TiO2, Na2O, K2O, dan MgO di mana komponen utama abu

arang batu adalah MgO, CaO, P2O5, SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, Fe2O3, MnO and SO3.

Air bawah tanah yang terjejas oleh pelombongan arang batu menunjukkan

kepekatan logam (Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd dan Al) rendah kecuali Fe mempunyai nilai 1.4

mg/l dan sedikit tinggi berbanding degan piawaian kualiti air Malaysia. Air bawah

tanah di Mukah dikelaskan kepada jenis SO4, jenis HCO3 dan tiada jenis

dominan (pertengahan).

Analisis data batu batuan, pengelokkan talian wayar, pengimejan garisan

resistiviti dan data dari radar menembusi tanah digunakan untuk mentafsirkan

hydrostratigrafik dan aliran air bawah tanah di kawasan kajian. Keputusan

korelasi geologi, geofizikal, stratigrafik membantu dalam mewujudkan model

konseptual bagi pencerobohan pencemaran ke dalam aquifer air bawah tanah.

Data ketinggian dan kepala air bawah tanah diolah dengan program surfer untuk

mencipta imej 3D dengan kaedah gridding dan titik kriging. Modflow Vistas dan

MapInfo program digunakan untuk meramalkan arah aliran am air bawah tanah

dalam lembangan arang batu di Mukah. Pendigitan lokasi-lokasi lubang-lubang

gerudi dan perigi air bawah tanah di peta dilakukan dengan menggunakan

perisian Arcgis. Ketinggian dan kepala air bawah tanah menunjukkan bahawa

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air bawah tanah mengalir dari timur laut ke barat daya dan dari bahagian tengah

kawasan pelombongan, arah aliran adalah ke arah barat. Di bahagian tengah

kawasan pelombongan arang batu bawah aliran air bawah tanah adalah

berbentuk jejari.

Masalah masalah yang timbul dari banyak negara-negara pengeluar arang batu

telah memberikan dimensi tambahan dalam melindungi air bawah tanah

daripada tercemar oleh pelombongan arang batu. Penanaman pokok pokok

atau tumbuh tumbuhan penutup atas tanah, pembinaan perangkap sedimen

atau penapis dan kolam pemendapan yang disyorkan sebagai amalan terbaik

dalam mengekalkan dan melindungi air bawah tanah daripada tercemar.

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ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

This Thesis has been developed with the help of many people that have

contributed many suggestions and facts from precise source of information. I

would like to thank especially Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shaharin Ibrahim for his guidance,

encouragement, corrections, critical comments, and suggestions, which could

spend much time in writing this thesis. Also, lecturers especially Associate

Professor Dr. Mohd Kamil and Associate Professor Dr. Pauziah Latif who are

committee members supervising and guiding me in producing this thesis and

course mates who have discussed, commented and giving suggestions to this

thesis during the colloquium, their criticisms and suggestions are much

appreciated.

The support is acknowledged from Director of Minerals and Geoscience

Department Malaysia, Kuching for his consideration in allowing me to take this

course, giving study leaves and the use of office facilities that lessen my task in

this course.

I am thankful to technical staff of UPM Mr. Gafar and Mr. Zairi Ismail and Miss

Asiah for their assistance in operating the resistivity imaging and ground

penetrating radar equipments in the field. The assistance from fellow colleagues

Mr. Robin bin Junang, Johnathan Judan Uwau, and Ambrose Edwards Kut while

carried out field research and raw data acquisition are very much appreciated.

The cooperation from the General Manager of Sarawak Coal Resources Berhad,

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Mr. Dorani Johari is indeed make my research work more easier in obtaining

data both from drilling core and groundwater within the Mukah coal mining area.

The attentive consent from Mr. Bakar and Mr. Lim who are both public relation

officers from Sarawak Coal Resources Berhad in the time they needed are also

appreciated.

The effort from Hermawati Tabeng(Geochemist) and Madam Chin(Assistant

Geochemist) of Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia, Sarawak and

Hii Lu Yong (Senior Chemist) of Chemsains Private Limited for the analysis of

groundwater samples.

