NEWELL S HEARWATER LANDSCAPE S Landscape...o various ra aphic stoch ed to appro se analyse modeled co e Strategy abitat on K ... approximately 9,470 ha of suitable NESH habitat where

NEWELL’SSHEARWATERLANDSCAPESTRATEGY

U.S.FishandWildlifeServicePacificIslandsFishandWildlifeOffice300AlaMoanaBoulevard,Room3‐122

Honolulu,Hawaii96850

Version1,January2016

Newell’sShearwaterLandscapeStrategy 1

CONTEXTThisdocumentisintendedforusewithinthePacificIslandsFishandWildlifeOfficeasguidanceforrecoveryactions,habitatconservationplanning,andEndangeredSpeciesActsection7consultations.ThreatstotheNewell’sshearwater(Puffinusnewelli,NESH),includinglightattractionandfallout,collisionwithpowerlines,predation,andhabitatdegradation,haveresultedinanestimated12.8%annualdeclineintheperiodfrom1993to2013,basedondatafromradarsurveys(Raineetal.,inpress).Managementofthisspeciesisdifficultatbestduetotheremoteruggedareaswheretheynowoccur.Furthercomplicatingrecoveryforthisspeciesisitsrelativelylowreproductiveoutputasitislatetoreachsexualmaturity,andproducesatmostoneyoungperyear(K‐selected).Populationgrowthisnaturallyslow,evenintheabsenceofhuman‐inducedthreats.Forareviewofthespecies’biology,seeAppendix1.

Ourofficedevelopedextensivehabitatsuitabilityandpopulationmodelstoassistinhabitatconservationplanning(HCP)andthedevelopmentofthisrecoverystrategy.PreviousPopulationViabilityAnalyses(PVAs)havefocusedextensivelyondeterministicmeta‐populationmodels(Ainleyetal.2001a;GriesemerandHolmes2011).Thesemodelsweredevelopedtoassesstheoverallviabilityofthemeta‐populationasitrelatesdirectlytoaveragedemographictrendswithoutsignificantstochasticvariation(Morris1999).Thesemodelsareextremelyusefulinthattheyidentifydemographicparameterssensitivetosomeformofmodification(e.g.predation,collisionetc.).TheworkoutlinedhereattemptstobuildontheoutputsandmethodologiesdiscussedextensivelyinAinleyetal.(2001)andGriesemerandHolmes(2011)byincorporatingthemostup‐to‐dategeographicanddemographicinformationpossible,developingageographicassessmentofNESHcolonysites,andcreatinganiterativelyreproducibleandupdate‐ableprojectionintheRstatisticalenvironment.Species‐specificdatainthemodelswerefromdatasetswithsmallsamplesizesorshortsamplingperiods;andthuswherenecessary,informationfromsimilarspecieswereused.Themodels’precisionwillimproveasmoredataarecollectedandincorporated.Thisplanidentifiesactionswecanundertakeintheshort‐termtostabilizeandeventuallyrecoverNESH.Species‐specificinformationandactualspeciesresponsetothreatminimizationandmanagementwillguidefuturerevisionstothemodelsandthisplan.

Becauseanestimated90percentoftheNESHpopulationoccursonKauaiandbecauselittlespeciesinformationisavailableonislandsotherthanKauai,ourmodelingeffortsandthisplanfocusedonKauai.UntilmoreinformationisavailableforNESHonotherislands,werecommendrecoveryeffortsgenerallyreflectthoseoutlinedforKauai.

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lightfallout,predation,andstrikescenariostoprojecttherelativetrendofeachpopulationpolygon,ascompiledintoameta‐populationassessment,untiltheyear2100.Meta‐populationestimatesconductedwithoutandwithstrikesshowmeta‐populationsacrossallpredationandlightfalloutscenarioshaveequivalentprojectedecologicalextinctionendpoints,rangingfrommidtoendcentury.Theprojectedpopulationestimateattheendof2100showedeithercompleteextinction,orasubstantialpopulationdeclinethatisrepresentativeofecologicalextinction,dependingonthescenarioassessed(fordetailedmodelmethods,refertoAppendix2).

ThePVAdemonstratesthattheNESHpopulationwillcontinuetodeclineifwetakenoactiontomanagethreats.Existingthreatmanagementtoolsincludemanualpredatorcontrol,predatorfencing,ungulateexclusion,translocationtoandsocialattractioninpredator‐freeareas,minimizingtheimpactsofpowerlinesandlights,andcontinuationofSOSProgram,arecoveryandrehabilitationprogramfordownedNESH.

UseofaerialbroadcastofrodenticideiscurrentlyauthorizedinHawaiiundercertainlabelconditions,butmostentitiesarewaitinguntilaProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatement(PEIS)iscompletedpriortousingaerialapplicationofrodenticideontheirlands.ThedraftofthePEISisexpectedtobereleasedsometimein2016.AerialbroadcastofrodenticideisapartoftheproposedactionthatwillbeanalyzedinthedraftPEIS.

