Nicolaus Copernicus 1

Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus

Portrait, 1580, Toruń Old Town City Hall

Born 19 February 1473,Toruń (Thorn), Royal Prussia, Kingdom of Poland

Died 24 May 1543 (aged 70),Frombork (Frauenburg), Prince-Bishopric of Warmia, Kingdom of Poland

Fields Mathematics, astronomy, canon law, medicine, economics

Alma mater Kraków University, Bologna University, University of Padua, University of Ferrara

Known for Heliocentrism, the Copernicus Law

Signature

Nicolaus Copernicus (German: Nikolaus Kopernikus; Italian: Nicolò Copernico; Polish: Mikołaj Kopernik; in hisyouth, Niclas Koppernigk;[1] ; 19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance astronomer and the first personto formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology, which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe.[2]

Copernicus' epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres),published just before his death in 1543, is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the definingepiphany that began the scientific revolution. His heliocentric model, with the Sun at the center of the universe,demonstrated that the observed motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting Earth at rest in thecenter of the universe. His work stimulated further scientific investigations, becoming a landmark in the history ofscience that is often referred to as the Copernican Revolution.Among the great polymaths of the Renaissance, Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, physician,quadrilingual polyglot, classical scholar, translator, artist,[3] Catholic cleric, jurist, governor, military leader,diplomat and economist. Among his many responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than an avocation—yet itwas in that field that he made his mark upon the world.

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Life

Basic biographical data

Toruń birthplace (ul. Kopernika 15, left).Together with the house at no. 17 (right),

it forms the Muzeum MikołajaKopernika.

The oldest biography of Nicolaus Copernicus was completed on 7 October1588 by Bernardino Baldi.[4]

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473, in the city of Thorn(Toruń) in Royal Prussia, part of the Kingdom of Poland.

His father was a merchant from Kraków and his mother was the daughter of awealthy Toruń merchant. Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. Hisbrother Andreas (Andrew) became an Augustinian canon at Frombork(Frauenburg). His sister Barbara, named after her mother, became aBenedictine nun and, in her final years (she died after 1517), prioress of aconvent in Chełmno (Culm, Kulm). His sister Katharina married thebusinessman and Toruń city councilor Barthel Gertner and left five children,whom Copernicus looked after to the end of his life.[5]

Copernicus neither married nor had children."Towards the close of 1542, he was seized with apoplexy and paralysis". Hedied on May 24, 1543, on the same day that he was presented with anadvance copy of his published work. [6]

Father's familyThe father’s family can be traced to a village in Silesia near Nysa (Neiße). The village's name has been variouslyspelled Kopernik,[7] Köppernig, Köppernick, and today Koperniki. In the 14th century, members of the family beganmoving to various other Silesian cities, to the Polish capital, Kraków (Cracow, 1367), and to Toruń (1400). Thefather, likely the son of Jan, came from the Kraków line.[8]

Nicolaus was named after his father, who appears in records for the first time as a well-to-do Catholic merchant whodealt in copper, selling it mostly in Danzig (Gdańsk).[9] [10] He moved from Kraków to Toruń around 1458.[11]

Toruń, situated on the Vistula River, was at that time embroiled in the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66), in which theKingdom of Poland and the Prussian Confederation, an alliance of Prussian cities, gentry and clergy, fought theTeutonic Order over control of the region. In this war predominantly German-culture and German speakingHanseatic cities like Danzig (Gdańsk) and Thorn (Toruń), the hometown of Nicolaus Copernicus, chose to supportthe Polish king, who promised to respect the cities' traditional vast independence, which the Teutonic Order hadchallenged. The father of Nicolaus was actively engaged in the politics of the day, and supported Poland and thecities against the Teutonic Order.[12] In 1454 he mediated negotiations between Poland’s Cardinal ZbigniewOleśnicki and the Prussian cities for repayment of war loans. In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), the TeutonicOrder formally relinquished all claims to its western provinces, which as Royal Prussia remained a region of Polandfor the next 300 years.The father married Barbara Watzenrode, the astronomer's mother, between 1461 and 1464. He died sometimebetween 1483 and 1485. Upon the father’s death, young Nicolaus’ maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger(1447–1512), took the boy under his protection and saw to his education and career.

Nicolaus Copernicus 3

Mother's family

Copernicus' maternal uncle, LucasWatzenrode the Younger

Nicolaus’ mother, Barbara Watzenrode, was the daughter of Lucas Watzenrodethe Elder and his wife Katherine (née Modlibóg).[13] [14] [15] Not much is knownabout her life, but she is believed to have died when Nicolaus was a small boy.The Watzenrodes, who were Roman Catholic, had come from the Świdnica(Schweidnitz) region of Silesia and had settled in Toruń after 1360, becomingprominent members of the city’s patrician class.[16] Through the Watzenrodes'extensive family relationships by marriage, they were related to wealthy familiesof Toruń, Danzig and Elbląg (Elbing), and to the prominent Czapski, Działyński,Konopacki and Kościelecki noble families.[17] The Modlibógs (literally, inPolish, "Pray to God") were a prominent Roman Catholic Polish family who hadbeen well known in Poland's history since 1271.[15] Lucas and Katherine hadthree children: Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, who would become Copernicus'patron; Barbara, the astronomer's mother; and Christina, who in 1459 married the

merchant and mayor of Toruń, Tiedeman von Allen.

Lucas Watzenrode the Elder was well-regarded in Toruń as a devout man and honest merchant, and he was activepolitically. He was a decided opponent of the Teutonic Knights and an ally of Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon.[18]

In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń at the Grudziądz (Graudenz) conference that planned to ally the cities of thePrussian Confederation with Casimir IV in their subsequent war against the Teutonic Knights.[19] During theThirteen Years' War that ensued the following year, he actively supported the war effort with substantial monetarysubsidies, with political activity in Toruń and Danzig, and by personally fighting in battles at Łasin (Lessen) andMarienburg (Malbork).[20] He died in 1462.Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, the astronomer's maternal uncle and patron, was educated at the University ofKrakow (now Jagiellonian University) and at the universities of Cologne and Bologna. He was a bitter opponent ofthe Teutonic Order[21] [22] and its Grand Master, who once referred to Watzenrode as “the devil incarnate.”[23] In1489 Watzenrode was elected Bishop of Warmia (Ermeland, Ermland) against the preference of King Casimir IV,who had hoped to install his own son in that seat. As a result, Watzenrode quarreled with the king until Casimir IV’sdeath three years later.[24] Watzenrode was then able to form close relations with three successive Polish monarchs:John I Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, and Sigismund I the Old. He was a friend and key advisor to each ruler, and hisinfluence greatly strengthened the ties between Warmia and Poland proper.[25] [26] Watzenrode came to beconsidered the most powerful man in Warmia, and his wealth, connections and influence allowed him to secureCopernicus’ education and career as a canon at Frombork (Frauenberg) Cathedral.

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Languages

German-language letter from Copernicusto Duke Albert of Prussia, giving medicaladvice for George von Kunheim (1541)

Copernicus is postulated to have spoken Latin, German, and Polish with equalfluency. He also spoke Greek and Italian.[27] [28] [29] [30] The vast majority ofCopernicus’ surviving works are in Latin, which in his lifetime was thelanguage of academia in Europe. Latin was also the official language of theRoman Catholic Church and of Poland's royal court, and thus all ofCopernicus’ correspondence with the Church and with Polish leaders was inLatin.

There survive a few papers, written by Copernicus in German language. TheGerman philosoph Martin Carrier mentions this as a reason to considerGerman as Copernicus’ native language.[31] Other arguments are, thatCopernicus was born in a predominantly German speaking town and thatwhile studying law at Bologna in 1496, he signed into the German natio(Natio Germanorum)—a student organization which, according to its 1497by-laws, was open to students of all kingdoms and states, who had German astheir mother language("Muttersprache").[32] However, according toAlexandre Koyre, this by itself does not imply that Copernicus consideredhimself German, since students from Prussia and Silesia were routinelyplaced in that category, and the category itself carried certain privileges whichmade it a natural choice for any German speaking students, regardless of their ethnicity or self identification.[33] [34]

[35] [36] [37] [32] Also, Martin Luther appears to have regarded Copernicus as Polish since he referred to him as a"Sarmatic fool", "Sarmatic" being a term for Poles at this time.[]

NameIn Copernicus’ day, people were often called after the places where they lived. Like the Silesian village that inspiredit, Copernicus’ surname has been spelled variously. Today the English-speaking world knows the astronomerprincipally by the Latinized name, "Nicolaus Copernicus."The surname likely had something to do with the local Silesian copper-mining industry,[38] though some scholarsassert that it may have been inspired by the dill plant (in Polish, "koperek" or "kopernik") that grows wild inSilesia.[39]

As was to be the case with William Shakespeare a century later,[40] numerous spelling variants of the name aredocumented for the astronomer and his relatives. The name first appeared as a place name in Silesia in the 13thcentury, where it was spelled variously in Latin documents. Copernicus "was rather indifferent aboutorthography."[41] During his childhood, the name of his father (and thus of the future astronomer) was recorded inToruń as Niclas Koppernigk around 1480.[42] [43] At Kraków he signed his name "Nicolaus Nicolai de Torunia." [14]

At Bologna in 1496, he registered in the Matricula Nobilissimi Germanorum Collegii resp. Annales ClarissimaeNacionis Germanorum of the Natio Germanica Bononiae as Dominus Nicolaus Kopperlingk de Thorn – IXgrosseti.[44] [45] At Padua, Copernicus signed his name "Nicolaus Copernik", later as "Coppernicus."[41] He signed aself-portrait, a copy of which is now at Jagiellonian University, "N Copernic."[46] The astronomer Latinized his nameto Coppernicus, generally with two "p"s (in 23 of 31 documents studied),[47] but later in life he used a single "p". Onthe title page of De revolutionibus, Rheticus published the name as (in the genitive, or possessive, case) "NicolaiCopernici".