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I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on 24 June 2013 to conduct the final examination of Joseph Jubin Anak Aruh @ Aro on his thesis entitled "Effects of Coal Mining on Groundwater in Mukah, Sarawak, Malaysia" in accordance with the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitution of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 March 1998. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the Doctor of Philosophy. Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows: Mohamad Pauzi b Zakaria, PhD Professor Faculty of Environmental Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Wan Nor Azmin b Sulaiman, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Environmental Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Mohd Rusli bin Yacob, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Environmental Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Arun Kumar Saraf, PhD Professor Department of Earth Sciences Indian Institute of Technology India (External Examiner)

NORITAH OMAR, PhD Associate Professor and Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date: 20 November 2013

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows: Sahaharin Ibrahim, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Environmental Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Mohd Kamil Yusoff, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Environmental Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Pauziah Abdul Latif, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Environmental Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date:

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DECLARATION

I declare that the thesis is my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously and not concurrently, submitted for any other degree at Universiti Putra Malaysia or at any other institution.

_______________________________

JOSEPH JUBIN ANAK ARUH @ ARO

Date: 24 June 2013

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

ABSTRACT i ii ABSTRAK viii ACKNOWLEGEMENTS xiii APPROVAL xv DECLARATION xvii LIST OF TABLES xx LIST OF FIGURES xxiv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxviii

CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Problem statement 5 1.3 Need for the study 6 1.4 Hypothesis 7 1.5 Objectives 7 1.6 Significance of study 8 1.7 Research framework 10

2 THE STUDY AREA 11

2.1 Location and accessibility 11 2.2 Drainage and topography 12 2.3 Climate and vegetation 15 2.4 Geology of Mukah study area 17 2.4.1 Balingian formation 19 2.4.2 Begrih formation 19 2.4.3 Structural geology 20 2.4.4 Hydrogeology of Mukah-Balingian area 21 2.4.4.1 Aquifer properties 23 2.4.4.2 Groundwater recharge 27 2.4.4.3 Groundwater discharge 28 2.4.4.4 Groundwater flow 28 2.4.4.5 Hydrochemical characteristics of the aquifer water 31

3 LITERATURE REVIEW 33

3.1 Importance of surface water and groundwater within the study area 33 3.2 Coal mining in Sarawak 38 3.3 Mukah-Balingian coal mining 40 3.4 Physico-chemical characteristics of coal in the study area 41 3.5 Impact of Coal Mining on the Environment 43

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3.6 Hydrogeological Characteristics of Mukah Area 46 3.7 Geological Information 50 3.8 Sensitivity of groundwater systems to pollution 54

4 MATERIALS AND METHODS 60 4.1 Introduction 60

4.2 Geology 61 4.3 2D Resistivity imaging and ground

penetrating radar survey 65 4.4 Groundwater sampling and laboratory analysis 66 4.5 Statistical analysis 68 4.6 Groundwater flow 79 4.7 Hydrogeology 80

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 85

5.1 Stratigraphic framework of Mukah coal mining area 85 5.2 Groundwater Flow Modeling 92 5.3 Groundwater Chemistry and Contamination 101 5.3.1 Chemistry of groundwater within coal coal mining area 102 5.3.2 Significant variables of groundwater within coal mining area 118 5.3.3 Physico chemical statistical analysis of groundwater outside coal mining area 118 5.3.4 Major elements statistical analysis of clay deposit in Mukah coal field 130 5.3.5 Major elements statistical analysis of Mukah coal 136 5.3.6 Contaminants of groundwater in Mukah 143 5.4 Groundwater Types in Mukah Coal field 159 5.5 Types of Contamination 164 5.6 Groundwater and surface water connection 166

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 169 6.1 Conclusion 169

6.2 Recommendations 176

REFERENCES 183 APPENDICES 191 BIODATA OF STUDENT 234 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 236

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 1.1 Coal reserves in Malaysia 2 2.1 Annual average rainfall at Balingian station 1 Mukah (1995-2009) 16 2.2 Groundwater analysis for the deep aquifer in the lower Sungai

