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NE
W P
RO
DU
CT
DE
VE
LO
PM
EN
T I
NIN
TE
RN
AT
ION
AL
MA
RK
ET
S:
TH
EC
AS
EO
FS
ME
S
Ann
ie M
USS
Dep
artm
ent
of M
arke
ting
,
Uni
vers
ity
of S
trat
hcl
yde,
U.
K.
-255
-
NEW
PR
OD
UC
T D
EVEL
OPM
ENT
IN I
NTE
RN
ATI
ON
AL
MA
RK
ETS:
TH
E C
ASE
OF
SMES
Mrs
A M
uss
Dep
artm
ent o
f Mar
ketin
g U
nive
rsity
of S
trath
clyd
e
AB
STR
AC
T
Alth
ough
int
erna
tiona
l m
arke
ting
is bo
th a
man
ager
ial
activ
ity a
nd a
sub
ject
for
ac
adem
ic s
tudy
whi
ch a
ppea
rs t
o be
lar
gely
the
pro
perty
of
MN
Es,
ther
e is
litt
le
doub
t th
at,
alth
ough
SM
Es
have
be
en
larg
ely
omitt
ed
from
th
e st
udy
of t
his
phen
omen
on,
for
seve
ral
year
s th
ey h
ave
parti
cipa
ted
in t
he g
row
th o
f in
tern
atio
nal
trade
and
are
the
refo
re c
ompe
ting
in t
he i
nter
natio
nal
aren
a.
A c
orne
rsto
ne o
f th
e in
tern
atio
nalis
atio
n of
MN
Es h
as b
een
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f the
ir pr
oduc
t off
erin
g.
To
date
muc
h of
the
lite
ratu
re o
n pr
oduc
t de
velo
pmen
t for
int
erna
tiona
l m
arke
ts h
as
been
at t
he s
trate
gic
leve
l. To
pics
suc
h as
whe
ther
to s
tand
ardi
se o
r ad
apt p
rodu
cts
to
fore
ign
mar
kets
, w
heth
er to
con
cent
rate
or
spre
ad r
esou
rces
are
iss
ues
typi
cal
of th
is
stra
tegi
c bi
as.
Alth
ough
the
im
plic
atio
ns o
f th
ese
stra
tegi
c is
sues
for
tac
tical
-leve
l op
erat
ions
ha
ve
been
fo
rwar
ded,
th
ere
is
little
in
th
e w
ay
of
deta
il at
th
is im
plem
enta
tiona
l le
vel.
Inde
ed,
with
the
exc
eptio
ns o
f a
few
ane
cdot
al e
xam
ples
, su
ch a
s C
oke,
Cad
bury
Sch
wep
pes
and
Uni
ted
Dis
tille
rs,
little
is
know
n ab
out
how
ne
w p
rodu
cts
for i
nter
natio
nal m
arke
ts a
re a
ctua
lly d
evel
oped
and
impl
emen
ted.
The
focu
s of
thi
s pa
per
is to
rev
iew
cur
rent
lite
ratu
re o
n in
tern
atio
nal
mar
ketin
g an
d ex
plor
e th
e im
plem
enta
tiona
l, ta
ctic
al
and
oper
atio
nal
issu
es
asso
ciat
ed
with
de
velo
ping
pr
oduc
ts
for
inte
rnat
iona
l m
arke
ts,
and
the
role
of
ne
twor
ks
in
inte
rnat
iona
l ne
w p
rodu
ct d
evel
opm
ent f
or S
MEs
.
-256
-
INTR
OD
UC
TIO
N
It is
wid
ely
reco
gnis
ed t
hat
a m
ajor
stra
tegy
fo
r ac
hiev
ing
grow
th i
s th
e pu
rsui
t of
ne
w p
rodu
ct d
evel
opm
ent (
Dav
idso
n an
d H
arrig
an 1
977,
Boo
t Alie
n H
amilt
on 1
982)
. H
owev
er,
muc
h of
the
NPD
lite
ratu
re t
akes
a d
omes
tic v
iew
, or
mor
e ac
cura
tely
a
non-
inte
rnat
iona
l vi
ew,
ther
eby
igno
ring
an a
sses
smen
t of
man
y va
riabl
es w
hich
are
co
mpl
icat
ed b
y ra
pid
tech
nolo
gica
l ch
ange
s, s
horte
ned
prod
uct
life
and
a gl
obal
ised
co
mpe
titiv
e en
viro
nmen
t
On
the
othe
r ha
nd, t
he f
ocus
of
muc
h of
the
int
erna
tiona
l lit
erat
ure
has
been
at
the
stra
tegi
c le
vel.
The
ques
tion
of w
heth
er t
o st
anda
rdis
e or
ada
pt p
rodu
cts
to f
orei
gn
mar
kets
(Le
vitt
1983
, H
amel
and
Pra
hala
d 19
87)
and
whe
ther
to
conc
entra
te o
r sp
read
res
ourc
es (
Aya
l an
d Z
if 1
979)
is
usua
lly l
inke
d w
ith o
rgan
isat
iona
l de
cisi
ons
whi
ch d
eter
min
e ho
w te
chno
logy
is s
ourc
ed a
nd t
actic
s im
plem
ente
d (T
suru
mi
1986
), an
d th
ese
issu
es d
omin
ate
the
liter
atur
e th
at d
eals
with
int
erna
tiona
l N
PD.
With
the
ex
cept
ion
of a
few
ane
cdot
al e
xam
ples
, su
ch a
s C
oca
Col
a, C
adbu
ry S
chw
eppe
s an
d U
nite
d D
istil
lers
, lit
tle i
s kn
own
abou
t ho
w n
ew p
rodu
cts
for
inte
rnat
iona
l m
arke
ts
are
actu
ally
dev
elop
ed a
nd im
plem
ente
d.
The
focu
s of
thi
s lit
erat
ure
revi
ew i
s th
eref
ore,
to
asse
ss t
he c
urre
nt i
nter
natio
nal
mar
ketin
g lit
erat
ure
and
expl
ore,
whe
re p
ossi
ble,
the
im
plem
enta
tiona
l, ta
ctic
al a
nd
oper
atio
nal
issu
es a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith d
evel
opin
g pr
oduc
ts f
or i
nter
natio
nal
mar
kets
. Th
is i
mpl
emen
tatio
nal
focu
s le
ads
us t
o ex
amin
e th
e qu
estio
n of
net
wor
ks,
whi
ch
appe
ar t
o of
fer
grea
ter
poss
ibili
ties
for
exam
inin
g th
e re
ality
of
the
smal
l bu
sine
ss
deve
lopi
ng p
rodu
cts
for i
nter
natio
nal c
usto
mer
s an
d m
arke
ts.
In o
rder
to
set
the
cont
ext
for
disc
ussi
on
of i
mpl
emen
tatio
n,
it is,
no
neth
eles
s im
porta
nt to
des
crib
e th
e m
ain
stra
tegi
c ar
gum
ents
influ
enci
ng th
eory
in i
nter
natio
nal
prod
uct
stra
tegy
. Th
eref
ore,
the
firs
t pa
rt of
thi
s pa
per
will
crit
ical
ly e
xam
ine
the
prin
cipa
l ar
gum
ents
for
and
aga
inst
sta
ndar
disa
tion,
and
th
e re
late
d is
sues
suc
h as
co
ncen
tratio
n or
spr
eadi
ng o
f re
sour
ces,
but
als
o th
e m
ultif
ario
us f
acto
rs w
hich
pla
y an
im
porta
nt r
ole
in d
eter
min
ing
the
exte
nt t
o w
hich
the
se s
trate
gic
optio
ns m
ay b
e im
plem
ente
d.
Then
, th
e ne
ed t
o el
abor
ate
on t
he i
mpo
rtanc
e of
SM
E's
on
the
inte
rnat
iona
l sc
ene,
as
muc
h of
the
pre
viou
s is
base
d on
MN
Es,
and
ther
efor
e no
t ap
plic
able
to
them
. Th
e la
st p
art
of t
his
pape
r w
ill d
iscu
ss t
he r
ole
of n
etw
orks
in
inte
rnat
iona
l new
pro
duct
dev
elop
men
t for
SM
E's.
TO S
TAN
DA
RD
ISE
OR
NO
T?
Des
pite
the
las
ting
inte
rest
in
this
top
ic,
it is
notic
eabl
e th
at s
harp
diff
eren
ces
of
opin
ion
occu
r re
gard
ing
the
desi
rabi
lity
or f
easi
bilit
y of
sta
ndar
disa
tion.
A
n an
alys
is
of t
he c
urre
nt d
ebat
e on
glo
bal
mar
ketin
g w
as p
revi
ousl
y de
fined
and
the
deg
ree
to
whi
ch m
ultin
atio
nal
firm
s ca
n st
anda
rdis
e m
arke
ting
prac
tices
acr
oss
natio
nal
and
inte
rnat
iona
l bou
ndar
ies
are
now
exa
min
ed.