Nicolaus Copernicus 5

Education

Collegium Maius, Kraków

Nicolaus Copernicus Monumentin Kraków

Copernicus' uncle Watzenrode maintained contacts with theleading intellectual figures in Poland and was a friend of theinfluential Italian-born humanist and Kraków courtier, FilippoBuonaccorsi.[48] Watzenrode seems first to have sent youngCopernicus to the St. John's School at Toruń where he himselfhad been a master. Later, according to Armitage (somescholars differ), the boy attended the Cathedral School atWłocławek, up the Vistula River from Toruń, which preparedpupils for entrance to the University of Krakow, Watzenrode'salma mater in Poland's capital.[49]

In the winter semester of 1491–92 Copernicus, as "NicolausNicolai de Thuronia," matriculated together with his brotherAndrew at the University of Krakow (now JagiellonianUniversity). Copernicus began his studies in the Departmentof Arts (from the fall of 1491, presumably until the summer orfall of 1495) in the heyday of the Krakówastronomical-mathematical school, acquiring the foundationsfor his subsequent mathematical achievements. According to alater but credible tradition (Jan Brożek), Copernicus was apupil of Albert Brudzewski, who by then (from 1491) was aprofessor of Aristotelian philosophy but taught astronomyprivately outside the university; Copernicus became familiarwith Brożek's widely read commentary to Georg vonPeuerbach's Theoricæ novæ planetarum and almost certainlyattended the lectures of Bernard of Biskupie and WojciechKrypa of Szamotuły and probably other astronomical lecturesby Jan of Głogów, Michael of Wrocław, Wojciech of Pniewy and Marcin Bylica of Olkusz.[50]

Copernicus' Kraków studies gave him a thorough grounding in the mathematical-astronomical knowledge taught atthe university (arithmetic, geometry, geometric optics, cosmography, theoretical and computational astronomy), agood knowledge of the philosophical and natural-science writings of Aristotle (De coelo, Metaphysics) and Averroes(which later would play an important role in shaping his theory), stimulated his interest in learning, and made himconversant with humanistic culture. Copernicus broadened the knowledge that he took from the university lecturehalls with independent reading of books that he acquired during his Kraków years (Euclid, Haly Abenragel, theAlfonsine Tables, Johannes Regiomontanus' Tabulae directionum); to this period, probably, also date his earliestscientific notes, now preserved partly at Uppsala University.[51] At Kraków Copernicus began collecting a largelibrary on astronomy; it would later be carried off as war booty by the Swedes during the Deluge and is now at theUppsala University Library.

Copernicus' four years at Kraków played an important role in the development of his critical faculties and initiatedhis analysis of the logical contradictions in the two "official" systems of astronomy—Aristotle's theory ofhomocentric spheres, and Ptolemy's mechanism of eccentrics and epicycles--the surmounting and discarding ofwhich constituted the first step toward the creation of Copernicus' own doctrine of the structure of the universe.[51]

Without taking a degree, probably in the fall of 1495, Copernicus left Kraków for the court of his uncle Watzenrode, who in 1489 had been elevated to Prince-Bishop of Warmia and soon (after November 1495) sought to place his nephew in a Warmia canonry vacated by the 26 August 1495 death of its previous tenant. For unclear

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reasons—probably due to opposition from part of the chapter, who appealed to Rome--Copernicus' installation wasdelayed, inclining Watzenrode to send both his nephews to study law in Italy, seemingly with a view to furtheringtheir ecclesiastic careers and thereby also strengthening his own influence in the Warmia chapter.[51]

Leaving Warmia in mid-1496—possibly with the retinue of the chapter's chancellor, Jerzy Pranghe, who was goingto Italy—in the fall (October?) of that year Copernicus arrived in Bologna and a few months later (after 6 January1497) signed himself into the register of the Bologna University of Jurists' "German nation," which also includedPolish youths from Silesia, Prussia and Pomerania as well as students of other nationalities.[51]

It was only on 20 October 1497 that Copernicus, by proxy, formally succeeded to the Warmia canonry, which hadbeen granted to him two years earlier. To this, by a document dated 10 January 1503 at Padua, he would add asinecure at the Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross in Wrocław (Breslau), Silesia, Bohemia. Despite havingreceived a papal indult on 29 November 1508 to receive further benefices, through his ecclesiastic career Copernicusnot only did not acquire further prebends and higher stations (prelacies) at the chapter, but in 1538 he relinquishedthe Wrocław sinecure. It is uncertain whether he was ordained a priest; he may only have taken minor orders, whichsufficed for assuming a chapter canonry.[51]

Via Galliera 65, Bologna, site of house ofDomenico Maria Novara. Plaque onportico commemorates Copernicus.

During his three-year stay at Bologna, between fall 1496 and spring 1501,Copernicus seems to have devoted himself less keenly to studying canon law(he received his doctorate in law only after seven years, following a secondreturn to Italy in 1503) than to studying the humanities--probably attendinglectures by Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urceo, called Codro, Giovanni Garzoniand Alessandro Achillini--and to studying astronomy. He met the famousastronomer Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara and became his disciple andassistant. Copernicus was developing new ideas inspired by reading the"Epitome of the Almagest" (Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei) by George vonPeuerbach and Johannes Regiomontanus (Venice, 1496). He verified itsobservations about certain peculiarities in Ptolemy's theory of the Moon'smotion, by conducting on 9 March 1497 at Bologna a memorable observationof Aldebaran, the brightest star in the Taurus constellation, whose resultsreinforced his doubts as to the geocentric system. Copernicus the humanistsought confirmation for his growing doubts through close reading of Greekand Latin authors (Pythagoras, Aristarchos of Samos, Cleomedes, Cicero,

Pliny the Elder, Plutarch, Philolaus, Heraclides, Ecphantos,

Nicolaus Copernicus 7

"Here, where stood the house of Domenico Maria Novara, professor of the ancientStudium of Bologna, NICOLAUS COPERNICUS, the Polish mathematician andastronomer who would revolutionize concepts of the universe, conducted brilliantcelestial observations with his teacher in 1497–1500. Placed on the 5th centenaryof [Copernicus'] birth by the City, the University, the Academy of Sciences of the

Institute of Bologna, the Polish Academy of Sciences. 1473 [—] 1973."

Plato), gathering, especially while at Padua,fragmentary historic information aboutancient astronomical, cosmological andcalendar systems.[52]

Copernicus spent the jubilee year 1500 inRome, where he arrived with his brotherAndrew that spring, doubtless to perform anapprenticeship at the Papal Curia. Here, too,however, he continued his astronomicalwork begun at Bologna, observing, forexample, a lunar eclipse on the night of 5–6November 1500. According to a lateraccount by Rheticus, Copernicusalso—probably privately, rather than at theRoman Sapienza--as a "ProfessorMathematum" (professor of astronomy)delivered, "to numerous... students and...leading masters of the science," public lectures devoted probably to a critique of the mathematical solutions ofcontemporary astronomy.[53]

On his return journey doubtless stopping briefly at Bologna, in mid-1501 Copernicus arrived back in Warmia. Afteron 28 July receiving from the chapter a two-year extension of leave in order to study medicine (since "he may infuture be a useful medical advisor to our Reverend Superior [Bishop Lucas Watzenrode] and the gentlemen of thechapter"), in late summer or in the fall he returned again to Italy, probably accompanied by his brother Andrew andby Canon B. Sculteti. This time he studied at the University of Padua, famous as a seat of medical learning,and—except for a brief visit to Ferrara in May–June 1503 to pass examinations for, and receive, his doctorate incanon law—he remained at Padua from fall 1501 to summer 1503.[53]

Copernicus studied medicine probably under the direction of leading Padua professors—Bartolomeo da Montagnana,Girolamo Fracastoro, Gabriele Zerbi, Alessandro Benedetti—and read medical treatises that he acquired at this time,by Valescus de Taranta, Jan Mesue, Hugo Senensis, Jan Ketham, Arnold de Villa Nova, and Michele Savonarola,which would form the embryo of his later medical library.[54]

One of the subjects that Copernicus must have studied was astrology, since it was considered an important part of amedical education.[55] However, unlike most other prominent Renaissance astronomers, he appears never to havepracticed or expressed any interest in astrology.[56]

As at Bologna, Copernicus did not limit himself to his official studies. It was probably the Padua years that saw thebeginning of his Hellenistic interests. He familiarized himself with Greek language and culture with the aid ofTheodorus Gaza's grammar (1495) and J.B. Chrestonius' dictionary (1499), expanding his studies of antiquity, begunat Bologna, to the writings of Bessarion, J. Valla and others. There also seems to be evidence that it was during hisPadua stay that there finally crystallized the idea of basing a new system of the world on the movement of theEarth.[53]

As the time approached for Copernicus to return home, in spring 1503 he journeyed to Ferrara where, on 31 May1503, having passed the obligatory examinations, he was granted the degree of doctor of canon law. No doubt it wassoon after (at latest, in fall 1503) that he left Italy for good to return to Warmia.[54]

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Work

Astronomer Copernicus: Conversation with God, by Matejko.In background: Frombork Cathedral.

Having completed all his studies in Italy, 30-year-oldCopernicus returned to Warmia, where — apart from briefjourneys to Kraków and to nearby Prussian cities (Toruń,Gdańsk, Elbląg, Grudziądz, Malbork, Königsberg) — hewould live out the remaining 40 years of his life.[54]

The Prince-Bishopric of Warmia enjoyed substantialautonomy, with its own diet (parliament), army, monetaryunit (the same as in the other parts of Royal Prussia) andtreasury.[57]

From 1503 to 1510, or perhaps till his uncle's death (29March 1512), Copernicus was his personal secretary andphysician and resided in the Bishop's castle at LidzbarkWarmiński (Heilsberg). It is there that he began work on hisheliocentric theory. In his official capacity, he took part in nearly all his uncle's political, ecclesiastic andadministrative-economic duties. From the beginning of 1504, Copernicus accompanied Watzenrode to sessions ofthe Royal Prussian diet held at Malbork and Elbląg and, write Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, "participated... in all themore important events in the complex diplomatic game that that ambitious politician and statesman played indefense of the particular interests of Prussia and Warmia, between hostility to the [Teutonic] Order and loyalty to the[Polish] Crown."[54]

Copernicus' translation of TheophylactSimocatta's Epistles. Cover shows

coats-of-arms of (clockwise from top)Poland, Lithuania and Kraków.

In 1504–12 Copernicus made numerous journeys as part of his uncle'sretinue—in 1504, to Toruń and Gdańsk (Danzig), to a session of the RoyalPrussian Council in the presence of Poland's King Alexander Jagiellon; tosessions of the Prussian diet at Malbork (1506), Elbląg (1507) and Sztum(1512); and he may have attended a Poznań session (1510) and the coronationof Poland's King Sigismund I the Old in Kraków (1507). Watzenrode'sitinerary suggests that in spring 1509 Copernicus may have attended theKraków sejm.[54]

It was probably on the latter occasion, in Kraków, that Copernicus submittedfor printing at Jan Haller's press his translation, from Greek to Latin, of acollection, by the 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, of85 brief poems called Epistles, or letters, supposed to have passed betweenvarious characters in a Greek story. They are of three kinds—"moral,"offering advice on how people should live; "pastoral," giving little pictures ofshepherd life; and "amorous," comprising love poems. They are arranged tofollow one another in a regular rotation of subjects. Copernicus had translatedthe Greek verses into Latin prose, and he now published his version as

Theophilacti scolastici Simocati epistolae morales, rurales et amatoriae interpretatione latina, which he dedicated tohis uncle in gratitude for all the benefits he had received from him. With this translation, Copernicus declaredhimself on the side of the humanists in the struggle over the question whether Greek literature should be revived.[58]

Copernicus' first poetic work was a Greek epigram, composed probably during a visit to Kraków, for JohannesDantiscus' epithalamium for Barbara Zapolya's 1512 wedding to King Zygmunt I the Old.[59]

Some time before 1514, Copernicus wrote an initial outline of his heliocentric theory known only from later transcripts, by the title (perhaps given to it by a copyist), Nicolai Copernici de hypothesibus motuum coelestium a se constitutis commentariolus—commonly referred to as the Commentariolus. It was a succinct theoretical description

