NHD Paperwork Nationals

Wilson’sLeague for Peace

A Documentary byRyan Atallah

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PA P E RW O R K – NAT I ONA LS

Wilson’s League for Peace

Ryan AtallahSenior Division

Independent Documentary

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Process Paper

The League of Nations was not my first selection for my National History Day topic. I

began by considering a project on doing Affirmative Action, but I rejected that idea beacuse I

didn’t consider it to be revolutionary enough. I sought a more substantial topic, and given my

interest in international politics and philosophy, the League of Nations fit my criteria very well. I

had decided to do a documentary from the beginning, because I was very familiar with the film

process and believed I could create something that would appeal to an extensive audience. This I

felt I would be especially successful in if I pursued a topic with an abundance of available

footage. This was definitely the case with the League of Nations, but not quite to the same extent

with Affirmative Action. International affairs has long been a topic that I have sought to learn

more about, and when choosing a History Day topic I thought that studying the League of

Nations would provide me with extensive knowledge and understanding in the areas of

diplomacy, conflict negotiation, international political theory.

Since the League of Nations kept so many records, there are a plethora of primary

sources to be used at the discretion of researchers and historians from all over the world. To help

me search through them all, I found guides to primary sources, which directed me to the right

ones. Once I had collected enough information about the events that occurred surrounding the

League’s commencement, I read biographies of Woodrow Wilson, papers on international law

and political theory, and newspapers to fortify my knowledge and provide additional context and

Ryan Atallah – Wilson’s League for Peace

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perspective. These sources guided me to others that more specifically targeted areas I wished to

address in my project.

The League of Nations is largely significant in that it pioneered modern international

relations, which are necessary to ensure our continued safety and security. Wars are no longer

fought for conquest, but instead for the preservation of rights. That paradigm shift became

evident with the League of Nations, and although it failed to prevent conflict, it undoubtedly

shaped its successors, namely the United Nations. It is without question that the League was an

innovation in history, considering it was the first major international institution to attract nearly

world wide support. It also succeeded in its pursuit of establishing international standards for

certain social issues as well as making progress in disarmament as a means of preventing war. It

had a significant impact on American diplomacy and instigated a lasting change in the future

conduct of international relations. Not only was the League an innovation because of its

reputation as an international organization, but the role that Wilson and through him the United

States played in the League’s creation was an innovation too. Before the League’s formation, the

US was largely isolationist and protectionist. The formation of the League marks the first

significant contribution that the US made to the future of diplomacy.


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Bibliography

Primary Sources

African Tribal Orchestra. Voices of the Jungle. M. Stone & P. Dunn. African Dream Lounge. CD. 2007.

This song set the proper tone for the section of my documentary where the accomplishments and significance of international organizations like the United Nations are presented.

The Avalon Project. "British White Paper of 1939." Lillian Goldman Law Library. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/brwh1939.asp (accessed January 13, 2009).

The Avalon Project is a collection of documents pertaining to Law, Politics, Diplomacy, and Government throughout history. The British White Paper of 1939 was a statement of British policy regarding the handling of the situation in Palestine with Jewish migration. The effect that the Mandate on Palestine by the Supreme Court of the League of Nations is evident, as the Mandate is cited numerous times in the paper as either justification or basis for their actions. Although the paper did offer a controversial approach to the Mandate, the weight of the original document is clear.

Barco, James W. "Lodge's Work Praised; His Achievements at U.N. Said to Have Enhanced Our Sucecss." The New York Time, January 13, 1961. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A17FC3C5D1B728DDDAA0994D9405B818AF1D3&scp=1&sq=accomplishments%20UN&st=cse (accessed June 10, 2010).

This New York Times article was written by James W. Barco, the Deputy Representative of the United States to the United Nations in January of 1961. It was primarily useful to my research for contrasting the political dynamic of the 1960s with relation to the UN, and it's association with the United States. It also led me to look further into Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., who I ultimately found to be a very significant figure in history that most people know little about.

Fosdick, Raymond B. "Third League Assembly: Disarmament and Other Outstanding Questions Facing Meeting at Geneva." The New York Times, September 3, 1922. http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9E07E1DC153AEE32A25750C0A96F9C946395D6CF (accessed February 5, 2010).


