Nigeria

Modified from Mr. Caroddo’s Education Website at http://caroddoapclasses.com/id4.html

Public Authority & Political Power• “National Question”differing opinions about how political

power should be distributed and how the government should be constructed.

• In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries

• Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how

• Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one state• Regional disagreements & hostilities• Problems traditionally solved by military force and

authoritarianism

Legitimacy• Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving

independence in 1960, this makes establishing legitimate government more difficult• Fragmentation – tendency to fall apart along

ethnic, regional, and/or religious lines.

• Contradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “rule of law” vs. Military rule/Personalized authority

• Corruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that get deposited in personal bank accounts

• General Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993)• General Sani Abacha (1993-1998)

Babangida

Precolonial Era (800-1600) “Political Traditions”

• Trade Connections – Sahara Desert; Niger River & Ocean Access

• Influence of Islam – Trade with North Africa put Hausa & other groups in contact with Arab education and Islam, sharia emerges as dominant political principle

• Kinship-based Politics – village key political entity

• Complex Political Identities – contrast between centralized state and local governance.

• Democratic Impulses – accountability, representative government, and democracy practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and Igbo.

Legacy of Slavery

Colonial Era (1860-1960) “Political Traditions”• Authoritarian Rule – in order to achieve goals of

economic domination British strengthened the authority of traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to British. This resulted in a loosening of rulers’ responsibility to the people

• Interventionist State – the British trained chiefs to operate government to achieve economic goals. This set in place expectations that citizens should passively accept actions of rulers.

• Individualism – a tendency of chiefs to think about personal benefits of governance, rather than good of the community

British Colonialism

Colonial Era

• Christianity – British introduction of Christianity created a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in the north, Christianity in the southeast and southwest.

• Intensification of Ethnic Politics – emergence of three dominant groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba. British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to some groups but not others.

Independence Era (1960-Present) “Political Traditions”• Parliamentary vs. Presidential System –

Nigeria operated under parliamentary system from 1960-1979. Ethnic divisions made parliamentary system difficult, switched to presidential system with separate legislature and independent judiciary, but neither has been able to check power of the president

• Intensification of Ethnic Conflict – After independence Hausa-Fulani dominated parliament because of large population. They formed a coalition with Igbo of the southeast to ensure their dominance, this created added tension and conflict with Yoruba of the west. In 1966 a group of Igbo military officers seized power.

Independence

Independence Era

• Military Rule – first military ruler, Agiyi Ironsi, justified his authority by announcing his intention to end violence and political corruption. He was assassinated, sparking the Igbo secession that led to the Biafran War (1967-1970)

• Personalized Rule/Corruption

• Federalism – in attempt to mollify ethnic tension and remain one country, Nigerian leaders set up federalist system, with powers being delegated to state and local governments. Under military executives however it did not work. Military presidents did not allow states to have legitimate sovereignty.

• Economic dependence on Oil

Oil Dependence

Political Culture

• Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM)• Clientelism – exchanging political and economic

favors among patrons and clients, corruption becomes problematic

• State Control/Underdeveloped Society• Civil society refers to voluntary associations that lie

outside government control.

• Modernity vs. Tradition• Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era

• Religious Conflict

Geographic Influences

• Northwest – dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-Fulani people, area is predominantly Muslim.

• Northeast – area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, also predominantly Muslim.

• Middle Belt – many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and Christians.

• Southwest – Yoruba dominate the area. They are about 40% Muslim, 40% Christian, and 20% native religions.

• Southeast – area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman Catholic with some Protestant Christians as well

• Southern Zone – area along Niger River Delta, people are from various small minority groups.

Ethnic Groups

Societal Characteristics & Concerns• Poverty – 70% of all Nigerians live below poverty line,

with many living in absolute poverty.

• Gap between Rich & Poor – similar to Mexico, however in Nigeria now growth is being made to alleviate this gap.

• Health Issues – high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every eleven HIV/AIDS sufferers live in Nigeria.

• Literacy – for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World averages are 83% men, 71% for women)

Poverty

Political Cleavages

• Ethnicity – Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different languages

• Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native religions.

• Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines

• Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest groups, and political protest takes place in cities

• Social Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.

Wealth Gap

Prebendalism

• Personalized system of rule• Personal offices treated like “fiefdoms”• Large patronage networks based on

personal loyalty• Local government officials gain support

of villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they receive favors for supporting their patron bosses

• Most favors exchanged by political elites• Corruption and informal influence

rampant• Does however represent established

form of political participation

Attitudes toward Government

• Citizens do not Trust Nigerian Government

• Corruption

• Military Rule

• Weakness of Civil Society

• Nigerians support democracy but are skeptical

Protests & Social Movements

• Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa)• Targeted the international oil companies,

especially in the Niger River Delta• In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied

ChevronTexaco’s Nigerian headquarters for 10 days

• Ethnic groups

• Women’s Movement• President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003

campaign to include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic offices

• Nigerian legislature has very low female representation

Protests

Political Parties

• People’s Democratic Party (PDP)• Well-established Party• Party of all four democratically elected

presidents• Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine

accurate level of support for the PDP

• All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)• General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the

North, ran against Obesanjo• Receives about one third of the vote• His running mate and potential future

candidate was Chuba Okadigbo, an Igbo from the Southeast

Elections & Electoral Procedures

• Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national.