Nicolaus Copernicus 9

of the world's heliocentric mechanism, without mathematical apparatus, and differed in some important details ofgeometric construction from De revolutionibus; but it was already based on the same assumptions regarding Earth'striple motions. The Commentariolus, which Copernicus consciously saw as merely a first sketch for his plannedbook, was not intended for printed distribution. He made only a very few manuscript copies available to his closestacquaintances, including, it seems, several Kraków astronomers with whom he collaborated in 1515–30 in observingeclipses. Tycho Brahe would include a fragment from the Commentariolus in his own treatise, Astronomiaeinstauratae progymnasmata, published in Prague in 1602, based on a manuscript that he had received from theBohemian physician and astronomer Tadeáš Hájek, a friend of Rheticus. The Commentariolus would appearcomplete in print for the first time only in 1878.[59]

Copernicus' tower at Frombork,where he lived and worked;

rebuilt recently

Frombork Cathedral mount and fortifications. In foreground: statue ofCopernicus

In 1510 or 1512 Copernicus moved to Frombork, atown to the northwest at the Vistula Lagoon on theBaltic Sea coast. There, in April 1512, heparticipated in the election of Fabian of Lossainenas Prince-Bishop of Warmia. It was only in earlyJune 1512 that the chapter gave Copernicus an"external curia"—a house outside the defensivewalls of the cathedral mount. In 1514 he purchasedthe northwestern tower within the walls of theFrombork stronghold. He would maintain both theseresidences to the end of his life, despite thedevastation of the chapter's buildings by a raidagainst Frombork carried out by the Teutonic Orderin January 1520, during which Copernicus'astronomical instruments were probably destroyed.Copernicus conducted astronomical observations in1513–16 presumably from his external curia; and in1522–43, from an unidentified "small tower"(turricula), using primitive instruments modeled onancient ones—the quadrant, triquetrum, armillarysphere. At Frombork Copernicus conducted overhalf of his more than 60 registered astronomicalobservations.[59]

Having settled permanently at Frombork, where hewould reside to the end of his life, with interruptionsin 1516-19 and 1520–21, Copernicus found himselfat the Warmia chapter's economic andadministrative center, which was also one ofWarmia's two chief centers of political life. In thedifficult, politically complex situation of Warmia,threatened externally by the Teutonic Order'saggressions (attacks by Teutonic bands; the Polish-Teutonic War of 1519-21; Albrecht's plans to annex Warmia),internally subject to strong separatist pressures (the selection of the prince-bishops of Warmia; currency reform), he,together with part of the chapter, represented a program of strict cooperation with the Polish Crown anddemonstrated in all his public activities (the defense of his country against the Order's plans of conquest; proposals to

unify its monetary system with the Polish Crown's; support for Poland's interests in the Warmia dominion's ecclesiastic administration) that he was consciously a citizen of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic. Soon after the death

Nicolaus Copernicus 10

of uncle Bishop Watzenrode, he participated in the signing of the Second Treaty of Piotrków Trybunalski (7December 1512), governing the appointment of the Bishop of Warmia, declaring, despite opposition from part of thechapter, for loyal cooperation with the Polish Crown.[59]

That same year (before 8 November 1512) Copernicus assumed responsibility, as magister pistoriae, foradministering the chapter's economic enterprises (he would hold this office again in 1530), having already since1511 fulfilled the duties of chancellor and visitor of the chapter's estates.[59]

His administrative and economic dutes did not distract Copernicus, in 1512-15, from intensive observational activity.The results of his observations of Mars and Saturn in this period, and especially a series of four observations of theSun made in 1515, led to discovery of the variability of Earth's eccentric and of the movement of the solar apogee inrelation to the fixed stars, which in 1515-19 prompted his first revisions of certain assumptions of his system. Someof the observations that he made in this period may have had a connection with a proposed reform of the Juliancalendar made in the first half of 1513 at the request of the Bishop of Fossombrone, Paul of Middelburg. Theircontacts in this matter in the period of the Fifth Lateran Council were later memorialized in a complimentarymention in Copernicus' dedicatory epistle in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and in a treatise by Paul ofMiddelburg, Secundum compendium correctionis Calendarii (1516), which mentions Copernicus among the learnedmen who had sent the Council proposals for the calendar's emendation.[60]

Olsztyn Castle

During 1516–21, Copernicus resided at Olsztyn Castle aseconomic administrator of Warmia, including Olsztyn(Allenstein) and Pieniężno (Mehlsack). While there, hewrote a manuscript, Locationes mansorum desertorum(Locations of Deserted Fiefs), with a view to populatingthose fiefs with industrious farmers and so bolstering theeconomy of Warmia. When Olsztyn was besieged by theTeutonic Knights during the Polish–Teutonic War(1519–21), Copernicus directed the defense of Olsztyn andWarmia by Royal Polish forces. He also represented thePolish side in the ensuing peace negotiations.[61]

Copernicus worked for years with the Royal Prussian diet, and with Duke Albert of Prussia (against whomCopernicus had defended Warmia in the Polish-Teutonic War), and advised King Sigismund, on monetary reform.He participated in discussions in the East Prussian diet about coinage reform in the Prussian countries; a questionthat concerned the diet was who had the right to mint coin. Political developments in Prussia culminated in the 1525establishment of the Duchy of Prussia as a Protestant state in vassalage to Poland.

In 1526 Copernicus wrote a study on the value of money, Monetae cudendae ratio. In it he formulated an earlyiteration of the theory, now called Gresham's Law, that "bad" (debased) coinage drives "good" (un-debased) coinageout of circulation—70 years before Thomas Gresham. He also formulated a version of quantity theory of money.Copernicus' recommendations on monetary reform were widely read by leaders of both Prussia and Poland in theirattempts to stabilize currency.[62] [63]

Nicolaus Copernicus 11

Thorvaldsen's Copernicus Monument inWarsaw

In 1533, Johann Widmanstetter, secretary to Pope Clement VII, explainedCopernicus' heliocentric system to the Pope and two cardinals. The Pope wasso pleased that he gave Widmanstetter a valuable gift.[64]

In 1535 Bernard Wapowski wrote a letter to a gentleman in Vienna, urginghim to publish an enclosed almanac, which he claimed had been written byCopernicus. This is the first and only mention of a Copernicus almanac in thehistorical records. The "almanac" was likely Copernicus' tables of planetarypositions. Wapowski's letter mentions Copernicus' theory about the motionsof the earth. Nothing came of Wapowski's request, because he died a coupleof weeks later.[64]

Following the death of Prince-Bishop of Warmia Mauritius Ferber (1 July1537), Copernicus participated in the election of his successor, JohannesDantiscus (20 September 1537). Copernicus was one of four candidates forthe post, written in at the initiative of Tiedemann Giese; but his candidacywas actually pro forma, since Dantiscus had earlier been named coadjutor

bishop to Ferber.[65]

At first Copernicus maintained friendly relations with the new Prince-Bishop, assisting him medically in spring 1538and accompanying him that summer on an inspection tour of Chapter holdings. But that autumn, their friendship wasstrained by suspicions over Copernicus' housekeeper, Anna Schilling, whom Dantiscus removed from Frombork in1539.[65]

Copernicus with medicinalplant

In his younger days, Copernicus the physician had treated his uncle, brother and otherchapter members. In later years he was called upon to attend the elderly bishops whoin turn occupied the see of Warmia—Mauritius Ferber and Johannes Dantiscus—and,in 1539, his old friend Tiedemann Giese, Bishop of Chełmno (Kulm). In treating suchimportant patients, he sometimes sought consultations from other physicians,including the physician to Duke Albert and, by letter, the Polish Royal Physician.[66]

In the spring of 1541, Duke Albert summoned Copernicus to Königsberg to attend theDuke's counselor, George von Kunheim, who had fallen seriously ill, and for whomthe Prussian doctors seemed unable to do anything. Copernicus went willingly; hehad met von Kunheim during negotiations over reform of the coinage. AndCopernicus had come to feel that Albert himself was not such a bad person; the twohad many intellectual interests in common. The Chapter readily gave Copernicus permission to go, as it wished toremain on good terms with the Duke, despite his Lutheran faith. In about a month the patient recovered, andCopernicus returned to Frombork. For a time, he continued to receive reports on von Kunheim's condition, and tosend him medical advice by letter.[67]

Throughout this period of his life, Copernicus continued making astronomical observations and calculations, butonly as his other responsibilities permitted and never in a professional capacity.Some of Copernicus' close friends turned Protestant, but Copernicus never showed a tendency in that direction. Thefirst attacks on him came from Protestants. Wilhelm Gnapheus, a Dutch refugee settled in Elbląg, wrote a comedy inLatin, Morosophus (The Foolish Sage), and staged it at the Latin school that he had established there. In the play,Copernicus was caricatured as a haughty, cold, aloof man who dabbled in astrology, considered himself inspired byGod, and was rumored to have written a large work that was moldering in a chest.[48]

Elsewhere Protestants were the first to react to news of Copernicus' theory. Melanchthon wrote:

Nicolaus Copernicus 12

Some people believe that it is excellent and correct to work out a thing as absurd as did that Sarmatian [i.e.,Polish] astronomer who moves the earth and stops the sun. Indeed, wise rulers should have curbed suchlight-mindedness.[48]

Nevertheless, in 1551, eight years after Copernicus' death, astronomer Erasmus Reinhold published, under thesponsorship of Copernicus' former military adversary, the Protestant Duke Albert, the Prussian Tables, a set ofastronomical tables based on Copernicus' work. Astronomers and astrologers quickly adopted it in place of itspredecessors.[68]

Heliocentrism

Mid-16th-century portrait [69]

Some time before 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his "Commentariolus"("Little Commentary"), a forty-page manuscript describing his ideas about theheliocentric hypothesis.[70] It contained seven basic assumptions. Thereafter hecontinued gathering data for a more detailed work.

About 1532 Copernicus had basically completed his work on the manuscript of Derevolutionibus orbium coelestium; but despite urging by his closest friends, heresisted openly publishing his views, not wishing—as he confessed—to risk the scorn"to which he would expose himself on account of the novelty andincomprehensibility of his theses."[65]

In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered a series of lectures in Romeoutlining Copernicus' theory. Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals heardthe lectures and were interested in the theory. On 1 November 1536, CardinalNikolaus von Schönberg, Archbishop of Capua, wrote to Copernicus from Rome:

Some years ago word reached me concerning your proficiency, of which everybody constantly spoke. At thattime I began to have a very high regard for you... For I had learned that you had not merely mastered thediscoveries of the ancient astronomers uncommonly well but had also formulated a new cosmology. In it youmaintain that the earth moves; that the sun occupies the lowest, and thus the central, place in the universe...Therefore with the utmost earnestness I entreat you, most learned sir, unless I inconvenience you, tocommunicate this discovery of yours to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment to send me your writingson the sphere of the universe together with the tables and whatever else you have that is relevant to this subject...[71]

By then Copernicus' work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated peopleall over Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed publication of his book, perhaps from fearof criticism—a fear delicately expressed in the subsequent dedication of his masterpiece to Pope Paul III. Scholarsdisagree on whether Copernicus' concern was limited to possible astronomical and philosophical objections, orwhether he was also concerned about religious objections.[72]

Nicolaus Copernicus 13

The book

De revolutionibus, 1543. Clickon image to read book.