Mukah area as compared to WHO water quality standard 32 3.1 Sarawak Coal Resources 38 3.2 Geochemical characteristics of Mukah coal 42 3.3 Major elements (wt %) of coal ash of Mukah coal 42 3.4 Production of coal by country and year 44 3.5 Examples coal mining pollution in coal major producing countries 46 4.1 Physico chemical parameters of groundwater in Mukah coal mine 71 4.2-4.6 Groundwater properties outside coal mining in Mukah 72 4.7 Major elements of coal ash of Mukah coal 76 4.8 Chemical analysis of clay deposit in Mukah coal mining area 77 4.9-4.11 Groundwater levels and elevation of groundwater heads in Mukah 82 5.1 Summary of means of the physico-chemical properties of groundwater from wells within Mukah coal mine 103 5.2 Physico chemical parameters correlation of groundwater in Mukah coal mining area 106 5.3 Communalities value of groundwater variables within Coal mining area 108

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5.4 Reproduced Correlation of physico chemical variables of groundwater within coal mining area 109 5.5 Extracted principal component of groundwater variables within Mukah Coal mining area 110 5.6 Unrotated and rotated component matrix on four factors extracted

from the physico chemical groundwater within Mukah coal mine 111 5.7 Correlation matrix of 11 selected variables out of 17 original variables 112 5.8 Communalities of 11 selected variables out of 17 original variables 113 5.9 Extracted principal component of groundwater on 11 variables out of 17 original variables within Mukah Coal mining area 113 5.10 Unrotated and rotated of component matrix on 11 factors extracted of the physico chemical groundwater within Mukah coal mine 114 5.11 Communalities of 8 selected variables out of 17 original variables 115 5.12 Extracted principal component of groundwater on 8 variables out of 17 original variables within Mukah Coal mining area 115 5.13 Unrotated and rotated of component matrix on 8 factors extracted

from the physico chemical groundwater within Mukah coal mine 116 5.14 Reproduced correlations of physico chemical 8 extracted variables of groundwater within coal mining area 117 5.15 Summary of means of the physico- chemical parameters of groundwater from wells outside Mukah coal mining area 119 5.16 Correlation of physico chemical parameters of groundwater outside coal mining area in Mukah 121 5.17 Extracted principal component of groundwater on 11 original variables outside Mukah Coal mining area 123 5.18 Communalities of 11 variables of groundwater samples outside coal mining area in Mukah 124 5.19 Communalities of 10 variables of groundwater samples outside coal mining area in Mukah 124

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5.20 Extracted principal component of groundwater on 10 retained variables outside Mukah Coal mining area 125 5.21 Communalities of 9 variables of groundwater samples outside coal mining area in Mukah 125 5.22 Extracted principal component of 9 variables from groundwater outside Mukah Coal mining area 126 5.23 Unrotated and rotated component matrix on 9 variables extracted from groundwater outside Mukah coal mine

127 5.24 Extracted principal component on 6 variables from groundwater outside Mukah Coal mining area 128 5.25 Extracted principal component on 4 variables of groundwater outside Mukah Coal mining area 129 5.26 Correlation of 4 extracted physico chemical parameters of

groundwater outside Mukah coal mining area 129 5.27 Summary of means and standard deviation of major elements of clay deposits from 25 samples within Mukah coal mining area 131 5.28 Correlation between elements of clay deposit within Mukah coal mine 131 5.29 Comparison of unrotated and rotated of component matrix on 8 factors extracted of the clay deposits within Mukah coal mine 133 5.30 Summary of means of major elements of coal ash content from Mukah coal mining area 136 5.31 Extracted principal component of coal ash within Mukah Coal mining area 137 5.32 Reproduced correlation between elements of coal within Mukah coal mine 138 5.33 Unrotated and rotated component matrix on extracted variables of coal deposits within Mukah coal mine 139 5.34 Extracted principal component on 9 variables of coal ash within Mukah Coal mining area 140

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5.35 Unrotated and rotated of component matrix on 9 extracted coal major elements within Mukah coal mine 142 5.36 Metals and metalloids in Groundwater within Mukah Coal Mine 155 5.37 Cations Percentage in water samples of groundwater wells in Mukah coal field 161 5.38 Anions percentage in water sample of groundwater wells in Mukah Coal field 161 5.39 Classification from the plotted area in the rhombic diagram for the underground water 163