STRATEGYTorecoverNESHonKauai,effortsshouldfocusonmanagingandenhancingextantcoloniesinareaswithminimallightimpacts,mitigatingthreatsatthecolonyandthoseencounteredwhileintransittothecolony,andcreatingnewcoloniesthroughsocialattractionandtranslocation.Standardizedmonitoringprotocolsshouldbeusedtoevaluatecolonydemographicsandensureeffectivemanagementandmitigation.Further,tofacilitatelong‐termrecovery,stakeholdersmusthavethestaffing,infrastructure,andfundingavailabletoseetheseactionsthrough,monitorthepopulation’sresponse,andmodifyactionsasneeded.

COLONYMANAGEMENTBecauselightimpingementhassuchaninfluenceonsurvival,colonymanagementshouldfirstbefocusedinareasofoccupiedsuitablehabitatwithoutlightimpingement,seeFigure2,thenothersitesasopportunityandfundingbecomesavailable.Atthecolony,optionstoimprovesurvivalincludepredatorfencing,manualpredatorcontrol,ungulatefencing,andbarnowlcontrol.Optimalmanagementscenarioswillneedtobedeterminedonasite‐by‐sitebasis.


PREDATORFENCESPredatorfencingisourmosteffectivetoolagainstmammaliandepredationatthecolony.WithinthecurrentrangeofNESH,topography,streams,andremotenesslimitthenumberofsitesandsizeofareasthatcanbeprotectedwithpredatorfences.PreliminarysurveysofeightsitesknowntohaveNESHpopulationsidentifiedthreeassuitableforpredatorfencing;theotherfivewereeliminatedbecauseoftopographyorstreams(YoungandVanderWerf2014).Theremainingthreesitesencompassamaximumof224haofhabitat.Thiseffortwasaninitialassessment,anditisverylikelythatotheroccupiedsiteswithintheunlithabitataresuitableforpredatorfences.Weexaminedthisinourmodel,withtheassumptionthatareaswithlessthan50%slopearesuitableforfencing,andidentifiedapproximately9,470haofsuitableNESHhabitatwherefencesmaybebuilt(Figure3).Whenwelookedatonlysitesof10ormorecontiguoushectares,approximately7,800haweresuitableforfencing(Figure4).Suitabilityforfencingatthesesitesshouldbeverifiedandground‐truthed.TheHawaiiDivisionofForestryandWildlife’s(DOFAW)KauaiEndangeredSeabirdRecoveryProgram(KESRP)continuestosurveyareasforNESHactivity,soactivesitessuitableforpredatorfencinginadditiontothoseidentifiedinourmodel,couldbeidentifiedinthecomingyears.

Ataminimum,werecommendfencingthetwositesrecommendedbyYoungandVanderWerfthathaveidentifiedNESHburrows,thethirdsitewasfoundtohaveonlyHawaiianpetrel(Pterodromasandwichensis)burrows.WealsorecommendfencingsiteslocatedindependentlybyKESRPaswellassitespredictedbyourmodelandverifiedasoccupiedandsuitableforfencing.Thesesitesshouldbeprotectedusingmanualpredatorcontroluntilthefencesarecomplete.Toincreaserecruitmentoncefencesarecomplete,socialattractionshouldbeacomponentoftheproject(seebelow).

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MANUALPREDATORCONTROLKESRPhaslocatedanumberofcoloniesandmonitorsburrowsatthreesiteswithidentifiedNESHburrows,andthereisongoingpredatorcontrolintheseareas.Onesiteisfencedandungulatefreeandtheotherisnot.Theeffectivenessofmanualpredatorcontrolatthesesiteshasbeenvariableinter‐annuallyandfromsitetosite.Changesinpredatordensity,modificationstocontroltechniques,numberofstaffavailableandamountoffunding,andsite‐specifictopographyandvegetationcontributetothevariationineffectiveness.

Currentmethodsusedtocontrolcatsincludelivetraps(particularlyTomahawktraps),aswellasConibeartrapsandlegholdtrapsinsituationswherehikers,hunters,andhuntingdogsarenotpresent.WeareconstrainedbytheinterpretationofdiphacinonelabelrestrictionsandthusonlyusemechanicalmethodsforcontrollingratsinNESHcolonies.SnaptrapshavebeenshowntobeineffectiveinreducingNESHeggandchickpredation,socontrolusingGoodNatureTMtrapsisimplementedatbothmanagedsites.Thishasbeenfoundtosignificantlyreduceblackrat(Rattusrattus)numberswithintrappingareas.SnaresandvarioushuntingtechniquesareutilizedtoreducepigpopulationsattheNESHunfencedsite.TargetedhuntsandBalchatritrapsareutilizedtocontrolBarnOwlsatallsites.