Copernicus was still working on De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (even if notconvinced that he wanted to publish it) when in 1539 Georg Joachim Rheticus, aWittenberg mathematician, arrived in Frombork. Philipp Melanchthon, a closetheological ally of Martin Luther, had arranged for Rheticus to visit severalastronomers and study with them.

Rheticus became Copernicus' pupil, staying with him for two years and writing abook, Narratio prima (First Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus' theory.In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on trigonometry by Copernicus (later includedin the second book of De revolutionibus).

Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first generalreception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give De revolutionibus to hisclose friend, Tiedemann Giese, bishop of Chełmno (Kulm), to be delivered toRheticus for printing by the German printer Johannes Petreius at Nuremberg(Nürnberg), Germany. While Rheticus initially supervised the printing, he had to leave Nuremberg before it wascompleted, and he handed over the task of supervising the rest of the printing to a Lutheran theologian, AndreasOsiander.[73]

Osiander added an unauthorised and unsigned preface, defending the work against those who might be offended bythe novel hypotheses. He explained that astronomers may find different causes for observed motions, and choosewhatever is easier to grasp. As long as a hypothesis allows reliable computation, it does not have to match what aphilosopher might seek as the truth.

Death

Copernicus' 1735 Latin epitaph inFrombork Cathedral. An earlier 1580

epitaph had been destroyed duringwars.

Copernicus died in Frauenburg (Frombork) on 24 May 1543. Legend has it thatthe first printed copy of De revolutionibus was placed in his hands on the veryday that he died, allowing him to take farewell of his life's work. He is reputedto have awoken from a stroke-induced coma, looked at his book, and then diedpeacefully.

Copernicus was reportedly buried in Frombork Cathedral, where archaeologistsfor over two centuries searched in vain for his remains. Efforts to locate theremains in 1802, 1909, 1939 and 2004 had come to nought. In August 2005,however, a team led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an archaeology andanthropology institute in Pułtusk, after scanning beneath the cathedral floor,discovered what they believed to be Copernicus' remains.[74]

The find came after a year of searching, and the discovery was announced onlyafter further research, on November 3, 2008. Gąssowski said he was "almost100 percent sure it is Copernicus." Forensic expert Capt. Dariusz Zajdel of thePolish Police Central Forensic Laboratory used the skull to reconstruct a facethat closely resembled the features—including a broken nose and a scar abovethe left eye—on a Copernicus self-portrait. The expert also determined that theskull belonged to a man who had died around age 70—Copernicus' age at thetime of his death.[74]

Nicolaus Copernicus 14

Casket with Copernicus' remains, St. James'Cathedral Basilica, Olsztyn, March 2010

Frombork Cathedral

Copernicus' 2010 grave,Frombork Cathedral

The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains of the skeletonwere found; missing, among other things, was the lower jaw.[75] TheDNA from the bones found in the grave matched hair samples taken froma book owned by Copernicus which was kept at the library of theUniversity of Uppsala in Sweden.[76] [77]

On 22 May 2010 Copernicus was given a second funeral in a Mass led byJózef Kowalczyk, the former papal nuncio to Poland and newly namedPrimate of Poland. Copernicus' remains were reburied in the same spot inFrombork Cathedral where part of his skull and other bones had beenfound. A black granite tombstone now identifies him as the founder ofthe heliocentric theory and also a church canon. The tombstone bears arepresentation of Copernicus' model of the solar system—a golden sunencircled by six of the planets.[78]

Copernican system

Predecessors

Philolaus (c. 480–385 BCE), a Greek philosopher of the Pythagoreanschool, described an astronomical system in which the Earth, Moon, Sun,planets, and stars all revolved about a central fire.[79] Heraclides Ponticus(387–312 BCE) proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis.[80] Accordingto Archimedes, Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BCE) wrote ofheliocentric hypotheses in a book that does not survive.[81] Plutarchwrote that Aristarchus was accused of impiety for "putting the Earth inmotion".[82]

In a manuscript of De revolutionibus, Copernicus wrote, "It is likely that... Philolaus perceived the mobility of the earth, which also some say wasthe opinion of Aristarchus of Samos", but later struck out the passage andomitted it from the published book.[83]

Ptolemy

The prevailing theory in Europe during Copernicus' lifetime was the onethat Ptolemy published in his Almagest circa 150 CE. Ptolemy's system drew on previous Greek theories in whichthe Earth was the stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotatedrapidly, approximately daily, while each of the planets, the Sun, and the Moon were embedded in their own, smallerspheres. Ptolemy's system employed devices, including epicycles, deferents and equants, to account for observationsthat the paths of these bodies differed from simple, circular orbits centered on the Earth. Ptolemy's model wasrefined by the 10th-century astronomer Muhammad al Battani, working at Ar-Raqqah in modern-day Syria.Although al Battani accepted the validity of the Ptolemaic model, Copernicus made much use of his astronomicalobservations in demonstrating the heliocentric theory, and gave acknowledgement to his predecessor in Derevolutionibus.[84]

Nicolaus Copernicus 15

Copernicus

Copernicus' vision of the universe in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

Copernicus' major theory was published in Derevolutionibus orbium coelestium (On theRevolutions of the Celestial Spheres), in the yearof his death, 1543, though he had formulated thetheory several decades earlier.

Copernicus' "Commentariolus" summarized hisheliocentric theory. It listed the "assumptions"upon which the theory was based as follows:[85]

1. There is no one center of all thecelestial circles or spheres.2. The center of the earth is not thecenter of the universe, but only ofgravity and of the lunar sphere.3. All the spheres revolve about thesun as their mid-point, and thereforethe sun is the center of the universe.4. The ratio of the earth's distancefrom the sun to the height of the firmament (outermost celestial sphere containing the stars) is so muchsmaller than the ratio of the earth's radius to its distance from the sun that the distance from the earth tothe sun is imperceptible in comparison with the height of the firmament.5. Whatever motion appears in the firmament arises not from any motion of the firmament, but from theearth's motion. The earth together with its circumjacent elements performs a complete rotation on itsfixed poles in a daily motion, while the firmament and highest heaven abide unchanged.6. What appear to us as motions of the sun arise not from its motion but from the motion of the earth andour sphere, with which we revolve about the sun like any other planet. The earth has, then, more thanone motion.7. The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from theearth's. The motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent inequalities in theheavens.

De revolutionibus itself was divided into six parts, called "books":1. General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World2. Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments

developed in the subsequent books)3. Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena4. Description of the Moon and its orbital motions5. Concrete exposition of the new system6. Concrete exposition of the new system

Nicolaus Copernicus 16

SuccessorsGeorg Joachim Rheticus could have been Copernicus' successor, but did not rise to the occasion.[64] ErasmusReinhold could have been his successor, but died prematurely.[64] The first of the great successors was TychoBrahe[64] (though he did not think the earth orbitted the sun), followed by Johannes Kepler,[64] who had worked asTycho's assistant in Prague.

Copernicanism

Copernicus, astronomer

At original publication, Copernicus' epoch-making book caused only mildcontroversy, and provoked no fierce sermons about contradicting Holy Scripture. Itwas only three years later, in 1546, that a Dominican, Giovanni Maria Tolosani,denounced the theory in an appendix to a work defending the absolute truth ofScripture.[86] He also noted that the Master of the Sacred Palace (i.e., the CatholicChurch's chief censor), Bartolomeo Spina, a friend and fellow Dominican, hadplanned to condemn De revolutionibus but had been prevented from doing so by hisillness and death.[87]

Arthur Koestler, in his popular book The Sleepwalkers, asserted that Copernicus'book had not been widely read on its first publication.[88] This claim was trenchantlycriticised by Edward Rosen,[89] and has been decisively disproved by OwenGingerich, who examined every surviving copy of the first two editions and found

copious marginal notes by their owners throughout many of them. Gingerich published his conclusions in 2004 inThe Book Nobody Read.[90]

It has been much debated why it was not until six decades after Spina and Tolosani's attacks on Copernicus's workthat the Catholic Church took any official action against it. Proposed reasons have included the personality ofGalileo Galilei and the availability of evidence such as telescope observations.In March 1616, in connection with the Galileo affair, the Roman Catholic Church's Congregation of the Index issueda decree suspending De revolutionibus until it could be "corrected," on the grounds that the supposedly Pythagoreandoctrine[91] that the Earth moves and the Sun does not was "false and altogether opposed to Holy Scripture."[92] Thesame decree also prohibited any work that defended the mobility of the Earth or the immobility of the Sun, or thatattempted to reconcile these assertions with Scripture.On the orders of Pope Paul V, Cardinal Robert Bellarmine gave Galileo prior notice that the decree was about to beissued, and warned him that he could not "hold or defend" the Copernican doctrine.[93] The corrections to Derevolutionibus, which omitted or altered nine sentences, were issued four years later, in 1620.[94]

In 1633 Galileo Galilei was convicted of grave suspicion of heresy for "following the position of Copernicus, whichis contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture,"[95] and was placed under house arrest for the rest of hislife.The Catholic Church's 1758 Index of Prohibited Books omitted the general prohibition of works defendingheliocentrism,[96] but retained the specific prohibitions of the original uncensored versions of De revolutionibus andGalileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Those prohibitions were finally dropped from the1835 Index.[97]

Nicolaus Copernicus 17

Nationality

Bust by Schadow, 1807,Walhalla temple

Former Polish coins withimage of Copernicus, by

Gosławski

The question of Copernicus' nationality, and indeed whether it is meaningful to ascribe tohim a nationality in the modern sense, has been the subject of some discussion.

Historian Michael Burleigh describes the nationality debate as a "totally insignificantbattle" between German and Polish scholars during the interwar period.[98]

Astronomer Konrad Rudnicki calls the discussion a "fierce scholarly quarrel in... timesof nationalism", and describes Copernicus as an inhabitant of a German-speakingterritory belonging to Poland, himself of mixed Polish-German extraction.[99]

According to Czesław Miłosz, the debate is an "absurd" projection of a modernunderstanding of nationality on Renaissance people, who identified with their hometerritories rather than with a nation.[100]

Similarly, historian Norman Davies states that Copernicus, as was common for his era,was "largely indifferent" to nationality, being a local patriot who considered himself"Prussian".[101]

Miłosz and Davies both say that despite Copernicus' German-speaking background, hisworking language was Latin,[100] [101] though according to Davies there is evidence thatCopernicus also knew Polish.[101] Davies concludes: "Taking everything intoconsideration, there is good reason to regard him both as a German and as a Pole, yet inthe sense that modern nationalists understand it, he was neither."[101]

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Copernicus as "the child of aGerman family [who] was a subject of the Polish crown."[102] EncyclopædiaBritannica,[103] Encyclopedia Americana,[104] The Columbia Encyclopedia,[105] The Oxford WorldEncyclopedia,[106] and the Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia[107] identify Copernicus as Polish.

