Nigeria Livelihood Zone Map and Descriptions 2018 · This product aims to identify livelihood patterns and trends to provide a starting point for early- warning assessments ... Indeed,

REVISED LIVELIHOODS ZONE MAP AND DESCRIPTIONS FOR NIGERIA

A REPORT OF THE FAMINE EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS NETWORK (FEWS NET) September 2018

NIGERIA Livelihood Zone Map and Descriptions September 2018

Famine Early Warning Systems Network ii

Acknowledgements and Disclaimer

This report reflects the results of the Livelihood Zoning Plus exercise conducted in Nigeria in July to August 2018 by FEWS NET and partners: the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMA&RD) and the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), the United Nations World Food Program, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, and various foundation and non-government organizations working to improve the lives and livelihoods of the people of Nigeria.

The Livelihood Zoning Plus workshops whose results are the subject of this report were led by Julius Holt, consultant to FEWS NET, Brian Svesve, FEWS NET Regional Food Security Specialist – Livelihoods and Stephen Browne, FEWS NET Livelihoods Advisor, with technical support from Dr. Erin Fletcher, consultant to FEWS NET. The workshops were hosted and guided by Isa Mainu, FEWS NET National Technical Manager for Nigeria, and Atiku Mohammed Yola, FEWS NET Food Security and Nutrition Specialist.

This report was produced by Julius Holt from the Food Economy Group and consultant to FEWS NET, with the support of Nora Lecumberri, FEWS NET Livelihoods Analyst, and Emma Willenborg, FEWS NET Livelihoods Research Assistant. This report will form part of the knowledge base for FEWS NET’s food security monitoring activities in Nigeria.

The publication was prepared under the United States Agency for International Development Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) Indefinite Quantity Contract, AID-OAA-I-12-00006, Task Order 1 (AID-OAA-TO-12-00003), TO4 (AID-OAA-TO-16-00015). The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.


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Table of Contents Acknowledgements and Disclaimer ....................................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................................................................. iii Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................................................4 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................................................5 Methodology .........................................................................................................................................................................................7 The National Context ...........................................................................................................................................................................13 Overview of the livelihood zones ........................................................................................................................................................17 Livelihood Zone Descriptions ...............................................................................................................................................................19

SOKOTO MILLET, COWPEAS, GROUNDNUTS AND LIVESTOCK (NG01) ...........................................................................................19 KANO-KATSINA SAHEL: MILLET, SORGHUM, SESAME AND LIVESTOCK (NG02) ..............................................................................21 KANO-KATSINA SUDAN: SORGHUM, MAIZE, RICE AND GROUNDNUTS (NG03) .............................................................................23 NORTHEAST SAHEL: MILLET, SESAME, COWPEAS AND LIVESTOCK (NG04) ....................................................................................25 BORNO-YOBE-BAUCHI MILLET, COWPEAS, GROUNDNUTS AND SESAME (NG05) ..........................................................................27 SOKOTO-RIMA-KANO RIVERINE FLOOD PLAIN RICE AND FISHING (NG06) .....................................................................................29 Komadugu-Yobe Irrigated Peppers with Rice, Millet and Vegetables (NG07) ................................................................................30 LAKE CHAD FISHING, MAIZE, WHEAT, COWPEAS AND VEGETABLES (NG08) ..................................................................................31 CHAD BASIN: MASAKWA FLOOD-RECESSION SORGHUM AND WHEAT (NG09) .............................................................................33 NORTHWEST SORGHUM, MAIZE, SOYBEANS AND RICE (NG11) .....................................................................................................36 NORTHWEST SORGHUM, MAIZE AND COTTON WITH CROSS-BORDER TRADE (NG12) ..................................................................38 NORTHWEST AND CENTRAL MAIZE DOMINANT WITH SORGHUM, SWEET POTATOES AND COWPEAS (NG13) ............................39 NORTHEAST MAIZE DOMINANT WITH RICE, SOYBEANS, COWPEAS AND GROUNDNUTS (NG15) .................................................42 HIGH PLATEAU IRISH POTATOES, MAIZE, ACHA (DIGITARIA) AND LIVESTOCK (NG16) ...................................................................44 LOWER PLATEAU RICE, SORGHUM AND CATTLE (NG17) ................................................................................................................45 GINGER AND TURMERIC WITH MAIZE, SORGHUM, YAMS AND ACHA (DIGITARIA) (NG18) ...........................................................46 BENUE RIVER SUGAR CANE, RICE AND SUGAR ESTATE LABOR (NG19) ..........................................................................................48 CENTRAL YAM AND MAIZE BELT, WITH CASSAVA, RICE AND SOYBEANS (NG20) ...........................................................................49 NIGER AND BENUE RIVERS FLOOD PLAIN RICE WITH MAIZE, VEGETABLES AND LIVESTOCK (NG21) .............................................51 CASSAVA DOMINANT WITH MAIZE, YAMS AND TREE-CROPS (NG22) ............................................................................................53 CITRUS FRUIT WITH TUBERS, CEREALS, SOYBEANS AND GROUNDNUTS (NG23) ...........................................................................55 COCOA DOMINANT WITH OIL PALMS, CEREALS AND TUBERS (NG24) ...........................................................................................56 MAMBILA HIGHLAND: CATTLE, MAIZE, IRISH POTATOES, TEA, COFFEE AND KOLA NUTS (NG25) .................................................57 CROSS RIVER COCOA WITH OIL PALMS, TUBERS, RICE AND PLANTAINS (NG26) ............................................................................58 SOUTHEAST RICE DOMINANT WITH CASSAVA, YAMS AND OIL PALMS (NG27) .............................................................................60 SOUTHWEST COCOA WITH OIL PALMS, TUBERS AND CEREALS (NG28) .........................................................................................62 SOUTHWEST RICE, CASSAVA AND CATTLE WITH CROSS-BORDER TRADE (NG29) ..........................................................................64 CASHEWS WITH OIL PALMS, TUBERS AND MAIZE (NG30) ..............................................................................................................66 LAGOS PERI-URBAN: FISHING, POULTRY, PIGGERIES, MARKET GARDENING AND COCONUTS (NG31) ..........................................67 COASTAL STRIP AND NIGER DELTA: INLAND AND COASTAL FISHING, CASSAVA, PLANTAIN, OIL PALMS AND RUBBER (NG32).....69 SOUTHEAST CASSAVA, CEREALS AND OIL PALMS WITH EXTENSIVE OFF-FARM WORK AND TRADE (NG33) .................................71 NORTHEAST CATTLE, SMALL RUMINANTS AND FOOD CROPS WITH CROSS-BORDER LIVESTOCK TRADE (NG34) ..........................73 NIGER-BENUE FISHING AND FOOD CROPS (NG35) .........................................................................................................................75

Annex 1: Northeastern crisis ...............................................................................................................................................................77 Annex 2: Workshop participants .........................................................................................................................................................79 Annex 3 Administrative areas by Livelihood Zone ...............................................................................................................................83 Annex 4: Seasonal and Consumption Calendars ................................................................................................................................103


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Acronyms and Abbreviations

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FEG Food Economy Group FEWS NET Famine Early Warning Systems Network G Gathering

HEA Household Economy Analysis IDP Internally Displaced People

IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (Ibadan) IK In Kind

IPC Integrated Food Security Phase Classification km kilometers

LGA

Local Government Area

LSMS

Living Standards Measurement Study

masl meters above sea level

mm millimeters

MoA

Ministry of Agriculture

MP Market Purchase

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NG

Nigeria

OP Own production

USG United States Government USAID United States Agency for International Development UN United Nations VAM Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping WFP World Food Program



Introduction This product aims to identify livelihood patterns and trends to provide a starting point for early-warning assessments in Nigeria. The Livelihoods Zoning activity was designed to establish food-security reference points and indicate whether the conditions reported at any given time justify more in-depth assessment. Livelihood zone maps and descriptions form part of the knowledge base for FEWS NET’s food security monitoring activities. These tools, however, are not designed as a comprehensive analysis of food security or as a complete monitoring tool, but rather to provide points of reference and indicate whether the conditions reported at a given time justify a more in-depth study. The map of livelihood zones and their descriptions provided in this report offer a geographic framework for interpreting existing monitoring data on production, prices, and other indicators to identify potential effects of shocks. Rapid assessment teams may be able to use the zoning as a basis for sampling in their studies.

Rural livelihoods are a long-term adaptation to, and exploitation of, natural resources within an overall economic, social and political context, local and national. As such, they respond over time to fundamental shifts in this context, change that is to be gauged over decades rather than from one year to the next. For instance, the effects of urbanization on rural economy are one such fundamental shift over time. Shorter term events, even catastrophic drought or severe flooding, bring destruction of crops and livestock and/or property, and acute impoverishment. But they have not usually been seen to change fundamentally the livelihoods for the great majority of rural people: they do not change the underlying context of livelihoods. Most people resume their customary economic activities – their household economy – with sometimes surprising speed, albeit with the need to build up again lost wealth. Indeed, they have no choice if they are to remain in the rural context. A durable mapping of rural livelihood zones must be a medium-term statement, to be revisited periodically but not changed in the short term. In Nigeria today, there is an ongoing problem of insurgency, concentrated in the far northeast of the country. It has during the last few years caused the loss of many lives and the displacement of millions of people, and the consequent stopping or at least severe curtailment of rural production and marketing over large areas (see Annex 1). The present livelihood zoning exercise is not designed to represent this current and changeable situation, even if its effects in all the insecure areas were properly known. It must be assumed, and devoutly hoped, that security will be re-established soon. What the livelihood zoning represents, therefore, is the livelihoods as they were up to the time of the disruption and to which people must return, unless the basic economic options of the majority will have fundamentally changed. For these areas, then, the map is a template for the medium term. Nevertheless, Table 1 summarizes the general hazards over the country for the last five years as recorded in the workshops:

Table 1. Recent events affecting food security and livelihoods

Year Major events and trends

2018

• On average, dry spells or delayed rainfall were the most emphasized hazards across the country in 2018 (affecting 12 zones mostly concentrated in the south and some parts of the north), followed by conflict between farmers and herders*, insurgency, and crop pests. There were also widespread instances of localized flooding across the country.

• Farmer/herder conflict occurred throughout the country (recorded as the primary hazard in central zones and the second hazard in southern zones), while ongoing insurgency was entirely concentrated in the northeast and some other areas in the north.

• Crop pests, notably fall army worm occurred throughout the country in addition to stem borer in southern zones, where pests were most prevalent.

• Other hazards included cattle raiding (center/north), and oil pollution (south).

2017

• On average, erratic, insufficient, or delayed rainfall was the most reported hazard across the country in 2017 (affecting 17 zones, most concentrated in the north and some areas of the center and south), followed by crop pests, farmer/herder conflict, and flooding.

• Crop pests primarily affected southern and northern zones, including army worm throughout the country in addition to stem borer in the south and aphids and cutworm in the north.

• Farmer/herder conflict persisted throughout the country as the most important hazard in central zones and second most important hazard in southern zones.

• Flooding was largely localized and noted in 6 zones throughout the country.



Year Major events and trends • Other hazards included insurgency (north), cattle raiding (center/north), and oil pollution (south).

2016

• On average, crop pests were the most important hazard in 2016 (affecting 14 zones throughout the country), followed by farmer/herder conflict, erratic/insufficient rainfall, and flooding.

• Crop pests were variable and widespread, including army worm, stem borer, tuta absoluta (tomato leaf miner), cocoa black pod disease, cocoyam root rot, aphids, and quelea birds.

• Farmer/herder conflict persisted throughout the country as the most important hazard in central zones and second most important hazard in southern zones.

• Flooding was again localized, affecting 7 zones throughout the country. • Other hazards included insurgency (north), price instability (central and northern zones:

commodity- specific), and oil pollution (south)

2015

• On average, crop pests were the foremost hazard in 2016 (affecting 7 zones throughout the country), followed by flooding, erratic/insufficient rainfall, and farmer/herder conflict.

• Crop pests were somewhat widespread and included army worm, stem borer, gall midge, cocoyam root rot, tuta absoluta, aphids, and quelea birds.

• Flooding was largely localized and noted in 7 zones throughout the country. • Farmer/herder conflict existed throughout the country as the most important hazard in southern

zones and third most important hazard in central zones. • Other hazards included insurgency (most important hazard in the north), price instability (south

and north; commodity specific), livestock pests (central and north), and oil pollution (south).

2014

• While information in the workshops somewhat limited for 2014, flooding was on average noted as the most important hazard, followed by erratic/insufficient rainfall, insurgency, and livestock pests.

• Flooding was noted in 8 zones, 5 of which are in the southern part of the country, and erratic/insufficient rainfall was evenly spread in 7 zones throughout the country.

• Insurgency was the primary hazard in 6 northern zones, but absent elsewhere. • Livestock pests notably included an outbreak of avian influenza in 5 southern zones. • Other hazards included crop pests (fall army worm, tuta absoluta, and stem borer), farmer/herder

conflict, landslides (at Obudu in south), and oil pollution (south). *Farmer/herder conflict as reported here almost always refers to the reaction to crop-damage wrought by the cattle and smaller livestock of herders who are taking their animals on seasonal grazing migration, and who allow their animals to stray off the customary 'corridors' through cultivated areas.

Table 2. Rankings of importance of hazard events in 2018, by region and nationwide

Rank Southern Zones Central Zones Northern Zones Nationwide Average 1 Flooding Flooding Insurgency Flooding 2 Erratic/insufficient

rainfall Farmer/herder conflict Insurgency Erratic/insufficient

rainfall 3 Farmer/herder

conflict Cattle raiding Erratic/insufficient

rainfall Farmer/herder conflict

4 Crop pests Erratic/insufficient rainfall Crop pests Insurgency 5 Flooding Crop pests Farmer/herder conflict Crop pests 6 Oil pollution Flooding Cattle raiding Flooding



Methodology Household Economy Analysis (HEA) is a framework for analyzing the comprehensive set of means by which households of varying socioeconomic status access everything they need to survive, maintain production, and live what is locally considered an acceptable way of life. The framework coherently organizes and makes practical use of a vast array of information sourced from many levels, including local knowledge, detailed field information taken on household economy at the village level, national census data, official crop production data, price monitoring data from local and regional markets, and so on. The systematic organization of information and data starts with the identification of what HEA refers to as 'livelihood zones'. This is the first of three major steps of HEA. A livelihood zone is a geographical area in which most households share the same ecology, natural resources and general economic environment and therefore the same patterns of production and the same possibilities for cash income (although cash income is realized according to the household assets, composition and status that determine relative wealth). This means that if one were to move from one livelihood zone to the next, one would expect to see different patterns of production and consumption as determined by factors such as geography, markets, and trade opportunities, and different hierarchies of coping strategies in response to shocks. The national zoning exercise that this report describes defined 35 rural livelihood zones in Nigeria. The identification of livelihood zones and the overarching understanding of livelihood systems arising from the exercise, while of intrinsic utility as they stand, are usually the first of three steps in the HEA process. The second step is referred to as the baseline stage, in which an in-depth field investigation of all or selected livelihood zones is conducted. A set of quantified data is collected for each zone by wealth group on household crop and livestock production, on cash incomes from on-farm and off-farm activities, and on household expenditures, as well as on the effects of shocks and the ability of different wealth groups to cope. The third and final stage of HEA is the utilization of current monitoring data on shocks such rain failure or floods or market disruptions or conflict etc., to make a quantified analysis of their likely impact at household level. This third stage is referred to as Outcome Analysis. It can be repeated annually, seasonally, or at any frequency as required. The outcome analysis stage is used to determine what would be an appropriate means and level of assistance in the case of a short-term emergency, or to help gauge the likely results of a longer-term development program, or to consider adjustments in policy. This is the third exercise in this kind of zoning that FEWS NET has carried out in Nigeria. The first exercise, undertaken in 2007, essentially covered the northern half of the country down to the Niger and Benue rivers running respectively from the west and from the east to their confluence in the center (see Map 1). In this exercise 44 rural livelihood zones were identified. The second exercise, in 2014, covered the whole country and looked to a much broader level of zoning, from which 13 livelihood zones emerged (see Map 2).



Map 1. FEWS NET northern Nigeria zoning map from 2007

Map 2. FEWS NET national zoning map from 2014



The present, third exercise was intended to update the 2014 map, and in the event the resultant number of zones identified stood somewhere between the first and second exercises. The steps taken for this exercise were as follows: 1. A literature and secondary data review was

performed by FEWS NET in preparation for the exercise.

2. Base maps of the country were designed for use in the workshops. These were the template for initial sketching and final drawing of the identified livelihood zones, and offered administrative boundaries (national, states, and LGAs with number codes for identification of their names against an excel sheet), main cities, main roads, main rivers and groundwater (lakes, major dams, wetlands), and national reserves. The example for northern Nigeria is shown below (Map 3).

3. In addition, thematic reference maps on agro-ecology, rainfall etc. were used by FEWS NET (Map 4 and Map

5). At the same time advantage was taken of Washington's separate livelihood mapping exercise of 2017-2018 using the national LSMS dataset: by means of interpolation, a special set of maps on crops and livestock and landholding was created. In addition, from other available data further reference maps were created, including precipitation, elevation and population density.

4. Three regional livelihood zoning and description workshops were organized to cover southern, central and northern Nigeria. The southern workshop was held in Lagos 23-27 July; the central workshop was held in Abuja 30 July to 3 August; the northern workshop was held in Kano 6-10 August. The largest proportion of key informants invited to participate were from the Agricultural Development Program (ADP) in each of the states in the given region. The other participants were from other government departments, NGOs and academic institutions (see Annex 2 for the lists of participants). The states represented in each workshop were: a. Southern workshop: Oyo, Ogun, Lagos, Oshun, Ekiti, Ondo, Edo, Delta, Bayelsa, Rivers, Imo, Abia, Akwa

Ibom, Anambra, Enugu, Ebonyi, Cross River

Map 3. Base map for Northern Nigeria

Map 5. Millet production in Nigeria Map 4. Elevation in Nigeria (meters)

Source: FEWS NET, interpolated using LSMS data Source: NASA

Source: FEWS NET



b. Central workshop: Niger, Kaduna, Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Kwara, Kogi, Nassarawa, Benue, Plateau, Taraba, Adamawa

c. Northern workshop: Sokoto, Kebbi, Zamfara, Katsina, Kano, Jigawa, Bauchi, Gombe,Yobe, Borno 5. Each workshop was hosted by the FEWS NET

Nigeria and directed by the facilitators. The participants were first introduced to FEWS NET activities in Nigeria. Then they were given an introductory presentation on livelihoods and Household Economy Analysis (HEA) approach to their assessment. This was followed by a presentation on the methodology of livelihoods zoning (the first step in the HEA process) and an overview of what would be done in the workshop – the practical steps leading to the finalization of a national livelihood zones map. There followed a review of the available secondary data and of the reference maps on show, including a presentation on the interpolation theme-maps from the LSMS data and the methodology involved.

6. The participants in plenary were then asked to begin sketching their first suggestions for livelihoods zone on the

base map, accompanied by discussion. This brainstorming was given somewhat over half a day. The result was a rough sketch map of the livelihood zones of the region on which all agreed. At this stage the participants were shown the completed map form the previous workshop (the southern map shown to the central region workshop, the central map shown to the northern region workshop). This was partly for their interest, but also to have their ideas about which livelihood zones were in fact the same across regional boundaries and how they would eventually fit together as a single zone.

Map 6. Nigeria's states with administrative boundaries

Source: Ezilon.com

Participants discuss livelihood zone boundaries during the zoning workshops. Source: FEWS NET.



First sketch of central zones. Source: FEWS NET. Refined sketch of one section of the central zone map.

Source: FEWS NET. The next step was to refine the shape of the livelihood zones, so that precise boundaries were established following LGA boundaries as far as possible except where this would significantly distort the shape of livelihood zones, e.g. the riverine zones. For this step the participants split up into working groups, identified by states and matching livelihood zones, using copies of the base map. In this process they referred to secondary data, including ADP information on the separate LGAs. The resulting maps were then displayed together and discussed, notably in terms of verifying the zone boundaries where zones had straddled state boundaries so that two groups had been working on parts of these zones. The preliminary names for the zones were reviewed and final names agreed. The final regional livelihood zones map was then reproduced by the facilitator in the evening, drawing as accurately as possible on a fresh A0 base map, and showing the zones in different colors.

7. Once the consolidated map was achieved, the participants were asked to identify the LGAs comprising each

zone, using the excel sheet for the codes. The list is given in Annex 3.

8. The next task in the workshop was for

working groups to fill in a livelihood description form for each zone in order to state its particular character – why it was deemed different from another zone – and to offer information on the agro-ecology and climate; on land holdings and other assets; on crop and livestock production, foods consumed, crops and livestock sold (differentiating for these elements between poorer and wealthier households). Information was also given on the main markets used by the zone's

Participants refer to the central region livelihood zones map as the northern region sketch is finalized. Source: FEWS NET.

Final consolidated map of the central zones. Source: FEWS NET.



inhabitants and the destination of commodities traded out of the zone. Further information was established on hazards to crop and livestock production faced in the zone, and a timeline was made of events in the last five years affecting food security.

9. Participants were then asked to construct seasonal activity calendars related to production and marketing and hazards, and calendars of poorer household's access to food and income, and of moments in the year of major household expenditure. Most of these elements tend strongly to be based on the agro-ecological environment and rainfall, and so for the calendars the zones were grouped in this regard to avoid repetition. The information in the description forms is summarized in the narrative descriptions of each livelihood zone offered later in this report. The calendars are also reproduced.

10. The final step was to consider how people in each zone cope with shocks that affect their food security. Participants were asked to rank in order of importance, and add to as necessary, a list of coping options drawn up by FEWS NET and derived from the International Phase Classification system (IPC).

11. At the end of the last workshop the FEWS NET team returned to Abuja, where the final national map was consolidated. This was then transmitted to Washington HQ to be digitized.

Map 7. Final drawn national livelihood zone map for Nigeria

Information on the HEA methodology, including the specifics on how a zoning is conducted, can be found in the HEA Practitioners Guide available here. Information related to FEWS NET and its use of the HEA methodology can be found at http://www.fews.net/1

1Specifically, the Application of the Livelihood Zone Maps and Profiles for Food Security Analysis and Early Warning

http://foodeconomy.com/resources/

http://www.fews.net/

https://fews.net/sites/default/files/uploads/Guidance_Application%20of%20Livelihood%20Zone%20Maps%20and%20Profiles_final_en.pdf



The National Context Nigeria's current population stands at a little over 200 million, computing the estimated annual growth rates state-by-state of between 2.7 and 3.5 per cent per annum since the last national census in 2006. This makes it by far the most populous country on the African continent, with around twice the total of its nearest rival, Egypt. Nigeria has also by far Africa's biggest economy, even if GDP per capita lags rather far behind that of South Africa (the continent's highest). Nigeria's industrial sector, headed by petroleum and gas production, accounts for around 18% of Nigeria's national GDP, and an urban population numbering at least 50% of the national total2 pushes the contribution of services up to around 60% of GDP. But agriculture, at some 22% of GDP3, still exceeds the value of industry, and the urban market demand is on a scale to fundamentally affect rural livelihoods anywhere in the country: for the most part, there is a dynamic market for whatever you produce. The first factor that defines the livelihoods of rural producers is necessarily the ecology, and the first factor in this is the geographical variation in mean annual rainfall as shown in Map 84. Mean annual rainfall varies from some 350 mm at the country's far northeastern tip at Lake Chad to around 3000 mm in parts of the coast in the extreme southeast. On this basis we see a general progression of ecological bands from north to south usually defined in Nigeria as sahelian savannah, sudanian savannah, north guinean savannah, south guinean savannah, derived savannah5 and humid forest or rainforest. Alongside this is a general progression of dominant food crops from millet to sorghum, maize and 'upland' (rain fed) rice, to yams and cassava – and of cash crops from sesame and groundnuts to palm oil and cocoa. A glance through the names of the livelihood zones confirms these progressions; but the names also show many exceptions to the rule. To consider only the effect of rainfall on ecology and rainfed crops would be to miss a great part of the story. Variation in soil types and soil fertility promotes choices of one crop over another. Then there is the big factor of the use of irrigation, whether for cultivation beyond the rainy season in swampy areas (fadama cultivation) or using the moisture-retaining quality of clay-based soils for flood recession agriculture, or through gravity irrigation from rivers, notably for rice and vegetables production. There is also the widespread use of motorized pumps drawing water for small-scale irrigation from wells dug through to accessible aquifers, whether tube wells or shallow bore wells. And then there is the further question of altitude and its creation of niche areas for certain crops. Together with all such factors, we consider the sphere of government policy and associated program/project investments: these have had substantial effects on Nigeria's production landscape and have fundamentally contributed to the character of several of the livelihood zones. Finally, special trade or demographic factors may have a distinctive effect on local livelihoods; again, we shall see in the descriptions below that such elements have helped to define a handful of zones, notably in the heavily populated areas in the north and south of Map 9.

2Based on a threshold of 20,000 people as the criterion for defining a settlement as urban – ref. A Review of the Criteria for Defining Urban Areas in Nigeria by Beulah I. Ofem (Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria). J Hum Ecol, 37(3): 167-171 (2012). The population of Lagos state (the city and its immediate environs) is estimated at around 23 million in 2018, and several other cities have populations of 3 million or more. 3 GDP figures taken from Index Mundi which uses OECD, World Bank and IMF data. 4 Map 8 was developed by James Ijampy Adamu, meteorologist at the Directorate of Applied Meteorological Services, Nigerian Meteorological Agency, National Weather forecasting & Climate Research Center, a participant in the Abuja livelihoods zoning workshop. 5 This denotes areas originally in the forest ecology which over time have been repeatedly cleared for cultivation and today have the aspect of a savannah ecology.

Map 8. Mean annual rainfall (mm) for 1981-2010

Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency



Therefore, without looking to produce a fine mosaic of localized production areas, even a broad-brush zoning of livelihoods, based firstly, as it must be, on primary production, will reflect more than rainfall isohyets and ecological bands. But this brings a major challenge concerning the availability of information. To take agricultural production alone, we naturally refer first to the Ministry of Agriculture's crop assessments, from which we can graph out production information as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 (Nigeria is the world's biggest producer and exporter of yams and by far the biggest producer of maize in West Africa). This information gives us a geographical view of production as well as information over time that raises questions: in this case, perhaps about the reasons for the dramatic decline in millet production. But information at the state level cannot give us real production zones, let alone livelihood zones, since nature and human activity together, that is, economic geography, are not confined by state boundaries, but rather cut across them, and even across LGAs. Then there are many kinds of statistical, and statistically comparable, information that are difficult or impossible to find at any level of aggregation: crucially, for instance, on rural incomes from farm production and from off-farm activities. Therefore, once livelihood zones are defined, the HEA field methodology for baseline livelihoods assessment concentrates heavily on income factors. We therefore need to seek out the unrecorded information that is in the heads of the kind of highly knowledgeable and experienced key informants who took part in the workshops. They do possess a certain amount of secondary information from their states and LGAs, but above all they have their own combination of deep local knowledge and judgement and intuition, non-quantified though this must mostly be. Working together, they constitute, so to speak, a unique database and computing capacity that maps out livelihoods according to the rubric set. The national livelihood zones map for Nigeria is the product of that effort.