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http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/brwh1939.asp




This article, written well after the Senate's rejection of the Treaty of Versaille, was useful in showing how the League was running without the U.S., how the rest of the world perceived the U.S. not being involved with the League, and generally what American felt about such matters. Given that the third League assembly represented over 4/5 of the worlds population, and that the U.S. was one of 6 major powers not present, such concepts were crucial to my project.

Grotius, Hugo. On the Law of War and Peace. London, 1814.

Hugo Grotius' major work was written in the 17th Century in latin. It was later translated by A. C. Campbell and published in London, in 1814. The book was originally titled De Jure Belli ac Pacis. Since Grotius considered war to be a necessary evil, instead of discussing the evils of war and how to prevent it, the book iterates the rights of various parties (e.g. embassies, neutral powers, prisoners of war, etc.) involved in violent conflict so as to regulate the negative effects of war. These were the first true international standards introduced resembling a form of international law or community justice.

Jenks, George F. "World Peace Job for All, Dewey Says: Smaller Nations Must Help Map Postwar Security, Nominee Asserts." Pittsburg Post-Gazette. September 9, 1944.

This primary source article from the Pittsburg Post-Gazette was especially useful in illustrating the state of negotiations for the formation of an international organization following WWII. The formation of such an organization was part of the campaign platform of the Republican Party in the election of 1944, and this article actually contains numerous quotes from Republican Nominee Thomas E. Dewey himself on his perspective on world peace and a United Nations organization. This article specifically addressed the issues of bipartisanship, plans for peace, equality among nations, the involvement of small or weak nations, the punishment of Germany and Japan, disarmament, U.S. involvement with international affairs (especially international organizations) and American ideology regarding participating in a United Nations assembly. This information was incredibly interesting when compared with the sentiment during the planning of the League of Nations following WWI.

League of Nations. Covenant of the League of Nations. Geneva: League of Nations, 1919.

The full text of the Covenant was found at http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/leagueofnatons.htm (accessed January 10, 2010).

Outlined in 26 Articles in the Covenant of the League of Nations are the structure, policies, and purpose of the League, as determined when it was founded. This was the documented that was accepted by the first member nations, and can be looked to for insight on both the League's shortcoming and it's revolutionary nature.


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–––. Illustrated Album of The League of Nations. Geneva: Atar, 1926. http://bl-libg-doghill.ads.iu.edu/league-web/book/p07.html (accessed January 17, 2010).

This publication by the Secretariat of the League of Nations outlines the foundation of the League, and provided a plethora of photos of both the people in power and the locations in which the League operated. The book was incredibly useful in providing perspective on the League's goals, before it was deemed a failure.

Library of Congress. “Prints & Photographs Online Catalog.” http://www.loc.gov/pictures/ (accessed January 12, 2010).

Undoubtedly the most valuable resource for acquiring still photos for use in the visual presentation of my project, this extensive Library of Congress website online catalog of thousands of high resolution scans provided me with everything I needed. The images taken from this website are as follows: Woodrow Wilson, World War One Observation Team, Hugo Grotius, Hugo Grotius’ Volumes, League of Nations Bridge Cartoon, League of Nations Assembly, Shaking Hands Political Cartoon, Communication Line Construction, Kellog-Briand Pact, Palace des Nations, Japan Burning League of Nations Documents Political Cartoon, The Invasion of Manchuria, Japanese Soldiers in the Invasion of Manchuria, Political Cartoon of the Invasion of Manchuria, and The League of Nations Assembly Session.

Lodge, Henry Cabot. "Henry Cabot Lodge: Reservations with Regard to the Treaty." Congressional Record. 66th Cong., 1st sess., 1917.

Lodge's list of reservations helped clarify exactly what issues the American's had with the Covenant of the League of Nations, and more generally speaking, what aspect of the League itself they were most in disagreement with. The sovereignty issue of the United States, and its ability to determine for itself when to make use of its resources and change its policy was paramount in the Senate's decision to refrain from signing the Treaty, and Lodge's argumentation as well as the Senate debate appended to this congressional document clearly depict that.

Modern History SourceBook. "Modern History Sourcebook: The Mandate for Palestine, July 24, 1922." Fordham University. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1922mandate.html (accessed January 11, 2010).

This source provided the actual text for one of the Supreme Court of the League of Nations first tasks: the Mandate for Palestine. This was one of the first Zionist movements, and


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provides the exact criteria of the mandate, as well as defines the extent of the League's power. Such is important to establish a precedent for future efforts of the League.

