new life-style determinants of women s food shopping behavior

MARY LOU ROBERTS & LAWRENCE H. WORTZEL

Women's current high levels of participation in the labor force havefocused attention on changing I ife-styles and consumption patterns.This study uses life-style variables as predictors of food shoppingbehavior. A set of intervening variables reflecting women's attitudestoward food preparation explains their food shopping behavior betterthan either a working/nonv^orking classification or general role orien-tations.

NEW LIFE-STYLE DETERMINANTSOF WOMEN S FOOD SHOPPING

BEHAVIOR

IT is virtually impossible to pick up a magazine ornewspaper without finding at least one article de-

scribing women's changing attitudes, life-styles, andbehavior with respect to their traditional householdroles. Since so many of these roles are linked to con-sumption, any changes in role attitudes or behaviorshould be of substantial interest to marketers.

This paper presents the results of a study of wom-en's attitudes and behavior related to one of their tradi-tionally important consumption-related roles: foodshopping and preparation. The study identifies a rangeof factors that are linked to food shopping and prepara-tion, and discusses their ramifications for marketing

Mary Lou Roberts is Associate Professor of Marketing andLawrence H. Wortzel is Professor of Marketing at Boston Uni-versity, Boston, MA. The authors wish to acknowledge thefinancial support provided by the Graduate School of BostonUniversity for the conduct of this project.

strategy. It analyzes the effects of variables not consid-ered in previous studies, considering both a broaderrange and a more specific set of variables than in pastwork. Since studies on this topic already have beenpublished and since the study we are reporting buildsupon and extends previous work, we begin with a briefreview of relevant studies of food shopping behavior.

For the sake of convenience, we will refer to attitu-dinal and behavioral variables considered in previousstudies as roles or role preferences. Virtually all ofthese studies either consider working versus nonwork-ing women as a variable or suggest it be considered.One set of recent studies is based on classifying womenbroadly as either "Traditional"' or "Modern,"" usuallyaccording to their responses to AIO items. These clas-sifications are then related to attitudes and behavior.For example, Bryant (1977) describes women as either"Traditional" or "Expanding Outlook" ("Modern")depending on their attitudes toward topics such ascareers and career opportunities. Traditional women

28 / Journal of Marketing, Summer 1979Journal of Marketing

think mothers should stay at home and that boys andgirls today each have the same opportunities; "Expand-ing Outlook"" women believe that marriage and careercan be combined and that girls" opportunities are veryunequal to those offered boys. Reynolds, Crask, andWells (1977) studied women who preferred traditionalversus contemporary marriages. They found dif-ferences in attitudes, patterns of media exposure, anduse of cosmetic products between traditional and mod-ern women and between working and nonworkingwomen within each group.

Another group of studies examines the effect ofwomen's basic roles and role preferences on store pa-tronage behavior. One study found that workingwomen were more likely to be store loyal, shop on onlyone day of the week, shop in the evening, consultadvertising for special buys, and take a list to the store(Editor and Publisher 1972). Anderson (1972a) foundthat liberated women made more food shopping tripsthan either nonliberated or undecided women. But shealso found nonliberated women to be less concernedabout convenience and speed of shopping. When hersample was classified into working/nonworkingwomen, working women were found to make fewershopping trips and to be more brand loyal than theirnonworking counterparts (Anderson 1972b). Douglas(1975) found that both working and nonworkingwomen shopped more than once a week, but workingwomen were less likely to patronize neighborhoodsupermarkets. Husbands of working women were morelikely to do major grocery shopping while husbands ofnonworking wives were more likely to purchase just afew items.

The effect of life-styles on choice behavior also hasbeen studied. Fry and Siller (1970) analyzed productand brand choice behavior and found that productchoice does not vary greatly among women of differentsocial classes. However, Carman (1974) reported thatwomen who rated the importance of the maternal rolelower than the average were more brand loyal. Hesuggested that this finding was a consequence of storeloyalty since this same group of women also showedhigher store loyalty. Anderson (1971) found that stagein the family life cycle (specifically, the presence oftwo or more preteenage children) was more closelyassociated with the purchase of convenience foods thanwas either SES or income level. One study found thatworking women are more likely to buy frozen foodsthan are nonworking women (Editor and Publisher1972), but another study reported an opposite fmding(Anderson 1972b).

Satow and Johnson (1977) classified 1,680 womenas either full-time housewives or working women andthen subclassified working women as either "Satisfac-

tion Seekers" (career oriented) or "Income Seekers"(working out of necessity). It is not surprising that theyfound the full-time homemaker to be the most tradi-tional in outlook and most involved in the roles ofmother and homemaker. This group was most likely touse a list when shopping for groceries and to economizein the supermarket. The "Satisfaction Seeker"" is themost active, liberal, and modern. These women in-dulged in more impulse buying and more meals awayfrom home. The "Income Seeker" is most concernedabout nutrition, but reported the highest usage of con-venience foods.