Arg
umen
ts in
Fav
our o
f St
anda
rdis
atio
n
The
tota
l sta
ndar
disa
tion
advo
cate
d by
Lev
itt (
1983
) su
gges
ts th
at, a
s co
nsum
er n
eeds
be
com
e in
crea
sing
ly h
omog
eneo
us w
orld
wid
e, g
loba
l fir
ms
will
see
k, s
ensi
bly,
to
forc
e su
itabl
e st
anda
rdis
ed p
rodu
ct*
and
prac
tices
on
thes
e ho
mog
eneo
us m
arke
ts a
nd.
in c
ontra
st w
ith m
ultid
omes
tic f
irms
whi
ch a
dapt
to lo
cal c
ondi
tions
, will
ther
eby
win
ec
onom
ies
of s
cale
in
prod
uctio
n an
d m
arke
ting
and
thus
eco
nom
ies
of s
cope
in
tech
nolo
gica
l fr
ontie
rs f
or f
utur
e in
nova
tions
.
A n
umbe
r of
stu
dies
hav
e su
gges
ted
that
the
pro
duct
pol
icy
of m
any
succ
essf
ul
com
pani
es h
ad
evol
ved
from
of
ferin
g cu
stom
ised
pr
oduc
ts t
o of
ferin
g gl
obal
ly
stan
dard
ised
one
s (B
arte
l 19
68,
Buz
zell
1968
, K
eega
n 19
69),
show
ing
that
a c
erta
in
amou
nt o
f in
tern
atio
nal p
rodu
ct d
evel
opm
ent i
s ne
cess
ary.
For
exam
ple,
in
thei
r st
udy
of h
ow e
xecu
tives
rat
ed t
he d
egre
e of
sta
ndar
disa
tion
of
thei
r m
arke
ting
prog
ram
mes
, So
rens
on a
nd W
eich
man
n (1
975)
fou
nd a
n ex
trem
ely
high
deg
ree
of s
tand
ardi
satio
n in
bra
nd n
ames
, ph
ysic
al c
hara
cter
istic
s of
pro
duct
s an
d pa
ckin
g an
d a
num
ber o
f com
pani
es w
ere
enga
ged
in c
ross
-bor
der s
tand
ardi
satio
n de
spite
stro
ng d
iffer
ence
s in
mar
ket c
ondi
tions
.
Adv
ocat
es o
f gl
obal
isat
ion
argu
e th
at i
n m
any
sect
ors,
mos
t no
tabl
y in
ind
ustri
al
pack
agin
g, s
ervi
ng d
iver
se c
usto
mer
nee
ds o
n a
glob
al b
asis
is
bein
g dr
iven
by
tech
nolo
gica
l adv
ance
s, s
uch
as fl
exib
le m
anuf
actu
ring
syst
em, w
hich
are
cre
atin
g th
e er
a of
w
hat
Perr
y (1
990)
de
scrib
es
as
"cus
tom
ised
m
arke
ting"
an
d "m
ass
cust
omis
atio
n" a
llow
ing
the
bene
fits
of in
divi
dual
ada
ptat
ion
with
out
losi
ng t
hose
of
stan
dard
isat
ion.
Ham
el a
nd P
raha
lad
(198
5) a
lso
belie
ve th
at "
varie
ty a
t low
cos
t" w
ill b
e th
e de
cisi
ve
com
petit
ive
adva
ntag
e of
the
fut
ure
and
is al
read
y pl
ayin
g a
maj
or r
ole
in t
he
inte
mat
iona
lisat
ion
of m
any
glob
al f
irms.
The
Japa
nese
car
man
ufac
ture
r N
issa
n is
a go
od e
xam
ple
of t
his
stra
tegy
. By
usin
g le
ad m
odel
s w
ith m
inor
cha
nges
in
core
m
arke
ts, t
he n
umbe
r of
bas
ic m
odel
s w
as h
alve
d an
d ye
t m
anag
ed to
ach
ieve
80%
of
glob
al s
ales
of c
ars
desi
gned
for
spec
ific
natio
nal m
arke
ts.
Som
e of
the
adv
anta
ges
of s
tand
ardi
satio
n of
pro
duct
s w
ill r
esul
t in
a s
ubst
antia
l sa
ving
in
prod
uctio
n an
d re
sear
ch d
evel
opm
ent
cost
s an
d w
ill a
llow
the
com
pany
to
take
ful
l ad
vant
age
of e
cono
mie
s of
sca
le.
How
ever
, fe
w c
ompa
nies
can
ful
ly t
ake
adva
ntag
e of
sta
ndar
disa
tion
for t
he m
arke
ts th
ey s
erve
, exc
ept i
n so
me
case
s as
som
e lo
cal
adap
tatio
ns m
ay b
e re
quire
d to
ful
fil t
he n
eeds
of
the
mar
kets
. In
deed
, st
anda
rdis
atio
n st
rate
gy b
ears
a li
kene
ss to
Hen
ry F
ord'
s ph
iloso
phy
of th
e "g
et-o
ut-
prod
uctio
n, c
ut t
he p
rice"
, th
at h
e pi
onee
red
in t
he e
arly
190
0s i
n co
nnec
tion
with
de
velo
ping
the
mar
ket f
or c
ars.
Arg
umen
ts A
gain
st S
tand
ardi
satio
n
Des
pite
som
e no
tabl
e su
cces
s st
orie
s, su
ch a
s C
oke
and
McD
onal
ds,
man
y au
thor
s ha
ve a
rgue
d th
at,
ther
e is,
in
fact
, lit
tle p
roof
of c
onsu
mer
s be
ing
will
ing
to s
acrif
ice
wan
ts f
or l
ower
pric
e an
d hi
gher
qua
lity.
A
num
ber
of s
tudi
es h
ave
dem
onst
rate
d ho
w t
he p
erce
ived
ben
efits
of
stan
dard
isat
ion,
im
plic
it in
glo
bal
stra
tegy
, ar
e of
ten
illus
ory.
In
deed
, W
ind
& D
ougl
as (
1987
) ex
amin
ed t
his
philo
soph
y an
d pr
opos
ed
that
sta
ndar
disa
tion
is on
ly o
ne o
f m
any
stra
tegi
es w
hich
m
ay
be s
ucce
ssfu
l in
in
tern
atio
nal m
arke
ts.
For
exam
ple,
giv
en t
hat
MN
Cs
stan
dard
ise
for
bette
r m
arke
ting
perf
orm
ance
and
lo
wer
mar
ketin
g co
sts,
the
stu
dy c
ondu
cted
by
Sore
nson
and
Wei
chm
ann
(197
5) -257
-
foun
d th
at s
tand
ardi
satio
n di
d no
t nec
essa
rily
resu
lt in
sig
nific
ant e
cono
mic
ben
efits
. In
th
eir
rese
arch
, on
ly
one
of t
he
27
com
pani
es
stud
ied
was
ab
le
to
prov
ide
docu
men
ted
evid
ence
of
sa
ving
s ac
hiev
ed
thro
ugh
stan
dard
isat
ion.
Th
is
was
ex
plai
ned
by th
e fa
ct th
at in
the
sect
or u
nder
ana
lysi
s, bo
th a
dver
tisin
g an
d pr
oduc
tion
cost
s w
ere
not v
ery
high
and
the
eco
nom
ies
of s
cale
der
ived
fro
m p
rodu
ct u
nifo
rmity
fo
r pac
kage
d co
nsum
er g
oods
wer
e no
t per
ceiv
ed to
be
very
gre
at.
Alth
ough
re
sults
m
ay
have
be
en
dete
rmin
ed
by
the
form
ality
of
th
e co
stin
g pr
oced
ures
invo
lved
, it n
ever
thel
ess
prov
ides
a ty
pica
l exa
mpl
e of
the
man
y in
stan
ces
in w
hich
sta
ndar
disa
tion
does
not
alw
ays
yiel
d th
e hi
ghes
t pr
ofits
and
sup
ports
Win
d &
Dou
glas
(198
7) c
onte
ntio
n th
at "
the
desi
gn o
f an
eff
ectiv
e gl
obal
stra
tegy
doe
s no
t ne
cess
arily
en
tail
the
mar
ketin
g of
st
anda
rdis
ed
prod
ucts
an
d gl
obal
br
ands
w
orld
wid
e".
From
the
lite
ratu
re i
t ap
pear
s th
at a
n un
diff
eren
tiate
d st
rate
gy i
s no
t ne
cess
arily
a
pana
cea
for
all c
ompa
nies
in a
ll m
arke
ts.
Rat
her
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch s
tand
ardi
satio
n ca
n be
pr
ofita
bly
impl
emen
ted
and
expl
oite
d is
de
term
ined
by
a
num
ber
of
influ
enci
ng fa
ctor
s. Th
ese
fact
ors
are
now
exa
min
ed.
Influ
enci
ng fa
ctor
s fo
r sta
ndar
disa
tion.
This
issu
e of
wor
ldw
ide
stan
dard
ised
pro
duct
- an
d m
arke
ting
- pr
ogra
mm
es n
eeds
to
be r
esol
ved
by t
he f
irms
thro
ugh
a ca
refu
l ex
amin
atio
n of
the
ben
efits
acc
rued
by
purs
uing
suc
h a
stra
tegy
. A
rec
urre
nt t
hem
e in
the
lite
ratu
re i
s th
at t
he s
cope
for
be
nefic
ial s
tand
ardi
satio
n ap
pear
to b
e la
rgel
y de
term
ined
by
the
natu
re o
f th
e m
arke
t to
be
addr
esse
d.