The Modern History Scrapbook has information about a wide variety of historical topics, and upon exploring the site I encountered a fair amount of information concerning the aftermath of WWI, and the contextual factors that led to the League's creation.

Paderewski, Ignace. Address Summarizing the Events Prior to the Paris Peace Conference, May, 1919. In Vol. 7 of Source Records of the Great War, edited by Charles F. Horne. National Alumni, 1923.

Paderewski's address provides much contextual information regarding what kind of international tension was present shortly after the end of WWI. He also describes American assistance as being invaluable, an example of how Woodrow Wilson's foreign policy supported peace and the welfare of other nations.

–––. Statement on Polish Support of the League of Nations, September, 1919. In Vol. 7 of Source Records of the Great War, edited by Charles F. Horne. National Alumni, 1923.

Paderewski's commentary on the League of Nations expressed Poland's dire situation following the conclusion of WWI, and how crucial it was to prevent conflict and provide security for weak nations unable to defend themselves. This source provides the context necessary to understand why an international organization compelling arbitration was so sought after.

Peshkin, Jacob A. to Woodrow Wilson. Letter. May 5, 1917. Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library.

This letter was written to President Wilson by an immigrant from Russia, after hearing his speech in which Wilson announced his decision to declare war. The letter provides a brief view on how a citizen (a foreigner, even) perceived Wilson's decision. Accompanying the letter was a drawing of Wilson, composed out of the text of the speech. This source was useful for my project because it provided the foreigner’s perspective on Wilson’s efforts.

"Senate Defeats Treaty." The New York Times, March 19, 1920. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0319.html#article (accessed March 5, 2010).

This article from the New York Times was published right after the Senate's rejection of the Treaty of Versailles, and is very interesting in its depiction of the events. It mentions those who consider the ratification of the treaty to still be a possibility, and the article also sites


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probably effects on the United States' perception abroad as a result of the rejection. As a primary source, I was able to obtain a perspective here that I couldn't get anywhere else.

Smyth, William Henry. Federation of Nations: An Alternative to the League of Nations. Berkeley, CA: N.p., 1922.

In his book Smyth compares the League of Nations to a Federation of Nations, and thus takes a firm stance against the formation of the League. He provides the alternative perspective of American reception of Wilson's efforts, making this source incredibly useful.

"The Treaty of Versailles." June 28, 1919. Treaty Series.

The Treaty of Versailles contains the provisions which ended WWI, setting the stage for the League of Nations. In fact, the first part of the Treaty defined the League. Nearly all the provisions pertain specifically to Germany, which prompted me to look into additional sources on Germany's reception of the League of Nations.

United Nations. "Charter of the United Nations: Chapter I: Purposes and Principals." UN. http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter1.shtml (accessed June 10, 2010).

Like the Preamble, this section of the Charter beings by outlining the general purposes of the UN, such as to remove threats to peace, develop friendly relations between nations, respect human rights, and facilitate cooperative solutions to problems. Then it goes further to describe a few principles that will be followed in achieving those aforementioned purposes, like mandating members to give the UN assistance in endeavors supported by the Charter.

–––. "Charter of the United Nations: Preamble." The United Nations. http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/preamble.shtml (accessed June 10, 2010).

The Preamble to the Charter of the United Nations outlines a few of the major goals of the organization, such as that to save the peoples of the world from war, and to secure human rights, and promote social progress. It is phrased as a pledge of sorts, defining the moral standard on which operations will be based. This was useful for my research because it allowed me to determine the general significance of international organizations in today's world, and how that significance compared with Wilson's original vision.


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"Wants $8,000,000 to Fight Typhus: League Asks for Contribution to Prevent Spread of Plague Westward." The New York Times, October 11, 1920. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E04E7DE1E3DE533A25752C1A9669D946195D6CF (accessed April 29, 2010).

This article from the New York Times was published after the League of Nations filed a request for $8 million from its member states to fight the deadly spread of Typhus in Poland. Considering that this event demonstrated to the world the great necessity of an international health organization in the League of Nations.

Wells, H. G. The Idea of a League of Nations. Boston: The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1919.