Each of these studies has made some contribution toour understanding of the relationships between life-styles and food shopping and preparation behavior. Ofthe empirical studies, perhaps the most intriguing con-tribution has been made by Douglas (1975). Her resultssuggest, for example, that attitudes toward work, rolepreference, and role behavior are important in under-standing food shopping behavior. But even the Douglasstudy may be missing one important role variable orconstruct: the manner in which food is prepared in thehome. This variable is important, both from a predic-tive and an explanatory viewpoint. Fishbein (1966)argues, and other research has demonstrated (see forexample, Aizen and Fishbein 1970; Tuck 1973;Han"elland Bennett 1974; Roberts 1975), that specific attitudestoward an activity (in this case, food preparation styles)are better predictors of behavior (in this case, foodshopping) than are more general attitudes (the roleorientation variables). At the very least, gaining anunderstanding of the relationship between more spe-cific role orientations and food shopping behaviorshould be worthwhile.

A Hypothetical Modelof Food Shopping BehaviorIn reflecting upon the results of previous research, itseemed to us that the expectation of adequately explain-ing food shopping behavior using generalized life-stylevariables was unrealistic. Such a model of consumerbehavior may have been very useful in the exploratoryphase of research at a time in which women's life-styleswere changing rapidly. However, such a model omits agroup of intervening variables describing the manner inwhich products are used in the home, which may proveto be very important as changes become more in-stitutionalized. Specifically with regard to food prod-ucts, we propose the model shown in Figure 1.

The determinants of the way in which women per-form their roles may be more complex than their prefer-ences for the traditional, contemporary, or communalmarital styles used by Reynolds, Crask, and Wells

Women's Food Shopping Behavior / 29

FIGURE 1Hierarchy of Effects Model of Food Shopping Goals and Behavior

General Role

Orientations

vfs a vfs family

and outside world

Food

Preparation

Styles

Food Shopping

Goals and

Behavior

(1977) and are almost certainly more complex than aworking/nonworking classification. A woman's pref-erence for a marital style goes deeper than merely thehusband-wife relationship to include relationships withchildren and the world outside the home. Her perfor-mance of various roles inside the home is certainlydetermined by her likes and dislikes and (even if she ismodern) the likes and dislikes of her family. It may,therefore, take a more complex set of variables toeffectively recover the variety of role orientationswhich occurs among women today. Indeed, the wholethrust of change in women's roles has been in thedirection of broader, more multidimensional roles.

One trip to a modern supermarket will convince thethoughtful observer that the foods on display mirror avariety of food preparation modes. Foods may be pre-pared from scratch, purchased ready-to-eat, or requiremodest amounts of preparation. While the preferencefor one mode of preparation with regard to any productor product category may be somewhat related to roleorientation (''a good homemaker wouldn't use pow-dered mashed potatoes"), it may also be situation-specific ("it 's ail right to use powdered mashedpotatoes for family, but not for company").

We hypothesize that a homemaker's preferred foodpreparation style will be the major determinant of themanner in which she approaches the activities as-sociated with food shopping. We further hypothesizethat food preparation styles may be conditional uponrole preference since the contemporary role deem-phasizes the importance of many traditionalhomemaker tasks; hence, the hierarchical model pre-sented in Fig. 1. However, it also is possible thatpreference for food preparation styles is more indi-vidualistic, i.e., stemming from attitudes toward theactivity of cooking and the importance of serving attrac-tive, tasteful, and/or nutritious foods to one's family.

We believe that there are three basic strategieswhich can be played out in meal preparation and foodshopping. They would be manifested by concerns aboutthe price of food, ihe quality of food and meals, and thetime it takes to perform all activities associated withmeal preparation and food shopping.

It seems likely that concerns about price and qualitywill be most closely associated with a traditional roleorientation since they reflect traditional householdmanagement and family service activities. A concernfor time is likely to be prevalent among contemporarywomen since their expanded roles allow less time forperforming traditional tasks.

Specifically, we have developed the following hy-potheses:

Hj: Women who are oriented toward traditionalroles or life-styles will exhibit traditional at-titudes toward meal preparation and foodshopping.A. Traditional women in lower family income

brackets will be concerned about price.B. Traditional women in higher income

brackets will be concerned about quality.

H2: Women who are oriented toward contempo-rary roles or life-styles will be concerned aboutsaving time regardless of family income.

H3: Specific attitudes toward meaJ preparation willbe better predictors of food shopping goals andbehaviors than will more general role orienta-tion variables.

H4: Demographic variables, including women'semployment status, will be poor predictors offood shopping goals and behaviors.