Manualpredatormanagementistime‐intensive,butthemethodsdescribedabovearecurrentlytheonlymeanswehavetoreducepredationpressure.ThescaleatwhichwearemanagingNESHcoloniesisnotenoughtooffsetknownthreats.However,manualpredatorcontrolshouldcontinueatthetwomanagedNESHcolonies,andshouldbeimplementedatothersites,prioritizingthosethataresuitableforpredatorfencing.Giventhestart‐uptimetocompleteafencingproject,intheabsenceofmanualpredatorcontrolitislikelythatwecouldseeseriousdeclinesincoloniesatsitestargetedforpredatorfencingaspredationhasbeendocumentedatallmanagementsitesandwidespreadpredationrecordedatnewsiteswithnopredatorcontrol.Implementingmanagementatthesecolonieswillhelpsustainthemuntilthefencesarecompleted.Oncepredatorfencesarecomplete,manualcontroleffortsshouldbeshiftedtositeswherepredatorfencesarenotfeasibleorwhenmonitoringinsidethefencesindicatesaneed.

UNGULATEFENCINGBurrowdestructionanddepredationofNESHbypigshasbeendocumentedasasignificantsourceofmortality,includingsubstantialadultmortalityatunfencedNESHcoloniesasadultbirdsareeateniftheyarewithinthenestburrowsatthetimeofthepredationevent(Raineetal.2015,RaineandBanfield2015a,b,c).Further,pigsandgoatsmodifythehabitatbyeatingandtramplingnativevegetationandspreadinvasiveplants(suchasguavaandginger)thatcantheninturnmodifythehabitattothepointofexcludingbreedingbirds.

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LANDSCAPESCALERODENTCONTROLAerialapplicationofrodenticidecouldbeusedatalandscapeleveltosuppressrodentpopulationspriortothebreedingseasoninareaswhereNESHareknownorexpectedtooccurbutareinaccessible.ItisanticipatedthatlandscapescalerodentcontrolwillbepartofecosystemrestorationeffortsbutcouldalsobeusedforNESH‐specificmanagement.

Onasmallerscale,agridofGoodNatureTMrepeatabletrapscouldbeusedtoreducerodentpopulationsatsitesthatareaccessible.Rodentpopulationscouldbeeliminatedifthistechniqueisusedinconjunctionwithpredator‐prooffencing.

SOCIALATTRACTIONANDTRANSLOCATIONTheprimarymethodstoestablishneworenhanceexistingcoloniesofburrow‐nestingseabirdsaresocialattractionandtranslocation.Socialattractionaimstolureprospectingadultsandpre‐breedingsubadultstoaprotectedsiteusingasoundsystemandsometimesdecoys(thelatteranasyetunprovedtechniqueforthisspecies).Sitesareusuallysupplementedwithartificialburrows.Translocationentailsmovingpre‐fledgedchickstoaprotectedsiteandhand‐rearingthemuntiltheyfledge.Translocationandsocialattractioncanbeusedincombination,translocationshouldalwaysincludesocialattraction,butsocialattractioncanbeusedaloneinasitewherebirdsareknowntotransit.Thesitesidentifiedassuitableforprotectionwithpredatorfencesshouldincorporatesocialattractiontoincreaserecruitment.Tofurtherbolsterpopulationgrowth,predatorfenceswithsocialattractionshouldbeestablishedinsuitablebutunoccupiedareaswheretheyarelikelytodrawindividualsfromunprotectedpopulations,suchasinareasadjacenttoNESHcoloniesunsuitableforfencing,andinknownNESHflyways.Oneofmanyscenariosofthismodel,thatincludeaseriesofflightpathassessments,identifiedalmost~6,000hathatfitthesecriteria(Figure6).Notethatsomesitesareinlow‐lyingcoastalareasoutsideoftheareainthenorthandwestofKauaiknowntoharbormostNESH.Becausethesesitesaredarkandhavedirectaccesstothesea,weconsiderthemsuitablefortranslocationandsocialattraction.Wecanestablishothersitesinlight‐freecoastalareasfortranslocationprojects.Further,NESHhavebeendocumentednestingattheKilaueaPointNationalWildlifeRefuge,likelyasaresultofasocialattractionproject,foralmost10years.Apredatorfencehasbeenerectedthere,withtranslocationofHawaiianpetrelchicksinitiatedin2015,andNESHin2016.ItislikelythatsitesoutsidethoseidentifiedbyourmodelwouldbesuitableforsocialattractioniftheyareonaknownNESHflyway.

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illustratedthepotentialforlightattractiontotakeoutbreedingadults(A.Raine,pers.comm).Thisphenomenonappearstoberestrictedtobrightlightsinuppermontaneareasnearbreedingcoloniesandseemstohavealimited/negligibleimpactalongcoastalareasforadults.

Foradultbirdstransitingfromtheseatothebreedingcolony,recentstudiesusingacousticmonitoringdeviceshavedocumentedhighratesofcollisionwithpowerlines(Traversetal.2014,Traversetal.2015).AsofthisFeb.2017yearlydetectedstrikesatasubsetofmonitoredsitesrangefrom995to1,017strikes(2014and2015respectively)asdetectedusingthistechnique.Therateofensuinginjuryormortalityisnotknown,noristhetotalnumberofbirdsthatcollidewithlines,asthestudysampledjustasmallportionoftheisland’spowerlines.Sincepowerlinecollision,evenjustatthemonitoredsites,ismuchgreaterthanpreviouslyanticipated,theServiceindependentlydevelopedanisland‐widestrikeestimateusingdatafromTraversetal.2014sothattheimpactcouldbequantifiedinthePVA.Thismodelextrapolatedtheprobableimpactoftheisland’snetworkofpowerlinesandestimated,usingbothbiologicalopinionandprojected/imputedstrikes,thattherewere~1,800NESHadultmortalitieseveryyearduetopowerlinestrikes(seeAppendix2formethodology).Belowwedescribeoptionstominimizeoreliminatelightandpowerlineimpacts.