An
illus
tratio
n of
this
is p
rovi
ded
by a
stu
dy b
y K
acke
r (19
75)
who
su
gges
ts
that
in
ce
rtain
ca
ses
adap
tatio
n is
nece
ssita
ted
not
only
by
di
ffer
ing
situ
atio
nal
need
s bu
t al
so b
y th
e en
viro
nmen
t in
w
hich
th
e fir
m
is f
orce
d,
by
circ
umst
ance
s to
ope
rate
. H
e lo
oked
at
the
patte
rns
and
prob
lem
s of
exp
ort-o
rient
ed
prod
uct
adap
tatio
n in
a d
evel
opin
g ec
onom
y (I
ndia
) w
ith a
prim
ary
emph
asis
on
the
expo
rts o
f no
n-tra
ditio
nal
engi
neer
ing
good
s w
here
ada
ptat
ion
take
s th
e fo
rm o
f m
inim
al,
volu
ntar
y, m
ajor
and
min
or.
In th
is c
ase,
Kac
ker
foun
d th
at a
dapt
atio
n w
as
impe
rativ
e fo
r a c
ompa
ny i
n a
deve
lopi
ng c
ount
ry w
ho t
hink
of
purs
uing
a p
olic
y of
pr
oduc
t ex
tens
ion
to o
ther
cou
ntrie
s as
don
e m
y so
me
MN
Es.
Con
sequ
ently
mos
t pr
oduc
ers
wen
t in
to v
entu
res
whi
ch r
equi
red
little
ada
ptat
ion
whi
ch w
as n
ot c
ostly
an
d ev
en,
in s
ome
case
s, s
ugge
sted
low
er c
osts
to
the
dom
estic
pro
duct
, a
bene
fit
ofte
n as
soci
ated
with
sta
ndar
disa
tion.
Whi
le i
t m
ay b
e ar
gued
tha
t th
e po
litic
al c
ompl
exiti
es o
f le
ss d
evel
oped
eon
omie
s,
such
as
Indi
a, c
an f
orce
ada
ptat
ion,
and
the
refo
re i
neff
icie
ncy,
on
the
glob
al f
irm,
Fulle
r an
d St
opfo
rd (
1987
) ha
ve f
ound
that
the
natu
re o
f m
arke
ts is
als
o an
im
porta
nt
dete
rmin
ant
of s
tand
ardi
satio
n in
dev
elop
ed m
arke
ts.
They
inv
estig
ated
the
whi
te
good
s m
arke
ts i
n Eu
rope
and
fou
nd t
hat
desp
ite t
he p
erce
ived
ben
efits
of
a gl
obal
st
anda
rdis
ed s
trate
gy,
glob
ally
org
anis
ed m
anuf
actu
rers
suc
h as
Phi
llips
, El
ectro
lux
and
Can
dy,
oper
atin
g in
sev
eral
hig
h-pr
iced
cou
ntrie
s, w
ere
less
pro
fitab
le t
han
the
larg
e na
tiona
lly-o
rient
ed c
ompa
nies
of
Fran
ce a
nd t
he U
.K.
In t
his
case
, as
the
m
arke
t fo
r do
mes
tic a
pplia
nces
in
Euro
pe i
s ne
ither
uni
fied
nor
hom
ogen
eous
, th
e in
tern
atio
nal
divi
sion
of
lab
our
does
no
t yi
eld
grea
t re
war
ds a
nd
with
out
the
econ
omic
s an
d ch
arac
teris
tics
of th
e m
arke
t cha
ngin
g in
term
s of
pur
chas
ing
patte
rns,
indu
stry
con
cent
ratio
n an
d pr
icin
g, o
vera
ll ga
ins
from
pol
icie
s of
spe
cial
isat
ion
and
glob
al s
trate
gy w
ill n
ot p
rove
mor
e pr
ofita
ble
in th
e fu
ture
.
It ha
s be
en p
ut f
orw
ard
by s
ever
al a
utho
rs th
at c
onsu
mer
dur
able
s, l
uxur
y go
ods
and
indu
stria
l goo
ds a
re m
ore
suita
ble
for
stan
dard
isat
ion
than
non
dur
able
s.
But
, a s
tudy
co
nduc
ted
by B
odde
wyn
, Soe
hl a
nd P
icar
d (1
986)
fou
nd t
hat t
he s
tand
ardi
satio
n of
a
sam
ple
of in
dust
rial
good
s ha
d in
fac
t dro
pped
fro
m 5
0% i
n 19
73 t
o 3%
in
1983
. In
th
is c
ase,
the
fall
in s
tand
ardi
satio
n w
as e
xpla
ined
by
thre
e ke
y ob
stac
les:
1. in
crea
sed
diff
eren
ces
in r
egul
atio
ns a
nd te
chni
cal
requ
irem
ents
; 2:
in
crea
sed
com
petit
ion
from
the
EC a
nd J
apan
ese
firm
s an
d 3:
th
e po
or e
cono
mic
con
ditio
ns th
at h
ave
plag
ued
mos
t of E
urop
e si
nce
the
oil
shoc
ks o
f the
197
0s.
The
com
bine
d ef
fect
of
thes
e fa
ctor
s re
sulte
d in
bot
h gr
eate
r se
gmen
tatio
n of
exi
stin
g m
arke
ts a
nd d
ecre
ased
vol
ume
dem
and
over
all a
nd th
eref
ore
enfo
rced
a h
ighe
r deg
ree
of a
dapt
atio
n to
mat
ch m
arke
t an
d co
nsum
er r
equi
rem
ents
mor
e pr
ecis
ely
in a
n in
crea
sing
ly c
ompe
titiv
e en
viro
nmen
t.
With
res
pect
to
the
com
petit
ive
natu
re o
f m
arke
ts,
Hen
zler
and
H
all
(198
6) a
nd
Que
lch
and
Hof
f (1
986)
sug
gest
ed i
n th
eir
stud
ies
that
, th
e gr
eate
r th
e de
gree
of
sim
ilarit
y in
a f
irm's
com
petit
ive
posi
tion
in d
iffer
ent
mar
kets
, th
e hi
gher
the
deg
ree
of s
tand
ardi
satio
n.
Sim
ilarly
, the
y fo
und
that
com
petin
g ag
ains
t the
sam
e ad
vers
arie
s w
ith s
imila
r sh
are
posi
tions
in d
iffer
ent c
ount
ries
lead
s to
gre
ater
sta
ndar
disa
tion
than
co
mpe
ting
agai
nst p
urel
y lo
cal c
ompa
nies
.
It se
ems
reas
onab
le to
ass
ume
that
som
e el
emen
ts o
f th
e m
ix. r
athe
r th
an th
e pr
oduc
ts
them
selv
es,
are
easi
er t
o st
anda
rdis
e, e
g.
prod
uct
posi
tioni
ng
(stra
tegi
c) v
sa
les
prom
otio
n (ta
ctic
al).
For
exam
ple,
a s
tudy
by
Man
enso
n (1
987)
who
loo
ked
at
IKEA
, th
e Sw
edis
h fu
rnitu
re
com
pany
, fo
und
that
a
stan
dard
ised
m
arke
ting
(esp
ecia
lly
pric
ing)
po
licy
wou
ld
not
nece
ssar
ily
resu
lt in
th
e hi
ghes
t gl
obal
pr
ofita
bilit
y of
the
firm
. Si
mila
rly,
Edw
ards
and
Spa
wto
n (1
987)
loo
ked
at t
he
pric
ing
of th
e re
cent
ly g
loba
lised
Aus
tralia
n w
ines
, fou
nd t
hat
pric
es r
efle
ct n
ot o
nly
the
cost
s of
pro
duct
ion,
but
als
o, g
over
nmen
t pol
icy
and
legi
slat
ion,
the
imag
e so
ught
, i.e
. pos
ition
ing,
dis
tribu
tion
stra
tegy
, (pu
ll or
pus
h), c
ompe
titiv
e fo
rces
and
add
ition
al
cost
s as
soci
ated
with
ser
ving
spe
cial
ity s
egm
ents
. Fu
rthe
r, an
othe
r el
emen
t of
the
m
arke
ting
mix
, ad
verti
sing
has
als
o pr
oved
diff
icul
t to
sta
ndar
dise
. K
eow
n (1
987)
fo
und
in a
stu
dy o
f 48
4 ad
verti
sers
tha
t st
anda
rdis
ed a
ds w
ere
neith
er p
reva
lent
nor
fe
asib
le.
The
abov
e fin
ding
s ar
e ty
pica
l of
th
e ov
erw
helm
ingl
y si
tuat
iona
l na
ture
of
st
anda
rdis
atio
n w
hich
per
mea
tes
the
liter
atur
e an
d le
ads
even
pro
pone
nts
of g
loba
l st
anda
rdis
atio
n, s
uch
as J
ain
(199
0) t
o co
nclu
de t
hat
the
grea
ter
the
diff
eren
ce i
n ph
ysic
al, p
oliti
cal
and
lega
l env
ironm
ents
bet
wee
n ho
me
and
host
cou
ntrie
s th
e lo
wer
th
e de
gree
of
stan
dard
isat
ion.
Th
ese
influ
enci
ng f
acto
rs h
ave
to b
e ex
amin
ed b
y co
mpa
nies
dev
elop
ing
prod
ucts
for i
nter
natio
nal m
arke
ts.
How
ever
, th
ere
is br
oad
agre
emen
t in
the
lite
ratu
re t
hat,
to e
nsur
e su
rviv
al a
nd
grow
th b
usin
ess
mus
t ha
ve a
n ef
fect
ive
new
pro
duct
pol
icy.