If these hypotheses are supported, they will haveimplications for product assortment and service strate-

30 / Journal of Marketing, Summer 1979

gies in retail food stores and product planning andpromotion by food manufacturers.

Research MethodologyWe tested these hypotheses using a structured ques-tionnaire. The 169 respondents were recruited throughseveral voluntary organizations in Newton, Mas-sachusetts, (a high-income suburb with a good ethnicand religious mix, approximately six miles from Bos-ton) and Milford, Massachusetts, (a rapidly-growingmiddle-income suburb with a good mix of white andblue-collar families about 30 miles from Boston). Or-ganizations selected provided a range of income, age,ethnic background, and employment status (39% of the169 were presently employed). Respondents from bothsuburbs displayed a diversity of role orientations, mealpreparation styles, and food shopping goals and behav-iors.

The women were requested to participate in groupsessions in which the purpose and method of the re-search were explained and each woman was asked tofill out a questionnaire requiring approximately 45minutes to complete. Only a selected portion of the datawill be presented in this paper.

Variables Used

The questionnaire contained the usual demographicmeasures. In addition, in order to develop measures ofrole orientations, meal preparation styles, and foodshopping goals and behavior, we put together a list of91 AIO items including 19 role orientation items, 27in-home meal preparation items, 20 shopping goalitems, and 25 shopping behavior items.

Some of the AIO items were obtained from pub-lished studies (Reynolds. Wells, and Crask 1977; Ar-nott 1972; Wells 1971). Others were developed by theresearchers since no psychographic studies investigatedfood preparation styles and shopping strategies in suffi-cient depth. The questionnaire was pretested on severalsmall groups of homemakers.

Separate, split-half, varimax factor analyses (n =84, n = 85) were conducted on each of the four groupsof items in order to reduce them to a more parsimoni-ous, statistically independent, and reliable set of con-structs. The items which loaded on either or both splitsand two reliability tests for each factor are presented inTables 1 through 4. Burt's coefficient of concordancemeasures factor stability, with coefficients in the rangeof. 93 to . 99 being considered highly stable, and coeffi-cients of .45 and below being rejected as unstable(Harman 1967). Cronbach's alpha measures the inter-nal consistency of the scales, which were computed byusing variables which loaded at a .40 level or better on

either or both of the split halves. An alpha of .70 to .98is considered quite rehable. while values as low as .35have been found acceptable when used with other mea-sures (Guilford 1975). Face validity also is high be-cause all factors are easily interpretable.

The factor analysis of the role orientation items(Table 1) produced the two standard orientations:Traditional and Contemporary. Items which load on the"Traditional Orientation"" reflect male leadership infmancial matters and preference for the homemaker, asopposed to a wage-earner, role. Items which load on the"Contemporary Orientation" reflect desire for sharedhome duties and decision making, for freedom in occu-pational choice, and some concern with saving time.

Factor analysis of the food preparation-relateditems produced five factors shown in Table 2. The first,"Joy of Cooking."" contains items which deal withgood cooking and creating new and unusual dishes. Thesecond factor depicts "The Service Role,"' reflecting adesire to please one's family by preparing good meals,and a willingness to spend time doing so. We labeledthe third factor "Anti-Cooking."" Items which load onit indicate a desire for meals that can be preparedquickly and or eaten outside the home to avoid thedisliked and time-consuming tasks of cooking andclean-up. Factor four describes a "Sensory Orienta-tion'' to foods. Spices, herbs, wines, and sauces areused to prepare a variety of unusual dishes and meals.The fifth factor is called "Food is Fuel" because thetwo items that load on it represent a pragmatic concernfor the healthful, nutritional aspects of food rather thanits sensory or creative cookery aspects.

The factor analysis of the shopping goals items(Table 3) produced the three basic constructshypothesized. The first indicates a "Concern forTime." All the items which load on it reflect a desire toaccomplish one's food shopping as quickly as possible.The high loading items in the second factor indicate thatsaving money and budgeting are important, thus re-flecting a "Concem for Price," The third factor con-tains items which indicate a "Concern for Quality."

Table 4 presents the results of the factor analysis ofthe food shopping variables. The first factor containsitems which describe list-making behavior prior to ac-tual food shopping. Items loading on the second factordescribe activities designed to save money while shop-ping, such as purchase of specials and use of coupons.The items loading most heavily on the third factordescribe careful attention to point of sale informationsuch as labels and unit prices.

ResultsThis section will first present and discuss bivariaterelationships between demographic variables and the


factors presented in Tables 1 -4, and between the factors themselves. Next, it will present and discuss the results

TABLE 1Factor Analysis of Role Orientation Items

A woman should not expect to go to the same places or have the same freedom ofaction as a man.