LIGHTSManysourcesoflightfallouthavealreadybeenmodifiedtominimizeattractionoffledgingNESH,butastandardisland‐widestudyisneededatregularintervalstoidentifynewlocationsandthosethatmightbeoutofcompliance.Falloutcontinuestobeaproblem.Asacost‐savingmeasure,KIUCwillbereplacingmostexistingbulbswithLEDbulbs.AstudyisneededtotestthevarioustypesofLEDbulbsavailableagainsttheexistinglowpressuresodiumbulbstoassesswhichismostsuitableforseabirds.OncewedeterminewhatconfigurationhastheleastimpactonNESH,lightsshouldbeoutfittedwiththesebulbs,targetingthehighestimpactlightsfirst.Intheinterim,problematiclightsshouldberemoved,turnedoffduringthefledgingseason,reducedinintensityorfittedwithshieldstodirectthelighttowardthegroundtominimizeimpacts.

POWERLINESThedatagatheredfromTraversetal.2014andTraversetal.2015havevastlyimprovedourknowledgeofthescopeoftheimpactofpowerlinecollisionandhaveidentifiedthepowerlinesegments,ofthosesurveyed,thathavethegreatestimpactonseabirds.LinesalongPowerLineTrailinthenorthcentralregionoftheislandwereresponsiblefor75percentofthedocumentedstrikesin2014(Traversetal.2015).Thisstretchoflinesshouldbeprioritizedtobeburied,loweredinheight,modifiedsuchthatthetoplinesareremoved,re‐directed(afterappropriatestudiestoassesswhetherthiswouldactuallybeuseful)ormadevisibleinsomemanner(throughtheuseoflasersorbirddiverters,bothof


whicharebeingtrialedbyKESRPonKauai).Asadditionalstretchesoflinesaremonitoredeachyear,otherhigh‐impactzoneswillbeidentifiedandappropriateavoidanceorminimizationmethodsshouldbeimplemented.ReducingtheimpactofpowerlinesiscriticallyimportanttoensuringthecontinuedexistenceofNESHonKauai.

SAVEOURSHEARWATERSTheSOSprogramcollectsdownedbirds,assessestheirhealth,andeitherimmediatelyreleasesthem,rehabilitatesthemforrelease,oreuthanizesunsalvageablebirds.However,wedonotknowthesurvivalrateoffledglingsreleasedfromtheSOSprogramcomparedthosethatfledgewithoutencounteringartificiallights.

TheSOSprogramalsoservesasanoutreachopportunity;thepublicisdirectlyinvolvedinturningbirdsintoSOS,andthereareeducationalprogramssuchasreleasingbirdsaspartofschoolcurriculum.Thisgivesthepublictheopportunitytointeractwithandlearnaboutabirdtheywouldnotnormallyencounter.UnlessthecomparisonofSOSbirdsand“naturallyfledged”birdsindicatesSOSisnoteffectiveinincreasingsurvival,theSOSprogramshouldcontinue,andeffortstofurtherimproveitsefficacyshouldbeevaluatedandimplemented.

STAKEHOLDERBUY‐INTherecoveryoftheNewell’sshearwaterrequiresstrongpartnerships,sufficientandconsistentfunding,clearmeasuresofsuccess,andregularreviewandreprioritizationofrecoveryactivitiesasmoreinformationbecomesavailable.RecoveryofNESHonKauaiwilltakesignificantresourcesintheformofstaffing,infrastructure,andfunding.Tobefullysuccessful,theServiceandHawaiiDivisionofForestryandWildlifemusthavededicatedpositionstooverseerecovery,securefunding,anddeveloppartnershipswithprivateentities.

SUMMARYInthecourseofimplementingNESHrecovery,thetimeatwhichaparticularactionisimplementedislikelytobedependentonfundingavailability,complianceandpermittingsteps,andstakeholdersupport.BelowweprioritizetheactivitieswedescribedabovebasedontheirperceivedimpactontheNESHpopulation,andsuggestmanagersuseitasaguideforprioritizingmanagementdecisions.

NNewell’sShearwwaterLandscapeStrategy 14


LITERATURECITEDJoyce2013.AbundanceestimatesofHawaiianpetrelandNewell’sshearwaterbasedondatacollectedatsea.KauaiIslandUtilityCooperative.31pp.

Raine,A.F.andN.Banfield.2015a.MonitoringofendangeredseabirdsinUpperLimahuliPreserve.AnnualReport2014.PacificCooperativeStudiesUnit.52pp.