H.G. Wells' commentary on International Organizations, specifically the League of Nations, was an excellent source of information regarding how Wilson's proposition of establishing an international order to maintain world peace was viewed by the rest of the world. Wells is very thorough in his analysis of the League, but focuses primarily on the theory behind international organizations and the place they have in early twentieth century society. Wells also touches on what the League will require to function, and by conducting that analysis actually predicted a potential cause of the League's dissolution. For clarification, this source is considered primary for the purposes of my research project because it shows evidence of a shift of how international bodies were perceived by the public.

Wilson, Woodrow. "A League for Peace: Peace without Victory." Congressional Record. 64th Cong., 2d sess., 1917. Senate Doc. 685.

Woodrow Wilson's Peace without Victory speech is perhaps one of his most famous. Here, he explained to congress his idea of a League for Peace, and how the ideas behind it and fundamental American ideas are not mutually exclusive. The speech was very informative of Wilson's approach on Peace, and his idea of a "peace without victory" was a policy altering one.

–––. "Message to Congress." Congressional Record. 63rd Cong., 2d sess., 1914. Senate Doc. 566.

Although Wilson ultimately called for Congress to declare war on Germany in 1917, in his first term as president he strongly advocated neutrality and isolationism. This Declaration of Neutrality, when juxtaposed with his declaration of war, shows just how politics had changed over the course of three years. Wilson's concerns here were very insightful.


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–––. "Request for Declaration of War." War Messages. 65th Cong., 1st sess., 1917.

Wilson's declaration of war was a highly anticipated and tenuous event, as it contradicted his prior advocacy of neutrality. The speech describes the state of the world, and Wilson really emphasizes the impacts of maintaining world peace and democracy. When compared with his 14 Points Speech, one can observe how Wilson's foreign policy changed over the course of the war, a juxtaposition which made this source very useful.

–––. "Second Inaugural Address of Woodrow Wilson." Congressional Record. 64th Cong., 2d sess., 1917. Senate Doc. 101.

Wilson's second inaugural address is concerned mostly with America's role in the war. At the time of the Speech, the country was not actively participating in the global conflict, but since Wilson asked congress to declare war almost one month after the speech, what he said shows the first steps in his mind as far as justifying American entry.

–––. "Speech on the Fourteen Points." Congressional Record. 65th Cong., 2d sess., 1918.

Delivered in Joint Session of Congress, January 8, 1918. These points marked the beginning of the formation of the League of Nations. President Wilson's efforts to preserve World Peace, mediate disputes, prevent conflict, and uphold human rights, are outlined in his Fourteen Points here. Wilson's perspective on how international relations ought be carried out is preserved in his speech, making it a very useful source of information both about Wilson and about the issues of the time period towards the end of the war.

World Health Organization. "The WHO Agenda." WHO. http://www.who.int/about/agenda/en/index.html (accessed June 10, 2010).

Like the United Nations Covenant, the World Health Organization has what they call an "Agenda" that outlines the principals and objectives that drive their policy. The points are far more specific than those of the UN, which is a more encompassing organization. They are important in determining the scope of international organizations today, and also describe tasks that would be impossible to achieve without some form of international supervisory authority. This is the primary function of the WHO.


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Secondary Sources

Angell, Norman. The Great Illusion: A study of the Relation of Military Power to National Advantage. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1910.

Sir Norman Angell, the English diplomat and journalist, put numerous interesting theories into his book "The Great Illusion" just prior to the outbreak of the First World War. He theorized that the economies of the European countries had become so integrating that a war between them would be so devastating that it would make militarism obsolete. While many of his theories were empirically refuted once the reality of WWI set in, I did notice a parallel between many of his ideas and those of Woodrow Wilson, especially as evident in his "Peace without Victors" speech and stern warnings against future conflict.

Bailey, Thomas A. Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal. New York: Crown Publishing Group, 1972.

Thomas Bailey's book provided significant insight and analysis on the role that the United States played against President Wilson's efforts to influence the United States' decision to join the League of Nations. It listed and elaborated significantly on a number of different effects that the lack of American support had on the failure of the League, international ideas of world-politics, and American people themselves.

Beck, Sanderson. World Peace Efforts Since Gandhi. Goleta, CA: World Peace Communications, 2005.

Foremost, the chapters in Sanderson's book pertaining to the League of Nations are a factual account of how the organization began and the context surrounding it. His account provides a short history of international organizations and efforts to eliminate warfare to be replaced by arbitration, as well as the major goals and criteria behind the League.