Having a job outside the home is an important satisfaction in a woman's life.

1 wouldn't take a job unless we needed the money.

The best way of life for me would be a traditional marriage with thehusband assuming the responsibility for providing for the family and thewife running the house and taking care of the children.

1 want my husband to help me with housework.

Women should subordinate their career to home duties to a greater extentthan men.

A woman should not let children interfere with her career.

My husband's opinions are very important in determining whether or not 1would work.

The word "obey" should be removed from the marriage service.

Managing a household can be a rewarding career.

The husband should be regarded as the legal representative of thefamily in matters of law.

1 never seem to have enough time to get things done.

The best way of life for me would be some arrangement other than marriage— staying single, living with a group of people, etc.

Motherhood is the ideal "career" for most women.

Girls should be trained to be homemakers and boys for an occupation suitedto their talents.

The best way of life for me would be a marriage where both husband andwife work and share homemaking and child care responsibilities.

In order to get everything done, 1 have to operate on a very careful schedule.

It is all right for women to work, but men will always be the basicbread winners.

Her sex should not disqualify a woman from any occupation.

% of Explained VarianceBurt's CoefficientCronbach's Alpha

TraditionalOrientation

SplitsA B

.61 .27

.42 .85

.52 .68

.52 ,43

.29 .71

.66 .69

.58 .76

.77 .66

.77 .78

.38 .54.84.84

ContemporaryOrientation

SplitsA B

.35

.59

.08

.62

.69

.23

.07

.65

.14

.50

.31

.63

.21

.57

.34

.59

.57

.69

.72

.59

.71

.28.62.54


of a multiple correlation using demographics, roleorientations, and food preparation styles as indepen-dent variables. These data are based on the 131 respon-dents who completed all of the demographic questions.

Both tables and text will be presented for the mul-tivariate analysis. The bivariate analysis is based onPearson correlation coefficients. Only those variablepairs with correlation coefficients significant at or be-

TABLE 2Factor Analysis of Food Preparation Items

Joy ofCookingSplits

A B

The ServiceRole

SplitsA B

Anti-CookingSplits

A B

SensoryOrientation

SplitsA B

Foodis FuelSplits

A B

At home we usually eat quickly preparedmeals rather than more carefullyprepared dishes of various flavors.

When I give a dinner party I feel my guestswill judge me by the food I serve.

A wife who is not a good cook owes it toher husband to work at improving hercooking.

Cooking is very creative.I am disappointed in myself when dinner

is a flop.

I worry about my family's nutrition.i feel good when I spend a lot of time

making dinner for my family.

I like to serve unusual dinners.Dishes cooked in wine or sauces appeal to me.I am an excellent cook.I have better ways to spend my time than

in grocery shopping and cooking.

It is the wife's responsibility to keepher family healthy by servingnutritious meals.

Winning my family's praise for my cookingis important to me.

The main reason we eat out is that it

saves cooking and cleaning up time.

The main value of food should be in itsnourishment rather than in its tasteor flavor.

In planning menus, the food preferencesof other family members should bemore important than the wife's.

I prefer meals that can be prepared

quickly.

I like to read magazine articles that

offer new food ideas and recipes.

I like spices and herbs in or on my food.

I love to cook.

It is more important to choose foods withthe proper amount of calories, minerals,and vitamins than foods which can beenjoyed for their various tastes.


.42 .64

.58 - . 0 3

.26

.65

.47

.65

.20 .53

.73 .75

-.72 -.22

.25 .52

.09 .41

.29 .69

.41 .34 -.25 -.44.53 .54.15 .63

-.47 -.08 .34 .69

.47 .08

.58 .59

.63 .60

.75 .85

.51 .30

.54 .70

.43 .77

39 .36.79.11

.13.58.80

19 .10.82.73

13 .08 .09.68.57

.55

.07.62.08

.70

.67


TABLE 3Factor Analysis of Shopping Goal Items

Food shopping takes up too much of my time.

t dislike food shopping very much.

In buying food for my family, price is no object.

I'm very fussy about the food 1 buy,

The quicker 1 get my food shopping done the better.

1 have better ways to spend my time than in groceryshopping and cooking.

1 buy only the best of food for my family.

In food shopping 1 try to save money whenever 1 can.

! feel 1 am very competent at selecting food to buy.

1 carefully budget my food expenditures.


Concernfor Time

SplitsA

.69

.71

.45

.52

.21.92.74

B

.69

.82

.85

.63

27

Concernfor Price

SplitsA

- . 3 4

.53

.64

.11.73.62

B

80

50

47

19

Concernfor Quality

SplitsA B

.79 .46

.44 - . 0 4

.75 .76

.05 .67

.27 .15.64.59

yond the .05 level will be discussed.