Raine,A.F.andN.Banfield.2015b.MonitoringofendangeredseabirdsinHonooNaPaliNaturalAreaReserveI:Pihea.AnnualReport2014.PacificCooperativeStudiesUnit.46pp.

Raine,A.F.andN.Banfield.2015c.MonitoringofendangeredseabirdsinHonooNaPaliNaturalAreaReserveIII:NorthBog.AnnualReport2014.PacificCooperativeStudiesUnit.46pp.

Raine,A.F.,N.Banfield,Z.DeWalt,andI.Nimz.2015.MonitoringofendangeredseabirdsinHonooNaPaliNaturalAreaReserveII:Pohakea.AnnualReport2014.PacificCooperativeStudiesUnit.52pp.

Raine, A. F., N. Holmes, M. Travers, B. A. Cooper. In Press. Twenty-year population trends for Hawaiian petrel and Newell’s shearwater on Kaua‘i Island, Hawaiian Islands. Travers,M.,A.Shipley,M.Dusch,andA.F.Raine.2014.Underlinemonitoringprojectdraftannualreport–2013fieldseason.PacificCooperativeStudiesUnit.91pp.

Travers,M.,A.Shipley,M.Harris,D.Golden,NGalase,andA.F.Raine.2015.Underlinemonitoringprojectdraftannualreport–2014fieldseason.PacificCooperativeStudiesUnit.54pp.

Young,LandE.VanderWerf.2014.FeasibilityassessmentofpredatorexclusionfencingtoprotectNewell’sshearwaterandHawaiianpetrelnestinglocationsonKauai.ReporttoKESRPandKIUC.38pp

Appendix1:Newell’sShearwaterStatusReview 16

APPENDIX1:NEWELL’SSHEARWATERSTATUSREVIEW

TAXONOMYANDSPECIESDESCRIPTIONTheNewell’sshearwater(NESH)isamemberofthegenusPuffinusandutilizesopentropicalseasandoffshorewatersnearitsislandbreedinggroundsonforestedmountainslopes.NESHisapproximately30to35centimeterslong,withawingspanof76to89inches,andweighsapproximately395grams.Itsplumageisglossyblackabove,andwhitebelow.Ithasablackbillthatissharplyhookedatthetip.Itsclawsarewelladaptedforclimbing.

HISTORICANDCURRENTDISTRIBUTIONNESHwereonceabundantonallofthemainHawaiianislands,andwasevenconsideredtobeanimportantfoodsourcetoearlyPolynesians.Approximately90percentofthepopulationnestsontheislandofKauai.NESHalsobreedonseveraloftheothermainHawaiianislandswheretheynestinmountainousterrain.ThisspeciesisknowntonestonMaui,andHawaii,andmaystillnestonOahu.

Basedonat‐seaobservationsbetween1984and1993,Spearetal.(1995)estimatedtheNESHpopulationat84,000individuals(19,300breedingpairsinthespringand16,700breedingpairsintheautumn).From1993to2009,theNESHpopulationonKauaideclinedbyapproximately75percentasmeasuredbytwoindependentpopulationindices:ornithologicalradarandSaveOurShearwatersdata(Dayetal.2003;Holmesetal.2008).ReducingtheSpearetal.(1995)Kauaipopulationsizeby75percentandassumingthat10percentofthepopulationbreedselsewhere,yieldsanestimated18,900individualsonKauai(GriesemerandHolmes2011).Assumingastableagedistribution(Ainleyetal.2001),thispopulationsizewouldincludeapproximately12,040birdsofbreedingage.Mostrecently,inananalysisofat‐seasurveydatacollectedfrom1998to2011,Joyceestimatedthepopulationtobe27,011birds.

Littleinformationisavailableaboutthepopulationtrendsonotherislands.OnMauiasmallpopulationoccursinthewestMauimountainsandKipahuluValleyofHaleakalaNationalPark.TheyhavebeendetectedflyingoverLanaiCity.OnMolokaitheyarethoughttonestinWaialeaandWaikoluValleys.OnHawaiiIslandsurveysbyDerringerandVanZandt(2011)detectedNESHinPololuandWaipioValleysintheKohalaMountains,andcoloniespreviouslyoccurredinthePunadistrictofHawaiiIslandbutthenestingareawasinundatedwithlava(ReynoldsandRichotte1997).Becauseofthespecies’nocturnalbehaviorandlowpopulationdensityonislandsotherthanKauai,itislikelythatother,yet‐to‐be‐detected,breedingsitescouldoccuroneachoftheislandsandpossiblyNiiahu.


Duringtheautumn,thisspeciesiscommonlyobservedatseainwarmerareaswithastrongdeepthermocline(seatemperaturetransitionlayer),morecloudcover,lessmixingandwheretradewindsarelessdeveloped(Spearetal.1995).NESHarewellknownbythePacifictunaindustryfortheirassociationwithtunaandlargebillfish.Theyarefoundapproximately1300kilometerssouthandeastfromnestcoloniesonKauaiinthedeepwaterregionsoftheEquatorialcountercurrentallyearround,tothesouth(upto25oN),andeast(toabout120oW)oftheHawaiianchain(Spearetal.1995).TheirrangeextendsduringElNiñoevents.