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page 1.1 Exposing the coal seam and piled up overburden

creating unstable high wall 4 1.2 Excavating of coal and transport it to stock pile at Kampung Jebungan, Mukah 4 1.3 Research framework for effects of coal mining in Mukah 10 2.1 Location map of study area 13 2.2 Location map of Mukah coal mining, Sarawak 14 2.3 The variation of an average annual rainfall from 1995 to 2009

in Mukah coal field 16 2.4 Angular unconformity contact between Bergrih formation

with Balingian formation 18

2.5 Catchments within the vicinity of opencast coal mining area, Mukah, Sarawak 22

2.6 The composite geophysical log at KT1, Kampung The, Mukah 24

2.7 The lowland peat swamps of Sarawak 26

2.8 The Catchment Area for site A at Jebungan Area Mukah 30 2.9 The catchment area for site B at Jebungan area, Mukah 30

3.1 Distribution of landuse within the vicinity area of coal mining in Mukah coal field 35 3.2 Locations of coal resources in Sarawak 39

3.3 Pie chart of world major coal production countries in Comparison to Sarawak coal production (2005-2010) 45 3.4 Location map of drill holes and Formation in Mukah coal field 47

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3.5 Geologic profile of the deep boreholes in the lower Mukah River area 48 3.6 Geologic sensitivity for surface water to travel vertically into an aquifer 58 3.7 The three zones use in evaluating the setting sensitivity of wells in unconfined groundwater aquifer 59 4.1 Drill core (SE2M01) obtained from drill hole

in Sikat Area, Mukah 62 4.2 The selected Drillcores in Bayan Ulu and Sikat area, Mukah 63 4.3 Decission analysis tree of groundwater contamination 68 4.4 Locations map of sampling point for clay, coal and groundwater samples 78 5.1 Geologic fence diagram of Mukah coal mining site 87 5.2 Lithologic cross sectionalong XY Mukah coal mining area 89 5.3 Resistivity measurement at abandoned coal mine at Belian Mati in Mukah coal field 90 5.4 Detecting the interfaces between subsurfaces materials using GPR at Belian Mati in Mukah coal mine 91 5.5 Groundwater flow model in Mukah coal field 93 5.6 The 3D groundwater head of Mukah coal mining area 94 5.7 3-D topographic view of Mukah coal mine area 94 5.8 Contour line of groundwater elevation and regional groundwater flow in Mukah, Sarawak 98 5.9 Cross section of groundwater well head from south to north(A-B) 99 5.10 Cross section of groundwater well head from west to east(X-Y) 99 5.11 The geologic, hydrogeologic and 3-D of groundwater head of Mukah coal mining area 100 5.12 Groundwater table 3D plot of Mukah coal mine 101

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5.13 Histograms of chemical properties of groundwater within Mukah coal mining area 104

5.14 Scatter plot with regression line of statistical correlation of groundwater parameters within coal mining area in Mukah 107 5.15 Scree plot of principal component of groundwater variables within coal Mukah mining area 110 5.16 Scree plot of principal component of 11 groundwater variables after removing the 6 complex factors loading within Mukah coal mining area 114 5.17 Scree plot of principal component of 8 groundwater variables after removing the 9 complex factors loading within Mukah coal mining area 116 5.18 Component plot in rotated space of important groundwater physicochemical variables within the coal mining in Mukah 117 5.19 Histograms of chemical properties of groundwater outside the area of Mukah coal mining 120 5.20 Scree plot of principal component of 11 groundwater variables outside Mukah coal mining area 123 5.21 Scree plot of component variables against the eigenvalues of groundwater outside coal mining area in Mukah 126 5.22 Scree plot of component variables against the eigenvalues of clay deposits within coal mining area in Mukah 133 5.23 Scree plot of component variables against the eigenvalues of coal ash within coal mining area in Mukah 138 5.24 Scree plot of nine component variables against the eigenvalues of coal ash within coal mining area in Mukah 141 5.25 Plot of nine rotated component variables of coal ash within coal mining area in Mukah 142 5.26 Exposed coal seam ready to be extracted 146 5.27 Generalized relationship between rainfall soil loss 148