Relationships Between Demographic Variahlesand Psychographic FactorsAs expected, "Traditional Orientation" women areolder, have been married longer, have larger house-holds with teenagers present, and tend not to have smallchildren. They tend not to have worked in the past anddo not plan to do so in the future. They tend to be lowerin income and have husbands of lower occupationalstatus. Fewer demographics correlate with a "Contem-porary Orientation" which is independent of age. andcomprised of women who are more likely to be workingnow and even more likely to plan to work in the future.

Significant correlations between the food prepara-tion style factors and demographics also appeared, butstrongly with only one or two styles. The "Joy ofCooking" factor is independent, and "Sensory Orien-tation" is almost independent of demographics. Thepattern of correlations with the "Service Role" wasstrikingly similar to that observed between the tradi-tional orientation and demographics. The "Food isFuel" factor also correlated with nonworking wivesand with higher incomes, but with lower status hus-band's occupations.

There were few correlations between the demo-graphics and shopping goals and behaviors. The "Con-cern for Time" factor was demographically indepen-dent, while the "Concern for Price" factor correlatedonly with lower occupational status of the husband,lower family income, and older respondents. Correla-tions with the "Concern for Quality" reflected olderrespondents and those with no plans for future em-ployment.

The "Preplanning" factor correlated with the pres-ence of teenagers and with the absence of childrenunder age six in the household. "Price Minimization"correlated with relatively low family income and olderrespondents. The "Empirical" factor correlated onlywith income.

The number of significant correlations decreased asthe analysis progressed from the role orientation factorsto the food preparation styles and on to shopping goalsand behaviors. Attitudes toward women's roles wererelated to numerous variables which encompass familylife cycle stages: occupational history, plans, andstatus; family income; and age-related variables. Noone demographic variable was strong enough to predictrole orientation. There was instead a complex inter-mingling of influences which affected women's role


orientations. The demographic effects were less strong with regard to food shopping (i.e., outside the home)

TABLE 4Factor Analysis of Shopping Behavior Items

1 keep a running list of certain things such as staples,adding an item to the list when we run low on it.

1 watch for the lowest possible prices when 1 shop.

1 use a list when shopping for food.

1 buy the highest quality food available.

1 compare labels to select the most nutritious food.

1 notice when products 1 buy regularly change in price.

Before 1 go to do a big food shopping, 1 make a listof everything we need.

1 shop for specials in food.

If the store has very long lines that day 1 leavewithout buying anything.

If a product isn't wholesome 1 won't buy it,

1 keep a running list of everything we need, addingan item to the list when we run low on it.

Before 1 go to do a big food shopping, 1 make a listof certain things, such as staples, that we need.

1 use the unit price information in stores in orderto select the most economical brands.

1 use the coupons 1 receive in the mail or get fromthe newspapers.

1 watch for ads m the newspaper for store specialsand plan to take advantage of them when 1 go shopping.

1 make a shopping list to guide my food purchases.

1 purchase products in the supermarket that 1 hadn'tplanned to buy before 1 came to the store.

1 compare labels to decide which brand to buy.

1 prefer to buy imported and gourmet products.

1 look for new and different products to serve my family.


PreplanningSplits

A B

.41

.84

.85

.61

.76

.78

.43.96.87

.62

.87

.86

.77

.86

.77

.48

PriceMinimization

SplitsA B

.49

.38

.53

.89

.87

.43

.12

.27.73.74

.64

.61

.76

.60

.60

.16

.44

.20

EmpiricaSplits

A

.06

.65

.44

.53

.48

.48

.06

.15.73.68

B

51

64

07

40

44

.81

.43

.18


strategies and behaviors (H4).

Relationships Between Sets ofPsychographic FactorsWe calculated correlations between the Role Orienta-tion and the Food Preparation Style factors and found"Traditional Orientation" was highly correlated withthe "Service Role," negatively correlated with"Anti-Cooking," and positively correlated with"Food is Fuel." strongly suggesting an orientationtoward the dutiful roles of "wife and mother." Therespondents who are oriented toward traditional roles,then, do not seem to cook for pleasure. Instead, theycook because they have a sense of responsibility toprovide satisfying and nutritious meals for theirfamilies.

"Contemporary Orientation" correlated positivelywith both the "Anti-Cooking" and the "Joy of Cook-ing" factors. This result appears clearly contradictory,but there is an interpretation that resolves the contradic-tion. Reynolds, Crask, and Wells (1977) present strongevidence that women's attitudes toward their basicroles have undergone, and probably still are undergo-ing, rapid and drastic change. In such a period, theother attitudes (specifically in this case, attitudes to-ward food and preparation) that are linked to the basic,rapidly changing role attitude, could be quite variedand/or could change less rapidly. The result would thenbe that within the group which has a general orientationtoward the contemporary role there is room for a varietyof attitudes toward the specific activity of food prepara-tion. In any event, it is likely that the contemporarywoman would interpret these results by explaining thatthe contemporary orientation liberates women from theobligation of cooking. Once freed from that obligation,women may then choose to enjoy or not to enjoy theactivity.