LIFEHISTORYMostofthelifehistoryinformationforthisspeciesisbasedonstudiesoftheKauaipopulation;lifehistoriesofbirdsonotherHawaiianislandsmaydifferslightly.Duringtheirnine‐monthbreedingseasonfromAprilthroughearlyNovember,NESHlivecoloniallyinburrowsonforestedmountainslopes.Theseburrowsareusedyearafteryearandusuallybythesamepairofbirds.AsingleeggislaidinlateMayorearlyJune(Ainleyetal.1997b).Bothsexesincubateandthisperiodlastsapproximately45days.FledgingoccursbetweenOctoberandearlyNovember.NESHneedanopendownhillflightpathorclifffacetobecomeairborne.

Dailyflightsofbreedingadultstoandfromthecoloniesoccuronlyatnightandjustbeforedawn.OnKauai,NESHwerefoundtoexhibitalmostnomovementuntilaftercompletedarkness,whereupontheymovedinlandinawavethatpeakedfor30to40minutes(DayandCooper1995).Afterthatpeak,therateofmovementdecreasedsteadilyuntil90minutesaftercompletedarkness,afterwhichfewbirdsweredetected,althoughthereismovementthroughoutthenight.Inthemorning,NESHbeginmovingtoseaapproximately90minutesbeforethefirstmeasurablelightandmovementratesincreaserapidlyandstopsapproximately30minutesbeforedawn(A.Rainepers.comm).

ThreeageclassesofNESHarerecognizedbasedondemographicfactorsandassumptions(fromAinleyetal.2001):(1)young‐of‐year;(2)pre‐breedingimmature/adult;and(3)breedingadults.Theonlyestimateofbreedingactivityisfromacolonythatwasunderpredationandisnolongerextant,suggestingtheobservedrateof46percentislowerthanwouldbeseeninastablepopulation(Ainleyetal.2001).Firstbreedingoccursatapproximatelysixyearsofage(Ainleyetal.1997b).WorkconductedbyKESRPfoundvaryingratesoffledgingsuccessatdifferentsites,from37.5percentatasitemanagedforpigs,cats,andrats,butunfenced,to84percentatasitesurroundedbyanungulatefencewithratandcatcontrol(Raineetal.2015,RaineandBanfield2015).Nospecificdataexistonthelongevityforthisspecies,butotherPuffinusshearwatersmayreach30yearsofageormoreanditisreasonabletoassumethatthisistrueofthisspeciesaswell.


HABITATDESCRIPTIONOnKauai,NESHbreedatelevationsbetween160and1,200meters.NESHusuallynestwheretheterrainisvegetatedbyanopencanopyoftreeswithanunderstoryofdenselymatteduluheferns(Dicranopterislinearis).SomeNESHnestinothertypesofhabitatsuchasonthewallsofWaimeaCanyon,Kauai,andtheNaPalicoastwhereaforestcanopyisabsent.BurrowsusedbyNESHaremostcommonlyplacedatthebaseoftrees,wherethesubstratemaybeeasierforthebirdstoexcavate,orwithindensebedsofuluhefern.ColoniesonotherislandsoccurinhabitattypessimilartothatonKauai.

THREATSTheNESHwaslistedasathreatenedspeciesbytheServicein1975.Predation,falloutduetolightattraction,collisionwithutilitiesandotherstructures,andhabitatmodificationhavecontributedtothepopulationdecline.

PREDATIONDepredationofadults,eggs,andchicksbyintroducedpredatoryspecies,includingrat,cat,mongoose,pig,andbarnowllikelyhasthegreatestimpactontheNESHpopulation(Mitchelletal.2005;GriesemerandHolmes2011;Holmesetal.2011).Anindividualpredatorcandecimateaseabirdnestingcolonyandcreateconditionscausingcolonyextirpation,particularlywhenadultsareaffected(Igualetal.2009).Ratspreyonshearwatereggsandchicks,andcatsandowlskilladults(Telfer1987;Ainleyetal.1997a,1997b).KESRPmanageseachnestingcolonyforpredators,usingthemostsuitabletechniquesforanyparticularlocation,andimpactsfrompredatorsvaryateachlocation(A.Raine,pers.comm).

ThemongooseisthoughttohavedecimatedseabirdpopulationsonOahu,Maui,Molokai,andHawaii,andposesahighlevelofthreattoallnativefaunaonKauaiifitisintroducedthere.TwomongooseweretrappednearLihueinthesummerof2012.