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5.28 Schematic diagram of the physical and chemical processes as water passes through a soil profile to a groundwater table well below the soil 151

5.29 Schematic diagram of the physical and chemical processes as water passes through a soil profile when groundwater table is raised 152

5.30 Trilinear diagram showing water types for groundwater samples collected from wells within and outside Mukah coal mining area 162 6.1 Schematic illustration for the coal mining contaminants Seeping into the groundwater aquifer 176 6.2 The diagram showing the position of the sediment trap 179 6.3 Coal waste disposal ponds 181 6.4 The incised pond constructed within the opencast Coal mining in Mukah coal field 181 6.5 The water sump is pumped out into the treatment pond and treated before discharging into the surrounding 182

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand Btg Batang (Trunk river in Malay) Cm Centimeters COD Chemical Oxygen Demand oC Degrees Celsius DID Drainage and Irrigation Department DO Dissolved Oxygen DOE Department of Environment EIA Environment Impact Assessment FAU A measure of turbidity GPS Global Positioning System ha Hectares HEP Hydro Electric Power HVS High Volume Sampler INWQSM Interim National Water Quality Standards of Malaysia JKR Jabatan kerja Raya (Department of Public Works) Jln Jalan (Road in Malay) Kg Kilograms Km kilometre Kpg. Kampung (Village in Malay) LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide LANDSAT Unmanned earth-orbiting NASA satellite Leq Equivalent Level LSD Land Survey Datum m Meters meq/l Milliequivalent per litre mg/L Milligrams per litre mm Millimetres MPN/100ml Most Probable Number per 100 Millilitres MSL Mean Sea Level mS/cm Millisiemens per Centimetre NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NH3-N Ammoniacal Nitrogen OPIC Oversea Petroleum and Investment Corporation PO4-3 Free Phosphate ppm Parts per Million NREB Natural Resources and Environment Board R.Baling Sg. Sungai (River in Malay) TR Tuai Rumah (Village leader in Iban) TSP Total Suspended Particulates TSS Total Suspended Particulates WHO World Health Organisation yrs Years µS/cm Microsiemens per Centimetre

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Coal mining in Mukah coal field has been operating since the year 2002. As a

result of the coal mining operation on area of 250 km2 for excavation of the coal

and disposal of the overburden (Figure 1.1) will be affected (Genesis Force,

1999). The areas where treated water supply were not available to the local

residents, groundwater from dug out well and from the tube well developed by

the government are the main sources of clean water other than rain water which

is unreliable. The river water in most places within the coal mining area is

intruded by seawater and not suitable for human consumption.

At present much of the coal used in electricity generation such as at Sejingkat

coal power plant are imported from Indonesia. However, it is always wise for

Malaysia to focus on fuel resource development within this country. A number of

coals bearing formation have been identified in Sarawak, such as those in Merit-

Pila, Mukah, Tutoh, and Silantek. Large area of coal reserve has also been

identified in Maliau basin in Sabah, which involved an area about 23 km in

diameter. The on going coal mining in Mukah is carried out by two major coal

mining companies namely Genesis Force Sendirian Berhad and Sarawak Coal

Resources Sendirian Berhad that covers about 250 km2. The mining operation

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will pose problem on the existing biodiversity and the surrounding environment,

with no exemption to surface water and groundwater. The coal mining activities

provide the local people job opportunities but any mining waste leave untreated

may cause pollution to the surrounding environment and possibly infiltrating into

groundwater aquifer. Mukah Coalfield hosted 551.9 mt of coal reserves of a

sub-bituminous B coal (Sia, et al., 2000). Coal has been one the major energy

resources other than oil, gas, and hydroelectric power (HEP). Mukah coal

produces an average gross calorific value of 22.21 MJ/Kg on moist mineral

matter free basis (Sia, et al., 2000). Mukah coal constituted about 33% of total

Malaysia coal reserves as stated in Table 1.1. With an low angle of dipping coal

seam at 100 150 and generally low lying flat topography of Mukah coal field,

opencast coal mining method had been used.