W
hat
is la
ckin
g ar
e th
e
-258
-
oper
atio
nal
prob
lem
s as
soci
ated
with
the
pro
cess
of
carr
ying
out
the
stra
tegy
, be
it
one
of s
tand
ardi
satio
n or
ada
ptat
ion.
SPR
EAD
OR
CO
NC
ENTR
ATE
Glo
bal
stra
tegi
es a
re r
athe
r ge
nera
list
rath
er th
an s
peci
alis
t in
nat
ure,
and
firm
s sh
all
have
to
deci
de w
heth
er t
o co
ncen
trate
on
key
mar
kets
or
dive
rsify
int
o as
man
y m
arke
ts a
s po
ssib
le.
This
, of c
ours
e, i
s no
t onl
y tru
e fo
r th
e m
arke
ts s
erve
d bu
t als
o fo
r the
acq
uisi
tion
and
loca
tion
of R
& D
, a c
ritic
al s
trate
gic
deci
sion
in N
PD.
Acc
ordi
ng l
o A
yal
and
Zif
(198
9),
whe
reas
div
ersi
ficat
ion
gene
rally
im
plie
s fe
wer
re
sour
ces
per
mar
ket,
less
pro
mot
ion,
mor
e ag
ents
and
a s
trong
er t
ende
ncy
tow
ard
a "s
kim
min
g po
licy"
; co
ncen
tratio
n in
volv
es
inve
stm
ent
in
mar
ket
shar
e,
heav
y pr
omot
ion,
stro
nger
con
trol
over
dis
tribu
tion
and
a gr
eate
r lik
elih
ood
of p
enet
ratin
g pr
icin
g.
How
ever
, th
is m
ay n
ot b
e th
e ca
se f
or N
PD,
depe
ndin
g, a
gain
, on
the
ho
mog
enei
ty o
f th
e m
arke
ts.
To l
aunc
h a
new
pro
duct
int
o a
num
ber
of d
iffer
ent
mar
kets
w
ill
not
only
in
crea
se
deve
lopm
ent
cost
s,
parti
cula
rly
in
rela
tion
to
info
rmat
ion
gath
erin
g in
the
ear
ly s
tage
s of
the
pro
cess
, bu
t it
will
als
o in
crea
se
deve
lopm
ent t
ime
for a
ll bu
t the
mos
t ade
pt a
nd e
xper
ienc
ed i
nter
natio
nal
play
ers
- in
ce
rtain
pro
duct
cat
egor
ies.
The
loca
tion
of R
& D
cou
ld b
e de
term
ined
lar
gely
by
the
degr
ee t
o w
hich
the
firm
se
eks
to c
entra
lise
or d
ecen
tralis
e op
erat
ion
on a
dom
estic
, reg
iona
l or g
loba
l sca
le.
Whi
le
cent
ralis
atio
n of
fers
a
num
ber
of
pote
ntia
l be
nefit
s -
criti
cal
mas
s an
d ec
onom
ies
of s
cale
, eas
ier c
omm
unic
atio
n, b
elte
r pr
otec
tion
of k
now
-how
, in
cho
sing
to
dec
entra
lise
can
resu
lt in
an
equa
l nu
mbe
r of
sig
nific
ant
bene
fits
for
NPD
. Th
ese
incl
ude
a tra
nsfe
r of
tec
hnol
ogy,
goo
d PR
, re
sear
ch t
alen
t an
d pr
oduc
t sk
ills
gain
s,
pote
ntia
l cos
t sav
ings
, new
idea
gen
erat
ion
and
grea
ter s
ensi
tivity
to m
arke
t nee
ds.
Des
pite
the
pot
entia
l be
nefit
s of
dec
entra
lisat
ion,
Ter
pstra
(19
77)
foun
d th
at a
roun
d 90
% o
f U
S R
& D
was
stil
l do
ne i
n th
e U
SA.
This
dom
estic
orie
ntat
ion
has
impo
rtant
impl
icat
ions
for
the
impl
emen
ttion
of
NPD
as
anot
her
stud
y (D
avid
son
and
Har
rigan
197
7) f
ound
that
firm
s w
ith in
tern
atio
nal
dive
rsifi
catio
ns in
trodu
ce p
rodu
cts
abro
ad m
ore
quic
kly
than
firm
s w
hich
do
not h
ave
inte
rnat
iona
l di
visi
ons
- 40
% i
n 2
year
s or
less
as
agai
nst 6
% f
or fi
rms
wih
no
inte
rnat
iona
l div
isio
ns.
A s
imila
r cas
e fo
r dec
entra
lised
R &
D w
as p
ut b
y M
ansf
ield
and
Rom
eo (
1984
) w
ho
foun
d th
at o
vers
eas
subs
idia
ries
are
not m
erel
y re
cipi
ents
of U
S te
chno
logy
but
are
, in
fact
, in
crea
sing
ly i
mpo
rtant
sou
rces
of
new
tec
hnol
ogy
whi
ch i
s be
ing
used
by
thei
r U
S pa
rent
s.
They
con
clud
e th
at r
educ
ed o
utflo
ws
of U
S te
chno
logy
whi
ch d
o m
uch
to d
eter
min
e th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of a
firm
's to
tal
wor
ldw
ide
R &
D e
ffor
ts a
nd w
ill
rest
rict n
ew in
nova
tions
from
bei
ng im
plem
ente
d si
mul
tane
ousl
y at
hom
e an
d ab
road
, w
hich
are
vita
l if
the
firm
is
to o
verc
ome
ever
dec
reas
ing
PLC
s an
d am
ortis
e de
velo
pmen
t cos
t.
The
grea
tly i
ncre
ased
use
of
tech
nolo
gica
l ac
quis
ition
(pa
rticu
larly
of
US
firm
s) a
s a
mea
ns o
f se
curin
g ne
w te
chno
logy
whi
ch c
hara
cter
ised
the
199
0s h
as c
lear
ly a
ssis
ted
the
proc
ess
of d
ecen
tralis
ing
inte
rnat
iona
l N
PD a
nd o
ver
time
the
situ
atio
n sh
ould
im
prov
e as
, in
gene
ral,
the
long
er th
e fir
m h
as b
een
enga
ged
in in
tern
atio
nal
busi
ness
, th
e m
ore
dece
ntra
lised
is th
e Fi
nn's
R &
D (C
apon
& G
laze
r 19
87).
Furth
er,
Hay
es a
nd A
bern
athy
(19
80)
char
ge t
hat e
xces
sive
em
phas
is o
n m
arke
ting'
s re
sear
ch a
nd s
hort-
term
fin
anci
al c
ontro
l m
easu
res
has
led
to th
e de
clin
e of
U.S
. fir
ms
in w
orld
mar
kets
. Th
ey a
rgue
tha
t A
mer
ican
bus
ines
ses
are
losi
ng m
ore
and
mor
e of
th
eir
mar
kets
to
Euro
pean
an
d Ja
pane
se
firm
s be
caus
e of
a
failu
re
to
rem
ain
tech
nolo
gica
lly c
ompe
titiv
e.
They
bel
ieve
tha
t A
mer
ican
firm
s ar
e re
luct
ant
to t
ake
the
high
er r
isk,
long
er t
erm
inv
estm
ent
in n
ew t
echn
olog
y ne
cess
ary
for
effe
ctiv
e co
mpe
titio
n in
wor
ld m
arke
ts.
They
fee
l tha
t the
will
ingn
ess
of fo
reig
n fir
ms
to m
ake
such
inve
stm
ents
can
be
attri
bute
d to
thei
r ne
eds
to lo
ok b
eyon
d th
eir
rela
tivel
y sm
all
dom
estic
mar
kets
for
suc
cess
. T
his
has
enco
urag
ed a
rel
ianc
e on
tec
hnic
ally
sup
erio
r pr
oduc
ts a
nd a
long
er p
ay o
ff p
ersp
ectiv
e.
Has
sel
(199
0) p
rom
otes
a v
iew
of
inte
rnat
iona
l pr
oduc
t de
velo
pmen
t w
hich
in
tegr
ates
the
tec
hnol
ogic
al
and
mar
ket
driv
ers
of
NPD
. T
his
so-c
alle
d co
mbi
natio
n "m
arke
t ne
eds/
tech
nolo
gica
l th
rust
" m
ay b
e a
mod
el o
f ho
w t
o cr
eate
a p
rodu
ct t
arge
ted
at E
urop
ean
mar
ket.
The
only
diff
eren
ce w
ith
toda
y's
situ
atio
n is
that
all
idea
s sh
ould
be
orig
inat
ing
from
all
Euro
pean
m
arke
ts, a
nd n
ot o
nly
from
the
cha
ract
eris
tics
of th
e Fr
ench
mar
ket.
(Has
sel,
1990
). (S
ee F
igur
e 1)
.
Exte
rnal
Fac
tors
:M
arke
t nee
ds
Com
petit
ion
Uni
vers
ities
Inde
pend
ent
H
Res
earc
h C
entre
s N
Inde
pend
ent
O
Scie
ntis
tL
Idea
B
ank
O G Y
Figu
re 1
:
*& <A *A •A Aft
*A
M A R K E
tu M tit
i i
Exte
rnal
Fac
tors
: K
now
ledg
e C
apita
l "G
uts"
Sour
ce:
Has
sel,
1990
. Le
Mar
ketin
g In
dust
rial
Euro
pean
. Le
s Ed
ition
s d'
Org
anis
atio
ns.