LIGHTATTRACTIONAnothermajorthreatisthespecies’attractiontolight.IncreasingurbanizationandtheaccompanyingartificiallightshaveresultedinsubstantialproblemsforfledglingNESHduringtheirfirstflighttotheoceanfromtheirnestinggrounds,andcanbeanissueforadultbirdswhenbrightlightsareproximatetobreedingareas(A.Raine,pers.comm).Whenattractedtolights,fledglingsbecomeconfusedandmaysuffertemporarynightblindness.Theyoftenflyintoutilitywires,poles,trees,andbuildingsandfalltotheground.Since1979theKauaiDistrictofHawaii’sDivisionofForestryandWildlife(DOFAW)hassupportedtheSaveOurShearwaters(SOS)programtocollect“downed”NESHandotherseabirds(i.e.,birdsthathaveeithercollidedwithstructuresorfallenout,orhavebeeninjuredorkilledduetoexhaustioncausedbylightattraction).AccordingtoSOSfiles,over33,000seabirdshavebeenrecoveredtodate(DOFAWunpublished).The


majorityofthebirdsareNESH,whichnestingreaternumbersonKauaithanHawaiianpetrels.ThegreatestnumberofNESHobservedbeingimpactedbylightsisonKauai,butsmallnumbersofNESHhavebeencollectedonOahuandMaui.

Telferetal.(1987)statethatthenumberoffledglingsthatfalloutandarereportedtotheSOSonKauaiisstronglyaffectedbythenumberanddistributionoflights(i.e.,intensityoramountofupwardradiation)toattractthem.NESHseemtobeattractedmosttoavisiblebulbwhilecumulativeglowandglarefrommanysourcesofhighlyattractivelightsmaydrawbirdsdowntolitareas(Hailman1979;Reedetal.1985;Reed1987;Telferetal.1987;Podolskyetal.1998).Recently,HallmanandHolmes(2010)documentedchangesinnumbersandflightbehaviorofNESHinthepresenceandabsenceofamajorartificiallightsource.Onnightsbeforeandaftertheuseofhighintensitylights,90and97percentoftargetswereobservedflyinginastraightline.However,onnightswhenhighintensitylightswereused,occurrenceofstraightlineflightpathswerereducedto79percent,withremainingtargetsdisplayingcirclinganderraticflightbehaviorassociatedwithlightattractionandfallout.

Effortstoreducetheleveloflightattractionbeganinthe1980swhenKauaiIslandUtilityCooperative(anditspredecessorKauaiElectric)beganreplacingunshieldedstreetlightswithfull‐cutoff(shielded)lightsacrosstheislandaspartofitsnormalmaintenanceprogram.Alloftheover3,500streetlightsoperatedbyKauaiIslandUtilityCooperativearenowshielded,asarethelightsatthefacilitiesitoperates.

COLLISIONWITHUTILITIESCollisionswithutilitystructuresareaknownthreattoseabirdsintheHawaiianIslands.OnKauai,utilitystructuresincludepowerlines(energytransmissionanddistributionlines)andassociatedstructures,telecommunicationwires,cablewires,andotherstructures,wheretheyarevulnerabletonon‐nativepredators.Specifically,powerlinestraversetheislandandarelargelyaboveground,consistingofpolesandwiresthatextendtomorethan100feettall.TheUnderLineMonitoringProjectoftheKESRPusedacousticmonitorstodocumentseabirdcollisionwithportionsofthepowerlinegrid.Inthe2014season1,012strikesweredetectedintheareasmonitoredusingthistechnique.Therateofensuinginjuryormortalityisnotknown,noristhetotalnumberofbirdsthatcollidewithlines,asthestudysampledjustasmallportionoftheisland’spowerlines.ItisunfeasibletomonitoralllinessobothKESRPandtheServicehavedevelopedmodelstoestimatethenumberofcollisionsacrosstheisland.TheKESRPdevelopedtwomodels(A.Raine,pers.comm.).Thesamplingbasedmodelestimatedanaverageof3,517(range2,960‐4,074)collisionsperyear,whereastheGeneralizedLinearModelestimated4,219(range1,808‐10,850)collisions.ThemodeldevelopedbytheServiceextrapolatedtheprobableimpactoftheisland’snetworkofpowerlinesandpreliminarilyestimatedthat866to3,838birdscouldbekilledeveryyear,usingthreedifferentratesofmortalityforbirdsthatinteract


withpowerlines(seeAppendix2formethodology).Modelsbybothentitieswillberefinedusingdatafrom2015andsubsequentyears.

HABITATMODIFICATIONNestinghabitatshavebeenseverelydegradedbythepresenceofinvasiveplants(Mitchelletal.2005).PlantssuchasAlbiziafalcataria,Psidiumspp.,andRhodomyrtustomentosadisplaceandout‐competenativevegetation.Thepresenceofferalungulatesfacilitatesthespreadandestablishmentofinvasiveplantsandacceleratessoilerosionanddegradation.Grazingandtramplingcausedbypigsandgoatsalterthevegetationstructureandcomposition,whichfacilitatesthedispersalofnon‐nativepredatorsintonewareasfollowingungulatetrails.Pigwallowsalsoprovidepoolsinwhichmosquitoescanbreedthusspreadingnon‐nativediseasessuchasavianmalaria.Inaddition,pigsareknowntodestroyburrowstoeateggsorchicks,andevenincubatingadultbirds.Feralungulateshaveplayedandcontinuetoplayasignificantroleinmodifyingbreedinghabitat,andexterminatingseabirdcoloniesinthePacificandmanylocationsworldwide(FurnessandMonaghan1987;Harrison1990;LeCorreetal.2002;Igualetal.2009).