CoperniciumOn July 14, 2009, the discoverers, from the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt, Germany, ofchemical element 112 (temporarily named ununbium) proposed to the International Union of Pure and AppliedChemistry that its permanent name be "copernicium" (symbol Cn). "After we had named elements after our city andour state, we wanted to make a statement with a name that was known to everyone," said Hofmann. "We didn't wantto select someone who was a German. We were looking world-wide." [108] On the 537th anniversary of his birthdaythe official naming was released to the public.[109]

VenerationCopernicus is honored, together with Johannes Kepler, in the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA),with a feast day on May 23.[110]

Notes[1] Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe: Urkunden, Akten und Nachrichten: Texte und Übersetzungen, ISBN 3-05-003009-7, pp.23ff. ( online

(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aEZrYxkjLkIC& pg=PA23& vq=Koppernigk& source=gbs_search_r& cad=0_1)); Marian Biskup:Regesta Copernicana (calendar of Copernicus' Papers), Ossolineum, 1973, p.32 ( online (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=3gkLAAAAMAAJ& q=Koppernigk& pgis=1#search)). This spelling of the surname is rendered in many publications ( Auflistung(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?lr=& as_brr=3& q=Koppernigk& btnG=Search+ Books)) (http:/ / scholar. google. de/ scholar?hl=en&lr=& q=Koppernigk& btnG=Search)

[2] Linton (2004, p.39 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA39)). Copernicus was not, however, the first to propose some form of heliocentric system. A Greek mathematician and astronomer, Aristarchus of Samos, had already done so as early as the

Nicolaus Copernicus 18

third century BCE. Nevertheless, there is little evidence that he ever developed his ideas beyond a very basic outline (Dreyer, 1953,pp.135–48) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/ 134/ mode/ 2up).

[3] A self-portrait helped confirm the identity of his cranium when it was discovered at Frombork Cathedral in 2008. Kraków's JagiellonianUniversity has a 17th-century copy of Copernicus' 16th-century self-portrait. (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic-art/ 533435/1279/ Copernicus-17th-century-copy-of-a-16th-century-self-portrait) "Copernicus," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., 2005, vol. 16, p. 760.

[4] On the revolutions, Foundations of natural history, Band 1, p.335, Nicolaus Copernicus: Complete Works, Edward Rosen, Johns HopkinsUniversity Press, 1992.

[5] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. XIV, 1969, p. 4.[6] [Great Books of the Western World, Book 16][7] "The name of the village, not unlike that of the astronomer's family, has been variously spelled. A large German atlas of Silesia, published by

Wieland in Nuremberg in 1731, spells it Kopernik." Stephen Mizwa, Nicolaus Copernicus, 1543-1943, Kessinger Publishing, 1943, p. 36. ((http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZHDWSYV6pKoC& pg=PA36& lpg=PA36& dq=silesia+ copernicus& source=bl&ots=ZZDjIBncVQ& sig=BcJwqCjxc7rn2YLgDnC-OIQljQo& hl=en& ei=a0gES-jNBM6onQenuqF4& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&resnum=5& ved=0CBwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q=silesia copernicus& f=false))

[8] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. XIV, 1969, p. 3.[9] Barbara Bieńkowska, The Scientific World of Copernicus, Springer, 1973 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LQflKvEtYL8C&

pg=PA15& dq=Copernicus+ father+ copper)[10] Eugeniusz Rybka for Polska Akademia Nauk (the Polish Academy of Sciences), The Review of the Polish Academy of Sciences: Nicolaus

Copernicus' Relationship with Cracow, Ossolineum, 1973, p. 23. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=BjJFAAAAIAAJ& q=Copernicus+father+ copper+ Gdansk& dq=Copernicus+ father+ copper+ Gdansk& pgis=1)

[11] Josh Sakolsky, Copernicus and Modern Astronomy, Rosen Publishing Group, 2005, p. 8. (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=0QC8ZSklbxYC& pg=PT11& dq=Copernicus+ father+ Torun#PPT11,M1)

[12] Marian Biskup, Regesta Copernicana (calendar of Copernicus' papers), Ossolineum, 1973, p. 16. (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=3gkLAAAAMAAJ& q=Copernicus+ Olesnicki+ loan& dq=Copernicus+ Olesnicki+ loan& pgis=1)

[13] "The mother of Barbara and Lucas was a Modlibog." Alexandre Koyre, Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus – Kepler – Borelli, CornellUniversity Press, 1973, ISBN 0-486-27095-5, p. 78. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=l0YRAZz2yU0C& pg=PA78& dq=modlibog+ ++ copernicus& lr=& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=modlibog + copernicus& f=false))

[14] "Adrian Krzyzanowski and John Sniadecki: Copernicus and His Native Land," The Foreign and Colonial Quarterly Review, Smith, Elder &Co., 1844, p. 367. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ldwRAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA367& lpg=PA367& dq=copernicus+ modlibog&source=bl& ots=heDom9dv_y& sig=koaEdou1Jss4uaP4-HugEGBV3cs& hl=en& ei=WwoHS4PSGNHbnAeOlK25Cw& sa=X&oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CBYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q=modlibog& f=false))

[15] Stephen Mizwa: Nicolaus Copernicus, 1543-1943. Kessinger Publishing, 1943, p. 38.[16] Czesław Miłosz, The History of Polish Literature, University of California Press, 1983, p. 38. (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=11MVdBYUX5oC& pg=PA38& dq=Watzenrode+ Teutonic& lr=)[17] Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. XIV, 1969, p. 4.[18] The Head Office of State Archives, Poland, "Copernicus' Biography", accessed 5/22/09, (http:/ / www. archiwa. gov. pl/ memory/

sub_kopernik/ index. php?va_lang=en& fileid=004)[19] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. XIV, 1969, p. 4.[20] Jeremi Wasiutyński, The Solar Mystery: An Inquiry Into the Temporal and the Eternal Background of the Rise of Modern Civilization,

Solum Forlag, 2003, p. 29. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?q=Lasin+ Watzenrode& btnG=Search+ Books)[21] "In 1512, Bishop Watzenrode died suddenly after attending King Sigismund's wedding feast in Kraków. Rumors abounded that the bishop

had been poisoned by agents of his long-time foe, the Teutonic Knights." Alan Hirshfeld: Parallax: The race to Measure the Cosmos. W.H.Freemand and Company, 2001, ISBN 0-7167-3711-6, p. 38. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CW6tqdhVMJoC& pg=PA38&dq=watzenrode+ died+ suddenly& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=watzenrode died suddenly& f=false))

[22] "The Watzelrodes—or Watzenrodes—in spite of their rather Germanic name seemed to have been good Poles (enemies of the TeutonicOrder)." Alexandre Koyre, Astronomical Revolution, Copernicus - Kepler - Borelli, New York, Cornell University Press, 1973, ISBN0-486-27095-5, p. 38. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=l0YRAZz2yU0C& pg=PA78& dq=germanic+ names+ good+ poles& lr=&as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=& f=false))

[23] "[Watzenrode] was also firm, and the Teutonic Knights, who remained a constant menace, did not like him at all; the Grand Master of theorder once described him as 'the devil incarnate'. [Watzenrode] was the trusted friend and advisor of three kings in succession: John Albert,Alexander (not to be confused with the poisoning pope), and Sigismund; and his influence greatly strengthened the ties between Warmia andPoland proper." Patrick Moore: The Great Astronomical Revolution: 1534-1687 and the Space Age Epilogue. Albion Publishing, 1994, ISBN1-898563-18-7, pp. 52, 62 ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=guAUPMLcHyoC& pg=PA62& dq=watzenrode+ john+ albert+sigismund& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=watzenrode john albert sigismund& f=false)).

[24] Wojciech Iwanczak:  WATZENRODE, Lucas (http:/ / www. bautz. de/ bbkl/ w/ watzenrode. shtml). In: Biographisch-BibliographischesKirchenlexikon (BBKL). Bd. 13, Herzberg 1998, ISBN 3-88309-072-7, Sp. 389-393. (German)

[25] "Lucas was on more friendly terms with his successors, Johann Albert (Jan Olbracht) (from 1492 to 1501), and later Alexander (Aleksander) (from 1501 to 1506), and Sigismund (Zygmunt) I (from 1506)." Pierre Gassendi & Olivier Thill: The Life of Copernicus (1473-1543): The Man Who Did Not Change the World. Xulon Press, 2002, ISBN 1-59160-193-2, p. 22. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/

Nicolaus Copernicus 19

books?id=9r0RfQtpU6AC& pg=PA22& dq=lucas+ was+ in+ more+ friendly& lr=& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=lucas was in more friendly&f=false))

[26] "[Watzenrode] was also firm, and the Teutonic Knights, who remained a constant menace, did not like him at all; the Grand Master of theorder once described him as 'the devil incarnate'. [Watzenrode] was the trusted friend and advisor of three kings in succession: John Albert,Alexander (not to be confused with the poisoning pope), and Sigismund; and his influence greatly strengthened the ties between Warmia andPoland proper." Patrick Moore: The Great Astronomical Revolution: 1534-1687 and the Space Age Epilogue. Albion Publishing, 1994, ISBN1-898563-18-7, pp. 52, 62. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=guAUPMLcHyoC& pg=PA62& dq=watzenrode+ john+ albert+sigismund& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=watzenrode john albert sigismund& f=false))

[27] "He spoke German, Polish and Latin with equal fluency as well as Italian." Daniel Stone: The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386-1795.University of Washington Press, 2001, ISBN 0-295-98093-1, p. 101. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC& pg=PA101&dq=The+ Polish+ Lithuanian+ State+ 1386+ copernicus+ spoke#v=onepage& q=& f=false))

[28] "He spoke Polish, Latin and Greek." Barbara Somerville: Nicolaus Copernicus: Father of Modern Astronomy. Compass Point Books, 2005,ISBN 0-7565-0812-6, p. 10. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ODh9P4P3ElkC& pg=PA10& dq=copernicus+ somervill+ spoke+latin#v=onepage& q=& f=false)).

[29] "He was a linguist with a command of Polish, German and Latin, and he possessed also a knowledge of Greek rare at that period innortheastern Europe and probably had some acquaintance with Italian and Hebrew." Angus Armitage: Copernicus and Modern Astronomy.Dover Publications, 2004 (originally 1957), ISBN 0-486-43907-0, p. 62.

[30] He used Latin and German, knew enough Greek to translate the 7th-century Byzantine poet Theophylact Simocatta's verses into Latin prose(Armitage, The World of Copernicus, pp. 75–77), and "there is ample evidence that he knew the Polish language" (Norman Davies, God'sPlayground, vol. II, p. 26). During his several years' studies in Italy, Copernicus presumably would also have learned some Italian. ProfessorStefan Melkowski of Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń likewise asserts that Copernicus spoke both Polish and German. ( (http:/ / glos.uni. torun. pl/ 2003/ 05/ historia) "O historii i o współczesności" ("About History and Contemporaneity"), May 2003.])