"Traditional Orientation" was most highly corre-lated with "Concern for Quality," had a small correla-tion with "Price Minimization," and a negative corre-lation with "Concern for Time." This indicates that thetraditional woman wants to provide high quality foodfor her family at a reasonable cost, with little concernabout the shopping and meal preparation time required.

The "Contemporary Orientation" showed a posi-tive correlation with "Concern for Time" and "Empir-ical" shopping behavior. This reflects the use ofprimarily point-of-purchase information in an attemptto save time.

There were also correlations between the FoodPreparation Style and Shopping Strategy and Behaviorfactors. "Joy of Cooking" was positively correlatedwith "Concern for Quality," which is reasonable sincegood cooking and quality ingredients go hand-in-hand.

The "Service Role" was positively correlated with"Concern for Quality" and negatively correlated with"Preplanning" and "Concern for Time." The highlevel of quality-consciousness and the lack of conceniabout time expended fit with the traditionalist nature ofthis service orientation. The negative correlation with"Preplanning" suggests that the type of organizationinherent in list making behavior may not be a necessaryaspect of the "Service Role." "Anti-Cooking" had ahigh positive correlation with "Concern for Time" anda high negative correlation with "Concern for Qual-ity." Negative, although less high, correlations alsowere found with "Price Minimization," "EmpiricalShopping Behavior," and "Concern for Price." Ap-parently, "Anti-Cooking" attitudes lead to rejection ofvirtually any cooking-related activities which promiseto be time-consuming. The "Sensory Orientation"shows a positive correlation with "Concern for Qual-ity" and "Empirical" behavior. This implies that adesire for aesthetically pleasing food would cause ahomemaker to examine products carefully before pur-chase in order to verify quality. The "Food is Fuel"factor is uncorrelated with shopping strategies and be-haviors .

Multiple Correlation Results

In order to completely test Hi and H4. a multiplecorrelation analysis was conducted using a split-halftechnique to validate the results. Each of the six Shop-ping Goals and Behaviors, in tum, was used as thedependent variable. Independent variables were en-tered in hierarchical fashion—first, the five Food Prep-aration Style factors, then, the two Role Orientationfactors, and finally, the set of demographic variablesused in the bivariate analysis. For each of theseanalyses. Table 5 presents the R- for the set of FoodPreparation Style factors, followed by the incrementalR'̂ produced by the addition of. first, the Role Orienta-tion factors and then the demographics. Coefficients forthe variables which were significant in the final equa-tion also are presented.

It should be pointed out that the results of theseanalyses are not in all cases stable enough to be conclu-sive. The patterns in the amount of variance explainedby each of the three sets of variables are quite similar foreach analysis, although the actual R-s sometimes dif-fer. The betas for variables which are significant in thefinal equation, however, lack stability in some in-stances. At the very least, the results do seem to pointthe way toward further research which should be usefulinhelpingspecify determinants of women's food shop-ping behavior. On the other hand, someone with strongpriors could consider these results actionable. It alsoshould be noted that simple, stepwise regressions on the


TABLE 5Summary of

DependentVariables

Results of Regression Analyses

Food Preparation

ConcernforTime

ConcernforPrice

ConcernforQuality

Pre-planning

PriceMinimization

Empirical

StylesSplit A/Split B

R-

.23/.46

.17/.06

.32/.44

.11/.12

.20/. 16

.27/.15

*Varlables in the final equationDurbin-WatsonDurbin-Watson

for Split A Rangfor Split B Ran^

Independent Variables

RoleOrientation

Split A/Split BR-(lncremental R-)

.26/.49(.03/.03)

.21/.13(.04/.07)

.34/.47{.02/.03)

.13/.22(.02/. 10)

.21/.22(.01/.05)

.29/.24(.02/.09)

are those with sig. ^ .05es from 1.6 to 2.1,es from 1.9 to 2.4

Demo-Graphics

Split A/Split BR-(lncremental R-)

.40/.56(.14/.07)

.37/.37(.16/.24)

.43/.62{.09/.15)

.33/.52(.20/.30)

.48/.42(.27/.20)

.58/.39(.29/. 15)

(F = 4.0)

Final RegressionVariables*

Anti-CookingContemporary Orien.