ManyhistoricshearwaternestsitesonKauaiarenolongeractiveduetoboththepresenceofintroducedpredatorsandanalterationofvegetationstructureandcomposition.Forexample,KaluahonucolonylocatedinsoutheasternKauaiisnowdominatedbynearlypureandimpenetrablestandsofR.tomentosa.IntensivesurveysconductedbyDOFAWin2003and2007indicatedthatthebreedingactivityatthiscolony,whichwasactiveintheearly1990s,hassignificantlydeclinedinarelativelyshorttimeframe(HolmesandTroy2008)andsurveyscarriedoutbyKESRPinthisareain2013foundnobirdswithintheboundariesoftheoriginalcolony.ColonycollapsehasalsobeenrecordedinseveralotherhistoricalcoloniesincludingKalaheo,MakalehaandWailua(KESRP,unpublisheddata).Closeproximitytohumandisturbedareasisanotherfactorthataccelerateshabitatdegradationandlossbyincreasingbothlightlevelsandtherelativeabundanceofinvasiveplantsandpredators.

THREATSATSEAMarineDebrisFiveto20milliontonsofmarinedebrisgeneratedfromthe2011JapantsunamiincreasesriskofexposuretoNewell’sshearwaterthroughouttherange,inadditiontotheexisting“garbagepatch”thatsitsbetweenHawaiiandthecontinentalUnitedStates.

FishingIndustryDomesticcommercialfisherieshavenotdemonstratedtoaffectNewell’sshearwater.Thesefisheriesincludedemersal(bottom)andpelagic(openocean)longlinefisheries.BesidestheUnitedStatesofAmerica,othercountriesoperatingfisherieswiththepotentialtointeractwithNewell’sshearwaterincludeJapan,Taiwan,China,Korea,Russia,and


perhapsothers.InformationfromforeignfisheriesisincompleteandsomefisheriesliketheJapanesesalmondriftnetfisheryoperatinginRussianterritoryaredocumentedtakinghighnumbers(186,000peryear)ofseabirdswiththemajoritybeingshearwatersandmurres(Artukhin1999).

OilSpillsandContaminantsThereispotentialforoilspillstooccurwhichcouldaffectNewell’sshearwater.Petroleumandpetroleumproductsreleasedintotheenvironmentaredocumentedashavingseveraldeleteriouseffectsonseabirdsingeneral.Theseeffectsincludedisruptioninthermoregulationthroughfouledfeathers,toxicitythroughingestion(e.g.,whilepreeningfouledfeathers),contaminationoffoodresources,reductionofpreyavailabilitythroughtoxiceffectstopreyspecies,andembryotoxiceffects.OilspillsinanyoftheNewell’sshearwaterrangemayhaveseriousimpacts.Thetransferofsmallamounts(1microliter)ofoilfromadultstoeggsmaybeenoughtokillanegg.Possibleconsequencesfromothercontaminationareshellthinning(frompesticides),disruptionofphysicalandembryonicdevelopment,andreproductiveinhibition(fromorganochlorinesandheavymetals).Debrisfrom2011JapantsunamicouldincreasesriskofcontaminantexposuretoNewell’sshearwaterthroughouttherange.NaturalEventsOceanregimeshifts,e.g.,ElNiñoSouthernOscillation,arecommonenvironmentalphenomenaarisingfromlarge‐scalechangesinatmosphericpressureaffectingwindandoceanographicconditionsthatultimatelyaffectoceanproductivity.Theeffectsofthesechangescanbepositiveornegativedependingonspeciesandshouldberecognizedasanimportantvariableinpopulationdynamics.Howevertheextentoftheseat‐seaimpactsisnotknown.

ClimateChangeEarth'sclimateisoneofthemostpressingcontemporarythreatstoglobalbiodiversity(Clarketal.2001;IPCC2007).ClimatechangeisexpectedtoresultinregionalchangesinweatherpatternsandoceanicproductivitythatarefurtherpredictedtoaffectseabirdpopulationsaswellasotherplantandanimalcommunitiesinHawaii.ChangesanticipatedinHawaiimayinclude,butarenotlimitedto,increasedthermalstratificationoftheocean,increasedfrequencyofElNiñoconditions,andchangesinoceanproductivity(Sarmientoetal.2004;Devneyetal.2009).Furthermore,moresevereweathershiftsfromincreasedfrequencyofhurricanestopossibleincreasesindroughtsinsomeareascouldaffectbreedinghabitat.


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Appendix2:ModellingmethodsandresultsusedtoinformtheNewell’sShearwaterlandscapestrategy 1

APPENDIX2:MODELLING METHODS AND RESULTS

USED TO INFORM THE NEWELL’S SHEARWATER

LANDSCAPE STRATEGY

Documents

NEWELL S HEARWATER LANDSCAPE S Landscape...o various ra aphic stoch ed to appro se analyse modeled co e Strategy abitat on K ... approximately 9,470 ha of suitable NESH habitat where