[31] "Deutsch war für Kopernikus Muttersprache und Alltagssprache, wenn auch der schriftliche Umgang fast ausschließlich auf Lateinischerfolgte." Martin Carrier: Nikolaus Kopernikus. Beck'sche Reihe, C. H. Beck, 2001, ISBN 3-406-47577-9, 9783406475771, p. 192. ( online(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bYxhZt6BZCoC& pg=PA65& vq=Deutsch+ war+ für+ Kopernikus+ Muttersprache&source=gbs_search_r& cad=1_1))])

[32] Rosen (1995, p. 127 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=C_a1kTvuZ1MC& pg=PA127#v=onepage& f=false)).[33] "Although great importance has frequently been ascribed to this fact, it does not imply that Copernicus considered himself to be a German.

The 'nationes' of a medieval university had nothing in common with nations in the modern sense of the word. Students who were natives ofPrussia and Silesia were automatically described as belonging to the Natio Germanorum. Furthmore, at Bologna, this was the 'privileged'nation; consequently, Copernicus had very good reason for inscribing himself on its register." Alexandre Koyre: Astronomical Revolution,Copernicus - Kepler - Borelli. Cornell University Press, 1973, ISBN 0-486-27095-5, p. 21. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=l0YRAZz2yU0C& pg=PA21& dq=natio+ germanorum#v=onepage& q=natio germanorum& f=false))

[34] "It is important to recognize, however, that the medievel Latin concept of natio, or "nation," referred to the community of feudal lords bothin Germany and elsewhere, not to "the people" in the nineteenth-century democratic or nationalistic sense of the word." Lonnie Johnson:Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends. Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-510071-9, p. 23. ( (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=e_m13Hk3AFEC& pg=PA23& dq=natio+ germanorum& lr=& as_brr=3#v=onepage& q=natio germanorum& f=false))

[35] Arthur Koestler, The Sleepwalkers (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=skMBAAAAMAAJ& q="natio+ germanorum"& dq="natio+germanorum"& pgis=1), 1968, p. 129.

[36] Pierre Gassendi, Oliver Thill, The Life of Copernicus (1473-1543) (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=9r0RfQtpU6AC& pg=PA38&dq=natio+ copernicus& sig=wZg0maLYGyn-N2P7-bO7_q6s0Jc#v=onepage& q=Nationis Germanorum& f=false), 2002, p. 37.

[37] Nicolaus Copernicus et al., Copernicus Gesamtausgabe. Documenta Copernicana I.: Briefe, Texte und Übersetzungen (http:/ / books.google. ca/ books?id=aEZrYxkjLkIC& pg=PA39& dq="natio+ germanorum"&sig=Dsr0AwrAI75N3ndXb5wHXWJaL4Q#PPA39,M1''Nicolaus), 1996, p. 39.

[38] Melkowski, Stefan (May 2003). "O historii i o współczesności (On History and the Present Day)" (http:/ / glos. uni. torun. pl/ 2003/ 05/historia/ ) (in Polish). . Retrieved 2007-04-22.

[39] "Kopernik, Koperek, Kopr and Koprnik in Polish—also similarly in other Slavonic languages—means simply dill such as is used in dillpickling. Be it as it may, although the present writer is more inclined towards the occupational interpretation, it is interesting to note ..."Stephen Mizwa, Nicolaus Copernicus, 1543–1943, Kessinger Publishing, 1943, p. 37 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=ZHDWSYV6pKoC& pg=PA37& dq=dill+ + + copernicus& lr=& as_brr=0#v=onepage& q=dill + copernicus& f=false).

[40] Armitage, p. 51.[41] Gingerich (2004), p. 143.[42] Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe: Urkunden, Akten und Nachrichten: Texte und Übersetzungen, p. 23 ff (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=aEZrYxkjLkIC& pg=PA23& vq=Koppernigk& source=gbs_search_r& cad=0_1). ISBN 3-05-003009-7.[43] Marian Biskup, Regesta Copernicana (Calendar of Copernicus' Papers), Ossolineum, 1973, page 32 (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=3gkLAAAAMAAJ& q=Koppernigk& pgis=1#search).[44] Biskup (1973), pp. 38, 82 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3gkLAAAAMAAJ& dq=Kopperlingk& q=Kopperlingk& pgis=1#search).[45] Carlo Malagola, Della vita e delle opere di Antonio Urceo detto Codro: studi e ricerche, 1878, pp. 562–65 (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=SzQGAAAAQAAJ& dq=author:"Carlo+ Malagola"+ Kopperlingk& q=Kopperlingk& pgis=1#search).

Nicolaus Copernicus 20

[46] "Copernicus, Nicolaus" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 136591/ Nicolaus-Copernicus). Encyclopædia Britannica Online.Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-11-21.

[47] Maximilian Curtze, Ueber die Orthographie des Namens Coppernicus, 1879, (http:/ / de. wikisource. org/ wiki/Nicolaus_Coppernicus_aus_Thorn_über_die_Kreisbewegungen_der_Weltkörper/ Vorwort#Orthographie).

[48] Czesław Miłosz, The History of Polish Literature, p. 38.[49] Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, p. 55.[50] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, pp. 4-5.[51] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, p. 5.[52] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, pp. 5-6.[53] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, p. 6.[54] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, p. 6.[55] Rabin (2005).[56] Gingerich (2004, pp. 187–89, 201); Koyré (1973, p. 94); Kuhn (1957, p. 93); Rosen (2004, p. 123); Rabin (2005). Robbins (1964, p.x),

however, includes Copernicus among a list of Renaissance astronomers who "either practiced astrology themselves or countenanced itspractice."

[57] Sedlar (1994).[58] Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, pp. 75–77.[59] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, p. 7.[60] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, pp. 7-8.[61] Repcheck (2007), p. 66.[62] Copernicus, Nicolaus, Minor Works (Edward Rosen, translator), Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992, pp. 176–215.[63] Oliver Volckart, "Early Beginnings of the Quantity Theory of Money and Their Context in Polish and Prussian Monetary Policies, c.

1520–1550", The Economic History Review, New Series 50 (August 1997) 3, pp. 430–49.[64] Repcheck, Jack (2007). Copernicus' Secret. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. pp. 79, 78, 184, 186. ISBN 978-0-7432-8951-1.[65] Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. XIV, 1969, p. 11.[66] Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, pp. 97–98.[67] Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, p. 98.[68] Kuhn, 1957, pp. 187–88.[69] Photograph of a portrait of Copernicus by an unknown painter. The original was looted—possibly destroyed—by the Germans in World

War II. Jan Świeczyński, Katalog skradzionych i zaginionych dóbr kultury (Catalog of Stolen and Missing Cultural Property), Warsaw,Ośrodek Informacyjno-Koordynacyjny Ochrony Obiektów Muzealnych (Center of Information and Coordination for the Safeguarding ofMuseum Objects), 1988.

[70] A reference to the "Commentariolus" is contained in a library catalogue, dated May 1st, 1514, of a 16th-century historian, Matthew ofMiechow, so it must have begun circulating before that date (Koyré, 1973, p.85; Gingerich, 2004, p.32). Thoren (1990, p.99 (http:/ / books.google. com. au/ books?id=GxyA-lhWL-AC& pg=PA99)) gives the length of the manuscript as 40 pages.

[71] Schönberg, Nicholas, Letter to Nicolaus Copernicus, translated by Edward Rosen (http:/ / webexhibits. org/ calendars/ year-text-Copernicus.html).

[72] Koyré (1973, pp. 27, 90) and Rosen (1995, pp. 64,184) take the view that Copernicus was indeed concerned about possible objections fromtheologians, while Lindberg and Numbers (1986) argue against it. Koestler (1963) also denies it. Indirect evidence that Copernicus wasconcerned about objections from theologians comes from a letter written to him by Andreas Osiander in 1541, in which Osiander advisesCopernicus to adopt a proposal by which he says "you will be able to appease the Peripatetics and theologians whose opposition you fear."(Koyré, 1973, pp. 35, 90)

[73] Dreyer (1953, p.319) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/ 319/ mode/ 1up).[74] Easton, Adam (21 November 2008). "Polish tests 'confirm Copernicus'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ europe/ 7740908. stm). BBC

News. . Retrieved 18 January 2010.[75] Bowcott, Owen (21 November 2008). " 16th-century skeleton identified as astronomer Copernicus (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/

2008/ nov/ 21/ astronomy-archaeology)" The Guardian. Retrieved 18 January 2010.[76] Bogdanowicz, W.; Allen, M.; Branicki, W.; et al., M.; Gajewska, M.; Kupiec, T. (2009). "Genetic identification of putative remains of the

famous astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus". PNAS 106 (30): 12279–12282. doi:10.1073/pnas.0901848106. PMC 2718376. PMID 19584252..[77] Gingerich, O. (2009). "The Copernicus grave mystery". PNAS 106 (30): 12215–12216. doi:10.1073/pnas.0907491106. PMC 2718392.

PMID 19622737..[78] Astronomer Copernicus Reburied as Hero (New York Times, May 22, 2010) (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ aponline/ 2010/ 05/ 22/ world/

AP-EU-Poland-Copernicus-Reburied. html)[79] Dreyer (1953, pp. 40–52) (http:/ / www. us. archive. org/ GnuBook/ ?id=historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#53); Linton (2004, p. 20).[80] Dreyer (1953, pp. 123–35) (http:/ / www. us. archive. org/ GnuBook/ ?id=historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#136); Linton (2004, p. 24).[81] Archimedes refers to Aristarchus's book in The Sand Reckoner. Heath's (1913, p.302) (http:/ / www. us. archive. org/ GnuBook/

?id=aristarchusofsam00heatuoft#315) translation of the relevant passage reads: "You ['you' being King Gelon] are aware that 'universe' is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere the center of which is the center of the Earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the center of the Sun and the center of the Earth. This is the common account as you have heard from astronomers. But Aristarchus

Nicolaus Copernicus 21

has brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe ismany times greater than the 'universe' just mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, that the Earthrevolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of the fixed stars, situatedabout the same center as the Sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance ofthe fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface." The bracketed insertion is in Heath's translation.

[82] Tassoul, Jean-Louis & Monique (2004). Concise History of Solar and Stellar Physics (http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ chapters/ s7785. html).Princeton University. .

[83] Dreyer (1953, pp. 314–15) (http:/ / www. us. archive. org/ GnuBook/ ?id=historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#327).[84] Hoskin, Michael A. (1999). The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 58.

ISBN 0-521-57600-8.[85] Rosen (2004, pp. 58–59).[86] Rosen (1995, pp.151–59)[87] Rosen (1995, p.158)[88] Koestler (1959, p.191)[89] Rosen (1995, pp.187–192), originally published in 1967 in Saggi su Galileo Galilei . Rosen is particularly scathing about this and other

statements in The Sleepwalkers which he criticises as inaccurate.[90] Gingerich (2004), DeMarco (2004) (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ education/ higher/ articles/ 2004/ 04/ 13/

book_quest_took_him_around_the_globe)[91] In fact, in the Pythagorean cosmological system the Sun was not motionless.[92] Decree of the General Congregation of the Index, March 5, 1616, translated from the Latin by Finocchiaro (1989, pp.148-149). An on-line

copy (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html#indexdecree)of Finocchiaro's translation has been made available by Gagné (2005).