Table 1.1: Coal Reserves in Malaysia

RESERVE

STATE COAL FIELD (in million tonnes) SOURCE

i. Selantek 50.25 Tuan Rusli bin Tuan Mohd, 2000

ii. Merit-Pila 387.18 Laporan Tahunan, GSM 1997iii. Mukah 551.90 Sia et al, 2000

SARAWAK iv. Balingan 203.00 Hussien Bin Mohd. Juni, et al, 2000v. Tutoh 203.00 Aro Jubin, Joseph, et al, 2005vi. Bintulu 20.00 Laporan Tahunan, GSM 1997

i. Silimpopn 14.10 Laporan Tahunan, GSM 1997 SABAH ii Labuan 8.90 Laporan Tahunan, GSM 1997

iii. Meliau 215.00 Laporan Tahunan, GSM 1997

PENINSULA MALAYSIA i. Batu Arang 17.00 Laporan Tahunan, GSM 1997

1670.33Total Coal Reserve:

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Opencast coal mining operations (Appendix I) in Mukah involves a few stages

such as:

1. Clearance of vegetation and soil stripping.

2. Breakage of both overburden and coal prior to excavation. Overburden is

removed by using dragline excavator (Figure 1.1).

3. Excavation of the burden and stockpiling of this material within the

excavation area. Dumps can be temporary or permanent but minimum

environmental damage in the long term is achieved by the progressive

backfilling of worked out areas.

4. Excavation of coal (Figure1.2)

5. Dewatering or sump pumping of the excavation is carried out to maintain dry

working conditions.

6. Coal preparation activities including crushing, screening and washing.

Washing is done by heavy and medium separation, which, involve gravity

settlement in a viscous medium. Heavy mediums used are suspensions of

magnetite or ferrosilicon in water. Chemical additive such as sodium nitrite is

added to the medium to reduce corrosion of the suspended particulates. The

medium is generally recycled on site. Wastewater is generally slurry, which

is held in lagoons.

7. Treatment of process water sump and mining wastes often involved basic

settlement in large lagoons.

8. Removal of overburden and coal extraction is preceded simultaneously and

mined coal is transported to stockpile site at Kampung Jebungan.

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Figure 1.1. Exposing the coal seam and piled up overburden creating unstable high wall

Figure 1.2. Excavating coal and transport it to stock pile at Kampung Jebungan Mukah

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1.2 Problem Statement

The production of acid mine drainage and decrease in groundwater head level

affect the sustainability supply of fresh groundwater for domestic usage. The

quality both groundwater and surface water affected by opencast coal mining as

a result of acid drainage production is a major problem. Coal mining wastes

which oxidized to acid residue eventually lead to surface water and groundwater

problems. The presence of arsenic, iron compound, nitrate and carbonate

compound in mine drainage water wash out into the surface water and

eventually seeping into the groundwater aquifer underlying the mined coal

seams.

The presence of major elements such as SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, Fe2O3, MnO,

MgO, P2O5 and SO3 in coal (Sia et al., 2000) could eventually be transported into

groundwater and cause groundwater pollution. These elements could cause

health hazard to human being through consumption of groundwater affected by

coal mining activities. The released of methane gas from coal bed and

excessive release of CO2 gas from coal usage further aggravate the effect of

global warming and eventually affect the groundwater table.

Visual features of coal mining such as workshops, preparation plants, coal

stockpiles, overburden dumps and refuse emplacement within the vicinity of

mining area can be a major threat to the environment surrounding the mining

area. During coal extraction, water removal by pumping and water course

diversion work may be necessary to manage mining activity. Excessive removal

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of water will affect groundwater and surface water movement in the surrounding

area.

1.3 Need for the Study

In most cases, opencast coal mining in Sarawak as in Kapit and Mukah, the

mining spoilage is dumped within the mining site. The mining contaminants seep

into the porous ground and eventually enter the groundwater reservoir.