Two additional sections of the book, describing both the failures and successes of the League, depict the downfall of the League tragically. Sanderson does not readily classify the League as a necessary step in the process of perfecting an international organization, but rather simply a failed attempt with little developmental effects.


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Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. "Lodge, Henry Cabot, Jr.: Biography." The Library of Congress. http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=l000394 (accessed June 10, 2010).

At the Library of Congress' biographical directory, I found a short summary of the life of Henry Cabod Lodge Jr. He was actually the grandson of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, the main opposition against Wilson and the passage of the Treaty of Versailles, and the League of Nations. Ironically, Lodge Jr. served as the American ambassador to the United Nations for seven years.

Cohrs, Patrick O. The Unfinished Peace after World War I: America, Britain and the Stabilisation of Europe, 1919-1932. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Cohrs's book had a unique perspective on the events following the conclusion of the first World War. I found it particularly interesting because it analyzed Wilson as a progressive president, in the context of historical approaches to foreign policy, as well as concepts such as geopolitical conditions and how they effected internationalism in the 1920s and 30s.

Cooper, John Milton, Jr. Woodrow Wilson: A Biography. New York: Random House Inc., 2009.

Cooper’s biography of Wilson is by far the most thorough account of his life that I have come across. This source was incredibly useful to my project in that it provided me with numerous details regarding the significance and development of certain events, such as the rivalry between Wilson and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge.

EconomyWatch.com. "Role of International Organizations in Global Economy." Stanly St Labs. http://www.economywatch.com/global-challenges/role-international-organizations.html (accessed June 10, 2010).

Economy Watch is one of the biggest online economic centers, providing information on the world economy and other important economic issues. It's article on the role of international organizations in the global economy simply lists a few of the general responsibilities of these bodies, but the points are somewhat vague and the article gives no indication as to which bodies each applies to, if not all. Regardless, this source did provide a much needed big picture perspective.


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Fay, Sidney Bradshaw. "Introduction to the Paperback Edition." In Before Sarajevo: The Origins of the World War. New York: The Free Press, 1966.

This is the introduction to the paperback version of The Origins of the World War when it was republished in 1966 (it was initially published in 1928, and then again in 1930) with updated information. Here Fay expands his research to include information released by the British and French only after 1930. This introduction (before explaining the significance of each version of publication) thoroughly compares the various periods of history surrounding the first world war. This was incredibly useful, especially in establishing the general increase in violent activities after 1920.

–––. Origins of the World War. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1929.

This book written by American Historian Sidney Bradshaw Fay provides a very detailed analysis on probable causes of World War I, including the motivation behind certain developments in the conflict as well as why many countries didn't want to get involved, or simply lacked the incentive to do so. The main points that Fay makes surround the numerous secret alliances that pulled the many countries in, but also the extent to which some countries sought national unification. Fay's analysis was incredibly useful for my project because it helped me establish the foundation for the League of Nations. This source also led me to look into other things written by Fay, leading me to find an introduction he wrote to the paperback version of this book in 1966.

Fosdick, Raymond B. "The League of Nations and an Instrument of Liberalism." The Atlantic Monthly 126, no. 4 (October 1920): 553-563. http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/20oct/fosdick.htm (accessed January 14, 2010).

Fosdick's article in the Atlantic Monthly begins by describing the two main frames of mind in opposing the ratification of the treaty and the acceptance of the League of Nations; both of which differed in the relationship between those two issues. One, the more conservative nationalist view, believed that the Treaty was acceptable but that the League violated American sovereignty. The other, considered liberal internationalist by Fosdick, argued that it was in the best of the United States to join the League, but the Treaty had become unacceptable with its vengeful reparations. He analyzes the second objection, which curiously is not commonly listed as a source of opposition to the acceptance of the League of Nations in the United States. This new perspective was entirely foreign to anything else I had come across


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–––. "The League of Nations is Alive." The Atlantic Monthly 125, no. 6 (June 1920): 845-53. http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/20jun/fosdick.htm (accessed January 16, 2010).

Written less than a year after the League of Nations was officially established, this article by Raymond Fosdick, who would later become the president of the Rockefeller Foundation in NYC, goes over all the major issues that the League addressed or sought to address straight from the beginning. It does a fantastic job in analyzing the magnitude of the issues at hand, such as the stability of Europe, the spread and containment of disease, disarmament, and political disputes. Additionally, the article goes into great depth into the current state of affairs from within the League, such as the diversity among its leadership panel and other divisions of power.