[93] Fantoli (2005, pp.118–19); Finocchiaro (1989, pp.148, 153). On-line copies of Finocchiaro's translations of the relevant documents,Inquisition Minutes of 25 February, 1616 (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/resources/ finocchiaro. html#inqminutes) and Cardinal Bellarmine's certificate of 26 May, 1616 (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html#certificate), have been made available by Gagné(2005). This notice of the decree would not have prevented Galileo from discussing heliocentrism solely as a mathematical hypothesis, but astronger formal injunction (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/finocchiaro. html#specinj) (Finocchiaro, 1989, p.147-148) not to teach it "in any way whatever, either orally or in writing", allegedly issued tohim by the Commissary of the Holy Office, Father Michelangelo Segizzi, would certainly have done so (Fantoli, 2005, pp.119–20, 137).There has been much controversy over whether the copy of this injunction in the Vatican archives is authentic; if so, whether it was everissued; and if so, whether it was legally valid (Fantoli, 2005, pp.120–43).

[94] Catholic Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 04352b. htm).[95] From the Inquisition's sentence of June 22, 1633 (de Santillana, 1976, pp.306-10 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/

books?id=RABIZBnf_y4C& pg=PA306); Finocchiaro 1989, pp. 287-91) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro.wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html#sentence)

[96] Heilbron (2005, p. 307); Coyne (2005, p. 347).[97] McMullin (2005, p. 6); Coyne (2005, pp. 346-47).[98] Burleigh, Michael (1988). Germany turns eastwards. A study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich. CUP Archive. pp. 60, 133, 280.

ISBN 0521351200.[99] Rudnicki, Konrad (November–December 2006). "The Genuine Copernican Cosmological Principle" (http:/ / southerncrossreview. org/ 50/

rudnicki1. htm). Southern Cross Review: note 2. . Retrieved 2010-01-21.[100] Miłosz, Czesław (1983). The history of Polish literature (2 ed.). University of California Press. p. 37. ISBN 0520044770.[101] Davies, Norman (2005). God's playground. A History of Poland in Two Volumes. II. Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0199253404.[102] "Nicolaus Copernicus" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ copernicus/ #1). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2007-04-22.[103] "Copernicus, Nicolaus" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9105759). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica.

2007. . Retrieved 2007-09-21.[104] "Copernicus, Nicolaus", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986, vol. 7, pp. 755–56.[105] "Nicholas Copernicus" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ topic/ Nicholas_Copernicus. aspx), The Columbia Encyclopedia, sixth edition,

2008. Encyclopedia.com. 18 July 2009.[106] "Copernicus, Nicolaus", The Oxford World Encyclopedia, Oxford University Press, 1998.[107] "Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer" (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encnet/ refpages/ RefArticle. aspx?refid=761571204). Microsoft

Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Microsoft. 2007. . Retrieved 2007-09-21.[108] July 14, 2009 - Element 112 shall be named “copernicium”, http:/ / www. popsci. com/ (http:/ / www. popsci. com/ scitech/ article/

2009-07/ element-112-named-copernicum)[109] Renner, Terrence (2010-02-20). "Element 112 is Named Copernicium" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ web/ nt/ 2010-02-20_112_Copernicium).

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.[110] Calendar of the Church Year according to the Episcopal Church (http:/ / satucket. com/ lectionary/ Calendar. htm)

Nicolaus Copernicus 22

References• Armitage, Angus (1951). The World of Copernicus. New York, NY: Mentor Books. ISBN 0-8464-0979-8.• Barbara Bieńkowska (1973). The Scientific World of Copernicus: On the Occasion of the 500th Anniversary of

His Birth, 1473–1973. Springer. ISBN 9027703531.• Coyne, George V., S.J. (2005). The Church's Most Recent Attempt to Dispel the Galileo Myth. In McMullin

(2005, pp.340–59).• Davies, Norman, God's Playground: A History of Poland, 2 vols., New York, Columbia University Press, 1982,

ISBN 0-231-04327-9.• DeMarco, Peter (2004-04-13). "Book quest took him around the globe" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/

education/ higher/ articles/ 2004/ 04/ 13/ book_quest_took_him_around_the_globe/ ). Boston Globe. Retrieved2008-01-14.

• Dobrzycki, Jerzy, and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj," Polski słownik biograficzny (PolishBiographical Dictionary), vol. XIV, Wrocław, Polish Academy of Sciences, 1969, pp. 3–16.

• Dreyer, John Louis Emil (1953) [1905]. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (http:/ / www. archive.org/ details/ historyofplaneta00dreyuoft). New York, NY: Dover Publications.

• Fantoli, Annibale (2005). The Disputed Injunction and its Role in Galileo's Trial. In McMullin (2005,pp.117–49).

• Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (1989). The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. Berkeley, CA: University ofCalifornia Press. ISBN 0-520-06662-6.

• Gagné, Marc (2005). "Texts from The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History edited and translated by Maurice A.Finocchiaro" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930013053/ http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/resources/ finocchiaro. html). West Chester University course ESS 362/562 in History of Astronomy. Archivedfrom the original (http:/ / astro. wcupa. edu/ mgagne/ ess362/ resources/ finocchiaro. html) on 2007-09-30.Retrieved 2008-01-15. (Extracts from Finocchiaro (1989))

• Gingerich, Owen (2004). The Book Nobody Read. London: William Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-01315-3.• Goodman, David C.; Russell, Colin A. (1991). The Rise of Scientific Europe, 1500-1800. Hodder Arnold H&S.

ISBN 0-340-55861-X.• Heath, Sir Thomas (1913). Aristarchus of Samos, the ancient Copernicus ; a history of Greek astronomy to

Aristarchus, together with Aristarchus's Treatise on the sizes and distances of the sun and moon : a new Greektext with translation and notes (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ aristarchusofsam00heatuoft). London: OxfordUniversity Press.

• Heilbron, John L. (2005). Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo. In McMullin (2005, pp.279–322).• Hoskin, Michael A., The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy, Cambridge, England, Cambridge University

Press, ISBN 0-521-57600-8.• Koestler, Arthur (1963) [1959]. The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. New

York, NY: Grosset & Dunlap. ISBN 0448001594. Original edition published by Hutchinson (1959, London)• Koeppen, Hans et al. (1973). Nicolaus Copernicus zum 500. Geburtstag. Böhlau Verlag. ISBN 3-412-83573-2.• Koyré, Alexandre (1973). The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus – Kepler – Borelli. Ithaca, NY: Cornell

University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0504-1.• Kuhn, Thomas (1957). The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western

Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. OCLC 535467.• Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986). "Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter

between Christianity and Science" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 3166822). Church History (CambridgeUniversity Press) 55 (3): 338–354. doi:10.2307/3166822.

• Linton, Christopher M. (2004). From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82750-8.

Nicolaus Copernicus 23

• Manetho; Ptolemy (1964) [1940]. Manetho Ptolemy Tetrabiblos. Loeb Classical Library edition, translated byW.G.Waddell and F.E.Robbins Ph.D.. London: William Heinemann.

• McMullin, Ernan, ed. (2005). The Church and Galileo. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.ISBN 0-268-03483-4.

• Miłosz, Czesław, The History of Polish Literature, second edition, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1969,ISBN 0-520-04477-0.

• Ptolemy, Claudius (1964) [1940]. Tetrabiblos. Loeb Classical Library edition, translated by F.E.Robbins Ph.D..London: William Heinemann.

• Rabin, Sheila (2005). "Copernicus" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ archives/ sum2005/ entries/ copernicus/ ). TheStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Retrieved 2008-05-26.

• Repcheck, Jack (2007). Copernicus' Secret: How the Scientific Revolution Began. New York: Simon & Schuster.ISBN 0-7432-8951-X.

• Rosen, Edward (1995). Copernicus and his Successors. London: Hambledon Press. ISBN 1 85285 071 X.• Rosen, Edward (translator) (2004) [1939]. Three Copernican Treatises:The Commentariolus of Copernicus; The

Letter against Werner; The Narratio Prima of Rheticus (Second Edition, revised ed.). New York, NY: DoverPublications. ISBN 0486436055.

• Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1997) [1991]. Inventing the Flat Earth—Columbus and Modern Historians. New York,NY: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-95904-X.

• de Santillana, Giorgio (1976—Midway reprint) [1955]. The Crime of Galileo (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=RABIZBnf_y4C& printsec=frontcover). Chicago, Ill: Universtiy of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-73481-1.

• Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages 1000-1500 (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC& pg=PA282& lpg=PA282& dq=royal-prussia). University of Washington Press.ISBN 0295972904.

• Thoren, Victor E. (1990). The Lord of Uraniborg (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=GxyA-lhWL-AC). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-35158-8. (A biography of Danish astronomer and alchemist TychoBrahe.)

Further reading• Danielson, Dennis Richard (2006). The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the

Copernican Revolution. New York: Walker & Company. ISBN 0-8027-1530-3.• Prowe, Leopold (1884) (in German). Nicolaus Coppernicus (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=to0DAAAAYAAJ).

Berlin: Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung.• Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe (Nicolaus Copernicus Complete Edition; in German and Latin; 9 volumes,

1974–2004), various editors, Berlin, Akademie Verlag. A large collection of writings by and about Copernicus.• Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe: Biographies and Portraits of Copernicus from 16th to 18th century,

Biographia Copernicana, 2004, ISBN 3-05-003848-9 (http:/ / www. gbv. de/ dms/ goettingen/ 378203525. pdf)(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sFF1nknsxRwC& printsec=frontcover& dq="Biographia+ Copernicana"&source=gbs_summary_r& cad=0#PPA23,M1)

• Schmauch, Hans:  Copernicus, Nicolaus (http:/ / daten. digitale-sammlungen. de/ bsb00016319/ image_364). In:Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Band 3. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1957, S. 348–355. (German)

• Bruhns, Christian: Copernicus, Nicolaus. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). volume 4, Duncker &Humblot, Leipzig 1876, pp. 461–469. (German)

Nicolaus Copernicus 24

External linksPrimary Sources• Works by Nicolaus Copernicus (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Nicolaus+ Copernicus) at Project

Gutenberg• De Revolutionibus, autograph manuscript (http:/ / www. bj. uj. edu. pl/ bjmanus/ revol/ titlpg_e. html) — Full

digital facsimile, Jagiellonian University• (Polish) Polish translations of letters written by Copernicus in Latin or German (http:/ / www. domwarminski. pl/

content/ view/ 312/ 433)General• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Nicolaus Copernicus" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/

Biographies/ Copernicus. html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.• Copernicus in Torun (http:/ / www. visittorun. pl/ index. php?strona=6)• Nicolaus Copernicus Museum in Frombork (http:/ / www. frombork. art. pl/ Ang01. htm)• Portraits of Copernicus: Copernicus's face reconstructed (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 9913250/ ); Portrait

(http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ ~history/ PictDisplay/ Copernicus. html); Nicolaus Copernicus(http:/ / www. frombork. art. pl/ Ang10. htm)

• Copernicus and Astrology (http:/ / www. hps. cam. ac. uk/ starry/ coperastrol. html) — Cambridge University:Copernicus had – of course – teachers with astrological activities and his tables were later used by astrologers.