Source: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Map 9. Population density

Source: FEWS NET using Landscan imagery

Map 10. Agro-ecological divisions of Nigeria



Source for Figures 1-5: Annual Agricultural Performance Survey of the 2017 Wet Season in Nigeria, Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Nigeria.

Figure 1. Yam production ('000 MT) by state, 1999-2017 and 2013-2017

Figure 2. Maize production ('000 MT) by state, 1999-2017 and 2013-2017

Figure 4. Trends in millet production (‘000 MT), 1999-2017 Figure 3. Trends in maize production (‘000 MT), 1999-2017

Figure 5. Trends in yam production (‘000 MT), 1999-2017



Map 11. National livelihood zone map for Nigeria, 2018



Overview of the livelihood zones The rainfall Map 8 above shows a southeastward slant in the northernmost rainfall bands. The semi-arid areas, with comparatively short rainy seasons, are where millet is the most successful crop, including zones NG01 - Sokoto millet, cowpeas, groundnuts and livestock, NG02 - Kano-Katsina Sahel: millet, sorghum, sesame and livestock and NG04 - Northeast Sahel: millet, sesame, cowpeas and livestock and the big NG05 – Borno-Yobe-Bauchi millet, cowpeas, groundnuts and sesame. These are also areas where livestock are important for the incomes of their owners, as they are sold to traders who truck them mainly to the big southern cities to satisfy the huge market demand. In these zones, along with other zones across the north, grazing becomes scarce as the long dry season progresses, and thousands of animals, and cattle in particular, are trekked south yearly for seasonal far grazing (where unfortunately their tendency to stray onto cultivated fields has caused serious and increasing conflict between farmer and herder). The Kano-Katsina Sahel zone NG02 shares with NG03 - Kano-Katsina Sudan: sorghum, maize, rice and groundnuts the phenomenon of dense human settlement, influenced by a long history as the major locations in Nigeria to handle the trade through Niger (Maradi) and trans-Sahara, and by political and social history linked to Katsina city and Kano, today Nigeria's third largest city. In zone NG03 we enter the sudanian ecology, with more sorghum than millet, but with also an intensive use of land, including irrigation from small dams and tube wells that make the zone one of Nigeria's prime producers of rice. Sorghum, with maize and several other secondary crops, is the theme across the sudanian and the north guinean agro-ecological bands, encompassing the productive zones NG11 – Northwest sorghum, maize, soybeans and rice, NG12 – Northwest sorghum, maize and cotton with cross-border trade, and NG14 – Central sorghum, maize, groundnut, cowpeas and sesame. As noted in the introduction, Nigeria's national market, dynamized by the demand of the southern city populations, reaches every corner, and encourages farmers who can to invest not only in surplus food production but also cash crops, of which cowpeas are perhaps the most widespread example. Groundnuts and increasingly soybeans are also major items, but cotton as a significant cash crop is a shadow of its former glory, largely confined to a northwestern corner. But in a sense food crops are also partly cash crops: for instance, some 25% of national sorghum production goes to the brewery industry located in the south, and more generally all the tuber and cereal staples, as well as pulses, are heavily traded north and south respectively. But the overwhelming factor is the southern demand for northern produce of all kinds, plant and animal.

Map 12. Production and market flow of cassava

Map 13. Production and market flow of maize

Source: FEWS NET



In northern Nigeria, the overall annual rainfall is markedly less than in the south however there are a number of zones that are water-based – i.e. based on river, lake or natural wetland: NG06 – Sokoto-Rima-Kano riverine flood plain rice and fishing; NG07 – Komadugu-Yobe irrigated peppers with rice, millet and vegetables; NG08 - Lake Chad fishing, maize, wheat, cowpeas and vegetables, NG09- Chad basin: masakwa flood-recession sorghum and wheat, NG10 - Hadejia–Nguru wetlands: mixed cereals, vegetables and fishing. These are cash cropping areas, adding value to the work of the villagers. Included are rice that is cultivated by riverine gravity irrigation, of which the greater part is sold so the price is higher than the general staples millet, sorghum or maize. Fish are also a particularly valuable product, sold far and wide in the preserved smoked or dried form. Stretching a point, we can add here the biggest niche 'area' of all, and that is the roughly 1500 kilometer-long NG21 – Niger and Benue rivers flood plain rice with maize, vegetables and livestock and NG35 – Niger-Benue river fishing and food crops running mainly across the center of the country and tipped in the far east by NG19 – Benue river sugar cane, rice and sugar estate labor. These flood plains are distinctly wider than those of the northern rivers, with two or three extended irrigation areas. The other factor for niche areas tends to be altitude and its effect on temperatures and rainfall, as is relevant for zones in the central band: NG 16 – High plateau Irish potatoes, maize, acha (Digitaria) and livestock and NG25 - Mambila highland: cattle, maize, Irish potatoes, tea, coffee and kola nuts, and at more modest elevations NG18 - Ginger and turmeric with maize, sorghum, yams and acha (Digitaria); NG24 – Cocoa dominant with oil palms, cereals and tubers and NG17 - Lower plateau rice, sorghum and cattle, where valuable rice distinguishes the zone from its neighbors. In the southeast, there is NG26 - Cross River cocoa with oil palms, tubers, rice and plantain. Other zones are characterized by special crops where government policy and comparative production advantage have built on suitable environmental conditions: NG23 – Citrus fruit with tubers, cereals, soybeans and groundnuts and NG 30 – Cashews with oil palms, tubers and maize. The latter is partly the result of plantations created to conserve marginal and degraded land left by gradual forest clearance for hardwood timber within the general 'derived savannah' ecology. Finally, NG34 – Northeast cattle, small ruminants and food crops with cross-border livestock trade, is mainly highland but characterized by a long strip of frontier with Cameroon. Like other areas of higher elevation, this environment is favorable to cattle, sheep and goats, with the significant added value of the cross-border trade. Returning to central/north central areas and north and south guinean ecologies is the transition from sorghum to maize to yams, always with an array of other crops, in the big zones NG13 – Northwest and central maize dominant with sorghum, sweet potatoes and cowpeas, NG15 – Northeast maize dominant with rice, cowpeas, soybeans and groundnuts, and the very big NG20 – Central yam and maize belt, with cassava, rice and soybeans. Turning south to the southern/derived savannah and humid forest ecologies is cassava territory, most exemplified by the big zone NG22 - Cassava dominant with maize, yams and tree-crops, but also NG33 - Southeast cassava, cereals and oil palms with extensive off-farm work and trade. Cassava offers particularly high food yields per unit area, and there is an obvious relation to the fact that the south of the country is the most heavily populated in rural as well as urban terms (see Figure 11 above). Zone NG33 is characterized by its dense population, which particularly pushes people to seek off-farm earning to make up for the shortfall in the food that they can produce on their limited plots of land. Cassava is a major staple in the south, and usually the major staple, (yams are also important), however the southern story is not only of cassava. A large, mainly savannah zone, NG27 - Southeast rice dominant with cassava, yams and oil palms, centered on Ebonyi state, is based economically on rice production, which has been promoted by government investment to increase Nigeria's local production and decrease reliance on imports. Rice is also a distinguishing factor in the small, far southwestern zone NG 29 - Southwest rice, cassava and cattle with cross-border trade. Zone NG28 - Southwest cocoa with oil palms, tubers and cereals is cassava-based for food, but it is more importantly the country's longest-standing producer of cocoa, which is Nigeria's most important exported crop. Finally, we come to the coast and its hinterland, dominated by the Niger Delta. Zone NG32 - Coastal strip and Niger Delta: inland and coastal fishing, cassava, plantain, oil palms and rubber is, in terms of population and economic activity, primarily an inland zone, including in its fishing wealth, because maritime fishing, as opposed to fishing in coastal creeks and near-shore shallow water, requires bigger boats and more heavy equipment than villagers can normally afford. Fishing is important in NG31 - Lagos peri-urban: fishing, poultry, piggeries, market gardening and coconuts too; but it is only part of an economy highly oriented to maximizing its proximity to the Lagos markets and so producing the most high-value items on usually small land holdings.



Livelihood Zone Descriptions SOKOTO MILLET, COWPEAS, GROUNDNUTS AND LIVESTOCK (NG01)

This livelihood zone characterizes the non-riverine, open plain areas of Sokoto state, but it also contains northern parts of Kebbi and Zamfara states and northwest Katsina. Although the zone reaches up to Nigeria's northernmost point, mean annual rainfall is markedly higher, at 700-900 mm, than in the sahelian zone NG04 at a similar latitude to the east. The natural vegetation is rather savannah-type than sahelian. But beyond the rivers that define zone NG06, there is a lack of shallow aquifers and therefore comparatively little opportunity for irrigated, dry season agriculture, although there is some localized use of tube wells and small dams for this.

On the other hand, a generally medium-to-low density of population and therefore of cultivation means that there are extensive grasslands for grazing the livestock kept by the majority Hausa population, but raised in largest numbers by the Fulani people, including a minority of nomadic or transhumant pastoralists. Two species of animal are specially associated with this zone, although also to be found in neighboring areas of Nigeria and further in West Africa. The 'Sokoto gudali' cattle are short-horned and short-legged zebu known for their meat quality and for their volume of milk production. The very distinctive Sokoto 'red goat' (Capra hircus known further north as the 'Maradi red goat') is relatively small but prolific and provides especially high-quality leather. Wealthier people may own a couple of camels for goods transport.

Predominantly sandy soils favor millet production over sorghum, which is also grown (sometimes both cereals are grown mixed together in the same field). General

conditions also allow successful production of groundnuts as well as of cowpeas, a ubiquitous food and cash crop of northern Nigeria, often intercropped with millet or sorghum. In some localities maize is also grown, while soybean production is on the increase. There is also some production of bambara nuts (Vigna subterranea). Small-scale gardening of vegetables is sometimes done under irrigation, mainly destined for urban markets, as are the substantial numbers of poultry produced in the villages. Just across the border in Niger there exists possibly West Africa's largest onion-producing industry, using irrigation from a near-surface aquifer. This production is only modestly echoed on the Nigerian side, around Illela and one or two other locations. But onions and garlic from here actually reach markets in the south of the country, as do onions from across the border in Niger.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 1.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 cattle, 3 sheep, 5 goats, 2 donkeys, and 15 poultry) Limited mechanical equipment owned (plough)

Land (2 to 5 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 10 cattle, 15 sheep, 18 goats, 2 camels, 45 poultry) Mechanical equipment owned (plough, tiller, tractor, etc.)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Millet (MP/OP) Sorghum (MP/OP) Maize (MP) Rice (MP) Sweet potatoes (MP/OP)

Rice (MP/OP) Millet (OP) Wheat (MP) Cowpea (OP/MP) Maize (MP/OP) Groundnuts (OP/MP)

OP = own production, MP = market purchase, GA = gathering, IK = in-kind payment for labor

Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Firewood sales Petty trade Poultry sales Food crop sales

Cash crop sales Goat and sheep sales Larger-scale trade Cattle sales Food processing

Main markets Internal to the zone: Jega, Illela, Shinkafi, Kamba, Acida External: Kano and cities to the south; some crossborder trade with Niger via Illela

Main hazards and approximate frequency Delay in rainfall – almost yearly in the last decade (Apr – Jun) Flooding – every 3-5 years (Aug – Sep) Crop pests – endemic army worm, stem borer, blister beetle (Jun – Sep) Crop disease – occasional occurrence (Sep – Oct) Livestock pest – endemic (May – Aug) Livestock diseases – endemic (Aug – Nov) Cattle rustling/banditry – occasional and unpredictable



Millet dominates home food consumption, but the better-off minority tend to prefer rice consumption in the first place, even though they must purchase it (given the very limited local rainfed rice cultivation). The poorer households tend to concentrate on millet and sorghum cultivation, together with some maize and sweet potatoes; but even so they need to purchase at least extra millet during the year when their own harvest stocks run out after four or five months, as well as sweet potatoes and occasional maize and rice to minimally diversify their diets. They are typically constrained to sell some grain at harvest to allow pressing expenditure, including debts accrued in the agricultural season, for instance to buy seeds or to purchase enough food to see them through the lean season before the millet harvest begins in September. During the year, their main cash income is from activities away from their own farms, mainly paid agricultural labor (especially land preparation) and selling firewood, as well as a repertoire of other activities that intensify in the months of little agricultural activity: petty trade, brick-making, artisanal surface mining (e.g. kaolin). A modest number of people seek work in towns, in construction or services like motorcycle taxis, especially in the agricultural off-season. And perhaps one in ten people seeking work travel out of the zone: but those who do make the journey to the big cities right across the country.

The wealthier farmers and herd owners make their money mainly from sales of their primary production: cash crops (notably cowpeas and groundnuts), cereals and livestock, but also from trading activities such as wholesaling of grain. The road system is relatively good, and for trade external to the zone, the main routes are to Kano with market demand from 3 million plus people, or towards the south via Zaria and Kaduna.



KANO-KATSINA SAHEL: MILLET, SORGHUM, SESAME AND LIVESTOCK (NG02)

This zone contains most of Katsina state, the northern part of Kano State, and the northwest extension of Jigawa state. Neither its annual rainfall, averaging around 500-600 mm, nor its open plains with sandy soils and savannah-type natural vegetation distinguish it much from zone NG01. Yet it has a far denser rural population throughout, comparable only to that found around Sokoto city. It shares this distinctive feature with the neighboring NG04 zone centered on the rest of Kano state. 'Katsina-Kano' is in fact an abbreviation of 'Kano-Katsina-Maradi' or 'KKM', which refers to the trade route which for over a millennium was the southern end of the trans-Saharan caravan route (Maradi being the first city to the northwest, in Niger Republic). Katsina remains today the first station in the market chain between Niger and northwest Nigeria and has been at the same time the first station of in-migration over recent decades. In sum, the zone is characterized by the unusual combination of a sahelian environment with relatively dense settlement and high commercial activity.

Land holdings are therefore modest, especially for poorer households, who usually do not feed themselves from their own harvest for more than four months. They obtain the balance of required food from the market as well as from payments directly in grain for labor which cover some two months of staples consumption during the year. For them the cash for both

food and the other essentials of life and livelihood come in the first place from paid labor for wealthier farmers, as well as from more independent work, e.g. firewood collecting or collection of gum arabic by 'milking' acacia trees (Acacia senegalensis and Acacia seyal). There is even a trade in scrap metal collected by villagers and sold directly to agents who take it to cities for processing. To a limited extent, villagers may also seek casual work in nearby towns, and perhaps one in five also go on seasonal work migration, whether to relatively nearby Kano or to the far southern cities. Wealthier farmers by contrast make most money by selling sesame and, to a lesser extent cowpea, and some surplus millet and sorghum, and livestock. They may also have gum arabic collected by workers which they process and sell, and they produce and sell some quantities of groundnuts, sweet potatoes, tiger nuts and hibiscus.

Livestock are an important part of the local economy in both production and market terms. Wealthier people own what are large numbers goats and sheep for settled villagers, and even appreciable numbers of cattle. This does require seasonal migration of livestock from this relatively crowded and dry territory to find seasonal pastures generally towards the southern areas, transiting through the central states. The biggest livestock owners are Fulani people, but given the substantial Hausa majority, a good proportion of the absolute number of animals belongs to them, even if their animals are taken on under contract by Fulani for far grazing. But as now almost everywhere in the country, so in this source area for livestock migration there is a considerable problem of conflict between farmers and herders, and this at least begins with crop damage by livestock,

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.25 to 0.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 1 sheep, 4 goats, 20 poultry) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (1 to 2 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 10 cattle, 30 sheep, 20 goats, 40 poultry) Mechanical equipment owned (plough, tiller, tractor, etc.)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Millet (MP+ in-kind wages/OP) Sorghum (MP+ in-kind wages /OP) Sweet potatoes (OP/MP) Cowpeas (MP/OP)

Millet (OP) Sorghum (OP) Rice (MP) Milk (OP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Petty trade Poultry sales Cash crop sales (modest)

Cash crop sales Food crop sales Sheep and goat sales Larger-scale trade Cattle sales

Main markets Internal to the zone: Danbatta, Wudil (livestock), Mai Adua, Mashi (crops and livestock), Charanchi (livestock) External to the zone: Darki, Sara (crops)

Main hazards and approximate frequency Delayed/insufficient early season rainfall (Jun – Jul); recent years Drought – every three years (Aug – Sep) Livestock pests/disease (FMD) – every year (Feb – Apr) Food price hikes – every year (May – Jun) Farmer/herder conflict – every year (May – Nov)



especially cattle, which stray away from the agreed corridors for livestock movement on the hoof – corridors that may have been partly cultivated over by farmers pressed by shortage to till any cultivable land.

In market terms too, there is a movement of live animals on trucks to the south of the country where the demand is huge, especially in the cities. The collection markets in the zone, such as Danbatta, also handle many animals from across the border in Niger – animals that will have been trucked or trekked from as far north as the edge of the desert. The market flows the other way with various goods – clothing, electronic items etc., but also of sorghum and millet, especially in years when production in Niger has been poor. The frontier market of Mai Adua constitutes a particularly important example of this two-way flow.



KANO-KATSINA SUDAN: SORGHUM, MAIZE, RICE AND GROUNDNUTS (NG03)

This zone covers the central and southern parts of Kano state except for the far southern spur, as well as the south of Katsina state and the immediate hinterland of Zaria city at the northern limit of Kaduna state. (For the background to 'Kano-Katsina' see the description for Zone NG02.) The relative density of the rural population here covers, and partly defines, the whole zone, therefore far beyond the environs of Kano city, the third largest city of Nigeria and by far the biggest city in the whole of northern Nigeria. The city itself has a very long history as a commercial hub as well as a center of political influence and of Islamic learning, all factors that have historically attracted people to settle in the wider area of what is today Kano state.

As its name implies, the zone is in the sudanian agro-ecological belt of the country, with open plains and northern savannah natural vegetation, and moderately fertile sandy loam soils. Average annual rainfall is around the 1000 mm mark.

According to Ministry of Agriculture data, Kano state was the country's biggest producer of sorghum on average over the years 2013-17, as well as being among the top five producers of rice. Maize, groundnuts and

cowpeas are also important crops, although the groundnut industry is a shadow of its former self a generation or two ago, and more recently the fall in world-market cotton prices has all but stopped cotton production in this zone. Productivity on the relatively modest and fragmented landholdings is boosted by several factors. Firstly, the rainfall regime and soils are together favorable to a wide range of crops. Secondly, there is substantial surface water in one form or another: areas of shallow aquifer where fadama cultivation can be carried out and wash bore wells can be operated rather than the deeper and more expensive tube wells; and a high drainage density, that is, many small streams which are subject to small dams. This means that irrigated as well as rainfed rice can be produced on a small, individual scale but very widely (there is also larger-scale irrigation associated with the Tiga dam). And in several areas, cultivation of cash crops, including sugar cane, as well as market gardening can continue into the dry season. Another factor is the increasing mechanization of agriculture for the wealthier farmers, who benefit from tractor hire schemes and even tractor ownership, at least by groups of farmers. Profitability of crops is enhanced by mechanical threshing and processing – rice polishing, groundnut oil extraction. Meanwhile, although wealthier farmers commonly use ox-drawn ploughs too, poorer people, who own no cattle, cannot even do this unless they are able borrow a plough-team from a richer neighbor.

Apart from the basic quest of farmers to feed themselves, production is highly incentivized by market demand. It is not only the great demand of Kano city that operates, but also the demand for grain from Niger as well as from the populous south of the country, where rice is so widely sought after and where sorghum is the mainstay

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 sheep, 5 goats, 15 poultry) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (2 to 5 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 5 cattle, 10 sheep, 20 goats, 10 poultry) Mechanical equipment owned (plough, thresher, tractor, etc.)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Sorghum (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Cowpeas (MP/OP)

Sorghum (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Cowpeas (OP/MP) Dairy (MP/OP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Food crop sales Paid labor Petty trade Firewood sales Brick making

Cash crop sales Cattle sales Large-scale trade Food processing

Main markets As its name implies, Internal to the zone: Giwa, Dandume, Saminalla, Dawanae (grains); Gafam G/Malam (vegetables)

Main hazards and approximate frequency Flooding – every three years (Jul – Aug) Livestock pests/disease – every year (Jun – Jul) Cattle raiding – every year (Jul – Aug) Farmer/herder conflict – every year (Oct – Dec) Crop diseases – every year (Aug – Sep) Kidnapping – every year (all year round)



of the brewing industry. The cash value of livestock is also raised high by southern demand, and even vegetables from the zone, notably tomatoes, reach southern markets. But for poorer farmers the profits from most of this trade are indirect: they have only small amounts of crops to put on the market and few livestock to sell. What they do have is a substantial demand for their labor from wealthier farmers, and a substantial demand from the towns for firewood and charcoal and bricks and items of petty trade.



NORTHEAST SAHEL: MILLET, SESAME, COWPEAS AND LIVESTOCK (NG04)

Covering Nigeria's extreme northeast, across Borno, Yobe and Jigawa states, this is the most arid of all the country's livelihood zones, with 350-500 mm rainfall per annum on average. Provided that the precipitation is well-spread across the agricultural season, the chief food crops, millet and cowpeas, and the most valuable cash crop, sesame, can be successfully grown on the mainly sandy soils of poor-to-medium fertility. The population density is relatively low, and the wealthier farmers cultivate substantial smallholdings, up to 10 ha, while poorer farmers may cultivate up to 2 ha, but often far less, according to inheritance and the number of able-bodied adults in a household.

This makes for a considerable skewing of wealth in the rural areas, further underlined by livestock ownership. Cattle and goats and sheep are kept in substantial numbers by the wealthier stock-owners, but poorer people typically own no cattle at all and only a handful of smallstock. Although there are extensive pastures in the wet season, by February grazing becomes in short supply and many cattle, at least, are taken on migration south for grazing in Taraba, Adamawa and Plateau states.

There is some dune formation where the moisture retained in seasonal water-courses allows dune palms (palmyra) to grow and dune palm fruit/nuts to be gathered and palm fronds to be used for basketry etc.; and there are depressions where enough moisture is retained to allow vegetable production. Some sorghum is grown whose

stems as well as the grain are used to feed cattle and for fencing. There is substantial late season melon production on millet fields, for the melon-seed that is valuable on the market. But melons attract migrating herders, for whose cattle they are a food, and this leads to conflict between farmers and herders.

Overall, the biggest money-earner is sesame, and wealthier farmers devote the greater part of their land to it, to the extent that they may well not be self-sufficient in millet and must buy millet during the year. Livestock, especially cattle, are also an important source of cash, and prices received by the producer reflect the fact that most animals are not for local slaughter but are traded from local markets to big cities, notably to the far south – Lagos, Port Harcourt etc. For poorer people the sale of just two or three goats or sheep and a few poultry and eggs may form an important part of their annual income, given the marginal budgets with which they operate.

Poorer farmers rely on own millet, market purchase and in-kind payment for food. At the same time, they also devote land to the profitable sesame, while intercropping cowpeas which they also sell. But poorer households also rely substantially on off-farm earnings, whether paid labor on wealthier people's farms or cutting and selling firewood, undertaking surface mining of potash, and to a small extent finding work in local towns. Harvest stocks are usually exhausted by the poorer households well before the three months to main harvest when staple prices are at the peak level. Their dependence on the market for food now brings acute pressure on household finances and to some extent direct food stress.

The typical hazards associated with sahelian agriculture are present. Principal among them is delayed rain

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 2 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 5 sheep, 5 goats, 20 poultry, 2 donkeys) No mechanical equipment used

Land (5 to 10 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 15 cattle, 25 sheep, 30 goats, 20 poultry) Some mechanical equipment hired (tractor, power tiller etc.)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Millet (OP/IK/MP) Cowpeas (MP/OP)

Millet (MP/OP) Rice (MP) Cowpeas (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Cash crop sales Paid labor Firewood sales Food crop sales Poultry sales Petty trade

Cash crop sales (sesame) Cattle sales Sheep & goat sales Larger-scale trade

Main markets Internal to the zone: Geidam, Garin Alkali, Nguru External to the zone: Mai Gatari, Lagos, Port Harcourt

Main hazards and approximate frequency Insufficient rainfall – every three years (Jun & Sep) Flooding – every three years (Aug) Crop pests (aphid, grasshopper) – every 3 years (Aug – Apr) Food price hikes – every three years (Jul – Aug) Livestock pests/disease – every year (Jan – Dec) Human disease (malaria) – every year (Jan – Dec)



showers at the start of the season that may shorten what is already the shortest growing season in the country and may even trick the farmer into sowing too early and thus losing germinated seeds that dry up. If there are occasions of very heavy rainfall later, in August, flash floods can damage standing crops; and later still, every three years or so, there is an early cessation of rains that stops crops reaching full maturity. Meanwhile aphids, quelea bird strikes and grasshoppers may also damage crops severely about one year in three. Livestock pests are endemic and cause at least a loss of condition at any moment of every year.



BORNO-YOBE-BAUCHI MILLET, COWPEAS, GROUNDNUTS AND SESAME (NG05)

This is among the largest livelihood zones in the country, composed of major parts of Borno, Yobe and Bauchi states but with also some LGAs of Jigawa and Gombe. As such its ecology is mainly sudanian, but it also has a more sahelian ecology in the northern limits and a more north guinean ecology in the southern limits. There is a concomitant geographical variation in average annual rainfall on either side of the general 700-900 mm per annum. But the main elements of the economy, with its crop and livestock mix, are reasonably consistent across the zone, although inevitably with localized variations.

The dominant natural vegetation is savannah, and there is a mix of soil-types: sandy, loamy, vertisols and clay, making overall for moderate fertility. Although this zone is known as a traditional hub of millet production in the country, it has reflected the general and severe decline in Nigeria's millet production in the last seven years. This may be to some extent in favor of sorghum, also a general trend; but a major reason in Borno and Yobe states, if not further afield, must also be the severe disruptions to production due to insurgency during this period, with wholesale displacement of farmers. The present description is of the zone as it was up to these events, and as it will surely essentially return to being when security is re-established.