Greene, William. "The Miracle of Holland: Hugo Grotius: Naturalist, Eclectic or Theonomist?" Miami Christian University. http://mcu.edu/papers/grotius.htm (accessed April 28, 2010).

William Greene is a Ph.D. at Miami Christian University, and has written numerous papers on international law and the history of diplomacy. This particular paper concerns the father of international law, Hugo Grotius. The paper begins by briefly summarizing the major events of his life, and then goes on to discuss Grotius' work and significant publishings. This source was very helpful and one of the most credible resources I was able to find regarding Hugo Grotius.

Goetzmann, William N., Lingeng Li, and K. Geert Rouwenhorst. "Long-Term Global Market Correlations." DNB Staff Reports 98 (November 2003). https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.dnb.nl/en/binaries/sr098_tcm47-146875.pdf (accessed April 24, 2010).

This Journal Article published by the De Nederlandsche Bank in 2003 is part of a larger series of staff reports that disseminate research done by Bank staff members for the purpose of being used in scholarly research and discussion. Although the vast majority of the information in the report was irrelevant to my project, the article did draw some links between the League of Nation's effect on indices compiled of global financial data that greatly influenced future indices of similar nature.

Jacks, L. P. "A League of Nations as a League of Governments?" The Atlantic Monthly 131, no. 2 (February, 1923): 161-71. http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/23feb/jacks.htm (accessed January 16, 2010).

L. P. Jacks analyzes the League of Nations in the context of governmental politics. He writes that while the League is, by name, one of Nations, it is in fact merely one of governments, a conglomeration of political machinery. This form of alliance breeds mistrust and downfall, and


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inadequately represents the "spirit" of the nations that they theoretically should be representing. The point that Jacks made that I thought was most helpful was that Wilson entered the Paris Peace Conference with the intention of creating an organization that would serve humanity, but what in fact was created actually served political purposes instead. This, many believe, was inevitable.

"The League of Nations." British Library: Help for Researchers. http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpregion/internat/theleagueofnations/leagueofnations.html#league (accessed April 24, 2010).

While this site is primarily a resource guide intended to aid researchers in finding information, it also had a brief overview of the history and significance of the League of Nations, in addition to practical work it was involved with and how it came to an end. This source was helpful primarily for its reference to other articles and books, regarding the protection of minorities, repression of terrorism, and official League publishings.

Macmillan, Margaret. Paris 1919: Six Months that Changed the World. New York: Random House, Inc., 2002.

Macmillan's book focused on the Treaty of Versailles as a whole, of which the League of Nations was of course a significant part. Thus her analysis is focused on the failures and successes of the League from the perspective of all the issues addressed by the Paris Peace conference, and isn't limited to American rejection.

Meade, Marion, Marion Kirchner, Dennis O'Neil, Isobel Rockower, Kathryn Ward, and Stephen Winter, eds. The Great Innovators. New York: Year, Inc., n.d.

The Great Innovators is a book with information on a number of political and social reformists, which contained a significant amount of information on Woodrow Wilson and his innovation of the League of Nations. It gave a very detailed account on the process Wilson went through to muster American support of the League and hopefully sign the Treaty to ratify it. I was also able to obtain much information about Wilson's background and personal life. This source was particularly useful in depicting the American role (or lack thereof) in the formation of the League.


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Miller, Jon. "Hugo Grotius." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/grotius/ (accessed April 28, 2010).

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is a collection of articles put together by a series of scholars at Stanford regarding a wide range of philosophical issues and theorists. The part of their article that was particularly insightful was the entry regarding Just War doctrine, deviating greatly from the principles pursued in the early twentieth century by Woodrow Wilson. Grotius believed that war was in fact demanded by three degrees of law: the law of nature, the law of nations (international law), and divine law. While this was true, he also advocated the regulation of warfare to protect those involved and independent of the situation.

Northwestern University Library. "Statistical Yearbook of the League of Nations: Statistical and Disarmament Documents." http://www.library.northwestern.edu/govinfo/collections/league/stat.html (accessed January 14, 2010).