-259
-
It is
impo
rtant
to
emph
asis
e ho
w a
n as
sess
men
t of
thes
e st
rate
gic
optio
ns i
s un
likel
y to
pro
duce
iden
tical
res
ult*
; for
all
firm
s in
all
maj
or m
arke
ts.
Com
pany
siz
e, p
rodu
ct
stra
tegy
an
d st
ages
of
in
tern
atio
nalis
atio
n co
ntin
ue
to
impo
se
phys
ical
an
d ps
ycho
logi
cal c
onst
rain
ts o
n th
e ex
pans
ion
of th
e fir
m.
A f
urth
er li
mita
tion
is th
at w
hile
stra
tegi
c op
tions
are
rev
iew
ed, v
irtua
lly n
o at
tent
ion
is gi
ven
to h
ow t
hese
are
to b
e im
plem
ente
d, a
nd h
ow i
mpl
emen
tatio
n m
ight
var
y in
fir
ms
of d
iffer
ent r
esou
rce
leve
ls.
Impl
icit
in m
uch
of th
is l
itera
ture
is th
e pr
esen
ce
of t
he M
NE,
lea
ving
a g
ap i
n kn
owle
dge
rega
rdin
g ho
w t
he S
ME
orga
nise
s an
d re
spon
ds in
ord
er to
pur
sue
grow
th b
ased
on
succ
essf
ul N
PD.
In
addi
tion,
al
l th
ese
optio
ns
revi
ewed
th
us
far
assu
me
a m
anuf
actu
rer-
activ
e pa
radi
gm
with
pa
ssiv
e,
reac
tive
cust
omer
s (v
on
Hip
pel
1976
). In
co
ntra
st,
inte
rnat
iona
l op
erat
ions
are
mor
e an
d m
ore
char
acte
rised
by
coop
erat
ive,
int
erac
tive
mar
kets
, whe
re m
any
SMEs
for
m a
stro
ng c
ontin
gent
of
inte
rnat
iona
l ope
rato
rs.
The
next
sec
tion
ther
efor
e co
ncen
trate
s on
im
plem
enta
tiona
l is
sues
tha
t ar
e cr
ucia
l to
the
de
velo
pmen
t and
gro
wth
of S
MEs
in a
n in
tern
atio
nal,
indu
stria
l con
text
.
INTE
RN
ATI
ON
AL
PRO
DU
CT
POLI
CY
AN
D T
HE
SM
ALL
FIR
M A
ND
N
ETW
OR
K I
MPL
ICA
TIO
NS
Muc
h of
the
lite
ratu
re a
bove
has
a g
loba
l co
nten
t, an
d is
ther
efor
e w
ithou
t m
uch
dire
ct r
elia
nce
for
com
pani
es o
ther
tha
n la
rge
mul
tinat
iona
l or
glo
bal
ente
rpris
es.
How
ever
"th
e im
porta
nce
of s
mal
l an
d m
ediu
m b
usin
ess
is no
t to
be u
nder
estim
ated
".
(Dud
ley
1989
). H
e ga
ther
s ev
iden
ce o
f th
is i
n th
e U
S, w
hich
sho
wed
tha
t sm
alle
r co
mpa
nies
not
onl
y su
rviv
e qu
ite w
ell
in N
orth
Am
eric
a, t
hey
have
pro
pens
ity t
o co
mpe
te w
ith la
rge
com
pani
es.
Inte
rnat
iona
l M
arke
ting
is n
ot s
olel
y th
e pr
oper
ty o
f M
ultin
atio
nal
Ente
rpris
es, a
nd i
t m
ust b
e no
ted
that
in a
ll in
dust
rialis
ed c
ount
ries,
SM
Es p
lay
a ve
ry i
mpo
rtant
rol
e in
in
tern
atio
nal
trade
. B
ut,
this
app
aren
t dom
inat
ion
disa
ppea
rs w
hen
a cl
assi
ficat
ion
is ac
hiev
ed b
y ex
amin
ing
the
perf
orm
ance
of
expo
rting
firm
s in
rel
atio
n w
ith t
heir
turn
over
. W
hat e
mer
ges
then
, is
that
sm
all
and
med
ium
ent
erpr
ises
(SM
Es)
are
very
of
ten
in th
e to
p ra
nkin
g of
per
form
ing
ente
rpris
es.
(Cal
in a
nd D
jong
ang
1992
).
Smal
l B
usin
ess
Man
agem
ent &
NPD
Smal
l bus
ines
s m
anag
emen
t lite
ratu
re is
dom
inat
ed b
y 'h
ow to
do
it' b
ooks
adv
ocat
ing
a m
anag
emen
t ph
iloso
phy
deriv
ed f
rom
tha
t of
lar
ge b
usin
esse
s. A
utho
rs r
egar
d sm
all
busi
ness
es a
s sm
alle
r ver
sion
s of
larg
e bu
sine
sses
with
the
sam
e go
al, b
ehav
iour
an
d or
gani
satio
ns.
How
ever
, eac
h sm
all b
usin
ess
is u
niqu
e, a
s m
anag
emen
t is
heav
ily
invo
lved
in
all
func
tiona
l an
d m
anag
eria
l ar
eas
and
ther
efor
e m
anag
emen
t st
rate
gy
will
be
guid
ed b
y hi
s pe
rson
al c
hara
cter
istic
s.
(Sta
nwor
th a
nd C
urra
n 19
73 &
197
6).
So i
t ap
pear
s th
at e
vide
ntly
var
ied
and
indi
vidu
al s
trate
gies
will
em
erge
; th
eir
natu
re
depe
ndin
g on
wha
t wor
ks f
or th
e m
anag
emen
t in
ques
tion.
Act
ive
plan
ning
is r
arel
y fo
und
in s
mal
l bu
sine
sses
. W
here
pla
nnin
g is
unde
rtake
n it
is li
kely
to b
e on
an
ad h
oc, i
nfor
mal
and
sub
ject
ive
basi
s. Sm
all
busi
ness
man
ager
s dK
like
the
prec
isio
n an
d ob
ject
ivity
dem
ande
d by
for
mal
writ
ten
plan
s. Si
mila
rly.
and
for
the
sam
e re
ason
s, a
ny c
ontro
l pr
oced
ures
are
ad
hoc
and
info
rmal
(G
olde
19
84).
Mor
e re
cent
ly G
ibb
and
Scot
t (1
983)
fou
nd t
hat
plan
ning
was
des
irabl
e an
d as
soci
ated
with
suc
cess
and
mor
e pa
rtici
iarly
. co
mpa
nies
, w
hich
pur
sue
diff
eren
t lin
es o
f pro
duct
and
mar
ket d
evel
opm
ent.
Sim
ilarly
, re
ferr
ing
to a
stu
dy b
y C
hurc
! ill
and
Lew
is (
1983
) w
ho i
dent
ified
fiv
e st
ages
in
the
grow
th o
f a
smal
l bu
sine
ss,
Scot
t an
d B
ruce
(19
87)
also
ide
ntifi
ed f
ive
stag
es:
ince
ptio
n, s
urvi
val,
grow
th,
expa
nsio
n, m
atur
ity.
For
a co
mpa
ny t
o m
ove
from
one
sta
ge t
o an
othe
r, th
e au
thor
s be
lieve
tha
t ea
ch s
tage
of
a bu
sine
ss w
as
prec
eded
by
a cr
isis
whi
ch r
equi
res
to b
e so
lved
bef
ore
busi
ness
ent
ers
the
next
pha
se
or e
xits
. O
f co
urse
, th
e an
alys
is o
f ea
ch s
tage
is
a fir
m's
pres
ent
situ
atio
n an
d th
eref
ore
can
only
be
used
as
a di
agno
stic
too
l an
d w
ould
onl
y gi
ve s
ome
indi
catio
n of
wha
t st
rate
gies
app
ear
to b
e su
itabl
e.
With
ref
eren
ce t
o N
PD t
hey
foun
d th
at t
his
star
ts t
o oc
cur
in t
he g
row
th s
tage
and
sug
gest
tha
t at
thi
s st
age,
dep
endi
ng o
n th
e na
ture
of
the
prod
uct,
firm
s m
ay e
mba
rk o
n R
& D
to
expa
nd t
he p
rodu
ct r
ange
and
th
at e
xpan
sion
may
be
deriv
ed f
rom
new
mar
kets
or
new
pro
duct
s.
In t
he e
xpan
sion
st
age,
mai
nten
ance
of
com
petit
ive
adva
ntag
e m
ay b
e at
tain
ed t
hrou
gh d
iffer
entia
l pr
oduc
ts w
hich
will
req
uire
gre
at f
ocus
on
cust
omer
nee
ds a
nd a
dapt
atio
n of
pro
duct
of
ferin
gs t
o m
eet
thos
e ne
eds.
Fina
lly,
in t
he m
atur
ity s
tage
, th
e fir
m w
ill h
ave
to
find
'gro
wth
opp
ortu
nitie
s' an
d at
this
sta
ge a
maj
or i
nnov
ativ
e th
rust
is
fund
amen
tal
and
thus
the
grow
ing
impo
rtanc
e of
NPD
.
Oak
ley,
Rot
hwel
l an
d C
oope
r (1
988)
inv
estig
ated
the
rol
e of
sm
all
high
tec
hnol
ogy
firm
s in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f new
pro
duct
s an
d pr
oces
ses.