The largest variety of crops are only rainfed: millet, sorghum, cowpeas, groundnuts, sesame. But in addition, rice and maize and vegetables are grown with both rainfall and

supporting irrigation from tube wells or wash bore wells. Irrigation along perennial rivers and streams is also practiced in localized areas for the cultivation of rice, sugarcane, tubers (cocoyam and sweet potatoes) and vegetables. In normal times this zone is at least self-sufficient in staple crops, while the main export on the market to the rest of the country is the cash crops. In this regard, cowpeas must be regarded as a cash crop as well as a food crop for home consumption. This and the sesame and groundnuts and vegetables are traded as far as Kano and the big markets of the south, notably Lagos and Port Harcourt. But for many farmers this trade is hampered by long distances to main collection markets, poor infrastructure and downright inaccessibility when rains flood roads.

The zone contains what is reported to be West Africa's biggest livestock market at Potiskum, notably for cattle, and the livestock trade is dynamic throughout the zone. The zone itself produces a good number of livestock, although the cattle holdings of wealthier people do not rival those in some other northern zones, and poorer farmers have no cattle and very few smaller stock except poultry. But the zone is also a conduit for livestock that come from neighboring zones of Nigeria, and from Cameroon, Chad and Niger. The livestock collected at Potiskum, Maiduguri, Azare and elsewhere are mainly traded to southern as well as central Nigeria. This trade

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 2 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 5 sheep, 5 goats, 10 poultry, 1 donkey) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (2 to 10 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 5 cattle, 15 sheep, 25 goats, 15 poultry) Mechanical equipment owned (plough, thresher, etc.)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Millet (OP/MP) Cowpea (OP/MP) Fish (MP) Vegetables (MP/OP)

Millet (OP) Rice (OP/MP) Cowpeas (OP) Meat (MP/OP) Fish (MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Firewood sales Food crop sales Poultry sales Brick making Petty trade

Cash crop sales Cattle sales Sheep & goat sales Large-scale trade Poultry sales Food crop sales

Main markets Internal to the zone: Maiduguri, Potiskum, Azare External to the zone: Biu

Main hazards and approximate frequency Insufficient rainfall – every five years (Jun – Jul & Sep – Oct) Drought – every three years (Sep – Oct) Flooding – every year (Jul – Aug) Food price hikes – every year (Jul – Aug) Crop pests & disease (aphid, grasshopper, stem borer, fungal disease) – every year (Jun – Oct) Livestock pests & disease (parasite) – every year (Jun – Oct)



is a huge industry, and many of the wealthier farmers make a good amount of money during the year not simply by selling their own livestock but in fees for brokering the market sales of other livestock between owner and trader.

Wealthier farmers cultivate sizeable holdings, justifying mechanized tilling as well as ox-ploughs. But poorer people are in a quite different position: many cultivate not more than a hectare, giving them perhaps five months' worth of staples, and yearly survival dictates the pressing need to get money from off-farm activities, mostly by working for wealthier farmers, but also from selling firewood and charcoal, and from brick-making, and some laboring in town. With regards to their own produce, there are modest sales of poultry and of crops – even food crops immediately after harvest when urgent debts may need to be repaid, including those incurred by food expenditure during the 'lean' months before harvest when prices rise to their limit for the year. There are also natural resources to exploit for consumption or for sale: wild foods including baobab fruit, shea-nuts for extracting the 'butter', tamarind, wild honey, game for bush-meat, and localized fishing.



SOKOTO-RIMA-KANO RIVERINE FLOOD PLAIN RICE AND FISHING (NG06)

This zone comprises the major rivers of the northeast in Sokoto, Kebbi, Katsina, Zamfara, Kano and Jigawa States (the upper Yobe-Komadugu river). It also includes their larger tributaries: for River Sokoto, the Ka, Zamfara and Gaminda rivers; for River Rima, itself the main tributary of the Sokoto river, Gagare and Bunsuru rivers, and also some inflow from seasonal watercourses entering from Niger: the Maradi, N'Kaba and Tarka. There are three main dams: the Kano Tiga dam and the Bakolori Dam on the Sokoto river near Talata Mafara, both with substantial irrigation schemes, and the Goronyo Dam on the Rima river, where the irrigation scheme is still relatively small. But the main irrigation around the zone comes from gravity-fed canals in the natural flood plains that span the rivers to varying widths from some 500 meters to 3-5 kilometers on either side.

Here is where most of the paddy rice is grown, together with valuable secondary crops: maize, sweet potatoes, vegetables (onions, tomatoes, red peppers), sugar cane, and winter wheat in the Kano-Jigawa areas. On the dryer margins of the flood plains there is cultivation of rainfed rice, millet, sorghum, cowpeas, and water melons, and even a variety of 'sweet' cassava that is so low in cyanide that it may be eaten fresh. All these crops are helped by loamy soils, whether sand or clay-based, and by average annual rainfall varying from 650 mm to around 900 mm.

The fishing is done mainly by poorer households as a secondary occupation, although there is a small minority of more specialist fisherfolk who may be immigrants, who also cultivate very small plots of land – 0.25 ha and less – that are obtained from the local government or community leaders. Some

fishermen possess locally-made canoes from which they throw their nets; others more modestly swim with the support of a large, hollowed calabash where the trapped air makes it a floating chamber. There is usually only a limited capacity for selling the fresh, very perishable fish locally, and the main profit comes from smoked or dried fish, processed by women, that can be traded on the wider market.

The available grazing on these margins and in the hinterland of the flood plains allows wealthier households to raise substantial numbers of cattle, goats and sheep. Some of the cattle are taken for seasonal far grazing to southern parts of Nigeria, and west into the Benin and Togo republics. Even poorer households may possess one or two cattle, especially plough oxen, as well as a dozen goats and sheep, and some poultry. The specialist fisherfolk may possess only poultry, while wealthier farmers keep substantial numbers that fetch good prices in town markets, as do any livestock.

Poorer households depend heavily on income from paid labor for wealthier local farmers, as irrigated crops demand substantial work after the often-mechanized tilling of the soil. But the poorer households also need to seek the limited amounts of money coming from the sale variously of their cash and food crops, fish, poultry, and two or three sheep or goats during the year, and from petty trade. For a substantial minority of these households the quest for extra cash involves the seasonal migration of a member to work in Kano city, or Niger state, or much further south to the big cities. Migrants take on a variety of work, from daily paid labor to motorcycle-taxi service, manicure, or as butchering assistants.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land cultivated (1-1.5 ha) 1-2 cattle, 2-3 sheep, 3-5 goats, 10-15 poultry, 1-2 donkeys Some hired mechanical equipment, owned plough

Land cultivated (3 to 7 ha) Up to 10 cattle, 10 sheep, 20 goats, up 100 poultry, 2-3 transport camels Mechanical equipment owned (digger, thresher, etc.) + ox-ploughs

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Rice (OP/MP) Maize (MP/OP) Sweet potatoes (OP/MP) Fish (OP/MP)

Rice (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Cowpeas (OP/MP) Fish (MP) Milk and meat (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Sale of food & cash crops Sale of fish Sale of firewood sales Sale of poultry Petty trade

Rice and cash crop sales Sheep & goat sales Cattle sales Poultry sales Larger-scale trade

Main markets Internal to the zone: Goronyo, Talata Mafara, Yawuri, Lolo, Sokoto, Illela, Shinkafi, Kura, Wudil, Karaye

Main hazards and approximate frequency Flooding (every 2-3 years May-June) Severe rain failure (every 10 years) Crop pests and diseases (every year) Insurgency (infrequent and unpredictable)



Komadugu-Yobe Irrigated Peppers with Rice, Millet and Vegetables (NG07)

This zone comprises the stretch of the Komadugu-Yobe river that runs eastward from Gashua in Yobe state and forms the frontier with Niger from near Damasak in Borno state up to Lake Chad, into which the river flows. The big, distinguishing feature of the zone is the irrigated production of sweet red peppers, a commodity so valuable on the market in both fresh and dried forms that in the matching zone across the river in Niger it is called 'the red gold'. The plantations are usually narrow, seasonally flooded areas of land beyond the river banks, that tend to measure hundreds of meters. It is mainly gravity irrigation that is used, but wealthier producers also use mechanical water-pumps. Alongside the peppers other vegetables are grown, including onions and tomatoes, which are also cash crops, and paddy rice. Villagers also have fields in the open plains beyond the immediate riverine areas. Here, in the country's shortest and lowest-precipitation rainy season (350 mm – 500 mm per annum on average) they grow millet and cowpeas, largely for home consumption.

The riverine margins as well as the savannah plains offer sufficient grazing during the rains, and for a few months thereafter, for numbers of cattle to be kept as well as goats and sheep. However, during the months when local grazing drastically diminishes (roughly January to May), cattle are taken for far grazing on the shores of Lake Chad, and into Cameroon and Chad. The livestock are almost all owned by wealthier farmers: poorer farmers typically possess no cattle at all and only a handful of small ruminants, if any, so that most or all their

livestock income comes from poultry sales. Among the wealthier farmers there is a wide variation in the numbers of livestock owned, especially cattle, and a wide variation in the amount of land that they cultivate. Some may be interested only in keeping a couple of plough-oxen and perhaps a milk-cow, investing their time and resources in cash crop production, while others may hold as many as 15 cattle and depend on selling two or three in the year, as well as numbers of sheep and goats, for a significant part of their income.

Poorer people, beyond cultivating their hectare or so of land, irrigated and rainfed, and selling such cash crops as they can produce, look to other means of income to provide amongst other things for the food purchases that must fill the gap left by their staples production. Their main recourse is to work for their wealthier neighbors who need to hire substantial labor to maximize their cultivation; some one in ten workers undertake seasonal migration for work in Maiduguri, Kano or southern cities. Otherwise, poorer people also look to using what nature offers them: firewood to cut and sell, clay-based riverine earth to make bricks to sell, Acacia senegalensis trees to 'milk' for gum arabic to process and sell; and river fish to be caught and smoked for sale.

Marketing has its problems: the zone is in the extreme northeast of the country, far from major commercial centers and depending mainly on secondary roads that are frequently impassable during periods of the rainy season. The main direction for marketing cash crops is south, and Maiduguri is the first big center to which the local traders bring the peppers and other produce; from there they are taken further into Nigeria, even to the south of the country. There is some trade of cereals and other commodities into Niger, with the regional center of Diffa just across the border down-river from Damasak.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 1.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 4 sheep, 4 goats, 10 poultry) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (2 to 10 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 15 cattle, 10 sheep, 10 goats, 20 poultry) Some mechanical equipment owned (thresher, processing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Millet (OP/MP) Rice (OP/MP) Maize (MP/OP) Cowpeas (OP/MP)

Rice (OP/MP) Millet (OP/MP) Cowpeas (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Firewood sales Petty trade Brick making Poultry sales Cash crop and rice sales Fish sales

Cash crop sales Food crop sales Cattle sales Sheep and goat sales Large-scale trade Poultry sales Food processing

Main markets Internal to the zone: Damasak, Abadan, Gashua, Geidam External to the zone: Diffa, Maiduguri

Main hazards and approximate frequency Insurgency – every year (all year round) Insufficient rainfall – every two years (Jun – Jul) Drought – every three years (Jun – Jul) Cattle raiding – every year (all year round)



LAKE CHAD FISHING, MAIZE, WHEAT, COWPEAS AND VEGETABLES (NG08) (Note: this zone has perhaps been most affected by insurgency in recent years, and by 2018 it had no farming activities and little fishing. The description that follows is of the zone before these events, showing the fundamental economy which may be expected to return with security. It is therefore written in the 'historical present'.)

The part of Lake Chad that is within Nigeria is no longer the simple body of water that would normally constitute a lake. The original lake has progressively dried up over decades, due to declining precipitation in its water catchment area and increasing irrigation off-take from its tributary rivers, including Komadugu-Yobe. Lake Chad covered some 25,000 km2 fifty years ago, but now covers around 500 km2. In the Nigerian part, at least, the lake is today a zone of mixed 'terrain': it consists of quite limited areas of open water and far bigger areas of cultivable land that has emerged. This land is partly flooded seasonally, and partly out of the water all year, with even some dune formation. On the shore, the transition from lake to the sandy-soil plains of zones NG04 and NG05 is marked by a belt of compacted clay surface some kilometers wide that is hardly possible to cultivate by traditional means, as even after arduous tilling the roots of plants become water-logged in the clay. But within the lake areas the cultivable land is loamy, alluvial soil of comparatively high fertility.

Crop production on this land is done with irrigation or using the residual moisture after the seasonal flood recession. The latter system includes maize, cowpeas and vegetables; irrigated crops are rice, wheat and again vegetables, and the irrigation is carried out by using motor-pumps to bring up water from the lake. Among the grains the wheat is a particularly valuable crop, although grown in smaller quantities than in the neighboring zone NG09 to the south.

The rainfall, at some 500-700 mm per annum on average, is sufficient to support rainfed millet production. But this production, together with cowpeas, is carried out on land outside the lake area. This is in fact the only one of the country's livelihood zones where the population lives outside the zone proper: their permanent residence is in the small towns at or relatively near the shore, e.g. Doro Gowon or Kukawa, and they move into the lake area seasonally to fish and cultivate, setting up tents or temporary huts. Very few people live in the lake area on a year-round basis.

Fish is the most valuable single product of the zone for households, giving poor and wealthier people alike the largest single proportion of their annual cash incomes. Fishing is mostly done with thrown nets from dugout canoes, some of which are owned by individuals, some owned by cooperatives of fishermen. Poorer fishermen who do not own a canoe may together borrow one from a wealthier person who in return takes a share of the catches. Fishing takes place all year round, but much more in the dry season, because fish are easier to catch in shallower waters rather than the deeper waters of the rainy season. As there is no big town within easy reach

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.5-1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 5 sheep, 5 goats, 9 poultry) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (1.1 to 5 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 10 cattle, 10 sheep, 20 goats, 15 poultry, 3 camels) Some mechanical equipment owned (thresher, processing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Millet (OP/MP) Maize (OP/MP) Cowpea (OP/MP) Fish (OP) Rice (MP)

Millet (OP/MP) Maize (OP) Cowpea (OP/MP) Fish (MP) Rice (MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Fish sales Paid labor Crop sales Petty trading Poultry sales

Fish sales Crop sales (wheat) Livestock sales Large-scale trade

Main markets Internal to the zone: Mungonu, Baga, Dikwa External to the zone: Maiduguri (main & cattle), Ngumburu

Main hazards and approximate frequency Drought/desertification – every two years (Jul – Aug) Insufficient rainfall – every year (May – Jul; Sep) (Recently, insurgency – every year, all year round)



of the zone, only a small part of the perishable catches can usually be sold fresh locally. The great bulk are smoked, or to a lesser extent dried, and this turns them into a product that can be transported far and wide.

Apart from fish sales, wealthier people make money out of crop sales, especially wheat, and selling livestock, of which they own a good number, and by trading activities. Poorer people make money by hiring themselves as labor to their wealthier neighbors and selling some crops; but they own very few livestock and sell mainly chickens. They may also engage in petty trade of household commodities.



CHAD BASIN: MASAKWA FLOOD-RECESSION SORGHUM AND WHEAT (NG09)

This zone has two distinctive agricultural cycles, one rainfed and the other dependent on residual moisture in the soil as the annual flood in the lower-lying, fadama areas recedes. The latter cycle facilitates crop production that characterizes the zone: the masakwa flood recession sorghum and the irrigated wheat, both harvested some five or six months into the dry season during the cool months of February and March. Two other important crops are grown with flood recession – cowpeas – or with irrigation – rice. The Nigerian part of the greater Chad Basin receives rainfall drainage from the Jos and Adamawa plateaus, as well as from the side of the Mandara mountains that forms part of Adamawa's border with Cameroon. This feeds the seasonal flooding and the shallow aquifer from which farmers draw water through wash bore wells.

Although it has a niche ecology within Borno state, the zone is quite substantial, stretching from the southern border of Lake Chad to Bama LGA. Farmers select sites for masakwa sorghum production based on soil type, land availability, and quantity of water stored during the wet season. Sandy clay loam and vertisols are commonly used. Land is prepared manually using cutlasses and hoes, and cleared of trees and shrubs, to construct dykes or bunds of about 0.5 to 0.75 m to impound rainwater. Masakwa sorghum is grown by transplanting 4 to 5-week-old seedlings into holes made manually or directly seeded where irrigation facilities allow.

Rainy season crops rely on average annual precipitation of around 700 mm (less in the far north, more in the far south) and include upland rice, sorghum, millet, cowpeas, bambara nuts (Vigna subterranea) and sesame. Wheat is the most valuable cereal – essentially a cash crop – and rice and cowpeas are also sold together with sesame. Sorghum is more

of a consumption crop for most farmers, vying with millet, although wealthier farmers with 10 hectares or even more have substantial surpluses to market.

Marketing is hampered by a poor roads infrastructure with problems of access during the rains. Nevertheless, wheat is taken by traders from the local markets to Maiduguri and Kano and across the border to N'Djamena, Chad's capital city, which is also a market for cowpeas – a commodity also in great demand in the southern markets of Lagos and Port Harcourt. Livestock (cattle, sheep, goats) are kept in modest numbers, although wealthier people obtain good prices for cattle mainly sold to join the Maiduguri -> southern Nigeria trade route.

Poorer people sell mostly poultry, but their main cash income is from selling crops and from paid labor on local farms. Otherwise they engage in a variety of activities to sell what their environment offers them, whether fish caught in local rivers and streams, wild foods including honey, or firewood and charcoal.

(In recent years these livelihoods have been severely disrupted by insurgency.)

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 2 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 sheep, 3 goats, 5 poultry) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (3 to 10 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 8 cattle, 10 sheep, 12 goats, 12 poultry, 5 donkeys) Minimal mechanical equipment owned (plough)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Millet (OP/IK/MP) Sorghum (OP/MP) Maize (OP/MP) Rice (MP/OP) Poultry (OP/MP) Sheep & goat meat (MP/OP)

Millet (OP) Sorghum (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Rice (OP/MP) Poultry (MP) Sheep & goat meat (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Crop sales Paid labor Poultry sales Sheep & goat sales Firewood sales

Crop sales Sheep & goat sales Petty trade Poultry sales Cattle sales

Main markets Internal : Dikwa, Gamboru/Ngala, Gwoza, Bama External: Maiduguri (livestock)

Main hazards and approximate frequency Insufficient rainfall – every year (Jun – Jul) Drought/desertification – every year (Nov – Apr) Crop pests/disease – every year (Jul – Aug) Livestock pests/disease – every year (Jan – Dec) Food price hikes – every year (Mar – Oct) Insurgency – every year of past nine years (all year round)



Hadejia–Nguru Wetlands: Mixed Cereals, Vegetables and Fishing (NG10)

Straddling Jigawa and Yobe states, these wetlands lie in the Yobe-Komadugu sub-basin of the Chad Basin, and are formed by the confluence of the Hadejia, Kafin Hausa and Jama'are rivers where they break into numerous channels. The wetlands are in turn drained eastwards by the Yobe-Komadugu river, which eventually flows into Lake Chad. The zone offers a special ecology for farmers, inserted between the sahel to the north and the sudanian savannah to the south. Some of the land is permanently flooded, while other parts are flooded only in the wet season, chiefly in August and September. The area of wetland has drastically decreased over a 50-year period, from possibly 3,000 km2 to under one-third of this today. This has been the result not only of frequent rain failure, including the catastrophic droughts of the early 1970s and mid-1980s, but also of the reduction of the flow of the Hadeija river by the Tiga and Challawa dams in Kano state. Nevertheless, the zone today supports the livelihoods of well over a million people on the fertile alluvial flood plains and their immediate dryland peripheries.

A rich variety of crops are grown with variously rainfed, flood recession and irrigated cultivation. Rainfed (dryland) crops are millet, cowpeas and sesame together with some sorghum and some upland rice. In the wetland proper,

irrigated wheat is the most valuable crop, but irrigated rice is the most voluminous, including the production of the irrigation scheme of the Hadeija Valley Project. Maize and cowpeas are also grown under irrigation or flood recession, as are several other crops aimed mainly for sale, including onions, chili peppers, sweet peppers, cassava and watermelons.

The flood plains provide good grazing for livestock – cattle, sheep, goats - and the open plains surrounding the wetland are also a grazing resource during the rains and for as long into the dry season as pasture remains. During the rainy season cattle are usually taken to pastures outside of the intensively farmed areas, whether nearby or on far grazing migration. In the dry season after the harvest, from around January, cattle are brought back to feed on crop residues and to graze locally. There are competing land use demands between farmers and herders, and conflict has been increasing since the 1980s due to the use of small motor-pumps to extend irrigated farming. It will be noted that the numbers of livestock owned as shown in the summary box are relatively modest, even for wealthier farmers. This information should be nuanced a little: the big stock owners of the general area, especially cattle, are Fulani herders, most of whom also engage in crop cultivation to some extent. They are the people who tend to take animals away to external grazing areas, including animals put into their charge by the Hausa and other people who form the great majority of the zone's population, and whose stock holdings are reflected in the summary box. Wealthier Fulani herders can easily own 30 cattle, and in some cases many more. The traditional 'symbiosis' between farmer and herder has always been an advantage to both parties (although never immune to conflict over the encroachment of farms on pastureland as well as crop

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 2 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 cattle, 4 sheep, 4 goats, 20 poultry, 1 donkey) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (5 to 10 ha) Modest numbers of livestock (up to 4 cattle, 10 sheep, 10 goats, 10 poultry) Mechanical equipment owned (tractor, tiller, plough, thresher)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Rice (OP/MP) Millet (OP) Cowpea (MP/OP) Wild foods (GA)

Rice (OP) Millet (OP) Cowpea (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Food crop sales Paid labor Petty trade Firewood sales Food processing Natural resource sales Fishing

Cash crop sales Livestock sales Large-scale trade

Main markets Internal: Hadejia, Nguru, Gashua, Garin Alkali, Gujungu External: Potiskum (livestock)

Main hazards and approximate frequency Low river levels – every year (Dec – May) Resource use conflict – every year (Nov – May) Flooding – every year (Sep – Dec) Pests & diseases – every year (Aug – Mar)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad_Basin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadejia_River

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jama%27are_River

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yobe_River

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Chad



damage by Fulani livestock allowed to stray from agreed 'corridors'). This advantageous economic relationship is threatened by the heightened level of conflict in recent years both here and elsewhere in the country.

Poorer farmers who cultivate a hectare or more of land, wet and dry, are able to feed themselves from their staple crops for perhaps half the year, which means that they are dependent on the market for the other half. Their sales of food or cash crops cannot usually cover this cost, as well as the other basic expenses of life, and so they seek other earnings. Top of the list is paid labor for wealthier farmers, but they also engage in petty trade, brick-making, firewood sales and the sale of collected wild foods. These sources of income prevent all but a small minority of poorer people from having to look further afield for work, whether in local towns or by seasonal migration outside the zone. Wealthier farmers make most of their money by selling cash and food crops and livestock; but they also engage in some larger-scale trading, typically wholesaling grain bought up from local farmers. Fishing is an additional, year-round food and income source, although it peaks during the dry season months (January to April) and is lowest at the height of the rains in July-August due when the rivers are full and waters deep. An increasing problem for fishers is the growth and spread of typha grass. This weed inhibits fish reproduction and fishing, and it blocks the channels leading water to substantial fish ponds.



NORTHWEST SORGHUM, MAIZE, SOYBEANS AND RICE (NG11)

Set in the open-plain, sudanian savannah of Zamfara and Kebbi states, this zone has relatively fertile soils (sandy and clay loam). Precipitation is of around 700-800 mm per annum on average, and the rainy season is comparatively long for northern Nigeria, beginning already in May and lasting into November. This sets the scene for successful, rainfed crop production in which sorghum is dominant, maize is the main runner-up, and upland rice and millet are secondary. Some groundnuts are grown, but soybeans have increasingly engaged farmers because of their high demand on the market. Cowpeas are another highly saleable crop, as well as a basic commodity of home cooking. However, sorghum is the main marketed surplus of this area, feeding amongst other things the brewing industry of the south of the country. The collection markets for the start of this journey are mainly within the zone, but both Funtua and Kano are also implicated, and Illela for grain traded across the border to Niger.

But sorghum is not the main staple for the zone's rural households. Millet is preferred by poorer people, as they purchase stocks coming from the Sahel NG01 zone to the north. And rice is the preferred staple of the wealthier, although they tend to buy imported rather than local rice.

There is a reasonable resource of grazing in this moderately settled zone, and wealthier people possess valuable assets in livestock, from cattle to small ruminants

to poultry that are also highly marketable. The Sokoto 'red goats' and Sokoto gudali cattle are especially highly prized. Some of wealthier men make money as brokers in the livestock markets. Pastures begin to be substantially grazed out quite early in the dry season. Cattle tend to be sent on grazing migration as early as January and up to June. Some go considerable distances, as far as southern Nigeria and across the border into the Benin Republic. Poorer people possess few animals, but they try to maintain a pair of plough-oxen as well as a handful of small ruminants.