Although I did not use the statistics presented in this database, as the numbers themselves are not relevant to the significance of the League of Nations, I did use them to represent what the League was able to accomplish. As the first organization to facilitate widespread statistical analysis and collection of data, the resources provided at this site show the evidence of that innovation.

PBS: American Experience. "Wilson - A Portrait: League of Nations." PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/portrait/wp_league.html (accessed January 16, 2010).

PBS's website for their documentary on Woodrow Wilson provides some background information on both the President and the League of Nations. This source led me to a few other primary sources on the League and the treaties signed following the conclusion of WWI.

PBS. Woodrow Wilson. DVD. Directed by Carl Byker and Mitch Wilson. CA: KCET Hollywood Production in associate with Red Hill Productions, 2001.

PBS's documentary on Woodrow Wilson as a part of their American Experience series provided much insight into Wilson's life, his policies, and even his shortcomings or mistakes. The film did touch a little bit on the innovation of the League of Nations and how it influenced the future of international diplomacy and the use of arbitration, however it focused mainly on Wilson's personal life. A part of his biographical account involved the racial legacy that he left behind, and the impact of some of the controversial pieces of legislation that he tried to pass into law (such as the Sedition Act of 1918). The documentary also cited an assortment of primary


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source documents, which I later searched for further information. This is also where I acquired most of my video resources for the documentary.

Princeton University Library. "The League of Nations: A Primer for Documents Research." http://www.princeton.edu/~sbwhite/un/leagwebb.html (accessed January 14, 2010).

This page on the Princeton University Library portal to research assets on the League of Nations provided an interesting perspective on why the organization was revolutionary for its time period. The page also emphasizes the impact that the League has had on the future of international politics, and how organizations such as the UN are operated, as well as provided some basic context.

What is more important however, the site guided me to a significant number of other sources, including electronic full text copies of resources from the League of Nations archives. It also led me to the Avalon Project website, where many documents regarding politics and law are kept for public access.

Townshend, Charles. "The League of Nations and the United Nations." BBC: World Wars in-depth. (accessed January 31 2010). http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/league_nations_01.shtml.

This source was specifically useful in illuminating the influence that the League had on the formation of the United Nations, i.e. which programs were carried over and how exactly the transfer of responsibilities occurred.

"UN Action to Counter Terrorism." The United Nations. http://www.un.org/terrorism/instruments.shtml (accessed April 24. 2010).

The United Nations counter-terrorism page on their website contains an introduction to international efforts to combat and suppress terrorism in the world. While it wouldn't be until 2006 that a common approach would be agreed upon through the formal adoption of a counter-terrorism strategy at the General Assembly, the first efforts to do so originate with the League of Nations. In 1937 a Convention for the prevention and punishment was adopted by the League, but it was never enforced. This information, along with the strategic framework for fighting terrorism in the UN, helped in establishing the significance of international organization in cooperative counter-terrorism efforts, and led me to numerous other sources on the issue.


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United Nations. "About the United Nations/History: Major Achievements of the United Nations." UN. http://www.un.org/aboutun/achieve.htm (accessed June 10, 2010).

The United Nations has on their website a list of 50 major achievements they've had since their creation in the aftermath of WWII. They range from "maintaining peace and security" to "ending apartheid in South Africa" to "providing safe drinking water" to "clearing land mines." These accomplishments are important distinctions because they show the important role that international organizations play in modern times, thus having an impact on the revolutionary nature of Wilson's innovation into formulating the nature of the first such organization, the League of Nations.

–––. “The United Nations: It’s Your World.” YouTube.com. Embedded flash video file. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bHmXZXsABm0 (accessed June 11, 2010).

This video compilation created by the UN of their various projects around the world provided the necessary video footage to illustrate the extent of UN international actions. This was necessary to establish the significance of the innovation of the League of Nations; that the rise of international organizations has had a significant impact on the lives of very many people. The plight of those in impoverished nations and those without necessary resources are the primary targets of UN and other international organizations’ help, which is adequately portrayed in this video.

The United Nations Office at Geneva. "Before the League of Nations." The United Nations in the Heart of Europe. http://www.unog.ch/80256EE60057D930/(httpPages)/B5B92952225993B0C1256F2D00393560?OpenDocument (accessed January 6, 2010).