Food is FuelFamily Income

Anti-CookingPresence of Teenagers

The Service RoleAnti-CookingFamily IncomePresently EmployedPresence of TeenagersRespondent's Age

"Joy of Cooking"Anti-CookingSensory OrientationFamily Income

Sensory OrientationFood is FuelTraditional Orien.Presence of TeenagersPresence of Children

Under 6 yearsPresently EmployedFamily Income

EquationRegression

CoefficientsSplit A/Split B

.40/.68

.14/.29

.35/-.34

.69/.27

- .48/ - . 52.09/.31

-.26/-.64-.07/-.31

.37/-.11-.40/.45

.03/.33-.27/-.59

-.40/.03.13/-.44.69/-.34.40/.21

.77/.17

.28/. 14-.39/.32-.40/.10

- .36/- . 19-.78/-.04

.32/.17

two subsamples showed somewhat more stability, butwere rejected in favor of the hierarchical approachwhich provides a better test of our hypotheses. Allanalyses had acceptably low levels of multicollinearity.

An examination of the individual equations in Table5 indicates that the Food Preparation Style factors didaccount for the largest portion of explained variance inonly two of the six equations—"Concem for Time"and "Concern for Quality." This is reasonable whenone considers the nature of the dependent variablesthemselves and the fact that the "Anti-Cooking"" factorhad the largest betas in both equations. These two

Shopping Goal factors, then, appear to have their basisin life-styles. A "Concem for Quality" when shoppingfor food stems primarily from the pleasure derived inpreparing good meals while "Concem for Time" stemsfrom a negative attitude toward meal preparation,coupled with an orientation toward expanded roles forwomen.

At the other extreme, in the "Coneern for Price"and "Priee Minimization" equations, the demographicvariables contributed as much or more of the explainedvariance than did all the life-style factors. While boththe "Coneem for Price" goal and the "Priee Minimiza-


tion" behavior appear to be best explained by lowerfamily income, the instability of the life-style variablesmakes it obvious that there may be subsegments orprice sensitive shoppers that were not fully defined bythis data. This suggests two hypotheses. First, there aretwo dimensions of price-sensitive shopping: concernfor lowest possible food bill, and concern for receivingthe best value for one's money. This hypothesis issubstantiated by a .52 correlation between "Concernfor Price" and "Price Minimization." While this cor-relation is relatively high, the two factors are clearly notdirect substitutes. The second hypothesis, suggested bythe opposite signs of all life-style factors in both equa-tions, is that within each price-sensitive group there areat least two subgroups. One also is concerned about thenutritional and aesthetic aspects of meals while theother is not.

Demographics also make a large contribution to theexplained variance in the "Preplanning" and the "Em-pirical" equations. The results for "Preplanning"suggest the hypothesis that this behavior is most com-mon among older respondents. Further research mightfmd it useful to ask whether this subgroup does manythings "the same way my mother did" and whetherthey are highly organized in their approach to a varietyof household tasks. With regard to the "Empirical"behavior, it seems reasonable to suspect that this prac-tice may be followed for a multiplicity of reasons, thusproducing more than one subgroup of empirical shop-pers. Some may prefer to judge the aesthetics andquality of food products at the point of purchase, othersmay rely on observation to stimulate menu ideas whilestill others may act empirically for price-oriented rea-sons. More detailed information is clearly needed inthis area.

But it does appear clear from the results of themultiple correlation that the food preparation stylescontribute more to an explanation of general shoppingpatterns than do role orientations. It also is evident thatthe origins of women's food shopping behaviors aremuch more complex than the conceptualizations usedby this or previous research. Larger samples and morein-depth questioning will be necessary to clarify issuesraised by these data. Further life-style-oriented re-search should be able to specify general shopping pat-terns and offer considerable insight into choices be-tween various product categories and perhaps intochoices between clearly positioned brands within prod-uct categories.

It is also clear from these results that a significantamount of the variance in food shopping goals andbehaviors remains unexplained. It could be that ourfood preparation styles did not cover the full range ofpossibilities. However, a careful examination of the

factors indicates that positive versus negative attitudesas well as sensory versus pragmatic and family-centered versus somewhat individually-centered ap-proaches were uncovered. A second explanation mightbe that shopping goals and behaviors are embedded inpatterns of family influence, decision making, and taskassumption or sharing, and therefore can be explainedonly by a thorough investigation of family structure andbehavior as it relates to meal preparation and foodshopping. This seems to be especially worthy of furtherstudy along with a third hypothesis that shopping goalsand behaviors are determined, in part, by situations.One has different goals and behaviors when shoppingfor food destined for pick-up meals than when shoppingfor food destined for Sunday or company dinners.

ConclusionsThe results of this study carry previous work at least onesignificant step further. The earliest of the recentstudies on this topic demonstrated that the wife's etn-ployment status affected her food shopping behavior[Editor and Publisher 1972). Subsequent studies indi-cated that attitudinal constructs such as role or careerorientations were more important than employmentstatus. Our study finds neither employment nor role norcareer orientation has much effect on food shoppingbehavior. However, food preparation interests stronglyeffect reported shopping goals and behaviors.