Although they have limited land to cultivate, poorer farmers in this productive zone concentrate on food crops and are able to feed themselves with their staples harvest for at least half the year. For the cash to buy the balance of food and other necessities, they primarily hire themselves out as farm labor for wealthier neighbors. Otherwise they sell poultry and two or three small ruminants during the year, and gather and sell firewood, and possibly even sell some food crops just after the harvest to get the money to pay pressing debts or expenses. Wild foods and honey are also collected and sold, as well as game (bush-meat). There is some artisanal surface mining: the zone has resources of tantalite, gold and diamonds. Some women and men have skills in handicrafts, whether basketry, mat-making or the weaving of traditional cloth favored by, amongst others, politicians who like to wear it in public. Perhaps one in ten workers also go for seasonal labor migration, mostly to big cities such as Kano, Abuja, Lagos, Ibadan, where, apart from joining the army of hawkers and peddlers, they perform such work as motorcycle-taxi (okada) and unlicensed car-taxi (kabu kabu) drivers, and manicure (especially fixing on artificial nails), an occupation of men as well as women.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (up to 1.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 cattle, 5 sheep, 5 goats, 2 donkeys, and 15 poultry) Limited mechanical equipment owned (plough)

Land (5 to 10 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 10 cattle, 15 sheep, 8 goats, 4 donkeys, 50 poultry) Mechanical equipment owned (plough, tiller, tractor, etc.)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Millet (OP/MP) Sorghum (OP) Maize (MP) Rice (OP/MP)

Rice (OP/MP) Cowpea (OP) Maize (MP/OP) Millet (OP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Poultry sales Petty trade Firewood Food crop sales Sheep and goat sales

Cash crop sales Sheep and goat sales Large-scale trade Cattle sales Food processing

Main markets Internal to the zone: Rijau, Wasagu, Tsafe, Dansadau External to the zone: Funtua

Main hazards and approximate frequency Crop pests and disease – every year (Jun & Sep) Flooding – every 3-5 years (Aug – Sep) Insurgency and cattle raiding – every year (occasional) Livestock pests and disease – every year (May/Jun – Jul/Aug) Insufficient rainfall – every year (May – Jun)



Wealthier farmers sell both cash crops and food crops, and sheep and goats, but more rarely cattle, since they are reluctant to liquidate this capital unless circumstances force them to do so. They used in former times to select out one or two oxen per season for fattening, to sell at an especially high price to butchers. Today, however, they have been discouraged from this activity by the prevalence of cattle-raiding, when they can lose in a minute an animal that has cost them months of effort in stall-feeding and general care. Some of the wealthier men make money as brokers in the livestock markets.



NORTHWEST SORGHUM, MAIZE AND COTTON WITH CROSS-BORDER TRADE (NG12)

Although it lies further south than zone NG11, in the north guinean agro-ecological band of Kebbi and Niger states, zone NG 12 has many resemblances to zone NG11 in terms of people's assets in land and livestock, of crop production, and of general cash incomes. The reader may refer to the description of zone NG11 for these elements.

Here we highlight what is different – what distinguishes this zone. The big factor is cotton production. Although it is a limited cash crop here, this is the only livelihood zone which bears cotton in its name. Two decades ago the situation would have been very different: cotton was reaching a new peak of national production and export, and cultivation was widespread in savannah areas of the country, notably Katsina and Zamfara in the northwest, and it was a major export item. But the value of cotton had decreased by 50% between 1997 and 2007, and a steep fall in national production finally followed, by some 50% by 2009-10, together with the closure of most of cotton ginneries. The government subsequently made some effort to revive production with free improved seeds distributions etc.

Zone NG12 offers a suitable environment for cotton cultivation in terms of sandy loam soils and rainfall ranging between some 800 mm and 1100 north to south. But any continuing profitability of cotton rests on its marketing, and here the far western location is the clue: a big market with advantageous prices is at Malanville across the border in the far north

of Benin Republic, some 50 km up-river from the Nigeria frontier. The Nigerian cotton effectively flows into the Benin cotton industry, cotton being the single major cash crop of northern Benin and by far that country's biggest export commodity. Within Nigeria the main market outlet for cotton is at Babana, but the textile industry, centered at Kaduna city, virtually closed at the same time as the collapse in production two decades ago. Many Nigerians buy clothes made in Benin.

Cross-border trade is not limited to cotton: it involves other products of the zone, notably rice and some livestock. Lolo, at the border on the Niger river, is the mediating market for goods going either way between the two countries. Together the cotton and the general cross-border trade add to the diversity of incomes in zone NG12 compared with zone NG11; this is likely to offer advantages in income security, even if it does not necessarily mean greater absolute incomes in zone NG12 than in zone NG11.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 cattle, 4 sheep, 7 goats, 15 poultry, 2 donkey) Limited mechanical equipment owned (plough)

Land (2 to 5 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 4 cattle, 10 sheep, 10 goats, 10 poultry) Mechanical equipment owned (tractor, tiller, plough, thresher, food processing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Sorghum (OP) Maize (OP) Rice (OP)

Rice (OP/MP) Cowpea (OP/MP) Maize (OP/MP) Soybean (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Poultry sales Petty trade Firewood sales Food crop sales

Cash crop sales Sheep and goat sales Large-scale trade Cattle sales Food processing

Main markets Internal to the zone: Gumi, Lolo, Gurusu External to the zone: Malanville (Benin Republic), Babana

Main hazards and approximate frequency Delay in rainfall – every year (May-June) Flooding – every 3-5 years (Aug-Sept) Crop pests/diseases – every year (June & Sept) Livestock pests/diseases – every year (May-June & Sept-Oct) Insurgency – intermittent and localized



NORTHWEST AND CENTRAL MAIZE DOMINANT WITH SORGHUM, SWEET POTATOES AND COWPEAS (NG13)

This zone covers almost all of Niger state, most of central and northern Kaduna state, and the small southern extension of Kano state. Apart from the case of zone NG15, described later, north of zone NG13 maize is usually grown only as a minor crop where local soil and moisture conditions are favorable. But the latitudes of zone NG13, with a north to south guinean agro-ecology, are where maize comes into its own, here as the dominant crop, elsewhere as a major crop, second only to sorghum (in the extensive zone NG14) or to yams (in the very large zone NG20). Kaduna state has been by some margin the country's biggest producer of maize over the last 20 years, followed by Niger state.

NG13 consists of lowland open plains with savannah natural vegetation. The soils are predominantly sandy loam and moderately fertile, and average annual rainfall is around the 1100mm mark, beginning in May and lasting into October, so giving a longer growing season than in the north. Crop production in this zone is overwhelmingly rainfed, and rather intensive than extensive, land holdings being comparatively modest. It is essentially a food crop growing area, with maize, sorghum, cowpeas, groundnuts, sweet potatoes and some yams. The 'cash crops' in this case are therefore the food crops, with groundnuts and cowpeas uppermost, then the cereals, then the tubers. There are some localized fadama areas, where for instance maize is grown in the dry season as a fresh crop for roasting or boiling cobs. Ox-drawn

ploughing is typical here, but wealthier farmers also hire tractors or mechanical diggers as well as equipment for threshing and groundnut oil extraction.

Livestock holdings are modest across the board – even wealthier people only keep a handful of cattle, and it seems they are discouraged from trying to raise more by the serious problem of cattle raiding that has become the number one threat to their wealth.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (up to 1.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 1 cattle, 3 sheep, 6 goats, 1 pig, and 8 poultry) Limited mechanical equipment owned (plough)

Land (2 to 3 ha) Moderate numbers of livestock (up to 3 cattle, 5 sheep, 10 goats, 2, pigs, 25 poultry) Some mechanical equipment owned (plough, processing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Maize (OP) Sorghum (OP) Rice (MP) Cowpeas (MP/OP) Sweet potato (MP/OP) Yam (MP/OP)

Maize (OP/MP) Rice (MP) Cowpeas (MP/OP) Yam (MP/OP) Sweet potato (OP/MP) Sorghum (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Crop sales Sheep, goat and poultry sales Firewood sales Brick making Petty trade

Crop sales Larger scale trade Food processing Poultry sales Cattle sales

Main markets Internal to the zone: Giwa, Lere, Birnin Gwari, Ago External to the zone: Maziga, Kontagora

Main hazards and approximate frequency Cattle raiding – every year (throughout the year) Delay in rainfall – every two years (April – June) Crop pests (army worm) – every two years (May – June) Flooding – every three years (Aug – Sept)



CENTRAL SORGHUM, MAIZE, GROUNDNUT, COWPEAS AND SESAME (NG14)

NG14 covers many LGAs in Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe and Kaduna states as well as two or three in Plateau and Taraba states. The zone forms the east and central parts of a sorghum-dominant belt across north-central Nigeria that also includes zones NG 11 and 12 (covering parts of Zamfara, Kebbi and Niger states). It is true that Borno and Kano states are also prominent sorghum producers, but it is not the dominant crop there.

Zone NG14 lies in the north guinean agro-ecological band, with mainly undulating plains bisected by rivers and their tributaries (there are also some dams: Galal, Waya, Gubi, Balanga, and natural reserves, notably Yankari). Natural vegetation is savannah-type with shrubs, grasses and scattered trees. Useful trees include locust bean Parkia biglobosa), shea-nut, tamarind and the tall Borassus palm ('palm wine tree'), as well as neem trees. There are a variety of mineral resources including coal, tin, columbite and gypsum. Fishing is carried out in local rivers and streams.

The soil is generally sandy loam/loamy and moderately fertile. Average annual rainfall ranges from around 1000mm in the north to 1400mm+ in the south. This is a productive zone, with almost all crops under rainfed cultivation, although some rice is grown by irrigation using tube wells and the

cheaper wash bore wells that even poorer farmers may afford to establish. The main food crop after sorghum is maize, while there is also upland rice, some millet, and sweet potatoes. Cash crops are groundnuts, cowpeas, soybeans and bambara nuts - all nitrogen fixers - and sesame. Land cultivated is up to about seven hectares for wealthier farmers, but not more than a hectare for the poorer. Wealthier farmers commonly hire, and sometimes own, tractors and other mechanical equipment, including for food processing. As with land, livestock ownership is also highly skewed: the poorer farmers typically possess no cattle and just a handful of small ruminants, together possibly with a pig and a couple of rabbits and a few poultry, while the wealthier may well have a dozen cattle and two dozen goats and sheep, as well as poultry. Wealthier people concentrate mainly on selling both cash and surplus food crops, as well as livestock, and they tend to engage in trade such as wholesaling grain crops. The zone is well known as a surplus producer, and Kano is a major customer for its cash crops, notably cowpeas and sesame, and Jos is one of the main customers for soybeans, while cowpeas also go far into the southern region to answer the incessant demand of the huge populations there. Farmers usually sell only at their most local market and traders take the commodities on from there to the bigger collection markets for national trade. But the road network is not good either in its reach or in its condition, and this hampers trade.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 sheep, 3 goats, 8 poultry, 2 pigs, 2 rabbits) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (2 to 7 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (10+ cattle, 10+ sheep, up to 15 goats, 10 poultry) Limited mechanical equipment owned (plough)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Sorghum (MP/OP/IK) Maize (MP/OP) Rice (MP/OP/GA) Millet (MP/OP) Sweet potato (MP/OP) Milk (MP/OP)

Sorghum (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Rice (OP/MP) Millet (OP/MP) Sweet potato (OP/MP) Milk (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Agricultural labor Firewood sales Poultry sales Petty trade Food crop sales

Cash crop sales Food crop sales Sheep/goat and cattle sales Large-scale trade Food processing

Main markets Internal to the zone: Alkaleri, Kumo, Gadan Maiwa, Gombe, Mararaba, Liman Katagum External to the zone: Kano

Main hazards and approximate frequency Delay in rainfall – every year (May-June) Flooding – every year (July-Sept) Crop pests/diseases (army worm, stem borer, quelea bird, aphids) – every year (July-Oct) Livestock pests/diseases (FMD, pneumonia, goat/sheep pox, helminthiasis, bloat) – every year (June-July) Human disease (malaria, cholera) – every year (June-Aug)



Poorer households can typically to expect to feed themselves from their annual cereals harvest for not more than six months. Their livelihood therefore depends substantially on earning cash, and for this, selling cash crops is the least option, give their low level of production, while paid agricultural labor is the main option, as their wealthier neighbors need them to maximize their farm output. They also sell firewood and charcoal and other items they gather from nature: the dried and pounded yellow fruit-pulp and the beans of the locust bean trees (sometimes cultivated), the processed shea-nut butter, non-tree wild foods and collected honey, and fish, whether fresh or smoked. In the agricultural off-season, between December and at least March, some men undertake artisanal surface mining. A substantial minority of workers go on work migration, mainly to Nigeria's capital city, Abuja, or south to Lagos, Port Harcourt and other big cities. Here they work variously as motorcycle-taxi men, construction workers, cobblers, manicurists etc.

As almost everywhere in Nigeria, substantial damage is done to crops by pests and diseases, from stem borers, fall army worm, aphids and quelea birds to rice blast from fungal disease. At the same time livestock are threatened with an array of diseases and infestations; and for humans, in the rainy season malaria takes its toll of adult work capacity at the height of agricultural activities, as well as affecting children.



NORTHEAST MAIZE DOMINANT WITH RICE, SOYBEANS, COWPEAS AND GROUNDNUTS (NG15)

Located largely in Borno state, with Biu at the center and with just a couple of LGAs in Yobe and Gombe, this is one of the zones in the country where government policy and the interventions also of partners have substantially helped to define the basis of livelihoods. In this case the story is of maize. Considering its millet-based neighbor to the north, zone NG05, and its sorghum-based neighbor, zone NG14, to the south, one might expect this to be a transitional area between millet and sorghum. However, in less than two decades the zone has come to be dominated by maize production, and with sorghum as a distinctly secondary crop and millet very little cultivated. This is the result of a combination local ecology, farmers' opportunity cost judgements and official encouragement.

Maize has become an increasingly marketable crop in Nigeria, even if imported maize periodically undercuts local maize in terms of price. Maize is a staple of the diet in a large part of the country, but it is also integral to many animal feed commodities, while its starch has industrial uses. In zone NG15, the north to south guinean ecology, the clay loam and sandy loam soils and average annual precipitation of 600-900mm combine to offer a favorable environment for maize production. Farmers cultivate relatively large acreages relative to other zones. With the more intensive maize production, the moderately fertile soils require added urea etc. for maximal

harvests. Maize production has been boosted since 2004 with the support of government and NGOs, the IITA and the Promoting Sustainable Agriculture in Borno State program (PROSAB), with the introduction of improved drought- and striga-resistant seed varieties and other assistance. In the most recent period, although the zone has not been completely untouched by insurgency, it lies outside the main, insecure areas and is therefore subject to a policy of maximizing production to make up for the serious loss of grain production further north in Borno – a sort of grain reserve.

The second food crop is rice, essentially under rainfed cultivation but with some production assisted by residual moisture in low-lying, swampy locations, where also vegetables, notably peppers, tomatoes and okra, are produced for the market. As to other crops, the zone is a substantial producer of pulses. With the relatively recent introduction of soybeans and their high market demand, this has rapidly become the biggest cash crop, overtaking cowpeas and groundnuts. But surplus maize heads the commodities traded beyond the zone, destined for big markets all over central and southern Nigeria; in addition, rice joins the soybeans and cowpeas in the trade beyond the zone. Finally, vegetables are traded from the local markets north to Maiduguri, west to Kano, and south as far as Lagos.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (2-3 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 cattle, 6 sheep, 6 goats, 10 poultry) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (5 to 10 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 6 cattle, 12 sheep, 25 goats, 25 poultry) Limited mechanical equipment owned (plough, thresher)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Maize (OP) Rice (MP/OP) Sorghum (OP/MP) Cowpeas (MP/OP)

Rice (OP/MP) Maize (OP) Sorghum (OP) Animal products (OP/MP) Fish (MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Cash & food crop sales Sheep & goat sales Firewood sales Petty trade Poultry sales

Cash & food crop sales Sheep & goat sales (more rarely cattle) Larger-scale trade Poultry sales Food processing

Main markets Internal to the zone: Biu, Mirnga, Bargu, Kwaya, Uba External to the zone: Kano, Jos, southern city markets

Main hazards and approximate frequency Insufficient rainfall – every year (May – Jun; Aug) Flooding – every year (Aug – Sep) Crop pests & disease (fall army worm, aphid, weevil, fungal disease) – every year (Jun – Sep) Livestock pests & disease (parasite) – every year (Jun – Oct)



For livestock ownership the accent is more on goats and sheep than cattle, but all livestock gain high value as they join the massive livestock trade that begins in the north Borno collection markets, notably at Potiskum, and yearly takes millions of animals to the southern markets. However, for the wealthier farmers, especially those with tens of hectares and hired mechanical cultivating and food processing equipment (for rice polishing, groundnut oil extraction), it is emphatically their crops that make them the most money. Many also engage in substantial trading, including grain wholesaling. Poorer people also tend to cultivate more land than their fellows in other zones, and some can maintain a couple of oxen for ploughing. They are unusually self-sufficient in staple food, although still depending on the market for three to four months of the year. They sell both food and cash crops, but their biggest income is from paid labor for wealthier farmers who have requirements for field labor well beyond what their own households can offer. Poorer farmers also sell a handful of small ruminants during the year, perhaps especially during the 'lean' months before the new harvest when they buy virtually all the staples they eat - a period first broken by the consumption of immature, 'green' maize.



HIGH PLATEAU IRISH POTATOES, MAIZE, ACHA (DIGITARIA) AND LIVESTOCK (NG16) This zone covers the high plateau area of central Nigeria, mainly in Plateau state but extending into Bauchi. Undulating high plains are surrounded by escarpments and cut across by small rivers and tributary streams. The altitude averages around 1300 masl, and the temperate climate makes it a niche zone for crop production. The rainfall is relatively high for central Nigeria at 1300-1500mm per annum on average, with a long-wet season from the latter half of April to October. Soils are sandy loam, loam and laterite and are of moderate fertility.

The environment is favorable for Irish potatoes, of which the zone is the country's premier producer (with two harvests in the year), sending the product far and wide on the national market, but most particularly to Lagos and Onitsha and other southern markets. Another niche crop, grown in smaller volume but still marketed to Lagos, Abuja and other centers, is acha, the smallest-grained plant of the millet family (Digitaria exilis and Digitaria iburua, or white and black fonio). This is eaten in various forms from porridge to bread in Nigeria and is favored by diabetics for its insulin-secreting properties.

Maize is the main food crop and rivals’ Irish potatoes as the main cash earner for wealthier farmers who have several hectares to devote to the crop. Plateau state is second to Kaduna state in contributing to Nigeria's maize production in the last decade. Upland rice and sweet potatoes are also grown, and vegetables are grown for trading across the country. In several localities the pits left by old tin-mining works are now substantial ponds with enough water to irrigate crops, notably Irish potatoes and vegetables, as well as to water livestock. The highland environment is especially good for cattle, and wealthier farmers may easily own a dozen, as well as two or three dozen sheep and goats and numbers of pigs. In addition, poultry-production is also something of a back-yard industry here, and wealthier people commonly own 100 hens, sometimes many more.

However, this prosperous picture is hardly shared by poorer farmers, indeed wealth in this rural economy is heavily skewed. Poorer people usually cultivate less than a hectare, often not more than half-a-hectare, as the plateau is perhaps the most densely populated area in central Nigeria away from city environs. Their own harvest of maize, other grain and Irish potatoes lasts them about four months in the year. Their assets in livestock are limited: they typically own no cattle but perhaps a dozen small ruminants, and they tend also to keep a handful of pigs, and modest numbers of poultry, which are the animals they sell most regularly. If they have access to a garden area they may make money from vegetables, but they can spare little land for cash crops, and it is a serious calculation for them how much of their potato crop to consume, how much to sell. The main cash to keep them going through the year comes from several off-farm activities: paid labor on other farms, sale of firewood and charcoal, brick-making and petty trade. It is not typical for people to migrate out of the zone for work seasonally: they are more likely to seek work in local towns in the agricultural off-season. In fact, the zone attracts in-migrants from elsewhere looking for agricultural work.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 5 goats, 10 poultry, 5 pigs, 10 rabbits) No mechanical equipment used

Land (2 to 7 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 15+ cattle, 10 sheep, 20 goats, 20 pigs, 25 rabbits, 100 poultry) Mechanical equipment hired

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Irish potatoes (OP/MP) Maize (MP/OP) Acha (MP/OP) Sorghum (MP/OP) Vegetables (MP/OP)

Irish potatoes (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Acha (OP/MP) Sorghum (OP/MP) Vegetables (OP/MP) Milk (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Agricultural labor Charcoal sales Brick making Poultry sales Petty trade Food crop sales

Cash crop sales Food crop sales Cattle sales Goat/pig sales Large-scale trade Food processing

Main markets Internal to the zone: Bukuru, Mobordo, Bokkos, Jos, Mangu External to the zone: Saminaka

Main hazards and approximate frequency Flooding – every year (July-Sept) Crop pest/disease (army worm, stem borer) – every year (July-Oct) Livestock pest/disease – every year (May-June) Cattle raiding – intermittent (any time of year)



LOWER PLATEAU RICE, SORGHUM AND CATTLE (NG17) This is an area of foothills and undulating plains in a south guinean savannah ecology. It comprises the LGAs of Plateau state that are not part of the high plateau. Its most distinctive feature is its high production of upland rice, which differentiates it from the neighboring zones: from the niche crops of the high plateau (NG16), and the yams and maize of zone NG20, and from the sorghum-based zone NG14. In addition, zone NG17's ecology is conducive to cattle raising, and wealthier people often possess numbers of cattle that are substantial for people who are by vocation farmers rather than herders.

Cattle and small ruminants take on a greater importance in people's incomes because the zone produces no significant cash crops except for quite limited amounts of groundnuts and sesame. This is above all a staple food crop producing area, and the cash that comes from crops is essentially from rice, yams and cassava. Meanwhile, sorghum is an important staple for most people, although the wealthier minority can afford to eat chiefly the preferred, but more expensive, rice, while poorer people need to take more care about the balance between the part of their far more modest rice harvest that they consume and what they need to sell.

The problem for poorer people is that they cultivate between one-fifth and one-tenth of the

land that wealthier people cultivate, and so they are far from self-sufficient in grain, even with their best efforts on the reasonably fertile sandy loam and clay loam soils and with rainfall of upwards of 1200mm per annum on average. They are unable to afford to keep a team of plough-oxen, let alone to hire a tractor or power digger (as do wealthier farmers). And they must feel particularly keenly any crops losses caused by the invasion of fields by the cattle of herders, a phenomenon with a long history but which has become the number one production hazard in many areas in recent years, leading to increasing conflict between farmer and herder. Another major hazard locally is the invasion of the parasitic weed striga, which causes stunting and wilting and inhibited chlorophyll formation in cereal crops.

The vital annual cash income for poorer households comes only very partially from selling their produce, whether crops or one or two of the few small ruminants or pigs or poultry they possess (they typically have no cattle at all). Otherwise their main recourse is in paid field labor for wealthier neighbors, or other local work. But the demand for their work is not high enough to guarantee their budgets, and nor do their earnings variously from petty trade, or brick making, or the collection and sale of firewood or roofing grasses or salt from saline or rock salt deposit, or wild foods including honey. Therefore, they seek employment also in local towns and in seasonal work migration chiefly to the big cities of the south.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 5 sheep, 8 goats, 5 pigs, and 12 poultry) No production equipment owned

Land (5 to 10 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 10 cattle, 20 sheep, 20 goats, 2, pigs, 25 poultry) Some production equipment owned (tractor, plough, etc.)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Sorghum (OP/MP) Rice (OP/MP) Maize (OP/MP)

Rice (OP) Sorghum (OP) Meat (OP/MP) Maize (OP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Food crop sales Paid labor Poultry sales Sheep/goat sales Petty trade

Cash crop sales Cattle sales Trade Poultry sales

Main hazards and approximate frequency Farmer/herder conflict – every year (May – Dec) Delay in rainfall – every two years (Jun – Jul) Crop pests/diseases (plus striga) – every year (Jun – Jul) Flooding – every year (Jul – Aug)



GINGER AND TURMERIC WITH MAIZE, SORGHUM, YAMS AND ACHA (DIGITARIA) (NG18) This is a zone of open high plains in the south of Kaduna state, extending west of the high plateau of Plateau state. At elevations of 750-1000 masl, the moist south guinean savannah and derived savannah ecology, with around 1250mm of rainfall on average per annum over a 180-190-day crop growing period, and the moderately fertile sandy loam soils, together offer a niche area for the country's greatest ginger production. Other niche crops are turmeric and acha (fonio).

The staple food crops are maize (both rainfed and irrigated), sorghum and yams, and there is a wide variety of secondary food/cash crops too: upland rice, cocoyams (taro), sweet potatoes, soybeans, groundnuts and the small achishuru cowpeas grown in two cycles in the year, the early cycle fixing nitrogen that helps later season cereals crops planted in the same fields.

The cultivated holdings among this relatively dense population are comparatively small, even for wealthier farmers, and so maximum value of production is squeezed out of the land with combinations of the above variety of crops, although with ginger uppermost as a cash earner. On the land they have, poorer farmers favor the cultivation of staple crops, especially maize, although they also grow small amounts of other crops, especially ginger. But they are far from self-sufficient in maize, and the greater part of their September-October harvest is usually consumed by January, after which they eke out the remaining grain with purchased maize as far as April. This then leaves some three to four months in which they are dependent on

the market for their basic food, a period when their profits from crop sales is long spent (money not only from ginger but from some of their scarce grain that they sell at harvest because they need to pay pressing debts and expenses). And these are the months when food prices go up as demand on the market generally increases but the new harvest is still some time away.

In other words, this is the 'lean' season when they 'pull in their belts' and look for any means of earning extra cash. As they wait for the September harvest, some relief is afforded in August when they consume some of the immature 'green' maize standing in the field (a minority may have a crop of early yams in July). Their main earnings at this time, and throughout the agricultural cycle from land preparation to harvest, are through paid labor for other farmers. They have very few animals to sell, but necessity may force them to sell a goat or a pig and a couple of chickens. Beyond this they collect firewood to sell, sometimes converting it first to charcoal, and they sell collected wild honey, and bushmeat if they are near woodland areas where there is game.

Wealthier farmers sell ginger and turmeric as their main cash earners, and in addition some cereals – maize, sorghum, and acha (Digitaria) which has low yields but fetches high prices. They also sell surplus yams and

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.5- 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 goats, 2 pigs, 4 poultry) No mechanical production equipment used

Land (2 to 3 ha) Modest numbers of livestock (up to 6 goats, 15 poultry, 10 pigs) Limited mechanical production equipment hired (tilling, food processing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Maize (OP/MP) Sorghum (OP) Rice (MP) Acha (OP) Yams (OP/MP) Sweet Potatoes (OP/MP)

Maize (OP) Rice (MP/OP) Sorghum (OP) Acha (OP) Cocoyam (OP/MP) Yams (OP/MP) Sweet potatoes (MP/OP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Firewood/charcoal sales Petty trade Honey sales Poultry sales Pig sales

Spice crop sales Food crop sales Larger-scale trade Modest livestock sales

Main markets Internal markets: Jaba, Jama’a, Kachia External markets: Zongou Kataf, Zonkwa

Main hazards and approximate frequency Crop pests and disease – every year (July) Livestock pests and disease – every two years (Dec – Feb) Insufficient rainfall – every three years (May – Jun) Flooding – every five years (Aug – Sept)



cocoyams (cocoyams have recently suffered severely from root rot disease). But they have few livestock to sell: cattle ownership is rare, and small ruminants are kept only in small numbers mainly for domestic consumption. The experience of cattle raiding has discouraged many who might otherwise keep more cattle or at least a couple of selected oxen for fattening on crop residues and collected fodder. Some wealthier farmers engage in substantial trading, including wholesaling of produce bought up from fellow villagers.