• National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National Assembly, and senators from their states.

• National Elections• Presidential Elections

• If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot election takes place.

• President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states• A purely regional candidate can not win• Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt to

unify Nigeria

Elections Continued

• Legislative Elections• Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36

states, and one from federal capital territory of Abuja

• Elected by direct popular vote

• 360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the House of Representatives)

• Elected from single member districts by plurality vote

• Regional representation dominates in both houses.

• Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature• Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria

Election Fraud

• Currently 4 consecutive elections have been held without annulment or delay

• Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last few elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they would be

• Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)

• Attempted to cleanse electoral process• International teams concluded elections were corrupt• Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with

fraudulent votes• Voting patterns in the south in particular were

suspicious

Interest Groups

• A large number of civil society organizations often cooperate with political parties

• Religious interest groups important in Nigeria

• Christian Association of Nigeria protested when General Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the Organization of Islamic Conference from observer to member

• Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to support the sharia court system

• Citizens have worked around military authoritarianism to have an impact on political life through labor unions, student groups, and populist groups.

Interest Groups

• Labor Unions• In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the

government’ss attempt to raise oil prices for Nigerian consumers

• Business Interests• Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms

have operated outside the realm of government and helped promote economic reforms of the 1990s

• Human Rights Groups• Promote democratic reforms• Include university students, teachers, civil liberties

organizations, and professional groups (doctors, lawyers)

Mass Media

• Nigeria has well-developed, independent press

• Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country

• Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south

• Radio is the main source of information for most Nigerians

• All 36 states have their own radio stations

Institutions of National Government• Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)

• Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial)

• Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an executive, legislative, and judicial branch

• Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state & local governments are completely dependent on the central government

The Executive• The president has very strong powers

• Propose a program of policies• Appoint cabinet officials• Commander-in-chief• Signs bills• Meets with foreign officials

Goodluck Jonathan

Bureaucracy

• British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial period

• Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within bureaucracy

• Civil service sector continued to grow after independence

• Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery is common.

• Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client system, Prebendalism.

Bureaucracy-Parastatals• Corporatism – authoritarian political system

that allows for political input from selected interest groups outside the government structure

• In Nigeria, this input is provided by parastatals, because they are controlled by the government it is referred to as State Corporatism

• Parastatals insure that the state controls private interest as well as fulfills social & economic functions

• Parastatals serve as contact point between government & business interests, but state ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept)

Bureaucracy-Parastatals

• Most government agencies are parastatals, or corporations owned by the state. (Similar to Mexico)

• Provide commercial and social welfare services

• Board members are appointed by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of the president’s patronage system

• Parastatals provide public utilities such as water, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural subsidies

• Control major industries such as steel, defense industry, and petroleum

Legislature

• Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate and speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for accepting kickbacks for a government contract

Legislature

• Senate• 109 Senators• 3 from each of the

36 states• 1 from Abuja

district• Directly elected by

popular vote• Senators are

ethnically and religiously diverse

• National Assembly

• Formerly called House of Representatives

• 360 member representatives

• Single-member districts, elected by plurality vote

Judiciary

• Presidential cronies appointed as justices• Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in

accordance with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory

• Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Supreme Court

• Shari’a courts exist along with courts developed on British model

• Cases:• In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled

1993 election was detained and died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the judicial system

• In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officers

Military

• Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria

• “Military in Government” – those that initiate coups and take over the responsibility of the executive branch

• “Military in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders have been critical of military control of political power.

• Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character.

• Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and conflict

Economic Issues

• Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of Nigeria’s wealth

• Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in poverty

• Nigeria is a rentier state, in which a significant portion of government revenue is generated through rent

• Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officials

Oil Dependence• Oil wealth during the 1970s gave Nigeria

international leverage

• OPEC member

• Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more important as a trade partner for other countries since 1970s

• Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices drop

• DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of revenue surplus

Oil

Structural Adjustment• 1980s, Nigeria sought assistance from

international organizations to deal with debt crisis

• World Bank & IMF involvement• Restructure & diversification of

Nigerian economy• Privatize parastatals• Cut government spending

• “Shock Treatment” not very successful• Parastatals still under government

control• Debt repayment had to be restructured

Reforms• Economic Reforms of the late 1990s

• Further privatization of state-owned industry

• Limitations on economic controls of the central government

• Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and placed in the state treasury

• Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria

• Increase in public wages• Hope of decreasing instances of corruption

• Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil prices