This article outlines a few forerunners of the League of Nations pioneering international organizations and the widespread use of arbitration. These include the Inter-Parliamentary Union established in 1889, the International Peace Bureau in 1891, and the Women's International League of Peace and Freedom (WILPF). The ideas behind these organizations are also compared briefly to those of the League of Nations.

–––. "Organization and Establishment." The United Nations in the Heart of Europe. http://www.unog.ch/80256EE60057D930/(httpPages)/84C4520213F947DDC1256F32002E23DB?OpenDocument (accessed January 6, 2010).

In a short summary of how the League of Nations got started, this source shows briefly what process led to the drafting of the Covenant and the ratification of the League itself, although provides no historical context. After outlining the main points of the League, the UNOG page goes on to summarize the main points of the Covenant, goals of the League, list the


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permanent and some of the temporary members, and explain how the headquarters at Geneva was decided upon.

–––. "Political Activities." The United Nations in the Heart of Europe. http://www.unog.ch/80256EE60057D930/(httpPages)/C3CC141ADEC42C68C1256F32002E983B?OpenDocument (accessed January 6, 2010).

This page from the UNOG website was surprisingly historical; the UN appears to openly recognize the League of Nation's failures. Here, the many political affairs and activities of the League are described, some in more detail than others, but I was able to determine the general trends. This article was extremely helpful in understanding exactly to what extent the League became involved in other countries' affairs, what kinds of affairs those tended to be, and how successful they typically were (and why).

–––. "Technical Activities." The United Nations in the Heart of Europe. http://www.unog.ch/80256EE60057D930/(httpPages)/C3CC141ADEC42C68C1256F32002E983B?OpenDocument (accessed January 6, 2010).

The "Technical Activities" of the League of Nations described here show the many areas of international affairs that the League was involved with. Although not all attempts at international reform were successful (nearly all economic reform attempts were failures), there were a number of areas in which the initiatives started in the late 1920s and early 1930s became part of the framework for the creation of the UN. This source provides much information about exactly how successful each area of reform was, and what impact it had on modern international policy, which made it very useful.

–––. "The End of the League of Nations." The United Nations in the Heart of Europe. http://www.unog.ch/80256EE60057D930/(httpPages)/02076E77C9D0EF73C1256F32002F48B3?OpenDocument (accessed January 6, 2010).

Primarily discussed on this page of the UNOG's website are the factors contributing to the fall of the League, and the subsequent creation of the United Nations in its stead. Although this source did not propose any novel ideas in the significance of the failure/demise of the League, it did point me to additional primary sources, specifically political commentary on the end of the League and whether it was a complete failure.


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Windfuhr, Michael. "Role of International Organizations in the Implementation of the Rights Related to Food and Nutrition." Rome: Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1998.

Michael Windfur is the executive director of FIAN-International, and international organization fighting world hunger by advocating adequate nutrition to be a human right. His paper, titled the "Role of International Organizations in the Implementation of the Rights Related to Food and Nutrition" was presented at the Second Expert Consultation on the Right to Adequate Food as a Human Right, an event that was organized by OHCHR and co-hosted by FAO, the food and agriculture organization of the UN, which took place in Rome, November 1998. The paper articulates the specific obligation of international organizations to fulfill the need of the world for adequate food. The right to be free from hunger has been reaffirmed numerous times at international summits, and even is established in the Universal Declaration for Human Rights. Windfuhr proposes exactly the role that international organization should have in this task with respect to independent states, and how exactly they should go about achieving that goal with a detailed plan of approach.

Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. "Dialogue: Wilson in War and Peace," Dialogue at the Woodrow Wilson Center. 2008. iTunes Podcasts. MPEG-4 video file. http://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?id=276680333&subMediaType=Video (accessed January 15, 2010).

George Liston Seay moderated a discussion about Woodrow Wilson and his policy as president between him and John Milton Cooper, a historian, author, and biographer of Woodrow Wilson. Although the two did not speak very much of the League of Nations, John Milton Cooper's insight on Wilson's policy and values did shed some light on what drove him to push for international reform, and helped me to understand how he operated as a president.

Zweifel, Thomas D. International Organizations and Democracy: Accountability, Politics, and Power. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2006.

This source was incredibly useful in provided much background information about international organizations and political theory. This is where I first began to explore Hugo Grotius and the Concert of Europe. The book goes into great detail about how international organizations got started, and even has numerous case studies of sorts that provide examples of each and every concept explained.


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