The
y fo
und
that
one
fift
h of
th
e fir
ms
surv
eyed
had
no
inte
rnal
R &
D a
nd t
he s
tudy
fou
nd n
o re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
e ex
iste
nce
of s
uch
faci
litie
s an
d fa
ilure
. A
noth
er c
oncl
usio
n of
the
stud
y is
that
"m
ost
high
-tech
sm
all
firm
s m
anag
emen
t is
intro
spec
tive
and
reac
tive
in
natu
re".
W
ith r
efer
ence
to p
rodu
ct d
evel
opm
ent,
the
stat
emen
t can
be
adeq
uate
; th
e ar
chet
ypal
pro
file
of a
sm
all
busi
ness
bei
ng o
ne w
hich
is
foun
ded
by a
n en
trepr
eneu
r w
ith s
ome
expe
rtise
, be
ing
tech
nica
l or
sci
entif
ic,
and
who
has
dev
elop
ed o
r is
deve
lopi
ng a
new
pro
duct
, th
e gr
eate
r st
reng
th l
ies
in h
is p
ositi
ve a
ttitu
de t
o th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
new
pro
duct
s.
Als
o, P
erry
(19
86)
foun
d th
at s
mal
l fir
ms
grow
fas
test
fro
m a
sta
rt-up
poi
nt o
f ze
ro
until
'a
com
pact
sta
ge'
is r
each
ed.
At
that
sta
ge,
he f
ound
tha
t co
mpa
nies
had
su
ffic
ient
sal
es t
o en
sure
sur
viva
l, pr
ovid
ed a
req
uire
d st
anda
rd o
f liv
ing
and
retu
rn
on
inve
stm
ent.
Bec
ause
of
ris
k an
d be
caus
e sm
all
busi
ness
is
limite
d to
th
e m
anag
eria
l an
d te
chni
cal
skill
s of
its
m
anag
emen
t, he
su
gges
ted
that
m
arke
t de
velo
pmen
t and
pro
duct
dev
elop
men
t sho
uld
at th
is s
tage
hap
pen
incr
emen
tally
from
th
e fa
mili
ar t
owar
ds t
he
unfa
mili
ar.
Mor
eove
r, m
arke
t de
velo
pmen
t sh
ould
be
pr
efer
red
to p
rodu
ct d
evel
opm
ent
beca
use
deve
lopi
ng n
ew c
usto
mer
s is
les
s ris
ky
than
dev
elop
ing
new
pro
duct
s.
How
ever
, fu
rther
gro
wth
als
o oc
curr
ed a
fter
the
"com
fort
stag
e".
He
sugg
este
d fo
ur s
trate
gies
ope
n to
SM
Es:
1. pe
netra
te th
e ex
istin
g m
arke
t with
exi
stin
g pr
oduc
ts2.
de
velo
p ne
w m
arke
ts f
or e
xist
ing
prod
ucts
3.
deve
lop
new
pro
duct
s fo
r exi
stin
g m
arke
ts4.
di
vers
ify i
nto
new
mar
kets
and
new
pro
duct
s.
-260
-
Alte
rnat
ivel
y, a
firm
can
be
its o
wn
supp
lier
and
beco
me
its o
wn
dist
ribut
or.
Kot
ler
(198
4) a
lso
argu
es t
hat
a m
arke
t pe
netra
tion
stra
tegy
is
appr
opria
te f
or f
irms
with
sm
all
mar
ket s
hare
, but
is re
ferr
ing
to a
lar
ge f
irm w
ith a
sm
all
mar
ket s
hare
for
one
of
its
man
y pr
oduc
ts, r
athe
r th
an to
a s
mal
l fir
m w
ith o
ne p
rodu
ct
Stra
tegi
es o
pen
to
a sm
all
firm
ar
e no
t m
arke
t pe
netra
tion
or
dive
rsifi
catio
n,
they
ar
e m
arke
t de
velo
pmen
t and
new
pro
duct
dev
elop
men
t.
A B
ritis
h O
vers
eas
Trad
e B
oard
rep
ort
(198
6) s
tate
s th
at s
mal
l fir
ms
whi
ch u
tilis
e ex
porti
ng a
s a
mea
ns t
o de
velo
p an
d pe
netra
te m
arke
ts a
broa
d, h
ave
in c
ompa
rison
w
ith l
arge
firm
, a
num
ber
of a
dvan
tage
s su
ch a
s th
at i
t can
rea
ct q
uick
ly t
o ex
port
oppo
rtuni
ties,
and
with
clo
se k
now
ledg
e of
cus
tom
ers
may
com
e th
e in
cent
ive
to d
eal
effic
ient
ly w
ith t
hem
, so
met
hing
lar
ger
com
pani
es m
ay n
ot b
e no
ted
for.
You
ng.
Ham
ill,
Whe
eler
, D
avie
s (1
989)
poi
nt o
ut t
hat
to b
e su
cces
sful
a f
irnf
has
to b
e co
mm
itted
to
expo
rting
and
has
to
be r
easo
nabl
y or
gani
sed
and
prep
ared
in
its
ap
proa
ch to
for
eign
mar
kets
".
With
out N
PD, b
usin
ess
cann
ot m
aint
ain
a ba
lanc
e be
twee
n gr
owth
and
pro
fitab
ility
in
the
long
ter
m.
New
pro
duct
s w
ill f
ulfil
an
esse
ntia
l ro
le i
n th
e pr
oduc
t po
rtfol
io
cont
ribut
ing
to f
utur
e pr
ofits
. A
s sm
all
busi
ness
es d
evel
op a
nd e
xpan
d m
arke
ts
succ
essf
ully
at
an i
nter
natio
nal
leve
l, pr
oduc
t de
velo
pmen
t fo
r in
tern
atio
nal
mar
kets
sh
ould
als
o be
exp
lore
d as
an
alte
rnat
ive
stra
tegy
. B
earin
g in
min
d th
at s
mal
l bu
sine
sses
are
not
a s
mal
ler
vers
ion
of b
ig b
usin
esse
s, bu
t th
at t
hey
deal
with
a
diff
eren
t se
t of
issu
es i
t w
ould
the
refo
re a
ppea
r to
be
a ga
p in
ext
ent
know
ledg
e on
pr
oduc
t dev
elop
men
t for
inte
rnat
iona
l mar
ket a
s a
stra
tegi
c op
tion
for S
MEs
.
As
the
liter
atur
e ad
dres
sing
mar
ketin
g an
d th
e sm
all
busi
ness
is r
athe
r sp
arse
, ind
eed.
D
avid
et
al (1
985)
fou
nd t
hat
ther
e w
as n
ot a
sin
gle
artic
le
in
the
Jour
nal
of
Mar
ketin
g ad
dres
sing
thi
s th
eme.
It
may
be
usef
ul t
o ex
plor
e ho
w S
MEs
can
su
cces
sful
ly
emba
rk
on
NPD
fo
r in
tern
atio
nal
mar
kets
. A
n ex
amin
atio
n of
m
anag
emen
t and
its
char
acte
ristic
s an
d th
e us
e of
net
wor
king
may
influ
ence
NPD
and
in
tern
atio
nalis
atio
n of
the
SME.
Cha
ract
eris
tics
of S
mal
l Com
pani
es
Mar
ketin
g, in
its
tradi
tiona
l fo
rm, a
s it
is de
scrib
ed b
y A
mer
ican
tex
tboo
ks is
lar
gely
ab
sent
with
in th
e sm
all b
usin
ess
sect
or.
The
findi
ngs
of a
stu
dy b
y Sc
ase
and
Gof
fee
(198
7) w
as t
hat
whi
le l
arge
r fir
ms
amon
gst
thei
r re
spon
dent
s de
velo
ped
a "c
oher
ent
mar
ketin
g pl
an",
sm
alle
r bu
sine
sses
rel
ied
on
regu
lar
cust
omer
s an
d fo
und
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f a m
arke
ting
plan
unn
eces
sary
.
Mor
e re
veal
ing
are
Kin
sey'
s fin
ding
s.
She
stud
ied
smal
l m
anuf
actu
ring
firm
s in
Sc
otla
nd a
nd f
ound
mar
ketin
g re
sear
ch,
segm
enta
tion
and
prod
uct
posi
tioni
ng w
ere
rare
ly u
sed
by th
e re
spon
dent
s. (
Kin
sey
1987
).
The
prof
ile o
f m
anag
emen
t w
ith i
ts c
hara
cter
istic
s of
fers
a m
eans
of
unde
rsta
ndin
g th
e m
anag
eria
l fun
ctio
n of
SM
Es.
Trad
ition
ally
, th
e ow
ner
of a
sm
all
firm
is
norm
ally
also
the
man
ager
. Th
us,
the
qual
itativ
e de
finiti
on o
f a
smal
l bu
sine
ss g
iven
by
the
Bol
ton
Com
mitt
ee (
1971
)
requ
ires
it to
be
"man
aged
by
its o
wne
r or
par
t-tim
e ow
ner
in a
per
sona
lised
way
". Th
eref
ore
the
indi
vidu
al b
usin
ess
owne
r-m
anag
er is
now
con
side
red.
Cha
ract
eris
tics
of th
e O
wne
r-M
anag
er
The
ow
ner-
man
ager
has
bee
n sy
nony
mou
s w
ith t
he e
ntre
pren
eur.