BENUE RIVER SUGAR CANE, RICE AND SUGAR ESTATE LABOR (NG19)

This zone comprises the eastern stretch of the Benue river between Numan and Lau towns, and extending a little down-river to the west. As such it straddles Adamawa and Taraba states. The zone is a continuation of the Niger-Benue riverine zone NG21, described below, sharing basic economic features with it. But sugar cane is the distinguishing feature of NG19 both as a cash crop and as a source of labor income. Virtually all farmers in Nigeria today are not simply subsistence farmers but are closely tied to cash earnings, whether from sales of their crops and livestock, or from paid agricultural work, or from other activities. If one element – in this case sugar cane – is important enough to basically affect the economy of the villagers, perhaps especially the poorer, then that makes for a separate livelihood zone.

The Savannah Sugar Company estate with its refining mill (part of Dangote Sugar) has so far developed some 7000ha out of the available 32,000ha of land near the confluence of the Benue river and its main tributary, the Gongola river, at Numan (the irrigation water coming from the Kiri Dam). Established in 1971, this has been the only substantial sugar producing concern in Nigeria, one of the biggest in West Africa. The government wishes to promote national sugar production since currently it

covers less than 5% of national consumption, the rest being imported. The company employs some 5000 people on a fixed term contract basis during the harvest season, and perhaps periodically more. As such, this constitutes a major injection of income into the poorer households of the villages scattered along the river shores. More recently a further commercial sugar plantation has been established in Lau LGA.

Villagers along the river have taken sugar cane production onto their smallholdings alongside their rice paddies, using small-scale gravity irrigation. Sugar is therefore their main cash crop, accompanied by rice and rainfed sesame grown on the dryer peripheries of the river flood plain (rainfall is around 1250mm per annum on average), where also sorghum and maize are grown as important staple crops. Villagers own moderate numbers of ruminant livestock, including a handful of cattle for wealthier households who obtain some addition to their annual income from animal sales, including poultry. Poorer people obtain extra income from fishing, selling much of their catches as smoked fish.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (less than 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 3 sheep, 5 goats, 3 poultry) No mechanized production equipment used

Land (2 to 5 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 6 cattle, 9 sheep, 13 goats, 20 poultry) Limited production equipment owned (tractor, threshing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Rice (OP/MP) Sorghum (OP/MP) Maize (OP/MP) Fish (OP/MP)

Rice (OP) Sorghum (OP) Maize (OP) Animal products (OP/MP) Fish (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Cash crop sales Food crop sales Petty trade

Cash crop sales Food crop sales Larger-scale trade Modest livestock sales

Main markets Numan (Ngbalang); Yola (Jimeta), Jalingo, Abuja for smallholder sugar cane

Main hazards and approximate frequency Flooding – every two years (Aug – Sept) Farmer/herder conflict – every year



CENTRAL YAM AND MAIZE BELT, WITH CASSAVA, RICE AND SOYBEANS (NG20)

NG20 is the biggest of the country's livelihood zones in terms of area. Some two-thirds lie from east to center across Adamawa, Taraba, Benue, Nasarawa, FCT and Niger states, with a handful of LGAs in Kaduna and Kogi, and bisected or bordered by the Benue and Niger rivers flood plains zone NG21. The remaining third lies in the west, covering LGAs in Ogun Osun and Oyo states plus a couple in Kwara and Ekiti.

This is where yam cultivation comes into its own, Nigeria being by far the world's biggest producer and exporter. Here also maize leaves behind its main northern partner, sorghum, to sit beside the yams as well as cassava. The ecology is south guinea savannah, with a mixture of undulating uplands and lower and higher plains. Soils around the zone are variously sandy loam, clay loam and laterite, and moderately fertile in general. Average annual rainfall ranges from around 1200mm in the north to 1600mm in the south. Not surprisingly there is geographical variation in secondary crops: for instance, some sorghum and even millet are found in the north while cassava increases towards the south to become the main crop after yams. But other crops are cultivated in varying quantities all around the zone: upland and fadama rice, cowpeas, soybeans, sesame, groundnuts, cocoyams, sweet potatoes, and Irish potatoes and vegetables under irrigation.

The zone has scattered areas of forest or woodland that provide timber and where

people hunt game for bushmeat and collect wild products, including honey. The zone also has resources in valuable stone and minerals: feldspar, barite, coal, tin, limestone, clay, which are exploited with artisanal surface mining. People fish in the rivers and streams, and where they can flood an artificial pond, fish farming can be very profitable.

Land holdings are generally moderate by national standards: there are several other zones where wealthier people cultivate twice as much land as here. But compared to cereals, tubers are an efficient crop in terms of food yield per hectare; on the other hand, yams require very substantial labor to form the mounds for planting. Tilling is commonly done with mechanical help, using hired power tillers and tractors. Machinery is also used for food processing – rice polishing and preparation of gari from cassava. Where there is substantial fadama land, there is an early planting of yams around January for a harvest from July, while the main yam cycle is rainfed with the mature tubers taken out of the ground from September to November. Similarly, some short cycle maize is grown under irrigation, sown in October as the rains fade away and harvested in February, while the main maize crop is rainfed and harvested from late September through October. The 'lean' season before the main food harvests is partly broken by consumption of immature 'green' maize from the end of August up to the mature harvest.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.5 – 1.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 5 sheep, 8 goats, 5 pigs and 12 poultry) Mechanized equipment used only for food processing (hired)

Land (5 - 10 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 8 cattle, 20 sheep, 20 goats, 200+ poultry) Hired tractors, power-tillers and mechanized food processing equipment

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Yams (OP/MP) Maize (OP/MP) Cassava (MP/OP) Sweet potatoes

Maize (OP) Rice (MP/OP) Yams (OP) Cassava (OP/MP) Animal products (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Food Crop sales Firewood and other natural product sales Modest livestock sales

Cash crop sales Food crop sales Livestock sales Larger-scale trade Modest livestock sales

Main markets Internal markets: Mangu, Bukuru, Lafia, Nasarawa, Shendam, Agyaragu, Anyigba, Edule, Lokoja, Okene, Zaki Biam, Logo, Katsina Ala, Ihugh, Kabba, Gboko External markets: Kano, Lagos, Port Harcourt

Main hazards and approximate frequency Farmer/herder conflict – every year Flooding – every two years (Aug – Sept) Fall army worm – every year (June-July)



Livestock ownership is highly skewed towards wealthier farmers. Poorer people who are not in the very poorest stratum possess perhaps half a dozen goats and sheep, and a handful of pigs, but they usually own no cattle at all. Wealthier people may own around six cattle, although there are parts of the zone where it is untypical for anyone to raise cattle. But they are likely to own upwards of 15 sheep and goats and at least as many pigs, and in addition many specialize in backyard poultry keeping, with hundreds of chickens whose sale brings in a significant part of the household's income alongside other animal sales. While wealthier farmers make money largely from their crops and livestock, poorer farmers are neither self-sufficient in food nor able to sell enough produce and livestock to obtain the cash they need to buy food during at least six months of the year. For this they mainly undertake paid agricultural work as well as local urban construction, portering, motorcycle-taxi and other services and small retailing work; but they also sell firewood and charcoal and exploit the various other natural resources listed above.

The zone produces a major surplus of yams and maize which rival each other for first place in marketed volume, while cassava is also substantially marketed from the south of the zone. The road network for trade within and out of the zone is relatively good. The flow of food commodities is largely to the southern city markets, as it is for most of the livestock sold; but some quantity of tubers is traded up to Kano.

The zone is visited seasonally by countless herds of cattle (sometimes accompanied by flocks of small ruminants) owned by northern herders taking them south for grazing along agreed 'corridors' away from cultivated fields. However, cattle are sometimes inadvertently or advertently allowed to stray onto planted fields, causing serious damage to crops. In recent years this has become the hazard most feared by farmers in many places, and the incidence of farmer-herder conflict has risen to crisis levels. Other major hazards are flooding and fall army worm attacks that are a scourge of grain crops.



NIGER AND BENUE RIVERS FLOOD PLAIN RICE WITH MAIZE, VEGETABLES AND LIVESTOCK (NG21)

This zone comprises the cultivated flood plains of the Niger and Benue rivers and their main tributaries, that is the flood plains at the bottom of the Mid-Niger/Bida Basin, the Upper, Middle and Lower Benue Basins, and the Anambra Basin. In the west the zone begins in Mokwa LGA, Niger state, and it continues right across to the eastern frontier with Cameroon in Adamawa state at Fufore LGA (interrupted only by the stretch of the Benue river where the sugar cane zone NG19 lies). Then there is the extension of the zone south from the confluence of the Niger and Benue rivers to Onitsha in Anambra state, where it cedes to the Niger delta in zone NG 32, the coastal belt. The length of the zone is thus around 1500 km. Its width, i.e. the width of the areas extending from the banks of the rivers where irrigated cultivation takes place, is very varied along the course of the rivers. Along some stretches it is less than five kilometers on either side, along other stretches it is 10 to 15 kilometers, and in some places more, especially at the major river confluences. In addition, there are two very extensive flood plains with associated irrigation schemes. One is in LGAs around Bida in Niger state, north of the confluence between the Kaduna river and the River Niger. The other extends from the Niger river in its southern course, straddling the border between Kogi and Anambra states in Ibaji and Anambra West LGAs.

The villages of the zone are scattered along the banks of the rivers, and further within the flood plains, and on the dryland edges of the flood plains. At most locations the density of the population is comparatively low but taken overall along the whole length of the zone, the population using the flood plains is sizeable. The alluvial and loamy soils are fertile or at least moderately so, but chemical fertilizers are commonly used on the rice-fields as far as farmers can afford them.

The irrigation is essentially gravity-fed to the fields from higher up the river, and irrigated rice is the default crop, so to speak, as a cash crop as much as a food crop; but irrigated production is by no means the whole story. Average annual rainfall is mostly in a range between 1200mm and 1500mm, in a long rainy season from as early as April and into October. Rainfed agriculture is important in providing staples: maize, upland rice, cassava, yams, cowpeas, some sorghum, as well melon and even some sesame as cash crops. With regards to irrigated crops, rice takes 80% or more of the acreage, but there is also production of short-cycle maize, 'sweet' cassava (low cyanide) and vegetables, all cash crops. Land holdings are very varied over this long zone, but irrigated areas cultivated by poorer farmers usually measure fractions of a hectare, and even wealthier farmers may have not more than one or two hectares under irrigation while also cultivating 4-5 hectares with rainfed crops. On the other hand, rice yields under irrigation are far greater than for rainfed crops, at upwards of 5 tons per hectare.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land, irrigated + rainfed (0.5 – 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 10 sheep and goats, 0-3 pigs and 10 poultry) No mechanized equipment used

Land, irrigated + rainfed (5 - 8 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (0-3 cattle, 10 sheep, 10 goats, up to 100 poultry) Power-tillers and mechanized food processing equipment used

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Rice (OP/MP) Maize (OP/MP) Cassava (MP/OP) Sorghum (MP/OP)

Rice (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Cassava (OP/MP) Cowpeas (MP/OP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Food Crop sales Firewood sales Fish sales Modest livestock sales

Rice sales Other crop sales Livestock sales Trade

Main markets Bida, Mariga, Zungenu, Gbugbu, Paiko, Shiroro, Awe, Shendam, Abafi, Kwali, Wase, Abafi, Gwagwa, Kuje, Namu, Dengi, Amper, Tingno, Mubi, Mutum Biya, Ngoroje, Zaki Biam

Main hazards and approximate frequency Flooding - somewhere every year (August, September) Crop pests, especially bird attacks - every year (July-August) Early cessation of rains – every 3 years (September)



With regards to livestock, cattle are hard to keep in this environment, and in most places only wealthier people keep one or two animals, whether cows for milk or oxen for ploughing. The small minority of people who keep more cattle need to send them away from the home area with Fulani herders for several months of the year. Small ruminants are more common, as well as poultry. Fishing as a secondary activity, in the smaller river channels as well the main rivers, is usual among poorer people, and some cash is earned from fish smoked by the women. But mostly the poorer households build up the cash they need for food and other purchase by doing paid labor (irrigated rice demands much labor at most stages, from the preparation of the land and the manipulation of irrigation to the transplanting of seedlings from the nursery plot, the weeding and the harvesting). They sell some rice and other produce, and otherwise they engage in other activities, such as selling firewood or petty trade. Rice and maize go north on the market as far as Kano, and all commodities and livestock are traded to southern markets.

Irrigation gives some protection to crops and therefore to food security when there is some degree of local rainfall irregularity or failure. But the principal danger in this zone is the destruction of crops by flooding: almost every year the waters overflow river banks in one or other location in August or September; less frequently there is more widespread and severe flooding, including areas higher up the river basin.



CASSAVA DOMINANT WITH MAIZE, YAMS AND TREE-CROPS (NG22)

This very large zone covers parts of the following states: Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Edo, Ekiti, Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo. Cassava is the main staple crop in the country's rainforest ecology as well as in the southernmost (south guinean) areas of savannah and derived savannah. NG22 is one of two zones that are most cassava-based (the other is NG33 in the far southwest) in the sense that no other crop, whether food or cash, comes close to it in importance, although many other crops are grown. The zone contains low plains, some higher open plains, and scattered lowland fadama areas. Soils are loamy, whether sandy or clay, and of moderate and sometimes low fertility. Rainfall is in a range from north to south of some 1350mm to 2500mm.

The field and tree crops in the zone are overwhelmingly rainfed, although some lowland rice as well as vegetables are grown in swampy areas. Apart from cassava, the two important staples are maize and yams; cocoyams and plantain are also grown. There is an array of cash crops, but none prominent enough to characterize the zone: oil palms, cashews, citrus, mangoes, kolanuts; cowpeas and soybeans and groundnuts in the savannah areas; and some rubber in the far south of the zone. The food crops are also sold in big volume.

The population is dense, although other areas of the south are even

more crowded. The land areas cultivated by households are relatively modest, but such is the yield of cassava and yams that poorer farmers with around 0.5ha eat from their tuber harvest for most months of the year, and the harvest from intercropped maize and cowpeas may also last for four or five months. However, poorer people do purchase considerable amounts of food during the year for several reasons. First, their production doesn't cover the whole year. Second, rice is universally the preferred cereal, and poorer people sell cassava and cash crops to eat rice as often as they can afford. Also, maize, and cowpeas, are hard to store in good condition for many months, and people sell part of their harvest only to purchase the same commodities later in the year.

The larger part of the zone, west of the Niger river, contains several large cities and many large towns, and it skirts the biggest city of them all, Lagos. We would expect this factor to affect the rural economies in at least

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (~0.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 5 sheep, 5 goats, 5 poultry) Tractor sometimes hired, mechanical food processing equipment

Land (2-3 ha) Moderate numbers of livestock (0-3 cattle, up to 5 sheep, 10 goats, 20 poultry) Tractor and processing machinery hired

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Cassava (OP) Yams (OP/MP) Maize (OP) Rice (MP) Cowpeas (MP)

Rice (MP) Yams (OP) Cassava (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Cowpeas (MP/OP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Food crop sales Paid agricultural labor Seasonal urban work & petty trade Sale of firewood Sale of small ruminants, poultry Processing cassava, palm oil, shea butter

Food crop sales Cash crop sales Goat and sheep sales Trade Poultry sales

Main markets Internal to the zone: Ugbokolo, Otobi, Onyagede, Adoka, Ihugh, Oju, Ukwonyo, Ikyobi, Vandekya, Taraku, Gboko, Tyowanye, Irepeni, Aku, Odoade, Ejule, Itobe, Karara, Adu; New Benin, Itam Main, Uyo, Oil Mill Rumukrushi, Oregbeni, Wami Main; Kisi, Sango; Ogbese, Ojabba, Elegbeka, Bodija, Sasa, Odo Oba, Oje, Elekara, Odo Ori, Oja Obada External to the zone: Mile 12 (Lagos), Ibadan, Republic of Benin

Main hazards and approximate frequency Crop damage by migrant herders' animals – every year Erratic rainfall – every year for a decade Crop pest/disease - tuta absoluta on tomatoes, fall army worm, stem borer, in the last two years (April-July) Flooding – localized, every year (rainy season) Livestock disease - avian influenza, African Swine Fever (every 5 years)



two ways: the nearby, huge market demand for food and cash crops, meat and wild products ought to guarantee high prices to the producer, especially since the transport discount will be far smaller than more distant producers consider when selling goods that are to be taken south. Secondly, people in this zone who take up the casual labor and service work opportunities in the relatively nearby cities for some weeks or months of the year do not experience the time and expense faced by the migrant workers who journey south from all corners of the country. It is possible to estimate that 20-30 per cent of paid work away from own farms is done in the cities and towns. They have a plethora of activities, from construction labor to blacksmithing, motorcycle-taxi service, market porterage, food selling on the street, and crafts such as cloth weaving or wood sculpture and calabash carving.

Livestock in general, and cattle in particular, are kept in smaller numbers than further north in the country. While some wealthier people raise a handful of cattle in locations in the savannah areas, elsewhere many, especially in the rainforest region, keep no cattle at all. The numbers of other livestock also vary greatly according to individual choice and circumstance. For instance, one household may keep a couple of pigs while another may specialize with up to 30 pigs, with an eye to sales on the urban market. Similarly, most people keep not more than 20 poultry while individual households keep some hundreds as a backyard industry, equally with a view to the urban demand. Again, some households farm the big snails that provide meat for the household and, in fresh or dried form, is highly popular on the market.

The minor rivers and streams offer fish for consumption and sale. The forest areas too offer a wide variety of wild items that are consumed or exploited for sale by poorer people, for instance locust beans, mushrooms, walnuts, honey, snails and bushmeat, including rabbits and the grass-cutter rodent (or greater cane rat Thryonomys swinderianus) that also favors plantations and the leaves of tubers; and firewood is collected and sold, as wood or charcoal. There is some exploitation of hardwood timber and some artisanal surface mining of minerals and stone: feldspar, barite, coal, bitumen, gemstones, gold, marble, talc.



CITRUS FRUIT WITH TUBERS, CEREALS, SOYBEANS AND GROUNDNUTS (NG23)

This zone would be subsumed by its tuber, maize, sorghum or rice producing neighbors, if it were not for intensive citrus production. The suitability of the area for citrus production was recognized as early as the first post-colonial administration when the governor of Northern Nigeria, Sir Ahmadu Bello, looked for investment areas for the Agricultural Development Plan of the time. Although citrus fruits, dominated by oranges, are widely grown in southern and central states (Nigeria is Africa's biggest citrus producer), citrus is the principal cash crop in NG23. It is the country's most concentrated source of the fruit, which is traded mainly to north-central and north Nigeria. Apart from oranges there are grapefruits, tangerines, lemons and lime.

The zone covers eight LGAs in Benue state and two in Taraba. It is within the south guinean agro-ecology with predominantly savannah natural vegetation, and it has a terrain of lowland open plains with fadama areas, and the sandy-loam soils most suitable for citrus cultivation. Average annual rainfall is in a range of 1250-1500mm. Citrus may be the chief cash-crop, but there are others, notably soybeans, groundnuts and sesame. The main food crops, also sold by most farmers, are yams, cassava, upland and lowland rice, maize, and sorghum. Sweet potatoes are also produced. Beyond the zone's internal markets, yams are mainly traded south to big cities (Port Harcourt, Enugu, Lagos), rice is traded to Enugu, Ebonyi and Abia states,

and soybeans go in many directions, including Jos, Benin City and Lagos, and they join the cross-border trade of other commodities with Cameroon. The road network within the zone and from the zone is relatively good. Livestock keeping is relatively secondary in this zone, cattle ownership being rare, and most of the animals – goats, pigs, poultry – tend to be sold in the local markets for local consumption.

Poorer people need to find cash to cover among other things the food they begin purchasing from some six months after the main harvest, especially cereals, including the rice that they prefer but that is the most expensive staple. Their sale mainly of tubers does not by any means fully meet this need, and nor does their second recourse, local paid labor, fully make up the gap. Therefore, they find work in local towns, especially in the dry season months after harvest; but as the locally available employment is not always enough, perhaps one in six workers travels south to work in one of the bigger cities for several weeks, one of the main occupations being motorcycle-taxi service.

Citrus trees are susceptible to fungal diseases that may variously attack leaves or branches or roots, and that continue to affect stored fruit. However, control of disease by spraying appears to be effective enough to control these problems locally. What is reported as the big hazard in the zone is the damage done to food crops as well as citrus seedling nurseries and young orchards by invading animals, especially cattle, of herders who trek their animals down from the north for seasonal grazing and whose animals stray from the agreed 'corridors'.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.5-2 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 sheep, 7 goats, 0-10 pigs, and 10 poultry) Production equipment sometimes hired (power tiller, food processing)

Land (3 to 5 ha) Moderate numbers of livestock (5 sheep, 10 goats, 2 pigs, 25 poultry) Some production equipment owned (power-tiller, threshing, etc.)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Cassava (OP/MP) Yams (OP/MP) Maize (MP/OP) Sorghum (MP/OP) Rice (MP)

Yams (OP) Rice (MP/OP) Cassava (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Animal products (MP/OP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Food crop sales Paid labor Firewood & charcoal sales Cash crop sales (citrus+) Urban work Brick making

Citrus sales Other cash & food crop sales Food processing Poultry sales Goat and sheep sales Trade

Main markets Internal: Lessel, Ushongo, Vandeikya, Ihugh, Adikpo, Korinya, Tyowanye, Akpagher, Ikyobo External (for citrus): Abuja, Jos, Kano, other northern markets

Main hazards and approximate frequency Farmer/herder conflict – every year (Oct – June)



COCOA DOMINANT WITH OIL PALMS, CEREALS AND TUBERS (NG24)

This zone comprises Toungo LGA in Adamawa state and Gashaka and Kurmi LGAs Taraba state. It is one of three livelihood zones in the country where cocoa production is substantial enough to fundamentally define the zone (the others being zones NG26 and NG28 in the southeast and southwest). The zone lies in the foothills of the Mambila mountains and of the western limit of Cameroon's Adamaoua mountain range that forms the border with Nigeria. The modest elevation and high rainfall (averaging 2000+ mm per annum) offer a niche for cocoa production – which benefits also from fertile soils. The zone is relatively sparsely populated.

Other cash crops flourish also in this environment: oil palms, fruits (citrus, mangoes) and groundnuts. All crops are rainfed only. The staple food crops produced are upland rice, maize, yams and cassava. The preferred main staple is rice, and even poorer people, who produce little, typically buy enough to eat it at least as much as the cheaper staples.

Oil palms provide the main secondary crop earnings for wealthier people, who employ workers, including women, to extract the oil from the palm-fruit pulp, using either manually operated presses or the new machines powered by small diesel engines. Women are also highly implicated in the work of harvesting cocoa and extracting and drying the beans for eventual sale to traders. In general, paid work of one kind or another is the mainstay of

the household income of poorer people, although they also sell food crops and small amounts of cash crops. Paid work is overwhelmingly found locally and is overwhelmingly agricultural: cash crop care and/or processing require considerable labor, and there are few local towns of enough size to offer people casual employment in the months of low agricultural activities.

The south guinean savannah environment is conducive to cattle rearing, and wealthier people generally keep upwards of half-a-dozen; but poorer people very rarely possess a single cow, although they do have smaller ruminants. Although the area is technically in the south guinean agro-ecological belt, there are substantial areas of rain forests with trees giving some of the best quality hardwood timber in the country. Some farmers informally use facilities left by old timber estates that used to be involved in timber export to China and elsewhere. Otherwise, the forests offer many products for poorer people to exploit, whether the different wild foods or game for bushmeat that all provide income through marketing. Wider trade in farm produce is hampered by the large distances between the zone and main markets of the country.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.5 - 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 3 sheep, 7 goats) No mechanized equipment used

Land (2 to 4 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 20 cattle, 10 sheep, 15 goats) Power-tiller hired

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Rice (MP/OP) Cassava (OP/MP) Yams (OP/MP) Maize (MP/OP)

Rice (OP) Maize (OP) Cowpeas (MP) Yams (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Petty trade Food crop sales Firewood sales

Cash crop sales Food crop sales Livestock sales Larger-scale trade Food processing (esp. palm-oil extraction)

Main markets Food crops are sold at small markets inside the zone. External to the zone (cocoa and palm oil: Jalingo, Tako, Lagos, Ibadan, and Yola for cross-border trade with Cameroon.

Main hazards and approximate frequency Black pod disease for cocoa – endemic



MAMBILA HIGHLAND: CATTLE, MAIZE, IRISH POTATOES, TEA, COFFEE AND KOLA NUTS (NG25)

This zone covers the single, albeit quite large, LGA of Sardauna, in the far southeast corner of Taraba state. Mambila Plateau, the highest in the country, has an average elevation of about 1,600 masl. Some villages lie as high as 1800 masl, and some mountain peaks are over 2000 masl. The zone is a tourist destination.

The highland terrain is fit for cattle keeping and is also a niche environment for several special crops, of which tea and coffee are the most unusual for Nigeria and the most valuable here. The montane ecology is forested in uncleared parts. Cultivation is on moderately fertile clay loam soils, and rainfall is very high at 2000-2500mm per annum. Crops are rainfed except in swampy areas where there is fadama cultivation.

The zone has the highest concentration of cattle in Nigeria. It is not uncommon for wealthier people to possess 50 head, while a few have twice that number. Cattle outnumber small ruminants here, and wealthier people usually keep no more than about 35 sheep and goats. Their sale of livestock rivals their sale of cash crops for income earned. But wealth here is highly skewed, so that poorer villagers usually possess no cattle at all and fewer than a dozen sheep and goats. And with the very limited land they cultivate, they only have a very small share in the zone's production of cash crops.

The crops grown mainly for home consumption are maize, cowpeas and sweet potatoes. But rice is the preferred cereal for consumption, and as it is not grown in the highland, it must be bought. Wealthier people can afford to have it as their main staple; poorer people can only afford to eat it more occasionally, and maize is their firm staple. Irish potatoes, the signature food crop of highland areas, are probably sold as much as consumed, as are the sweet bananas, plantain and special fruit such as pears. Of the main cash crops, tea is chiefly traded to Lagos and Kano, and to Yola which mediates a main trade route into Cameroon. Coffee goes mainly to Lagos and Irish potatoes have a market in Jalingo. These commodities are also traded into Cameroon, as are livestock. The big livestock collection markets in the zone are at Mayo Ndaga and Nguroje, and the destination of most livestock is south to fill the insatiable demand of the great urban populations. This guarantees high prices for the livestock producers. The forests offer hardwood timber for processing by some wealthier people and trading out of the zone. Poorer people exploit the wild plant foods and honey and game, for sale as well as for consumption.