Because our study population is small and re-stricted, it is possible to dismiss the results we havereported on grounds of a statistical aberration, a bias ofone sort or another, or as of limited generalizability.However, it is inescapable that the results do makesense. A working wife with children at home is nolonger a rare phenomenon; over 50% of married womenwhose husbands are present and who have one or morechildren at home under age 18 were working in 1975,and 34% of such women with a child at home under age6 were working. Moreover, the concept of the workingwife is accepted even by women who would not choosepaid employment outside the home for themselves. In anational study conducted in 1975 (Bryant 1977), amajority of women interviewed agreed that a womancould combine motherhood and a career. Given suchhigh rates of participation in the labor market and theeven higher rates of acceptance of this participation, iiis reasonable to conclude that both the concept and thepractice of working while being a wife and mother arebecoming both institutionalized and integrated intomany women's daily lives. Women are simply learningto manage their shopping and food preparation ac-tivities in accordance with their desires, rather thantheir job demands.


We have observed an increasing tendency torecognize and advertise specifically either to workingwives, or to housewives. The working wife may beapproached with a time-saving appeal while the house-wife may be approached as though she were automati-cally nutrition conscious. While the distinctive recogni-tion the advertiser gives to each of these two roles andthe concomitant assumed food preparation orientationmight be welcome reinforcement to the woman whostrongly thinks of herself as occupying one role or theother, such role recognition may make less sense if thegoal is to market food, or to encourage a visit to aspecific food store. It may be far better to appeal insteadto the food preparation style most appropriate to adesired product or store position. For instance, a spe-eific section of the store devoted to quickly-preparedfoods would be attractive to the "Anti-Cooking""woman, especially if it is coupled with quick checkoutservices. Advertising appeals should be independent ofthe woman's work orientation. That is. instead of spe-cifically showing a working woman in a time-savingsituation, recognize that the contemporary woman hasmultiple demands on her limited time whether or notshe is employed.

In making such appeals it might be useful to re-member that the food preparation styles used in thisanalysis were not completely independent of demo-graphics. While we found no evidence of an "employ-ment gap,"' we did find evidence of a generation gap.Age was a strong predictor of a traditional food prepara-tion orientation and therefore advertising so orientedshould be specifically directed at older women, if used.For instance, the relationships of age and a traditionalorientation toward quality meals as a part of thehomemaker* s service to her family may prove to beuseful in increasing the impact of advertising, espe-cially through appropriate visual cues.

But most imponantly, it seems clearly evident fromthese data that a unidimensional view of women's rolesand related behavior can lead to insignificant correla-tions and/or unwarranted conclusions. Whether awoman is employed outside the home or not. she islikely to hold a multidimensional view of her world andher various roles. A carefully reasoned approach to thestudy of women's specific role choices seems muchmore likely to uncover the many facets of attitudes andbehavior in today's markets than does a simple analysisbased on working versus nonworking wives.

REFERENCESAizen, I. and M, Fishbein (1970), "Attitudinal and Normative

Variables as Predictors of Specific Behavior: A Review of Re-search Generated by a Theoretical Model," paper presented atthe first Attitude Research Workshop of the Association forConsumer Research, University of Illinois.

Anderson, Beverlee B. (1972a), "Are We Missing the MS?"Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference of the Associationfor Consumer Research, 436-445.

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Anderson, W.T. Jr. (1971). "Identifying the Convenience OrientedCustomei,'' Journal of Marketing Research. 8(May), 179-183.

Arnott, Catherine C. (1972). "Husbands' Attitudes and Wives'Commitment to Employment," Journal of Marriage and theFamily. 34 (November), 673-677.

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Douglas, Susan P. (1975). Working Wives and Nonworking WifeFamilies as a Basis for Market Segmentation. Marketing Sci-ence Institute.

Editor and Publisher (1972), "Working Women's Food BuyingTraits Revealed," 105 (September), 62.

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titudes, and Behavior," in Cognitive Consistency: MotivationAntecedents and Behavioral Consequences, S. Feldman, ed..New York: Academic Press.

Fry, J.N. and F.H. Siller, (1970). "Comparison of HousewifeDecision Making in Two Social Classes/' Journal of MarketingResearch. 1 (August). 333-357.

Guilford. J.P. (1965), Fundamental Statistics in Psychology andFducation. 4th Ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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HarTell, Gilbert D. and Peter D. Bennett (1974), "An Evaluation ofthe Expectancy Value Model of Attitude Measurement forPhysician Prescribing Behavior." Journal of Marketing Re-search. 11 (August). 269-278.

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