The
Col
lins
dict
iona
ry d
efin
ition
of
an e
ntre
pren
eur
is "t
he o
wne
r or
man
ager
of
a bu
sine
ss
ente
rpris
e w
ho, b
y ris
k an
d in
itiat
ive,
atte
mpt
s to
mak
e pr
ofits
".
At
the
cent
re o
f th
is d
efin
ition
are
the
con
cept
s of
ris
k an
d in
itiat
ive
impl
ying
tha
t th
ey a
re c
hara
cter
istic
s of
an
entre
pren
eur.
Rei
d an
d Ja
cobs
en (
1988
) ha
ve,
in a
su
mm
ary
of th
ree
text
s, id
entif
ied
thre
e en
trepr
eneu
rial c
hara
cter
istic
s:
1. a
risk
take
r2.
ab
le to
coo
rdin
ate
the
firm
's re
sour
ces
effic
ient
ly3.
ab
le to
use
tim
e ef
fect
ivel
y.
Thus
, th
e as
sum
ptio
n is
that
the
ent
repr
eneu
r ha
s th
e na
tura
l ab
ility
to
be a
n ef
fect
ive
busi
ness
ow
ner.
Som
e re
sear
cher
s at
tribu
te t
his
to a
par
ticul
ar p
sych
olog
ical
sta
te:
"the
ne
ed
to
achi
eve"
(M
cLel
land
19
61)
whi
le
othe
rs s
et
the
indi
vidu
als
past
ex
peri
ence
s as
the
impe
tus
for e
ntre
pren
eurs
hip
(Ket
s an
d V
ries
1977
).
Are
all
busi
ness
ow
ners
ent
repr
eneu
rs?
Cur
ran
(198
6) r
estri
cted
ent
repr
eneu
rial
activ
ities
to
thos
e w
hich
inv
olve
d no
velty
eith
er i
n th
e pr
oduc
t on
ser
vice
off
erin
g,
the
mea
ns o
f pro
duct
ion,
the
mar
ketin
g an
d di
strib
utio
n of
all
thre
e.
As
prev
ious
ly m
entio
ned,
mar
ketin
g ap
pear
s to
be
abse
nt in
the
sm
all
busi
ness
. M
ost
mar
ketin
g te
xts,
even
tho
se a
imed
at s
mal
l bu
sine
sses
, hav
e as
sum
ed t
he c
once
pt a
nd
theo
ries
of m
arke
ting
can
be a
pplie
d un
ilate
rally
, re
gard
less
of
the
size
or
natu
re o
f th
e fir
m.
The
mar
ketin
g co
ncep
t is
embo
died
in
the
"exc
hang
e re
latio
nshi
p" b
etw
een
the
firm
and
the
cons
umer
and
so
the
firm
sho
uld
go to
the
mar
ket,
rese
arch
the
need
s an
d fu
lfil t
he n
eeds
with
pro
duct
s.
As
a re
sult,
sm
all
busi
ness
es s
houl
d de
velo
p re
latio
ns w
ith t
he c
usto
mer
s.
By
crea
ting
grou
ps o
f re
gula
r cus
tom
ers
the
smal
l bu
sine
ss c
an "
guar
ante
e" a
ste
ady
flow
of
bus
ines
s an
d ne
utra
lise
mar
ket
fluct
uatio
ns (
Scas
e an
d G
offe
e 19
87).
Patte
n (1
985)
ref
ers
to t
his
as "
culti
vatin
g th
e cu
stom
er".
Si
nce
the
smal
l bu
sine
ss i
s in
cl
ose
cont
act
with
its
cust
omer
s it
can
be a
war
e of
the
ir ch
arac
teris
tics
and
of a
ny
emer
ging
tren
ds (G
aede
ke a
nd T
oote
lian
1985
).
Thi
s de
velo
pmen
t of
cus
tom
er r
elat
ions
is
know
n as
the
"b
otto
m
up"
stra
tegy
(M
ancu
so 1
973)
whe
re n
egot
iatio
ns r
athe
r th
an a
naly
sis
skill
s ar
e m
ore
impo
rtant
. C
onta
cts
with
stra
tegi
c pe
rson
s ar
e al
so c
ruci
al f
or t
he s
mal
l bu
sine
ss m
anag
er.
He
mus
t m
anag
e th
ese
cont
acts
. T
he S
MEs
man
ager
sho
uld,
al
diff
eren
t tim
es f
ulfil
the
ro
le o
f "p
atro
n" a
nd "
brok
er"
with
in t
he s
ourc
e or
com
mun
icat
ions
net
wor
k of
whi
ch
he a
nd h
is b
usin
esse
s ar
e a
part.
Info
rmat
ion
is m
anip
ulat
ed b
y "a
bro
ker"
in
retu
rn f
or a
"ta
riff
pai
d by
the
rec
eive
r of
the
inf
orm
atio
n "t
he p
atro
n".
The
"tar
iff
can
be i
nfor
mat
ion,
ser
vice
s, s
tatu
s or
go
odw
ill a
nd i
t w
ill b
e pa
id a
t so
me
late
r tim
e.
Boi
ssev
ain
(197
4) r
ecog
nise
d th
ese -261
-
rote
s fr
om h
is o
bser
vatio
ns w
ithin
his
ow
n so
cial
net
wor
k an
d re
sear
ch c
arrie
d ou
t in
Mal
ta, S
icily
and
Mon
treal
bet
wee
n 19
60 a
nd 1
969.
From
the
abo
ve it
app
ears
that
the
natu
re o
f sa
les
dict
ates
a 'm
atch
ing'
rat
her
than
an
'exch
ange
' re
latio
nshi
p w
ith i
ts m
arke
ts;
i.e.
cust
omer
s w
hose
nee
ds m
eet
wha
t th
e co
mpa
ny c
an s
uppl
y sh
ould
be
soug
ht a
nd m
aint
aine
d.
The
key
for
succ
ess
with
in
the
sale
is
the
'culti
vatin
g' o
f re
latio
nshi
p w
ith c
usto
mer
s an
d co
ntac
t w
ithin
the
m
arke
t. To
fac
ilita
te t
hese
rel
atio
nshi
ps B
oede
ke a
nd T
oote
lian
(198
5) i
dent
ified
a
num
ber o
f ben
efits
whi
ch a
sm
all b
usin
ess
hold
s:
bein
g cl
osel
y aw
are
of c
usto
mer
's ch
arac
teris
tics
awar
enes
s of
nee
ds a
nd e
mer
ging
tren
dsaw
aren
ess
of th
e pe
culia
rity
if its
loca
l com
mun
ityha
ving
clo
se c
onta
cts
and
good
com
mun
icat
ions
with
em
ploy
ers
and,
fle
xibl
e m
anag
emen
t allo
win
g fo
r qui
ck d
ecis
ions
.
This
bri
ef r
evie
w o
f so
me
of th
e ke
y is
sues
that
are
dea
lt w
ith b
y th
e sm
all
busi
ness
lit
erat
ure
thro
ws
up t
wo
issu
es w
hich
do
not
easi
ly f
it w
ith t
he e
xtan
t th
eory
on
inte
rnat
iona
l pr
oduc
t de
velo
pmen
t. Fi
rstly
, th
e sm
all
busi
ness
man
ager
is
ofte
n a
tech
nolo
gica
lly
min
ded
entre
pren
eur
who
is
us
ed
to a
sses
sing
an
d ta
king
ris
k.
Seco
nd, s
mal
l bus
ines
ses
rely
on
rela
tions
hips
with
bot
h cu
stom
ers
and
supp
liers
as
a m
eans
of
glea
ning
, in
terp
retin
g an
d ac
ting
on i
nfor
mat
ion.
B
oth
of t
hese
hav
e a
prof
ound
impa
ct o
n de
velo
pmen
t of n
ew p
rodu
cts
and
mus
t be
take
n in
to a
ccou
nt.
The
abov
e ch
arac
teris
tics
impl
y a
clos
e pr
oxim
ity t
o th
e di
ffer
ent
envi
ronm
ent
of
SMEs
. be
ing
inte
rnal
or
exte
rnal
and
will
pro
vide
acc
ess
to i
nfor
mat
ion
requ
ired
to
deve
lop
inte
rnat
iona
l NPD
.
NET
WO
RK
S:
An
appr
opria
te f
ram
ewor
k fo
r In
tern
atio
nal
NPD
Alth
ough
net
wor
king
has
rec
eive
d su
bsta
ntia
l at
tent
ion,
mos
t of
the
stu
dies
ref
er t
o in
dust
rial
mar
ketin
g an
d la
rge
com
pani
es.
(For
d 19
90).
Onc
e ag
ain,
it
appe
ars
that
SM
E's
have
bee
n ne
glec
ted.
Mos
t of
the
fol
low
ing
is b
ased
on
a co
mpi
latio
n of
arti
cles
edi
ted
by C
atin
and
D
jond
ang
(199
2).
It re
fers
to F
renc
h co
mpa
nies
and
the
ir ex
perie
nce
of I
nter
natio
nal
trade
. O
ne s
ectio
n co
vers
exc
lusi
vely
SM
Es a
nd e
xpor
ting,
and
spe
cific
ally
the
ef
fect
s th
at n
etw
orks
hav
e on
thei
r man
agem
ent f
or in
tern
atio
nalis
atio
n.