Conflict with herders because of animal damage to crops is almost ubiquitous in Nigeria today. But this zone has seen a different form of farmer-herder conflict. There is a history of traditional herders buying land in the zone to set up ranches and exploit the exceptional grazing of this environment. But as the local farming population has increased, so has their need for cultivable land. Communities have tried to get back the land acquired by herders, and conflict has resulted that has recently caused fatalities.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.5 - 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 6 sheep, 9 goats) No mechanized production equipment

Land (2 to 5 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (50 cattle, 15 sheep, 18 goats) No mechanized production equipment

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Maize (OP/MP) Irish potatoes (OP/MP) Beans (OP/MP) Rice (MP)

Rice (MP) Maize (OP) Irish potatoes (OP) Beans (OP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Modest food and cash crop sales Petty trade Firewood sales Brick making

Cash crop sales Cattle sales Sheep and goat sales Food crop sales

Main markets Internal to the zone: Gembu, Mayo Ndaga, Nguroje External to the zone: Yola, Jalingo, Kano, Lagos, Cameroon

Main hazards and approximate frequency Farmer-herder conflict - yearly



CROSS RIVER COCOA WITH OIL PALMS, TUBERS, RICE AND PLANTAINS (NG26)

This zone comprises Boki, Etung and Ikom LGAs in Cross River state. It extends from the northern edge of the hills containing the Cross River National Park, and it lies partly on the last of these hills and partly in lower-lying terrain. The ecology is both rainforest (with mangroves bordering the waterways – the tributaries of the River Cross) and derived savannah, that is, areas that have long been cleared of forest and have taken on permanently the character of natural savannah. The combination of elevation, fertile clay-loam soil, and high rainfall – 2200-2500mm per annum – offers a niche area for cocoa.

The zone is in fact the most cocoa-oriented of all in the country, and land is dedicated to cocoa to the extent that separate land for food crops is limited, and cassava, yams and cocoyams, and pulses including bambara nuts (Vigna subterranea) are commonly planted as 'nurse crops' among the cocoa trees before these reach the fruit production stage at around four years. Another tree, oil palm, gives the palm oil that is the second most important agricultural cash earner here. The environment also provides something of a niche area for plantain, which is both a food crop and a cash crop; and limited amounts of upland rice are produced and smaller amounts of maize. The zone is essentially self-sufficient in food crops rather than a surplus producer, although it brings in on the market quantities of rice, whether from the surrounding, rice producing zone NG27 or cheaper-quality imported rice.

Nearly all farmers, except those with the very smallest landholdings, cultivate cocoa. The harvest is largely taken in November, and post-harvest processing of the crop involves considerable work in extracting the fresh beans from the fruit pulp and drying them. Much care is taken over the drying of the beans, because this critically affects the final quality of the product and therefore the producer price. Today drying machines are much in much, so that reliance is not just on exposure of beans to the sun (when the beans must be brought into the house or store every evening to prevent wetting by rainfall or dew). Cocoa is bought up by licensed cocoa buyers and merchants; the export is via Lagos port.

Commodity processing as paid work also includes the extraction of palm oil and the fermenting and drying of cassava for gari production. Some people buy groundnuts from the neighboring zone to press oil from them for sale. Household enterprise among wealthier people also involves fish farming: ponds are dug where clay-rich earth forms an effective lining; otherwise ponds may be lined with concrete, or they may even be manufactured, collapsible polygon ponds. Pond owners cultivate anything from 500 to 5000 fish for sale in the year; even some poorer people may manage to produce and sell 100 fish or more – a significant addition to their tight budgets. All these production activities, whether field crops, tree crops, processing or fish farming, require considerable labor, and the bigger producers need to hire laborers for several months of the year, reaching a peak at cocoa

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.2 - 1.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 10 sheep, 15 goats, 10 pigs, 25 poultry) Some mechanical equipment owned (cocoa bean dryers, gari processing)

Land (2 to 5 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 20 sheep, 50 goats, 20 pigs, poultry in the 100s) Fish ponds Some mechanical equipment owned (cocoa bean dryers, palm oil extraction, food processing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Cassava (OP) Yam (OP) Plantain (OP) Beans (PM)

Rice (MP/OP) Yams (OP) Plantain (OP) Fish (MP) Beans (MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Cash crop sales Sheep, goat and pig sales Poultry sales Firewood sales

Cash crop sales Sheep/goat sales Poultry sales Larger-scale trade

Main markets Internal to the zone: Okundi, Ikom Main, Effraya External to the zone: Lagos (cocoa)

Main hazards and approximate frequency Fungal disease on coffee – endemic, periodic peaks Delays in rainfall – every 2 years (May) More severe rain failure – every 5 years (May-Sept) Flooding – every 5 years (June-Aug) Landslides – every 5+ years (July-Aug)



harvest time. The poorer the household, the more likely it is that their primary income is from this paid labor. But local labor is not enough, and producers also employ considerable numbers of incoming, migrant workers too.

Although virtually no cattle are kept, goats and sheep are numerous: even poorer households may have as many as 20, together with half a dozen pigs, and wealthier people tend to keep many more small ruminants and pigs. It is common for wealthier people also to keep large numbers of poultry as a backyard enterprise – sometimes many hundreds. Livestock sales generally provide the second biggest part of households' incomes across the board.

Black pod fungal disease on cocoa can destroy as much as 40% of a harvest. Floods are a rarer hazard, but as cocoa trees take about four years to start fruiting, the loss of an established plantation to flooding (or landslide) is likely to be a bigger blow than the loss of part of one year's harvest to disease.



SOUTHEAST RICE DOMINANT WITH CASSAVA, YAMS AND OIL PALMS (NG27)

This is a large southern zone covering many LGAs in Ebonyi, Cross River and Enugu states plus a couple in Anambra and Abia. The ecology is derived savannah and rain forest, and rainfall is in a range from north to south of 1500-2000mm per annum. The clay and sandy loam soils are moderately fertile, although repeated use of the same land for rice cultivation results in a strong requirement for chemical fertilizers. There is a plethora of swampy areas where the water and residual moisture in the soil can be used for rice paddies. Irrigation accounts for about 30% of rice production while 70% is rainfed. Ebonyi is at the heart of this zone and is particularly associated with the high quality 'Abakaliki rice'. In terms of the volume of rice production over the last decade, this small state has stood beside the far larger states in the central and northern regions that are major rice producers. The zone is important in the government's quest for increased national rice production (until recently, at least, imported rice accounted for some half of rice consumed in the country). Farmers in the zone have been given help with improved seed varieties and other material and technical matters. The major milling facilities at Enugu city deal with rice from far beyond the present zone.

It is the primacy of rice production and trade that essentially differentiates this zone from the bigger zone NG22 - the 'default' cassava-dominated zone of the south. The two zones both straddle the savannah or derived

savannah and rainforest ecologies, and they share many crops, including not only cassava as the first staple for most people, but also yams and cocoyams (taro), and oil palms and cashews as cash earners – as well rice itself. Rice is the preferred staple over most of Nigeria (and not only in the towns and cities that account for half the population), hence the importation of millions of tons each year; but it is also the most expensive cereal. In zone NG27, as elsewhere, even the middle-income villagers who produce and sell rice may not give it first place in their staples consumption, let alone an exclusive place, and other cereals as well as tubers figure prominently in their diet. Also, when people purchase rice, even in the present zone, it is not only or even always mainly local rice, but rather imported rice. Many people who can afford it prefer the long grain unbroken rice that is the higher quality import, while there is some price competition between local rice and cheaper quality imported

Livestock raising is an important part of the rural economy. The most valuable animals are the humpless, short-horn muturu cattle indigenous to the rainforest and southernmost savannah areas of Nigeria. Wealthier household may have 20 of these, and some households many more, while even some poorer households manage to keep one or two alongside a dozen sheep and goats. Poultry-keeping is something of a backyard industry for wealthier people. Herds of the humped Fulani cattle are seasonally present in the zone as they are

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.5 ha or less) Small numbers of livestock (0-2 cattle, 6 sheep, 10 goats, 25 poultry, 4 pigs) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (3 to 5 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (20+ cattle, 60 sheep and goats, poultry in the 100s) Limited mechanical equipment owned (food processing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Cassava (OP) Cocoyams (OP) Sweet potato (OP) Yams (OP/MP) Maize (MP/OP) Rice (IK/OP)

Cassava (OP/MP) Rice (OP) Yams (OP) Meat (OP/MP) Fish (MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Rice sales Paid labor Cash crop sales Petty trade Firewood sales

Rice sales Cash crop sales Cattle and small ruminant sales Poultry sales Larger-scale trade

Main markets Internal to the zone: Onitsha, Ogbete/Afor Ugbawka, Abakaliki/Eke Afigbo, Okpoma (Yala) External to the zone: Port Harcourt, Abuja

Main hazards and approximate frequency Flooding – every 3 years (Jun/July-Sept/Oct) Farmer-herder conflict – every year (April-Oct) Gall midge on rice – every 5 years (Aug/Sept) Communal conflict – every 5 years (Feb-April) Delay in rainfall – every 2 years (April-May)



trekked down from the north for grazing. These stray from the agreed 'corridors' onto cultivated fields, causing damage frequent enough and great enough to cause serious conflict between farmers and herders.

Agricultural ministry estimates give the average rice yield in the states where this zone lies as around 2 – 2.15 tons per hectare. A poorer farmer who cultivates less than half-a-hectare of rice will sell most of it to buy cheaper staples, but even so this will not cover the household requirement to purchased food as well as other necessities, nor will the sale of small volumes of cash crops and a handful of animals. Therefore, poorer households must have one or more members engaged in paid labor on other farms as the second most important source of cash, if not the most important. Apart from this there are labor opportunities beyond the farms, whether in food processing, or collecting and selling forest items from wild plant foods and honey to bushmeat including grass-cutters (cane rats). Cash is also to be found in quarrying for gravel, artisanal mining of lead and cutting rock-salt or salt deposits at saline lakes.



SOUTHWEST COCOA WITH OIL PALMS, TUBERS AND CEREALS (NG28) This is the biggest of the three cocoa-based livelihood zones and the one with the longest history of cocoa cultivation (the others being NG24 center-east and NG26 in the southeast). The zone is a combination of discrete parts together covering many LGAs in Osun, Ondo and Ekiti, and a single LGA in the far south of Oyo (Oluyole). Nigeria is the fourth largest producer of cocoa in the world and the third largest exporter after Ivory Coast and Ghana. Cocoa is the country's highest earning agricultural export, but in recent decades investment in its production, processing and marketing has taken a distinctly second place to the petroleum industry. The southwest produces well over half of the country's cocoa, but the industry suffers from ageing plantations, low mechanization, high spoilage, and pest and disease attacks, especially the black pod fungus that is difficult to control by farmers who can hardly afford to apply the expensive chemicals required. Cocoa productivity – the efficiency and quality of production and therefore its profitability for the farmer - has been in decline.

Lying in the humid forest ecology, the terrain of the zone is lowland and open plains. The loamy clay soils are reasonably fertile, and annual rainfall is in the range 1100-1300mm. Although the rainfall regime - the amount of rain and length of the rainy season from May to October – are very conducive to cocoa production, the trees are particularly sensitive to variations from the regularities of the season, whether

dry spells or excessive rainfall, either of which affects the quality of the harvested beans. The great majority of farmers cultivate less than two hectares, and for the poorer people it is usually less than half-a-hectare. For those who possess only a fraction of a hectare to put under cocoa, sharecropping is a widely used option. They work on someone else's land and take one-third of the harvest, the rest going to the landowner who, however, contributes to production equipment and inputs. Otherwise, bigger landowners need to employ numbers of laborers for this labor-intensive production, from tending plant nurseries and transplanting seedlings (after which trees must grow for four years before first fruiting), to weeding and general care of both young and established plantations, and then the November harvest and beyond. The processing of the beans is lengthy and demanding, requiring the pods to be broken and the contents – pulp with beans at the center – to be slightly fermented underweight for the main liquid to drain off, before the sun-drying process can begin (few farmers possess mechanized drying equipment). Licensed agents attached to processing/export companies buy the beans at the farm gate or from farmer' cooperatives, inspecting the product for quality and pricing it accordingly.

As regards other production, the main staple crop is cassava, backed up by yams and maize, and cowpeas are grown as a standard accompaniment for meals, as well as vegetables. Rice is grown but mostly sold, finally reaching the Lagos market. All the cocoa is transported by the agents to Lagos for export. The reasonable

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.1 - 0.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (less than 2 sheep, 2 goats, 5 poultry, 3 pigs) No mechanical equipment owned

Land (2 to 3 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 7 sheep, 10 goats, 20 poultry, 10 pigs) Limited mechanical equipment owned (food processing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Cassava (IK/OP) Yam (IK/MP) Maize (OP) Rice (IK) Cowpea (MP/IK) Vegetables (GA/MP)

Cassava (OP/MP) Yam (OP/MP) Maize (OP/MP) Rice (OP/MP) Cowpea (OP/MP) Vegetables (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor/share cropping Petty trade Sheep/goat sales Food crop sales

Cash crop sales Food crop sales Sheep/goat sales Poultry sales Large-scale trade

Main markets Internal to the zone: Oje, Ogbese, Odo Ori, Elegbeka, Shasha External to the zone: N/A

Main hazards and approximate frequency Crop damage from migrating northern cattle – every year Erratic rainfall – every year (year-round) Price instability – every year (year-round) Cocoa black pod disease – every year (rainy season)



proximity of the huge Lagos market-demand guarantees the highest prices for such livestock as people can sell – sheep, goats, pigs, poultry. But even wealthier people keep no cattle.

For poorer people who need for their survival more cash than they can get from their crop and livestock sales and agricultural laboring, money can be made from the bounty of the forest: wild foods (mushrooms, fruits, honey), snails and game for bushmeat, and firewood. Palm oil processing from wild groves is also a major activity. In addition, the towns and the great cities of the highly urbanized southwest offer rural people seasonal employment after their harvest in many sectors, including construction, blacksmithing, plumbing, welding, transport (motorcycle-taxi driver), domestic service, and as shop attendants, barbers' assistants, and ambulant snack retailers, and as petty traders/hawkers.



SOUTHWEST RICE, CASSAVA AND CATTLE WITH CROSS-BORDER TRADE (NG29)

This small zone is in four western LGAs of Ogun state to the northwest of Lagos city, nestling between the border with Benin and the large, cassava-dominant zone (NG22). The central yams and maize belt (NG20) lies to the north. The ecology of the zone is derived savannah. This is a productive agricultural zone with complementary livestock rearing and trading activities.

The zone’s topography is low-lying and made up of open savannah plains with depressions where groundwater gives the opportunity for fadama rice to be grown. Local natural resources include timber, mineral deposits (quartz and limestone), wild foods, game and fish. The local soils are loamy and considered to be of moderate fertility. Population density is medium – and much lower than in the adjacent peri-urban zone of Lagos. Annual rainfall ranges between 1200-1350 mm and fall between May and October. July, August and September are the months with the heaviest rainfall. While there is only a single agricultural season, rice, maize and cassava may produce a second ‘late harvest’.

Rice is a major crop, which partly distinguishes this zone from its neighbors. It is mainly rainfed, but there is also irrigated production, e.g. near the Abeokuta river. Cassava and maize are the other big staples, and in fact for most people the main staples, as much of the rice is sold. Cashews and palm oil are secondary cash earners, and there is

substantial market gardening of vegetables. Cereals are harvested between September and December and the harvest for cashews and oil palm peaks at the end of the year. Cattle are the most important livestock, but households also own poultry, sheep and goats and pigs. The grazing in this zone is an extension of the cattle-favoring natural savannah of zone NG20, and the zone is visited seasonally by Fulani herders from the north taking their cattle on seasonal migration. At these times the Fulani herds outnumber the local cattle; the frequent straying of the visitors' cattle into cultivated fields has led to farmer-herder conflict that has increased markedly in recent years. However, some Fulani have settled permanently in the zone.

Other important activities beyond farming include timber processing and brick-making during the dry season, tourism related activities, motorcycle-taxi transport (okada) and crafts (e.g. tie-dying). Households also sell firewood and charcoal and wild foods (e.g. mushrooms, palm wine, honey, game and freshwater fish) at different times of the year, as they become available, to supplement their farming income. There is year-round cross-border trade with the Benin Republic, where cattle are in especially high demand; but the trade is two-way, and rice is traded in, as well as cloth and clothes from Benin's cotton industry. Food crop sales (maize and cassava) are the main source of income for all households. Poorer households also rely on paid agricultural labor and petty trading. Wealthier households sell cash crops (cashews, rice and larger volumes of cassava), small stock and poultry and, less frequently, cattle.

Access to land in its various forms (upland and lowland plots and grazing land) is the primary local determinant

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (1-1.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (1-2 cattle, 4 sheep, 9 goats, 2 pigs, 9 poultry)

Land (3-5 ha) Moderate numbers of livestock (4-6 cattle, 12 sheep, 14 goats, 20 poultry, 8 pigs)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Cassava (OP/MP) Maize (OP/MP) Rice (MP/OP)

Rice (OP/MP) Cassava (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Animal products (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor Sale of food crops Sale of small livestock Sale of firewood/charcoal Petty trading

Sale of food crops Sale of cash crops Sale of sheep and goats Sale of cattle Cross-border trading

Main markets Internal to the zone: Abeokuta, Sango-Ota (cassava) External to the zone: Lagos (cassava, maize, rice, and charcoal), Benin Republic (cassava, cattle)

Main hazards and approximate frequency Erratic rainfall patterns – annual basis over past 10 years Flooding – during heavy rainfall Crop disease/pests (stem borer, armyworm) – annual basis over past 2 years (March to July) Crop damage by visiting cattle herds -> Farmer-herder conflict



of wealth. Poorer households cultivate up to 1.5 hectares (including irrigated rice) while wealthier households typically cultivate 3-5 ha.). The majority of households use hired tractors or power-tillers and mechanical threshers, but it is only wealthier households who have sufficient capital to hire agricultural laborers, most often from local poorer households. Rice is a labor- and input- intensive crop and only wealthier households can produce sufficient amounts for both family consumption and sale. Yet even these households purchase rice during the year: they want to realize the capital from their harvest immediately to fund trading activities and for other purposes, and they calculate that it is worth selling the greater part of their rice harvest early and then purchasing rice later in the year to make up for the shortfall created.

All households own livestock as a complementary income generation activity but generally herd sizes are small. Poorer households own 1-2 cows and 8-15 sheep and goats, 1-2 pigs and some chickens. Wealthier households typically own no more than 4-6 cattle and 10-25 sheep and goats, 3-8 pigs and poultry. While they sell small ruminants and pigs and poultry on a yearly basis, they may not wish to sell cattle every year. Poorer households will only sell cattle in times of exceptional need.

Despite geographical proximity to Lagos, market access is considered only average due to the poor state of the local infrastructure and because of seasonal access problems when localized flooding is common. The main products sold locally are rice, cassava, maize, oil palm and vegetables. These are also sold in Lagos; whose market demand is a magnet for all commodities. Animals and animal products (especially eggs) are sold locally and transported to Lagos. Cowpeas, tomatoes and peppers are sourced from northern Nigeria. In terms of labor markets, most of the local demand is for farming labor, however labor opportunities can be found off-farm and in local towns, as well as in Lagos.



CASHEWS WITH OIL PALMS, TUBERS AND MAIZE (NG30)

This zone straddles the south of Kogi state and the northwest of Enugu state, reaching the two northernmost LGAs of Abia state. As such, the zone straddles also south guinean savannah, derived savannah and rainforest ecologies. Soils are mainly sandy or sandy loam with some clay loam; annual rainfall ranges from 1300mm to 1800mm from north to south.

It is derived savannah that is perhaps at the heart of the zone, as cashew plantations were found to be a profitable way of using relatively infertile and often marginal and eroded land left by decades of forest clearing for lumber. Indeed, cashew plantations have historically been associated with afforestation schemes for the control of erosion. The exploitation of the oil palms, in wild or planted groves, follows the same logic. Cashews are also widely grown in central Nigeria and to an extent elsewhere in southern Nigeria, but this is the area of the country where livelihoods depend most directly on cashew production.

Cashew nuts are prized as a snack food in Nigeria and abroad (the nuts must be roasted before consumption to rid them of a toxin). In the harvested pod, the pulp covering the kernel with the nut inside is appreciated as a sweet fruit. The nuts can be processed into cashew butter and cheese; the pulp can be made into a fruit drink or even a liquor; and the kernel shells can be used in the manufacture of paints and lubricants, although Nigeria lags far behind

other major cashew nut producing countries in profiting from the use of kernels. This is because the cashews are mostly purchased for export as pods that are processed in the destination country: mainly India, also European countries and the USA. There is little processing in Nigeria beyond the requirement for retailing the nuts in local markets. The cashews are sold by farmers directly to agents of exporting companies, and the Enugu 9th Mile market is an important base for cashew traders. Palm oil is a near rival to cashews as a generator of income in the zone and possibly exceeds cashews in several locations; but recently the concentration on cashew production reduced palm oil extraction to the extent of creating a local market shortage of palm oil and a consequent price hike.

The main staple foods produced are cassava, yams and maize, while other crops include bambara nuts, cowpeas and sesame. There is limited, localized production of plantain, sweet bananas, cocoa and rubber. All food crops are sold in local markets for local consumption; the zone hardly trades out these commodities, and indeed it imports yams from Benue and Nasarawa and maize and cowpeas from northern Nigeria. Livestock are kept and marketed in very modest numbers – small ruminants, pigs, poultry. Cattle are not raised except for some muturu cattle kept by a few households. Forest products that are exploited include timber, wild foods, snails and game.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.5 to 2 ha) Small numbers of livestock (up to 2 sheep, 5 goats, 10 pigs, 10 poultry) No production equipment owned

Land (3 to 5 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 10 sheep, 10 goats, 30 poultry, 40 pigs) Limited production equipment owned (power-tiller)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Cassava (OP) Maize (OP) Yam (OP) Rice (MP)

Cassava (OP) Maize (OP) Rice (OP/MP) Yam (OP/MP) Beef (MP) Poultry (MP/OP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Cash crop sales Food crop sales Paid labor Petty trade Brick making

Food crop sales Cash crop sales Food processing Sheep/goat sales

Main markets Internal markets – Ayingba, Ejule, Ogugu, Ankpa External markets – Enugu, Lokoja, Okene, Port Harcourt, Jamata, Lagos, Kabba, Abuja, Kano

Main hazards and approximate frequency Palm oil price volatility – 2016 (July-Sept) Crop pest/disease (army worm) – 2017 (July-Aug)



LAGOS PERI-URBAN: FISHING, POULTRY, PIGGERIES, MARKET GARDENING AND COCONUTS (NG31)

This small but densely-populated zone extends from the edges of Lagos city into the coastal belt: east to the border with the Benin Republic (Badagary LGA), and west to encompass both the coast itself and the shores of the Lagos lagoon and the lake/lagoon further east (Lekki and Epe LGAs), then edging to the coastal belt proper (zone NG32). The zone is bounded in the north by the cassava-dominant zone NG22.

Peri-urban Lagos is in the humid forest and mangrove agro-ecological zone. The topography behind the ocean shore is lowland plain with riverine and lagoon areas, and the natural vegetation cover is of mangrove and rainforest. These offer resources of firewood (and therefore charcoal) from the mangroves, inland fresh water and salt water fish and crustaceans, game and other wild foods including honey. The zone is endowed with petroleum and mineral deposits. The local soil is a mixture of sandy loams and some loamy clay. Overall, soil fertility is considered moderate. Annual rainfall ranges from 1400 to 2100 mm, falling between April and October, but peaking between June and July and allowing two cycles for maize and vegetables.

The local economy is fundamentally affected by the immediate proximity of Nigeria's (and Africa's) biggest city with its huge market demand for all commodities, and with prices for the peri-urban producers boosted by the lack of the transport discounts that are suffered by more distant producers. Some of the artisanal fishing, shallow-sea as well as inland,

is performed by vocational fishers who may not cultivate more than a kitchen garden. Farming, on the land available, concentrates on production that brings the highest financial profit rather than primarily on food production – farms are more small businesses than subsistence operations with complementary sales. Among wealthier households generally there is substantial production of smaller livestock, including sheep and goats, but individual households may specialize in certain animals – one may keep as many as 50 pigs, another may maintain a backyard poultry industry with 500+ hens. Still others engage in fish farming, selling from 500 to 1000 fish in a year; even some poorer households produce upwards of 200 fish. Cattle-keeping is much more limited in this crowded environment with very limited open grazing, but it is not unusual for even poorer people to own a cow, while some wealthier households may keep as many as twenty head, for dairy and for sale to town

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (around 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (0-2 cattle, around 6 sheep and 6 goats, 20 poultry, up to 5 pigs) Power tiller hired Canoe and fishing nets owned either individually or shared

Land (2 to 3 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (individuals variously keep up to 20 cattle, 30 sheep, 30 goats, 500 poultry, 50 pigs) Tractor/power tiller owned or hired Canoe and fishing nets Individual or cooperative share of maritime boat with outboard motor

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Cassava (OP/IK) Yams (MP) Maize (MP/OP) Rice (OP/MP) Fish (OP/IK) Vegetables (OP/IK)

Rice (OP/MP) Cassava (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Fish (OP/MP) Pulses (MP) Vegetables (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Sale of fish Paid agricultural and fishing labor Sale of poultry Sale of processed foods Crafts sales Firewood/charcoal sales Petty trade

Sale of fish Sale of poultry, other livestock Sale of processed foods Cross-border and large-scale trade Boat construction and repair

Main markets Internal to the zone: Oke-Aro, Oyingbo, farmgate markets External to the zone: Ketu Mile 12, Oko-oba Agege, Lyana Iba (Lagos markets)

Main hazards and approximate frequency Erratic rainfall patterns – annual basis over past 10 years Crop disease/pests (stem borer, armyworm) – every two years (April to July) Tuta absoluta on tomatoes - past 2 years, rainy season Flooding – during heavy rainfall Crop damage by migratory cattle intrusion -> farmer-herder conflict Avian influenza – every five years or so



butchers. The main staple food produced is cassava, and there is also maize and fadama rice. As regards tree crops, while there are some oil palms and plantain, the big item is coconut palms, so well adapted to coastal conditions. Newly planted coconut groves take five years to mature, after which the coconuts are harvested all year round. In addition, market gardening is a lucrative, if labor-intensive, way to use limited areas of land, especially fadama land. Poor households mainly use manual agricultural tools but some hire power-tillers and food processing machines. Wealthier households often own different types of mechanical equipment, except for tractors, which they hire.