The extraction of the coal bodies involves removing of substantially thick

overburden. Tropical climate brings much rainfall. Under the tropical condition

the dissolution of mining spillage will occur. When surface runoff flows it will pick

up a variety of loss and dissolved materials along its passage and transport it

into groundwater aquifer. As the groundwater table in Mukah area is very

shallow, ranging from 0.1m to 3.0m, the intrusion of coal mining contaminants

into the groundwater reservoir is fast. At the moment no information available

on the actual impacts of opencast coal mining activity to the surrounding

watershed and the groundwater. Detail study that explains the possible pathway

of these pollutants into groundwater is vital in protecting the groundwater from

being contaminated from coal mining activities. Therefore the present study

attempts to provide a complete understanding of the consequences of coal

mining. This information could help in remediation process by preventing the

possible outcome of pollution.

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1.4 Hypothesis

The excessive earth works and removing of overburden during coal mining with

abundant of rainfall will ease the dissolution and integration of major elements

such as SiO2 Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, P2O5 and SO3 in coal and

mining waste. These elements eventually transported into groundwater and the

surrounding surface water that cause pollution to any receiving surface water

catchments and groundwater aquifer. A large area of opencast coal mining

further induce the production of trace elements such as As, Bi, Cu, Mo, Nb, Ni,

Pb, Rh, Sn, Sr, Ta, Th, U, W,Y, Zn, and Zr. These elements could cause health

hazard to human being through consumption of groundwater affected by coal

mining activities.

The shallow unconfined groundwater aquifer makes an easy pathway of these

pollutants reaching into groundwater.

1.5 Objectives

The primary objective of this study is to investigate the effects of opencast coal

mining on the groundwater quality and the surrounding watershed. This

objective will lead to various objectives as follows:

I. To investigate the types of coal mining contaminants seep into the porous

ground and eventually enters the groundwater reservoir due to removal of

mining spoilage.

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II. To investigate and create conceptual model of transportation

mechanisms of coal mining wastes and its possible pathways into

groundwater aquifer.

III. To identify the factors facilitate the flow of pollution due to coal mining

operation.

IV. To delineate the regional aquifer aquitard framework and evaluating the

hydrostratigraphic controls and temporal patterns of groundwater flow of

the study area.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The variation of chemical content, hydrostratigraphic, lithology types, and

hydrochemistry are factors influenced the flow system of groundwater and its

travel time. These factors will be explained in chapter 5 that includes results and

discussions of the research. Therefore, a complete understanding of the

consequences of coal mining could help in remediation process of preventing

the possible outcome of pollution affecting groundwater aquifer. The knowledge

on hydrogeology and hydrochemistry of groundwater of the study area are

significant to explain the general groundwater flow. The variation of certain

chemicals content of groundwater within the coal mining area is possibly

influenced by hydrogeological factor. Coal mining covers large area and if there

is no early preparation to prevent pollution from coal mining activities, large area

will be polluted with no exemption surface water and groundwater. The visual

features of coal mining such as workshops, preparation plants, coal stockpiles,

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overburden dumps and refuse emplacement within vicinity of mining area can be

a major threat to the environment surrounding the mining area.

During the extraction of coal, the operation may require a removal of water by

pumping and at the same time through diversion works. The excessive removal

of water has at least some effects on the pattern of groundwater and surface

water movement in the surrounding area. The coal waste which oxidized to acid

residues and how its runoff could be controlled in a wet tropical country is a

question that has to be answered. The understanding of subbasinal scale

hydrodynamics is important for evaluating the possibility of pollution movement

from contaminated shallow aquifers to the as yet uncontaminated deep aquifers

and to understand the interaction between the local and regional flow systems,

along with estimating and understanding the control of recharge and hydraulic

parameters on the regional flow. The construction of settlement ponds in

protecting of ground water from contaminated by coal mining tailings through

induced infiltration of surface water will be more effective.

This research reveal geological, hydrogeological, chemistry of coal mining waste

that provide database for the government, mining companies and developers in

remediation process of preventing the possible outcome of pollution.

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1.7 Research Framework

This Thesis is presented in six chapters namely introduction, the study area,

literature review, materials and methods, results and discussions and conclusion

and recommendations. Each of these chapters contains sub sections as

presented in the flow chart below (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3. Research framework for effects of coal mining in Mukah

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EFFECTS OF COAL MINING ON GROUNDWATERIN MUKAH, SARAWAK, MALAYSIAAbstractTABLE OF CONTENTSCHAPTER 1REFERENCES