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ copernicus/ )• Find-A-Grave profile for Nicolaus Copernicus (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr&

GRid=10340)• 'Body of Copernicus' identified (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ europe/ 4405958. stm) — BBC article

including image of Copernicus using facial reconstruction based on located skull• Copernicus and Astrology (http:/ / www. skyscript. co. uk/ copernicus. html)• Nicolaus Copernicus on the 1000 Polish Zloty banknote. (http:/ / www-personal. umich. edu/ ~jbourj/ money2.

htm)• Parallax and the Earth's orbit (http:/ / csep10. phys. utk. edu/ astr161/ lect/ retrograpde/ parallax. gif)• Copernicus's model for Mars (http:/ / www. mhhe. com/ physsci/ astronomy/ fix/ student/ images/ 04f08. jpg)• Retrograde Motion (http:/ / www. mhhe. com/ physsci/ astronomy/ fix/ student/ images/ 02f27. jpg)• Copernicus's explanation for retrograde motion (http:/ / www. mhhe. com/ physsci/ astronomy/ fix/ student/

images/ 04f04. jpg)• Geometry of Maximum Elongation (http:/ / www. mhhe. com/ physsci/ astronomy/ fix/ student/ images/ 04f07.

jpg)• Copernican Model (http:/ / csep10. phys. utk. edu/ astr161/ lect/ retrograde/ copernican. html)• Portraits of Nicolaus Copernicus (http:/ / www. frombork. art. pl/ Ang10. htm)About De Revolutionibus• The Copernican Universe from the De Revolutionibus (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ sci/ theories/ copernican_system.

html)• De Revolutionibus, 1543 first edition (http:/ / digital. lib. lehigh. edu/ planets/ cop. php?num=F. 1& exp=false&

lang=lat& CISOPTR=0& limit=cop& view=full) — Full digital facsimile, Lehigh University• The front page of the De Revolutionibus (http:/ / www. hao. ucar. edu/ Public/ education/ bios/ derevolutionibus.

html)• The text of the De Revolutionibus (http:/ / webexhibits. org/ calendars/ year-text-Copernicus. html)• A java applet about Retrograde Motion (http:/ / www. flex. com/ ~jai/ astrology/ retrograde. html)• The Antikythera Calculator (Italian and English versions) (http:/ / www. giovannipastore. it/ CALCOLATORE

DI ANTIKYTHERA. htm)

Nicolaus Copernicus 25

• Pastore Giovanni, Antikythera e i Regoli calcolatori, Rome, 2006, privately published (http:/ / www.giovannipastore. it/ ISTRUZIONI. htm)

Legacy• (Italian) Copernicus in Bologna (http:/ / www. bo. astro. it/ dip/ Museum/ italiano/ sto1_08. html) — in Italian• Chasing Copernicus: The Book Nobody Read (http:/ / www. npr. org/ display_pages/ features/ feature_1746110.

html) — Was One of the Greatest Scientific Works Really Ignored? All Things Considered. NPR• Copernicus and his Revolutions (http:/ / www. bede. org. uk/ copernicus. htm) — A detailed critique of the

rhetoric of De Revolutionibus• Article which discusses Copernicus's debt to the Arabic tradition (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ ~gas1/ project/

visions/ case1/ sci. 1. html)Prizes• Nicolaus Copernicus Prize, founded by the City of Kraków (http:/ / pau. krakow. pl/ index. php/ en/ 2008031765/

Prizes-by-PAU/ Page-2. html), awarded since 1995German-Polish cooperation• (English) (German) (Polish) German-Polish "Copernicus Prize" awarded to German and Polish scientists ( DFG

website (http:/ / www. dfg. de/ en/ funded_projects/ prizewinners/ copernicus_award/ index. html)) ( FNP website(http:/ / www. fnp. org. pl/ programmes/ overview_of_programmes/ the_copernicus_award))

• (English) (German) (Polish) Büro Kopernikus - An initiative of German Federal Cultural Foundation (http:/ /www. buero-kopernikus. org/ en/ home/ 31/ 0/ 0)

• (German) (Polish) German-Polish school project on Copernicus (http:/ / www. bkherne. eu/ index.php?option=com_content& view=article& id=304& Itemid=272)

Article Sources and Contributors 26

Article Sources and ContributorsNicolaus Copernicus  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418591082  Contributors: 12345 lewis, 13afuse, 209.20.225.xxx, 212.153.190.xxx, 213.122.203.xxx, 63·161·169·137,700KFF, 8800GTX, AKMask, Aaron Brenneman, Aavviof, Abasass, Abu badali, Abu-Fool Danyal ibn Amir al-Makhiri, Academic Challenger, Acroterion, Adadasu, Adam Bishop, Adamahill,Adraeus, Aeronauticus, AgentCDE, Agrofe, Ahoerstemeier, Akasseb, Alala-333, AlbertSM, Aldux, Alec Connors, Alexandra lb, Alexf, Alexjustdoit, All Hallow's Wraith, Alphachimp,Altenmann, Altone, Amcwis, Amillar, Anatopism, Andie142105, Andre Engels, AndreniW, Androl, Andyjsmith, Angela, Anna Q, Antandrus, Antidote, Appleseed, Apptas, Arbeiter, Arno,Arudra, AstroNomer, Astrochemist, Astronautics, Astronomer28, Attilios, Atwardow, Audacity, Ausir, Authr, AvicAWB, Avoided, Awyhuito, AxelBoldt, AzaToth, B00P, Babajobu, Balcer,Bambaiah, Barautata, Bart133, Basedview22, Bbatsell, Bbeest, Bbggae, Bbisdo, Bender235, Bethpage89, Bevo, Bhadani, Biala Gwiazda, Big Brother 1984, Bill Thayer, Biruitorul, Bishonen,Blah2000, Blanchardb, Bletchley, Bliduta, Bludyta, Blue520, Blueboy96, Bobo192, Boearo, Boloniare, Boomcoach, Boureo, Brandmeister (old), BrendelSignature, Brion VIBBER, Brutannica,Bryan Derksen, Buggo1, Bulata, Burek, Burschenschafter, Burssdola, Busvbtydj, Buussola, Byytar, C.Fred, CBM, CJLL Wright, CRKingston, Cadmasteradam, Cadwaladr, Caiaffa, Caknuck,CalJW, Calmypal, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canjth, Captain panda, Carcharoth, Catgut, Cautious, Ccaarft, Cclawara, Ccraccnam,Cenarium, CesarB, Charles Matthews, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Che829, Chefukija, Chetos, ChicXulub, ChiragPatnaik, Chris 73, Chris Roy, Chrisch, Chrislk02, Chun-hian,Citymovement, Civjaty, Ckatz, Clamare, Clarityfiend, Clayoquot, Clohuigt, Clpo13, Coffee, Collard, ColonelKernel, Colorprobe, Colutowe, Connormah, Conversion script, Conveyance,Coredesat, Corvus cornix, Cosmo0, Couero, Coulatssa, Coutasji, CrZTgR, Crotalus horridus, Ctbolt, Cult-p, Cuoato, Curps, Cyanothus, Cyberevil, Cyon, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBaba, DVDR W, DVdm, DW, Dagox, Damicatz, Dan D. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ArséniureDeGallium, ArtMechanic,Ausir, Editor at Large, J.delanoy, Kyro, Manuelt15, Matthead, Mikkalai, Pko, Samuel Grant, TarmoK, ThomasPusch, 6 anonymous editsImage:Autograph-MikolajKopernik.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Autograph-MikolajKopernik.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: -Image:CopernicusHouse.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CopernicusHouse.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: StephenMcCluskeyImage:Łukasz Watzenrode.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Łukasz_Watzenrode.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MARCIN N, Mathiasrex, Serdelll, 1anonymous editsFile:Copernicus-an-Herzog-Albrecht.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copernicus-an-Herzog-Albrecht.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NicolausCopernicusImage:Collegium Maius 07.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Collegium_Maius_07.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:User:CancreImage:Kraków - Pomnik Mikołaja Kopernika 02.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kraków_-_Pomnik_Mikołaja_Kopernika_02.JPG  License: Attribution Contributors: User:LestathImage:Domenico Maria Novara house location.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Domenico_Maria_Novara_house_location.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Daniele.tampieriImage:Copernico commemorative plate.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copernico_commemorative_plate.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0  Contributors: User:Daniele.tampieri

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 27

Image:Jan Matejko-Astronomer Copernicus-Conversation with God.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jan_Matejko-Astronomer_Copernicus-Conversation_with_God.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alaniaris, Dirk Hünniger,EugeneZelenko, Gnesener1900, Goldfritha, Kürschner, Ludmiła Pilecka, Matthead, Olivier2, Piotrus, Pko, Plindenbaum, Slomox, Wames, Wst, 3 anonymous editsFile:Symokatta epistole morales.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Symokatta_epistole_morales.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Grzegorz PetkaFile:Copernicus Tower in Frombork.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copernicus_Tower_in_Frombork.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Hans Weingartz - http://www.hans-weingartz.de ; Original uploader was Leonce49 at de.wikipediaFile:Frombork - Wzgórze katedralne.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frombork_-_Wzgórze_katedralne.JPG  License: Attribution  Contributors: Lestat (JanMehlich)Image:Olsztyn-zamek.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Olsztyn-zamek.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Serdelll, Umix, 1anonymous editsImage:6 Warszawa 153.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:6_Warszawa_153.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Jarekt, Juliancolton, Killiondude, Sfu, ShalomAlechemImage:Mikolaj Kopernik.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mikolaj_Kopernik.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ausir, Editor at Large, Konstable,Mathiasrex, Matthead, 1 anonymous editsImage:Nicolas Copernicus Polish.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nicolas_Copernicus_Polish.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BurgererSF, Jarekt,Matthead, Polaco77, Serdelll, ZoloFile:Nicolai Copernici torinensis De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.djvu  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nicolai_Copernici_torinensis_De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium.djvu  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Copernic, NicolasFile:Nicolaus Copernicus epitaph.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nicolaus_Copernicus_epitaph.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors:User:MathiasrexFile:KOS sarkofag ze szczątkami Kopernika.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KOS_sarkofag_ze_szczątkami_Kopernika.jpg  License: GNU Free DocumentationLicense  Contributors: User:MazakiFile:Frauenburger Dom 2010.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frauenburger_Dom_2010.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: Holger WeinandtFile:Grabmal Nikolaus Kopernikus Frauenburger Dom 2010.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grabmal_Nikolaus_Kopernikus_Frauenburger_Dom_2010.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany  Contributors: Holger WeinandtFile:CopernicSystem.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CopernicSystem.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: HB, Roomba, W!B:, WstImage:copernicus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copernicus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ausir, Dirk Hünniger, Garrondo, Kjetil r, Kürschner,Matthead, 1 anonymous editsImage:Copernicus Walhalla.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copernicus_Walhalla.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:MattheadImage:Kopernik.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kopernik.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Marcin n

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