Dugout canoes and nets are used for inland fishing. Sea fishing is organized in maritime cooperatives: groups of farmers who come together to purchase outboard motor boats often with the support of government loans with favorable repayment plans. They fish together, and the costs and benefits are shared out. Households who are part of fishing cooperatives have better access to all three variables and can rely on the income derived from this activity more heavily.

Fish sales are the main source of income for many households, followed by crop and animal sales and the sale of processed foods. Much of the food processing (fufu, gari and lafun from cassava, coconut oil, fish smoking) provides paid occupations especially for women. There is also money to be made from artisanal products and crafts (e.g. nets and boats and their repairs, basket weaving and soap production from plantain or coconut pods with added coloring). Wealthier households also profit from general trading opportunities between the zone and the city. Additional income generating activities available to local households are agricultural labor, brick making, tourism related services, firewood sales and transport services. Households with sufficient capital can engage in timber processing and larger-scale cross-border trade with Benin, including vegetables and processed cassava.

Most of the labor market is local and agricultural, followed by local off-farm labor and urban labor. Only 20% of labor carried out by households living in the zone is outside the zone, mainly in Lagos, where every kind of unskilled or semi-skilled work can be found, from motorcycle-taxi service to barber's or blacksmith's assistant, and from street hawking of snack foods to market porterage.



COASTAL STRIP AND NIGER DELTA: INLAND AND COASTAL FISHING, CASSAVA, PLANTAIN, OIL PALMS AND RUBBER (NG32)

This zone spans the length of Nigeria’s coastline from the eastern edge of the Lagos peri-urban zone (NG31) to the international border with Cameroon. The coastal 'belt' thickens substantially in the middle stretch where it contains the Niger Delta with the estuary up to Onitsha. The zone covers LGAs or parts of LGAs in Ondo, Bayelsa, Rivers, Anambra, Akwa Ibom and Cross River states.

Behind the coast itself the ecology is lowland rainforest, but there are many inlets of greater or lesser reach inland that are lined with mangroves, as are the waterways of the Delta.

The rural population live primarily by a combination of fishing and rainfed field crop cultivation, with also tree crops – oil palm, bananas, plantain. Soil fertility is moderate, with a mixture of clay, loamy and alluvial soils. Natural resources include crude oil, timber, rubber and wild foods, including fish and game. Annual precipitation averages around 2500 mm over a single, long rainy season spanning March to October, with peak rainfall in July. Population density for the zone is low to medium.

The local economy relies on a mixture of fishing, farming and some degree of trading for all households independent of their level of wealth. Fishing is mainly carried out inland, in the river estuaries upstream, along the mangroves, and in creeks. Coastal

fishing hugs the shore: real maritime fishing requires motorized boats and big dragnets which are out of the reach of most local households. Inland fishing takes place throughout the year, but it becomes more difficult once the rains have filled the rivers; then when the flows are slower, and levels diminish, peak fish catches are obtained in October and early November. Common species caught include catfish and tilapia and a variety of crustaceans (lobster, crabs and prawns). Aquaculture is also widespread in the zone. Poorer households with small catches, or shares of catches as payment for fishing labor, may sell the fresh fish directly to local consumers daily. But given the very perishable nature of fish, selling larger amounts of fresh fish requires the seller to live near enough a substantial town, with sufficient customers to be able to sell the fish within a day, whether directly in the market or to retailers. For most fishers who are not in this situation, and especially in the season of peak catches, the recourse is to preserve the fish through smoking, or less often drying, which allows the fish to be stored and sold in bulk to traders at the village gate, so to speak, or to retailers in markets. Fishing is a men's activity while women take care of the smoking and marketing. Poorer households do not typically own fishing equipment and must hire canoes and nets from their wealthier counterparts. Payment for hire is often in cash or with a share of the daily catch. Poorer households also work as fishing labor for these households. Wealthier households use their own equipment and since they have access to hired fishing labor to support their activity, the volumes of fish caught can be considerably larger than for poorer fishers.

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.2 to 1 ha) Small numbers of livestock (less than 2 goats, 5 poultry) Sometimes canoe and fishing net No mechanical equipment owned

Land (up to 2 ha) Modest numbers of livestock (up to 2 sheep, 7 goats, 15 poultry, 5 pigs) Dugout canoes and nets Fish culture ponds Some mechanical equipment owned

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Cassava (OP/barter) Fish (OP) Plantain (OP) Yam (MP/OP) Rice (MP) Cowpeas (MP)

Rice (MP) Cassava (OP/MP) Plantain (OP) Yam (OP/MP) Meat (OP/MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Sale of fish/seafood Fishing and agricultural labor Sale of firewood/charcoal Petty trading

Sale of fish/seafood Food crop, palm oil and rubber sales Food processing/marketing Timber sale Larger-scale trading

Main markets Internal to the zone: Swali, Ogberikoko, Ikang, and Ibaka fish markets; Calabar Beach market External to the zone: N/A

Main hazards and approximate frequency Oil pollution (pipeline leaks at sea and inland) – every 1 or 2 years Flooding – every three years (Sep-Nov); last extreme flooding event in 2012



Virtually all households own agricultural land, but cultivated areas are small by general Nigerian standards: poorer households cultivate between 0.2 and one hectare per season, while wealthier households cultivate not more than two hectares. Wealthier households can hire tractors for land preparation and may have their own chainsaws for timber cutting. Farmers grow cassava, plantains, maize, yams and vegetables (in that order in terms of volume of production). These crops are mainly grown for household consumption and a small amount of sales. Most households also have oil palms and some households grow rubber trees. The production of latex requires considerable investment and a delay in returns until the trees reach maturity for tapping; therefore, rubber trees are more common among wealthier households. Cassava is the chief staple food in the zone. Poorer household often exchange fish for additional cassava once their own production is exhausted. Wealthier households can afford to consume more rice, a preferred but more expensive staple, which they must usually obtain entirely from the market as rice is little produced here. Most households produce sufficient plantains for family consumption but supplement any yam production with purchases.

The typical animals kept in the zone are poultry, goats and sheep and pigs. But they are kept in very small numbers across the board and bring little income. Typical cash-earning activities besides fishing and fishing labor include cassava processing, palm oil extraction, palm wine processing, crafts (basket weaving, thatching), canoe carving (out of the local mahogany logs), selling firewood or charcoal (especially mangrove wood), manual sand or gravel dredging, and petty trading.

Market access across the zone is considered average and worsens the further away from Lagos. The main road linking Lagos, Benin City and Port Harcourt lies beyond the zone. Additionally, the lack of storage facilities and refrigerated transport for fresh fish is a major disadvantage for the development of the local fishing industry. The main goods traded locally are cassava, plantains and yams. Plantains are also sold outside of the zone, in the neighboring zones and major cities. The rice purchased is largely imported, coming from Lagos, while cowpeas and tomatoes come down from the major producer areas in the north of the country. Animals are generally sold locally as the volume of trade is low; most butchered beef on sale is from animals trucked or trekked down from the north. Dugout canoes, firewood, timber and sharp sand are sold locally. The hardwood timber is also sold internationally; wealthier local households are the ones to benefit from the export market. There is a considerable local market for fishing labor and for agricultural labor. Labor opportunities are also available in local towns and cities, with labor in local towns typically peaking in January - the height of the 'lean' season when there is also low demand for local agricultural labor. Perhaps surprisingly, only around one in six workers are thought to go seasonally to the big cities outside the zone, such as Port Harcourt and Lagos.

The location of Africa’s most important oil-producing region partly within the zone means that it is also one of the most polluted areas. Oil leaks and spills have been damaging the environment and the local livelihoods for decades and continue to do so on an almost annual basis.



SOUTHEAST CASSAVA, CEREALS AND OIL PALMS WITH EXTENSIVE OFF-FARM WORK AND TRADE (NG33)

This zone in the far southeast of Nigeria covers LGAs in Abia, Anambra, Delta, Imo and Rivers states, together with a single LGA in Cross River. It is part of the wide area of southern and south-central Nigeria that is dominated by cassava cultivation, otherwise represented most extensively by the far larger zone NG22. But what particularly distinguishes NG33 is the density of its rural population, which stands out as the highest in the country in a zone with also a particularly high proportion of urban population, if not also the highest in the country (apart from Lagos state). The two facts are not-unrelated. Rural populations are particularly dense in wide areas fanning out from nearly all the country's big cities, and this phenomenon adds particularly to the density in this concentrated zone. But there are surely other historical social, cultural and political reasons too. At all events, the limited and fragmented land available to people, although devoted mainly to tuber crops that yield a good amount of staple food per unit area, is insufficient to provide for the great majority of farmers all the food or cash crops that would guarantee a livelihood, and to an unusual degree they subsidize their livelihoods with off-farm earnings.

The zone is essentially within the humid forest agro-ecology, crossed by minor and major rivers including the Orash and the Imo. The topography is characterized by low plains. Natural vegetation cover is relatively dense and includes forests and wild oil palm groves, hampering mechanical land preparation. Natural resources include crude oil, minerals (such as kaolinite and stone quarries),

rubber, wild foods (including honey, oil palm fruit and fish) and firewood. Annual rainfall is around 2300mm to 2500mm. The sandy loam soils are only moderately fertile in general and production is only rainfed and with a single season (facts that indicate that population density is not the result of exceptional agricultural resources and productivity).

The agriculture is overwhelmingly for subsistence, although some cash crops are grown and some of the food crops are sold. Apart from cassava, households grow maize and yams and small amounts of rice. Maize is very commonly intercropped with tubers, saving other land for other uses. Melons are also intercropped with yams (melon seed provides a minor cash crop for crushing and use as egusi sauce). Households also grow oil palms - households with insufficient land for their own plantations collect these fruits from wild groves. There are some pockets of cocoa and cashew production across the zone. Only small numbers of livestock are owned – small ruminants, pigs, poultry (some wealthier households maintain a backyard industry with 100 or so hens). Cattle ownership is unusual even among wealthier households; but the zone is a destination for Fulani herders trekking

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (around 0.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (around 2 sheep, 5 goats, 3 pigs, 15 poultry) Some mechanical food processing equipment owned

Land (1 to 2 ha) Modest numbers of livestock (up to 5 sheep, 10 goats, 15 poultry, 6 pigs, 20 to 100 poultry) Tractor hired, mechanical food processing equipment owned

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Cassava (OP/MP) Yams (OP/MP) Maize (MP/OP) Rice (MP) Vegetables (MP/OP) Cowpeas/smoked fish (MP)

Cassava (OP/MP) Rice (MP/OP) Yams (OP/MP) Maize (MP) Vegetables (OP/MP) Cowpeas (MP) Meat/fresh & smoked fish(MP)


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid agricultural work Sale of food/cash crops Food processing work & retail Urban work & petty trade Sale of cash crops Brick making Sale of firewood

Sale of food crops Sale of cash crops Trade in processed foods (gari, palm oil) Other trade Temporary urban occupations Sometimes remittances

Main markets Internal to the zone: Ndioro, Orieagu; Okigwe, Lokpa (livestock); Umuahia, Ariaria-Aba, Uyo, Owerri, Onitsha (city markets) External to the zone: Port Harcourt, Calabar

Main hazards and approximate frequency Delays in rainfall – annual (Mar-Apr) Flooding – every two years (August) Crop pests/diseases (e.g. army worm) – annual (June) Herder cattle damages crops/farmer-herder conflict – every year



their cattle from the north to graze here during the dry season. As elsewhere, the straying of this cattle from agreed 'corridors' onto cultivated plots, causing serious damage to crops, has resulted in farmer-herder conflicts that have increased markedly in recent years.

Poorer households depend to some extent on the sale of food crops (especially cassava tubers and processed cassava and palm oil). With regards to off-farm earnings, poorer households find local paid labor opportunities on other people's farms, and in food processing for others (gari from cassava, palm oil extraction), firewood sales, brick-making, and sometimes artisanal surface mining of minerals. But poorer people also tend to be exceptionally mobile in their search for work seasonally, when agricultural and food processing work is in less demand. They especially go to the nearest big towns, where they engage variously in many kinds of work: brick laying and other construction labor, motorcycle-taxi service under some financial arrangement with the owner of the motorcycle, assisting blacksmiths, tailors, hairdressers and barbers, and leather-goods makers (shoes, bags), and in small shops and kiosks. They engage in artisanal soap-making, wood sculpture carving and other arts/crafts. They work in domestic service. They work as/for market retailers. They work in the big, informal catering sector, whether assisting in street-side restaurants or as ambulant snack-sellers. They are street-hawkers of small items, and they perform all kinds of fetching and carrying service, in markets and elsewhere.

Wealthier households live more by selling food and cash crops and, modestly, livestock. But they are also commonly involved in trading activities inside the zone and out of the zone, including across the border with Cameroon. They trade in processed food and manufactured goods. They may well also have a household member involved in less menial tasks in town, according to education and skills, and they may receive some remittances from a close family member residing permanently in a city and with a fulltime occupation.

Overall market access for the zone is considered average, but it is poor on secondary roads during the rainy season when flooding is common. Beyond the main road linking Port Harcourt, Aba, Uyo and Calabar, which crosses the zone, infrastructure is poor, and the main markets are distant from most rural villages. The main crops traded locally are cassava, maize and vegetables, while the cash crops (palm oil and some cashews and cocoa) are transported to Lagos, some for export. The palm oil is also traded as far as northern Nigeria. Livestock are mostly marketed within the zone. Pigs are especially sold in Port Harcourt, with its large consumer base. Some quantity of staples are traded into the zone: rice from Lagos (imported rice) or Ebonyi (local rice), yams from Anambra and Benue, and cowpeas from Nasarawa and Kaduna.



NORTHEAST CATTLE, SMALL RUMINANTS AND FOOD CROPS WITH CROSS-BORDER LIVESTOCK TRADE (NG34)

This zone consists of a strip of land along the Nigeria-Cameroon frontier that is only some ten kilometers wide but stretches all the way from Kala/Balge LGA in Borno state to Ganye LGA in the south of Adamawa state. Although it is sparsely populated in general, its length means that it contains a significant population nevertheless. Given that, the zone has distinctive physical and economic features. For most of its length it is highland, and it is quite rugged on the western slopes of the Mandara mountain chain in the north and the Alantika mountains in the south that historically defined the border. The one lowland area is the valley of the Benue river that bisects the highlands. The zone runs through the sudanian savannah and north and south guinean savannah agro-ecological belts, but it contains many stretches of highland forest (which have provided cover for insurgent forces in recent years). Soils are clay loam and generally fertile. Annual rainfall ranges from 500-600mm in the north to 1300-1500mm in the south, with a distinctly shorter wet season in the north than in the south of the zone.

The zone is not well defined by its staple food crops, as these vary with growing conditions from north to south, with millet prominent in the north and yams prominent in the south, although maize, sorghum, upland rice and intercropped cowpeas are found along the zone's length. Groundnuts are grown mainly as a cash

crop, as well as vegetables in places where ponds or depressions allow soil moisture to be retained into the dry season. Sesame is grown in the north. Cowpeas are as much a cash crop as a crop for home consumption. In the south, wealthier farmers also sell surplus yams and maize that reach markets outside the zone in the center and north of the country, and from the zone's northern half, millet and sesame reach Maiduguri and Kano. Grain crops are also traded across the border. However, trade offtake inside Nigeria is reduced by the long distances to the main commercial centers, and the poor local road infrastructure and especially the widespread inaccessibility because of road conditions in the main rainy months. (In recent years insurgency has added to market isolation). There is some trade of food items into the zone via main neighboring markets – rice and maize from Yola and Mubi, yams from Taraba, Nasarawa and Benue, Irish potatoes from Bauchi.

It is livestock and livestock trade that most define this zone. As in all the country's highland areas, the environment is particularly suitable for cattle, and wealthier people hold respectable numbers (although not spectacular numbers as in the Mambila highlands further south - zone NG25). They also keep substantial numbers of sheep and goats as well as poultry. Poorer people have far fewer animals, although they may aspire

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0.5 – 1.5 ha) Small numbers of livestock (0 - 2 cattle, 5 sheep, 7 goats, 10 poultry) Ox-ploughs used

Land (3 to 7 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 10 cattle, 25 sheep, 30 goats, 40 poultry) Ox-ploughs and some mechanical equipment used (tractor, food processing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Millet - north (MP/OP) Yams – south (OP/MP) Sorghum (MP/OP) Maize (MP/OP Sweet potatoes – south (OP/OP) Cowpeas (MP/OP) Rice (MP/OP)

Rice (MP/OP) Millet - north (OP/MP) Yams - south (OP) Maize (OP/MP) Cowpeas Animal products


Main income sources Poor Better-off Paid labor - local agricultural Cash/food crop sales Paid labor – nearby towns Livestock sales Petty trade/firewood sales

Cattle sales Cash/food crop sales Small ruminant sales Livestock brokering Food processing (groundnut oil)

Main markets Internal: Banki (cattle), Gwoza, Ganye, Mubi, Gashaka, Ngurore External to the zone: Madagali, Maiduguri, Dikwa

Main hazards and approximate frequency Insufficient rainfall – every year (May-June & Sept-Oct) Crop pests/diseases – every year (Sept-Oct) Parasite infestation – every 2-3 years (May-June & Sept)



to one or two cattle. But all animals, including poultry, have particularly high value as they are sold not only to the traders taking them south to the big city markets, but also across the border to Cameroon. In addition, wealthier people often act as brokers between the seller and the trader, a lucrative activity; and in this they deal not only with local livestock but with animals coming in from other zones, particularly in the north. Furthermore, the livestock trade goes both ways as livestock from Cameroon come in to join the trade to southern Nigeria; indeed, more livestock come in from Cameroon than go there from Nigeria. But the trade into Cameroon is enough to add significantly to the economy of the zone's villagers.

Poorer people benefit from the livestock trade, and from modest crop sales, but they gain a good proportion of their needed cash income from other activities. Paid work is the main recourse, both as laborers on local farms and labor in various sectors, in the central towns of their LGAs – towns that are outside the zone but usually not far away. Here, apart from construction and other labor, they engage in petty trade and the sale of forest products – wild plant foods, tamarind fruit and game.



NIGER-BENUE FISHING AND FOOD CROPS (NG35)

This zone represents a minority population living within the wider flood plain zone (NG21). They are the most 'riverine' people in the sense that they live in villages and hamlets alongside or very near to the main river courses, and because they depend much more than their neighbors (who may be in the same village) on fishing the rivers. They also engage in cultivation, but the fish factor, so to speak, gives a different structure to their livelihood, especially their cash income, and to the relative economic risks they face. Although they are a minority population, they are present along most of the 1500 km or so of the Niger and Benue rivers as well as along their main tributaries; as such they number thousands of people.

Their dependence on fishing is evidenced by the very small amounts of land they cultivate, sometimes hardly more than a kitchen garden and almost never of a size to be near the capacity to feed the household. That refers to those who do cultivate: as many as half of this population reportedly do not cultivate at all. They are often specialist fisherfolk who have come from elsewhere originally and settled along the rivers; only some have acquired a plot of land by an arrangement with local title-holders or even by using marginal land without contract. The threat of flooding of such river-bank land is one factor that may

discourage households from cultivation. On such land as people do use they either cultivate only rice by irrigation, or they may also cultivate maize or sorghum, and sometimes melons (the seeds are a cash crop), and they commonly have a corner for vegetables for the household. But at all events they buy most of the food they eat, and the handful of animals – sheep, goats, poultry (no cattle) – that they can keep do not allow more than a minimal offtake for sale. While these households do not live by fishing alone, it is fishing that overwhelmingly provides their livelihood.

The fishing is mainly by thrown nets, usually from dugout canoes, from which fish traps are also set. Typically, a household will own a canoe, but occasionally two or more households combine ownership to afford to have one constructed, purchasing the big log from which it is carved out and paying for the service of the skilled canoe-maker, unless there is one within the group. The very poorest who have no canoe are at a major disadvantage. They may operate sub-optimally with large calabashes up-turned in the water so that the trapped air gives them a float. But mostly they work for other people. These may be fellow-fishers, or they may be neighboring rice-farmers who own a canoe used for fishing as a secondary occupation. They work either for a share of the catch or for cash payment.

Although fish is naturally a substantial addition to their diet, people's fish catches are much more for sale than for home consumption. But fish are the most perishable of all produce, and the fishers rarely live within striking distance of a town where most potential customers for fresh fish live – i.e. a town near enough to be able to sell fresh fish within a day, including to retailers who may then fry the fish and sell it over a few days. Therefore,

Main productive assets Poor Better-off Land (0 – 0.2 ha) Small numbers of livestock (0 - 2 cattle, 5 sheep, 7 goats, 10 poultry) Ox-ploughs used

Land (0.3 to 0.5 ha) Larger numbers of livestock (up to 10 cattle, 25 sheep, 30 goats, 40 poultry) Ox-ploughs and some mechanical equipment used (tractor, food processing)

Main foods consumed and sources Poor Better-off Rice (MP/OP) Maize/sorghum (MP) Garden maize (OP) Cowpeas (MP) Fish

Rice (MP/OP) Maize/sorghum (MP/OP) Yams (MP) Cowpeas (MP) Sweet potatoes (MP) Fish


Main income sources Poor Better-off Fish sales Fishing labor Agricultural labor Casual work in towns Livestock sales Petty trade/firewood sales

Fish sales Small ruminant and poultry sales Limited rice sales Petty trade

Main markets Nearby LGA center markets; visiting fish traders

Main hazards and approximate frequency Flooding – somewhere every year (Aug-Sept)



only a small proportion of fish are sold fresh, mainly to villagers within the fisher's vicinity. The great bulk of fish are smoked by the women of the house (and a smaller proportion dried), and in this state they are so much less perishable that they can be stored and then sold to a visiting trader in bulk or be taken to the nearest market. From there the smoked fish is traded far and wide, reaching especially the cities of the south – Ilorin, Ibadan, Lagos etc. – where it is put in sauces daily in bigger or smaller pieces: even poorer people, who can virtually never afford to buy meat, do buy some smoked fish, if only to add very small amounts to stews as flavoring.

Poorer fishermen who are unable to support themselves sufficiently through fishing activities tend to do paid labor for rice farmers in their neighborhood; they are paid either in cash or in kind, i.e. rice. In addition, they look periodically for laboring or other work in local towns, and perhaps one in ten go further away seasonally to find casual work in big cities to the south, usually from about January to March, when cultivation activities are quiet. These are also other people's avenues for extra cash when there has been a problem with fishing. The chief problem comes from excessive rainfall that brings great increases in river flow, deepening and speeding up the shallower waters near river banks where fishing is most practical in the rainy period, and causing flooding of the many lesser river-channels that fill with fish in season. There is such flooding somewhere in the zone every year. Much more rarely there is wider, catastrophic flooding that affects not only river-valley people but villages far up the river basins. Overfishing of some stretches of river is a longer-term problem.



Annex 1: Northeastern crisis The Boko Haram insurgency began in 2009 in northeastern Nigeria. The conflict has centered around three states: Borno, Adamawa, and Yobe. As of June 2018, nearly 30,000 fatalities have been reported, including civilians, Boko Haram militants, and Nigerian military and police forces.6 The displaced population in Nigeria reached 1.88 million in April 2018, with the majority (over 1.4 million) in Borno State; and more than 213,400 Nigerian refugees have fled to neighboring countries in Cameroon, Niger, and Chad. Displaced populations are heavily dependent on humanitarian assistance given market disruptions, above-average staple prices, and restricted off-season economic activities.7 Ongoing violence has disrupted food supply and hindered access to basic services. Nigeria is also facing continued cycles of violence between pastoralists and farmers in the north-central region and separatist protests in the south. Conflicts between herders and sedentary communities caused an estimated death toll of 2,500 people in 2016, as herders are driven further south due to desertification, insecurity, and loss of grazing land to expanding settlements.8 Humanitarian actors reached 2.58 million people in the northeast with food assistance in April 2018, although estimates indicate that over 7.7 million in the region are in need.9 Nigerian military operations are underway in the northeast and while the army has made considerable gains since 2016, Boko Haram attacks have continued and led to further displacement (Table 2). The conflict is expected to shift to more sporadic attacks in 2018 due to Boko Haram’s loss of controlled territory in 2016, however the humanitarian response is likely to remain restricted due to limited access to populations in need of food and other assistance. High numbers of internally displaced persons (IDPs) and the flow of returnees, both from within Nigeria and neighboring countries, will persist.10 The ongoing conflict has destroyed key infrastructure, and particularly education and health facilities, as food insecurity remains high in the northeast due to the Boko Haram conflict.

6 ACLED conflict data 7 FEWS NET Food Security Outlook Update for Nigeria, May 2018 8 International Crisis Group: https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/west-africa/nigeria/252-herders-against-farmers-nigerias-expanding-deadly-conflict 9 https://www.acaps.org/country/nigeria/country-profile 10 https://www.acaps.org/sites/acaps/files/products/files/acaps_humanitarian_overview_analysis_of_key_crises_into_2018.pdf

Table 3. Displaced populations in NE Nigeria State Feb 2018 Apr 2018 Borno 1,364,539 1,421,600 Adamawa 164,150 173,152 Yobe 105,311 124,909 Taraba 63,272 65,208 Bauchi 53,309 61,055 Gombe 31.909 35,274

Source: FEWS NET Food Security Outlook

Source: ACLED conflict data, downloaded June 2018.

Map 14. Conflict and insecurity in Northern Nigeria

Figure 6. Boko Haram related conflict events in Nigeria since 2009

Source: International Crisis Group, 2017.

https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/west-africa/nigeria/252-herders-against-farmers-nigerias-expanding-deadly-conflict

https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/west-africa/nigeria/252-herders-against-farmers-nigerias-expanding-deadly-conflict



Year Timeline of Major Events in Boko Haram Crisis (sources: BBC and CNN) 2002/2003 The group is founded under Muslim cleric Mohammed Yusuf in 2002 in Maiduguri. First

known attack occurs in December 2003 on police stations in Yobe state. 2009 July: Boko Haram uprising to create an Islamic state in Nigeria begins in Bauchi and spreads

to Borno, Kano and Yobe. Police officers killed by militants and joint military task force responds. Hundreds of Boko Haram members are killed, and Yusuf dies in police custody.