Cat
in a
nd D
jond
ang
(199
2) i
n th
e in
trodu
ctio
n pu
t for
war
d th
at in
tern
atio
nal
trade
is
heav
y in
cap
ital
and
man
pow
er f
or S
MEs
and
ofte
n th
ese
are
rest
rictin
g op
erat
iona
l ac
tiviti
es.
Trad
ition
ally
SM
Es o
pera
te a
t a
loca
l le
vel,
with
litt
le d
ista
nce
betw
een
them
selv
es a
nd t
heir
cust
omer
s.
How
ever
, th
ey f
eel
that
the
dis
tanc
e cr
eate
d by
tra
ding
int
erna
tiona
lly c
ould
als
o be
an
obst
acle
to
busi
ness
. Th
is d
ista
nce
coul
d be
el
imin
ated
by
othe
r fa
ctor
s su
ch a
s si
mila
ritie
s in
nee
ds, w
hich
will
mak
e th
e ta
sk o
f in
tern
atio
nalis
atio
n ea
sier
for
the
firm
, and
pro
babl
y gi
ve a
ssis
tanc
e to
the
cho
ice
of
targ
et m
arke
t. In
add
ition
, th
e en
terp
rise's
env
ironm
ent
is no
t ab
stra
ct,
as o
ther
"n
etw
orks
" su
ch a
s tra
nspo
rt se
rvic
es,
info
rmat
ion
syst
em,
etc.
exi
st.
Furth
er t
hey
view
tha
t the
firm
's co
mpe
titiv
enes
s w
ill d
epen
d up
on th
e qu
ality
of t
hese
net
wor
ks.
Alre
ady
stat
ed a
bove
is
the
notio
n of
the
sm
iM b
usin
ess
as a
'pa
tron'
or
'bro
ker'.
Thes
e co
ncep
ts a
re in
trins
ic to
the
man
agem
ent
role
of
info
rmat
ion
in r
isk
redu
ctio
n an
d o(
bu
sine
ss i
s lik
ely
to n
eed
info
rmat
ion
to a
s«
mob
ilisa
tion
of a
net
wor
k m
ay w
ell
prov
e m
o in
form
atio
n in
a m
ore
tradi
tionn
aliy
-acc
eptc
d n
f net
wor
ks a
nd a
re a
lso
linke
d to
the
mis
ing
oppo
rtuni
ties.
T
he s
mal
l ;
both
opp
ortu
nitie
s an
d ris
ks,
and
effe
ctiv
e th
an a
ttem
ptin
g to
gat
her
del.
The
notio
n of
net
wor
ks a
nd t
heir
inte
ract
ions
a
i rel
atio
nshi
ps c
an b
e a
usef
ul t
ool
to
gain
acc
ess
to i
nfor
mat
ion.
It
was
men
tione
i pr
evio
usly
tha
t SM
Es h
ad a
cces
s to
ne
twor
ks b
oth
at th
e in
tern
al a
nd e
xter
nal
iev^
;. B
ecau
se o
f th
eir
rela
tive
size
, an
d lo
catio
n, t
he s
truct
ure
of t
he n
etw
orks
of
SMEs
wer
e pr
imar
ily b
ased
loc
ally
or
regi
onal
ly; a
nd th
at th
e re
latio
nshi
ps m
ay h
ave
been
'cul
tivat
ed' o
ver
a pe
riod
of ti
me,
of
ferin
g in
form
atio
n le
adin
g to
red
uced
tra
nsac
tion
cost
s, e
cono
mie
s of
sca
le e
tc...
(T
hore
lli
1986
). Th
e ro
le o
f in
form
atio
n is
pivo
tal
in t
he d
evel
opm
ent
of n
ew
prod
ucts
.
Ren
ard
and
Ric
her
(199
2) i
dent
ified
s th
at S
MEs
wan
ting
to e
xplo
re f
orei
gn m
arke
ts
need
ed t
o us
e ex
istin
g ne
twor
ks o
r cr
eate
new
one
s. Th
ese
netw
orks
wer
e to
fa
cilit
ate
acce
ss t
o th
ese
mar
kets
, by
ide
ntify
ing
need
s an
d w
ants
of
the
cust
omer
s,
dist
ribut
ion
and
so o
n, a
nd, f
urth
er,
to h
elp
them
to
be
com
petit
ive.
D
epen
ding
on
the
info
rmat
ion
rece
ived
, pro
duct
s m
ay r
equi
re to
be
of h
igh
qual
ity, h
igh
tech
rat
her
than
pric
e be
ing
impo
rtant
. A
s a
resu
lt, i
n te
rms
of s
trate
gy f
or p
rodu
ct p
olic
y, i
t m
ay b
e ne
cess
ary
for
SMEs
to h
ave
a m
ore
com
plex
org
anis
atio
n fo
r R
&D
, tha
t wha
t is
req
uire
d fo
r th
e ho
me
mar
ket.
Such
an
org
anis
atio
n m
ay b
e pr
ovid
ed
by
mob
ilisa
tion
of th
e ne
twor
k.
Tech
nolo
gica
l in
nova
tion
and
bette
r qu
ality
pro
duct
s ar
e of
ten
a he
avy
burd
en f
or
SMEs
and
this
has
led
them
int
o th
e se
arch
for
par
tner
s to
red
uce
cost
and
ris
k.
Co
op
erat
ion
is lik
ely
also
to
happ
en b
y be
com
ing
a su
b-co
ntra
ctor
to
a la
rge
firm
th
ereb
y pr
ovid
ing
acce
ss t
o ne
w t
echn
olog
ies
and
ther
efor
e lim
iting
ris
ks w
hen
deve
lopi
ng n
ew p
rodu
cts.
Bel
ongi
ng to
one
or m
ore
of th
ese
netw
orks
is a
n im
porta
nt fa
ctor
for
SM
Es a
s it
will
fa
cilit
ate
the
spee
d of
ada
ptat
ion
to c
hang
es.
Thes
e ch
ange
s be
ing
for e
xam
ple,
in th
e fie
ld o
f pr
oduc
t ada
ptat
ion,
inn
ovat
ion
or u
se o
f ne
w te
chno
logy
, or
sim
ply
to b
ette
r th
e qu
ality
of t
heir
prod
ucts
, thr
ough
t thi
s ra
pid
acce
ss to
info
rmat
ion
that
is p
rovi
ded
be b
elon
ging
to
one
or m
ore
netw
orks
. R
enar
d an
d R
iche
r (1
992)
fee
l th
at t
hese
ne
twor
ks h
ave
alw
ays
exis
ted,
but
that
rec
ently
bec
ause
of t
he tu
rbul
ence
of
mar
kets
an
d th
e ra
pidi
ty o
f cha
nge
in p
rodu
cts,
they
hav
e be
com
e of
gre
ater
impo
rtanc
e.
Mos
t of t
he a
bove
fin
ding
s ar
e ex
plor
ing
the
use
of n
etw
orks
from
a m
anag
eria
l po
int
of v
iew
of
how
to
impr
ove
com
petit
iven
ess
on t
he i
nter
natio
nal
scen
e.
The
use
of
netw
orks
w
ill
prov
ide
info
rmat
ion
and
help
to
pr
ovid
e an
swer
s to
pr
oble
ms
enco
unte
red
and
to r
educ
e th
e ris
ks t
aken
. M
ost
of t
hese
net
wor
ks e
xam
ined
are
re
late
d to
the
envi
ronm
ent o
f th
e fir
m b
ut o
mits
one
ver
y im
porta
nt o
ne a
t the
cor
e of
an
y bu
sine
ss e
xist
ence
: th
e cu
stom
er.
-262
-
SU
MM
AR
Y
For
achi
evin
g gr
owth
and
com
petin
g in
the
int
erna
tiona
l ar
ena,
the
suc
cess
of
MN
Es
has
been
th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
th
eir
prod
uct
offe
ring
. T
he
leve
l of
N
PD
for
inte
rnat
iona
l m
arke
ts b
eing
a f
unct
ion
of t
he s
trat
egie
s of
fere
d, s
tand
ardi
satio
n or
ad
apta
tion
of
prod
uct,
conc
entr
atio
n or
sp
read
ing
of
reso
urce
s. Th
e tr
end
in
inte
rnat
iona
l tr
ade
rein
forc
e th
e gr
owth
of
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f SM
Es
in t
his
field
. T
o re
spon
d to
thi
s ch
ange
SM
Es
need
to
achi
eve
grow
th a
nd b
e ab
le t
o co
mpe
te t
hrou
gh
deve
lopi
ng n
ew p
rodu
cts
for
inte
rnat
iona
l m
arke
ts.
Bel
ongi
ng t
o ne
twor
ks i
s a
tool
w
hich
can
be
us
ed a
t ta
ctic
al
leve
l, as
it
will
fa
cilit
ate
the
spee
d of
NPD
fo
r in
tern
atio
nal m
arke
ts th
roug
h in
form
atio
n.
RE
FER
EN
CE
S
Aya
l. I.
& Z
if."
Mar
ket
Exp
ansi
on
Stra
tegi
es i
n M
ultin
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nal
Mar
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e Jo
urna
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arke
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43.
No.
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4.
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ew
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ines
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U
nem
ploy
men
t an
d th
e R
ole
of S
mal
l B
usin
esse
s in
E
cono
mic
G
row
th".
Pa
per
pres
ente
d to
th
e 20
lh
Ann
ual
Wor
ld
Con
fere
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l B
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e N
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