2010 December: Boko Haram claims responsibility for Christmas Eve bomb attack near city of Jos that kills at least 80 people and sparks clashes between Christians and Muslims.

2011 March: Vice-President Goodluck Jonathan wins presidential elections. August: Suicide bomb attack on UN compound in Abuja kills 23 people. November/December: Attacks on churches and markets kill hundreds of people in Yobe, Damaturu, and Borno states. President Jonathan declares a state of emergency.

2012 January: More than 200 killed in a day of coordinated bombings and shootings in Kano. 2013 April to June: Attacks and battles continue, leaving hundreds of civilians dead in various

states. May: Government declares state of emergency in three northern states of Yobe, Borno and Adamawa and sends in troops. September: More than 150 people murdered in roadside attacks in the northeast. Security forces also fight Boko Haram insurgents in the capital Abuja. November: The US State Department declares Boko Haram a terrorist organization.

2014 January-July: Attacks continue and intensify, with increasing numbers of deaths, abductions, and displaced peoples throughout the northeast. April: 276 girls kidnapped from a boarding school in town of Chibok in Borno State. May: Militants storm villages in Borno and twin blasts in Jos market kill 118 people. US sends 80 troops to search for kidnapped schoolgirls; UN Security Council adds Boko Haram to sanctions list. November: Boko Haram launches a series of attacks in northeastern Nigeria, capturing towns near Lake Chad and running raids into Chad and Cameroon through early 2015.

2015 February-March: Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon and Niger form military coalition and push Boko Haram back into Sambisa Forest. March: Muhammadu Buhari wins presidential election. Boko Haram switches allegiance from al-Qaeda to the Islamic State (IS). April: Nigerian troops rescue 450 women and girls in the Sambisa forest during a military operation. September: Attacks continue; but 241 women and children are rescued and 43 militants arrested after a military raid.

2016 February: Two villages in northeast Nigeria are attacked; two female suicide bombers dispatched by Boko Haram kill 58 people at a Nigerian refugee camp. October: Boko Haram releases 21 Chibok schoolgirls to authorities after negotiations with the Nigerian government in exchange for fighters.

2017 January: Nigerian government prematurely announced defeat of Boko Haram, resulting in an increase of suicide bombings and IED attacks by the group. May: 80+ of the schoolgirls kidnapped in Chibok are released after government negotiations. December: Clashes between herders in Benue and Taraba states prompt thousands to flee.

2018 February: More than 100 girls feared abducted by Boko Haram in Yobe state. May: Nigerian army claims to have rescued more than 1,000 Boko Haram captives, mostly women and children, in Borno state.



Annex 2: Workshop participants Livelihood Zoning Plus Southern workshop - Lagos, 23 to 27 July 2018

NAME POST PHONE NUMBER E-MAIL 1 Godwin Ihedioha FEWS NET, Abuja 08055737912 [email protected]

2 Isa Mainu FEWS NET, Abuja 07036613648 [email protected]

3 Atiku M Mohammed FEWS NET, Abuja 08065531267 [email protected]

4 Brian Svesve FEWS NET, Harare - [email protected]

5 Erin Fletcher FEWS NET, Consultant

- [email protected]

6 Stephen Browne FEWS NET, Washington

- [email protected]

7 Julius Holt FEWS NET, Consultant

- [email protected]

8 Ajibola Bolanle Olukemi

Ondo ADP 08035300453 [email protected]

9 Elabi Onaolapo Solomon

Oyo ADP 08181661451 [email protected]

10 Osiyoye O. A. Ogun ADP 08033777121 [email protected]

11 Adegbola Bamidele Ekiti ADP 08064460268 [email protected]

12 Princewill Edoba Igbinedion

Edo ADP 08054499997 [email protected]

13 Tonbara Kenigbolo Bayelsa ADP 08037702673 [email protected]

14 Godwin Akujieze Anambra ADP 08065369525 [email protected]

15 Ubi Ebeten Okoi Cross River ADP 07037791118 [email protected]

16 Godwin Chukwukezie C.

Abia ADP 08135992294 [email protected]

17 Grace Mbrey Ebonyi ADP 08035493182 [email protected]

18 Obasi Cajetan C. Imo ADP 08037368616 [email protected]

19 Adegbemisole Fayoyin Osun ADP 08023327485 [email protected]

20 Okechukwu Sunday S. Rivers ADP 08034816955 [email protected]

21 Njom Patrick Enugu ADP 08064946041 [email protected]

22 Odiurho Daniel Delta ADP 08028805358 [email protected]

23 Idongesit Udoh Akwa Ibom ADP 08130705755 [email protected]

24 Oni Timothy O. NISER, Ibadan 08033950670 [email protected]

25 Dr. O. A. Akintola NIHORT, Ibadan 08034298038 [email protected]

26 Dr. Tokula Mark NRCRI, Umudike 07030076702 [email protected]

27 Nkpena Charles RRDCD, Calabar 08036744283 [email protected]

28 Justina Balogun Lagos ADP 07038590492 [email protected]



Livelihood Zoning Plus Central workshop - Abuja, 30 July to 3 August 2018 NAME POST PHONE NUMBER E-MAIL 1 Godwin Ihedioha FEWS NET, Abuja 08055737912 [email protected]


3 Atiku Mohammed FEWS NET, Abuja 08065531267 [email protected]

4 Brian Svesve FEWS NET, Abuja 08146244851 [email protected]

5 Julius Holt FEWS NET, Abuja 08146232767 [email protected]

6 Jibarang Yildap K. ADP, Plateau 08092081604 [email protected]

7 Obasi Sunday ADP, Kogi 08036234550 [email protected]

8 Abel Gideon ADP, Nasarawa 08063155716 [email protected]

9 Wahab Adebowale A.

NAERLS, Zaria 08138039987 [email protected]

10 Ajayi Olu ADP, Kwara 08035022743 [email protected]

11 Bishop E.O Ohioma NBS, Abuja 08068134740 [email protected]

12 Bulama Dauda NPFS, Abuja 08039354816 [email protected]

13 Habu Haruna ADP, Taraba 07037703470 [email protected]

14 Adamu Muazu ADP, Adamawa 08060075222 [email protected]

15 Pine Celestine ADP, Benue 07039282014 [email protected]

16 Abubakar Habibu Ndagi

NCRI, Badeggi 08062707390 [email protected]

17 Tijani Lamidi ADP, FCT, Abuja 08036336516 [email protected]

18 Yahaya Husseini FAO, Abuja 08033363352 [email protected]

19 James Adam NIMET, Abuja 08037880190 [email protected]

20 Dr. Idris Usman Gbogan

ADP, Niger 08065917755 [email protected]

21 Ifeoma Omesiete WFP, Abuja 09024961140 [email protected]

22 Chinedu Anyaegbu Save the Children, Abuja

08067507323 chinedu.anyaegbu@savethe children.org

23 Deborah L. Yusufu ADP, Kaduna 08033895547 [email protected]

24 Dr. Jacob Fintan Shehu

OXFAM 08065653142 [email protected]

Livelihood Zoning Plus Northern workshop - Kano, 6 to 10 August 2018

NAME ADDRESS PHONE NUMBER E-MAIL 1 Godwin Ihedioha FEWS NET, Abuja 08055737912 [email protected]


3 Atiku Mohammed FEWS NET, Abuja 08065531267 [email protected]

mailto:chinedu.anyaegbu@savethe

mailto:[email protected]






NAME ADDRESS PHONE NUMBER E-MAIL

4 Brian Svesve FEWS NET, Abuja 08146244851 [email protected]

5 Julius Holt FEWS NET, Abuja 08146232767 [email protected]

6 Bashir A. Ali ADP, Borno 08039646551 [email protected]

7 Joram Sabuda Massam

ADP, Gombe 08036584216 [email protected]

8 Saleh Adamu Zidanga

ADP, Bauchi 08025622507 [email protected]

9 Mahmood Bala Umar

MANR, Bauchi 08039172312 [email protected]

10 Abubakar Garba ADP, Jigawa 08036891948 [email protected]

11 Reuben T. Sonkop ADP, Kaduna 07032055324 [email protected]

12 Habubu Idris KNARDA, Kano 08028910185 [email protected]

13 Dr. D.A Anogie LCRI, Maiduguri 08087462722 [email protected]

14 Dr. Dogara Danbaba

NAMDA, Minna 08068109250 [email protected]

15 Abubakar Abande ADP, Yobe 08034727656 [email protected]

16 Ahmed Tika MANR, Yobe 08036933512 [email protected]

17 Malami A. Magaji ADP, Sokoto 08068144167 [email protected]

18 Nasiru Abdullahi ADP, Kebbi 08106773788 [email protected]

19 Ma’aruf Musa Muhammad

ADP, Zamfara 08169458643 [email protected]

20 Abubakar Musa Animal Science/ABU, Zaria

08035071378 [email protected]

21 Istafanus Adamu Save the Children, UK

07032793042 [email protected]

22 Suleman Abdullahi KTARDA, Katsina 07084498120 [email protected]

23 Muhammad Hassan Jikas

ADP, Jigawa 08083916687 [email protected]

24 Dauda Mohammed

CAZS, UniMaid 07033400377 [email protected]

25 Olorundare Emmanuel

NAPRI, ABU, Zaria - [email protected]

26 Muhammad Chiroma

HJKYB, Yobe 08036830217 [email protected]

27 Henry Okoli WFP 08101390401 [email protected]

28 Gambo Isa SG 2000, Kano 07031681478 [email protected]

29 Murtala M. Badamasi

CDA, BUK 08037051250 [email protected]

30 Ibrahim Abdu Na CDA, BUK 08062261443 [email protected]






























NAME ADDRESS PHONE NUMBER E-MAIL Abdu

31 Dr. Ja’afer A. Sadeeq

SRRBDA, Sokoto 08069823636 [email protected]

32 Abunakar Chika SRRBDA, Sokoto 08064893252 [email protected]

33 Mustapha B. Mala N2 Africa, Borno 08069594207 [email protected]






Annex 3 Administrative areas by Livelihood Zone NG01 - Sokoto millet, cowpeas, groundnuts and livestock

STATE LGA

Katsina Batsari

Katsina Jibia Katsina Safana Kebbi Arewa Kebbi Argungu Kebbi Augie Kebbi BirninKe Kebbi Gwandu Kebbi Kalgo Kebbi Yauri Kebbi Zuru Sokoto Gada Sokoto Gudu Sokoto Illela Sokoto Isa Sokoto Kware Sokoto Rabah Sokoto Sabon Birni Sokoto Shagari Sokoto Silame Sokoto Sokoto North Sokoto Sokoto South Sokoto Tambawal Sokoto Tangazar Sokoto Tureta Sokoto Wamakko Sokoto Wurno Sokoto Yabo Zamfara Bakura Zamfara Birnin-Magaji/Kiyaw Zamfara Kaura-Na Zamfara Maradun Zamfara Shinkafi Zamfara Talata-Mafara Zamfara Zurmi

NG02 - Kano-Katsina Sahel: millet, sorghum, sesame and gum arabic

STATE LGA

Jigawa Babura

Jigawa Gwiwa Jigawa Kazaure



NG02 - Kano-Katsina Sahel: millet, sorghum, sesame and gum arabic

Jigawa Roni Jigawa Yankwashi Kano Bichi Kano Dambatta Kano Kunchi Kano Makoda Kano Tsanyawa Katsina Daura Katsina Dutsi Katsina Dutsin-M Katsina Ingawa Katsina Kaita Katsina Kankiya Katsina Batagarawa Katsina Baure Katsina Bindawa Katsina Charanchi Katsina Danmusa Katsina Katsina (K) Katsina Kurfi Katsina Kusada Katsina Mai'Adua Katsina Mani Katsina Mashi Katsina Matazu Katsina Rimi Katsina Sandamu Katsina Zango Kebbi Aleiro

NG03 - Kano-Katsina Sudan: maize, sorghum, groundnuts and rice

STATE LGA

Kano Ajingi

Kano Albasu Kano Bagwai Kano Bebeji Kano Bunkure Kano Dala Kano DawakinK Kano DawakinT Kano Doguwa Kano Fagge Kano Gabasawa



NG03 - Kano-Katsina Sudan: maize, sorghum, groundnuts and rice

Kano Garko Kano Garum Mallam Kano Gaya Kano Gezawa Kano Gwale Kano Gwarzo Kano Kabo Kano Kano Kano Karaye Kano Kibiya Kano Kiru Kano Kumbotso Kano Kura Kano Madobi Kano Minjibir Kano Nassaraw Kano Rano Kano RiminGad Kano Rogo Kano Shanono Kano Sumaila Kano Takai Kano Tarauni Kano Tofa Kano Tundun Wada Kano Ungogo Kano Warawa Kano Wudil Katsina Bakori Katsina Dandume Katsina Danja Katsina Faskari Katsina Funtua Katsina Kafur Katsina Kankara Katsina Malumfashi Katsina Musawa Katsina Sabuwa

NG04 – Northeast Sahel: millet, sesame, cowpeas and livestock

STATE LGA

Borno Abadam

Borno Mobbar



NG04 – Northeast Sahel: millet, sesame, cowpeas and livestock

Jigawa Biriniwa Jigawa Gagarawa Jigawa Garki Jigawa Gumel Jigawa Maigatari Jigawa MalamMad Jigawa Ringim Jigawa Sule-Tan Jigawa Taura Yobe Bade Yobe Borsari Yobe Geidam Yobe Jakusko Yobe Karasuwa Yobe Machina Yobe Nguru Yobe Yunusari Yobe Yusufari

NG05 – Borno-Yobe-Bauchi millet, cowpeas, groundnuts and sesame

STATE LGA

Bauchi Damban

Bauchi Darazo Bauchi Gamawa Bauchi Giade Bauchi Itas/Gad Bauchi Jama'are Bauchi Katagum Bauchi Misau Bauchi Shira Bauchi Warji Bauchi Zaki Borno Jere Borno Kaga Borno Konduga Borno Kukawa Borno Mafa Borno Magumeri Borno Maiduguri Borno Gubio Borno Guzamala Borno Monguno Borno Nganzai



NG05 – Borno-Yobe-Bauchi millet, cowpeas, groundnuts and sesame

Gombe Funakaye Gombe Gombe Gombe Kwami Gombe Nafada Jigawa BirninKu Jigawa Buji Jigawa Dutse Jigawa Gwaram Jigawa Jahun Jigawa KafinHau Jigawa Kiyawa Jigawa Miga Yobe Damaturu Yobe Fika Yobe Fune Yobe Nangere Yobe Potiskum Yobe Tarmuwa

NG06 – Sokot-Rima-Kano riverine rice and fishing

STATE LGA

NG07 – Komadugu-Yobe irrigated peppers with rice, millet and vegetables

STATE LGA

NG08 – Lake Chad fishing, maize, cowpeas and vegetables

STATE LGA

Borno Lake Chad

NG09 – Chad Basin: dry season masakwa sorghum and wheat

STATE LGA

Borno Bama Borno Dikwa Borno Gwoza Borno Kala/Balge

Borno Marte Borno Ngala

NG10 Hadeija-Nguru wetlands: mixed cereals and vegetables

STATE LGA

villages along the riverine areaYobe

Kano villages along the riverine area

villages along the riverine area

villages along the riverine area

Yobe

Borno



NG10 Hadeija-Nguru wetlands: mixed cereals and vegetables

Jigawa Auyo

Jigawa Guri Jigawa Hadejia Jigawa Kaugama Jigawa KiriKasa

NG11 – Northwest sorghum, maize, soybeans and rice

STATE LGA

Kebbi Bunza

Kebbi Dandi Kebbi Danko Wasagu Kebbi Jega Kebbi Maiyama Kebbi Sakaba Kebbi Suru Zamfara Anka Zamfara Bukkuyum Zamfara Bungudu Zamfara Gummi Zamfara Gusau Zamfara Maru Zamfara Tsafe

NG12 – Northwest sorghum, maize and cotton with cross-border trade

STATE LGA

Kebbi Bagudo

Kebbi Fakai Kebbi Koko/Bes Kebbi Ngaski Kebbi Shanga Niger Agwara

Niger Borgu

NG13 – Northwest and central maize, rice, cowpeas and sweet potatoes

STATE LGA

Kaduna Chikun

Kaduna Igabi

Kaduna Kaduna North

Kaduna Kaduna South

Kaduna Kajuru

Kaduna Kauru

Kaduna Kubau

Kaduna Lere



NG13 – Northwest and central maize, rice, cowpeas and sweet potatoes

Niger Edati

Niger Kontagora

Niger Lavun

Niger Magama

Niger Mariga

Niger Mashegu

Niger Mokwa

Niger Rafi

Niger Rijau

Niger Wushishi

NG14 – Central sorghum dominant with maize, groundnuts and cowpeas

STATE LGA

Adamawa Fufore

Adamawa Girie

Adamawa Gombi

Adamawa Hong

Adamawa Lamurde

Adamawa Madagali

Adamawa Michika

Adamawa Shelleng

Adamawa Song

Adamawa Yola North

Adamawa Yola South

Bauchi Alkaleri

Bauchi Bauchi Bauchi Dass Bauchi Gamjuwa Bauchi Kirfi Bauchi Ningi Bauchi Tafawa-B Bauchi Toro Gombe Akko Gombe Balanga Gombe Billiri Gombe Dukku Gombe Kaltungo Kaduna Birnin-G

Kaduna Giwa

Kaduna Ikara

Kaduna Kudan

Kaduna Makarfi



NG14 – Central sorghum dominant with maize, groundnuts and cowpeas

Kaduna Sabon-Ga

Kaduna Sanga

Kaduna Soba

Kaduna Zaria

Plateau Kanam

Plateau Kanke

Taraba Karim-La

NG15 – Northeast maize dominant with rice, soybeans and groundnuts

STATE LGA

Borno Hawul

Borno Kwaya Kusar Borno Askira/U Borno Bayo Borno Biu Borno Chibok Borno Damboa Borno Shani Gombe Yamaltu Yobe Gujba Yobe Gulani

NG16 – High plateau Irish potatoes, maize, acha (Digitaria) and livestock

STATE LGA

Bauchi Bogoro

Bauchi Dass (part)

Bauchi Tafawa-B. (part) Bauchi Toro (part) Plateau Barkin Ladi

Plateau Bassa

Plateau Bokkos

Plateau Jos East

Plateau Jos North

Plateau Jos South

Plateau Mangu

NG17 – Lower plateau rice, sorghum and cattle

STATE LGA

Plateau Langtang North

Plateau Langtang South

Plateau Mikang

Plateau Pankshin

Plateau Qua'anpa



NG17 – Lower plateau rice, sorghum and cattle

Plateau Riyom

Plateau Shendam

Plateau Wase

NG18 – Ginger and turmeric with maize, sorghum, yams and acha (Digitaria)

STATE LGA

Kaduna Jaba

Kaduna Jema'a

Kaduna Kachia

Kaduna Kagarko

NG19 – Benue river sugar cane, rice and sugar estate labor

STATE LGA

Adamawa Numan - riverine

Taraba Lau – riverine

NG20 – Central yams and maize belt, with cassava, rice and soybeans

STATE LGA

Adamawa Demsa

Adamawa Mayo-Bel

Adamawa Numan

Benue Guma

Benue Katsina (Benue)

Benue Logo

Benue Ukum

Federal Capital Territory

Abaji


AbujaMun


Bwari


Gwagwala


Kuje


Kwali

Kaduna Kaura

Kaduna ZangonKa

Kogi Kotonkar

Kwara Baruten

Kwara Kaiama

Nassarawa Akwanga

Nassarawa Awe

Nassarawa Doma




Nassarawa Karu

Nassarawa Keana

Nassarawa Keffi

Nassarawa Kokona

Nassarawa Lafia

Nassarawa Nasarawa

Nassarawa Nassarawa Egon

Nassarawa Obi

Nassarawa Toto

Nassarawa Wamba

Niger Agaie

Niger Bosso

Niger Chanchaga

Niger Gbako

Niger Gurara

Niger Katcha

Niger Lapai

Niger Muya

Niger Paikoro

Niger Shiroro

Niger Suleja

Niger Tafa

Taraba Ardo-Kola

Taraba Bali

Taraba Donga

Taraba Gassol

Taraba Ibi

Taraba Jalingo

Taraba Lau

Taraba Wukari

Taraba Yorro

Taraba Zing

Ekiti Moba Ogun Imeko-Afon Osun Boluwaduro Osun Boripe Osun Egbedore Osun Ejigbo Osun Ifedayo Osun Ifelodun Osun Ila Osun Odo0tin




Osun Olorunda Osun Orolu Oyo Atiba Oyo Atisbo Oyo Irepo Oyo Iseyin Oyo Itesiwaju Oyo Iwajowa Oyo Kajola Oyo Ogbomosho North Oyo Ogbomosho South Oyo Ogo-Oluw Oyo Olorunsogo Oyo Orelope Oyo Ori-Ire Oyo Oyo East Oyo Saki East Oyo Saki West Oyo Surulere

NG21 – Niger and Benue rivers floodplain rice with maize, vegetables and livestock

STATE LGA

Adamawa Numan (part – sugar estate)

Benue Makurdi (wider flood plain)

Kogi Ibaji (part – wider flood plain)

Kogi Idah (part – wider flood plain)

Niger Lavun (wider flood plain)

Taraba Lau (part – sugar estate)

NG22 – Cassava dominant with rice, maize, yams and tree-crops

STATE LGA

Benue Ado

Benue Agatu

Benue Apa

Benue Gwer East

Benue GwerWest

Benue Obi

Benue Ogbadibo

Benue Ohimini

Benue Oju

Benue Okpokwu

Benue Oturkpo




Kogi Adavi

Kogi Ajaokuta

Kogi Bassa

Kogi Igalamela-Odolu

Kogi Ijumu

Kogi Kabba/Bu

Kogi Lokoja

Kogi Mopa-Muro

Kogi Ogori/Magongo

Kogi Okehi

Kogi Okene

Kogi Omala

Kogi Yagba East

Kogi Yagba West

Kwara Asa

Kwara Edu

Kwara Ekiti

Kwara Ifelodun

Kwara Ilorin East

Kwara Ilorin South

Kwara IlorinWe

Kwara Irepodun

Kwara Isin

Kwara Moro

Kwara Offa

Kwara Oke-Ero

Kwara Oyun

Kwara Pategi

Edo EsanNort Edo EsanSout Edo EsanWest Edo Etsako Central Edo EtsakoEa Edo EtsakoWe Edo Igueben Edo Ikpoba-Okha Edo Oredo Edo Edo Orhionmw Edo Akoko-Ed Edo Egor Edo EsanCent Edo OviaNort




Edo OviaSouth-West Edo Owan East Edo OwanWest Edo Uhunmwonde Ekiti Ado-Ekiti Ekiti Efon Ekiti EkitiEas Ekiti Emure/Ise/Orun Ekiti Gboyin Ekiti Ijero Ekiti Ikole Ekiti Ilejemeje Ekiti Irepodun/Ifelodun Ekiti Oye Ogun AdoOdo/Ota Ogun EgbadoSouth Ogun Ijebu North-East Ogun IjebuEast Ogun IjebuNorth Ogun IjebuOde Ogun Ipokia Ogun Obafemi-Owode Ogun Odeda Ogun Odogbolu Ogun Remo-North Ogun Shagamu Ondo Akoko North-East Ondo Akoko South-East Ondo Akoko South-West Ondo AkokoNorthWest Ondo Idanre Ondo Irele Ondo Odigbo Ondo Okitipupa Ondo Ondo West Osun Atakumosa East Osun Atakumosa West Osun Ayedaade Osun Ayedire Osun Ede North Osun Ede South Osun Iwo Osun Ola-Oluwa




Oyo Afijio Oyo Ibarapa East Oyo Ibarapa North Oyo Ido Oyo Lagelu Oyo Ona-Ara

NG23 – Citrus fruits with yams, cassava and groundnuts

STATE LGA

Benue Buruku

Benue Gboko

Benue Konshish

Benue Kwande

Benue Tarka

Benue Ushongo

Benue Vandeiky

Taraba Takum

Taraba Ussa

NG24 – Cocoa dominant with oil palms, cereals and tubers

STATE LGA

Adamawa Teungo

Taraba Gashaka

Taraba Kurmi

NG25 – Mambila highland: cattle, maize, Irish potatoes, tea, coffee and kola nuts

STATE LGA

Taraba Sardauna

NG26 – Cross River cocoa with oil palms, rice, yams and plantain

STATE LGA

Cross River Boki Cross River Etung Cross River Ikom

NG27 – Southeast rice dominant with cassava, yams and oil palms

STATE LGA

Abia Bende Ebonyi Abakalik Ebonyi Afikpo Ebonyi AfikpoSo Ebonyi Ebonyi Ebonyi Ezza North



NG27 – Southeast rice dominant with cassava, yams and oil palms

Ebonyi Ezza South Ebonyi Ikwo Ebonyi Ishielu Ebonyi Ivo Ebonyi Izzi Ebonyi Ohaozara Ebonyi Ohaukwu Ebonyi Onicha Anambra Ayamelum Cross River Abi Cross River Akamkpa Cross River Bekwarra Cross River Obanliku Cross River Obubra Cross River Obudu Cross River Ogoja Cross River Yakurr Cross River Yala Cross Enugu Aninri Enugu Awgu Enugu Enugu East Enugu Igbo-eze North Enugu Igbo-eze South Enugu Isi-Uzo Enugu Nkanu East Enugu Nkanu West Enugu Uzo-Uwani

NG28 – Southwest cocoa with oil palms, tubers and cereals

STATE LGA

Ekiti EkitiSouth-West Ekiti EkitiWest Ekiti Ido/Osi Ekiti Ikere Ekiti Ise/Orun Ondo Akure North Ondo Akure South Ondo Ifedore Ondo IleOluji/Okeigbo Ondo Ondo East Ondo Ose Ondo Owo Osun Ife East Osun Ife North



NG28 – Southwest cocoa with oil palms, tubers and cereals

Osun Ife South Osun IfeCentral Osun Ilesha East Osun Ilesha West Osun Irepodun Osun Irewole Osun Isokan Osun Obokun Osun Oriade Oyo Oluyole

NG29 – Southwest rice, cassava and cattle with cross-border trade

STATE LGA

Ogun AbeokutaNorth Ogun EgbadoNorth Ogun Ewekoro Ogun Ifo

NG30 – Cashews with tubers, maize and oil palms

STATE LGA

Abia Isuikwua Abia Umu-Nneochi Enugu Ezeagu Enugu Igbo-Eti Enugu Nsukka Enugu Oji-River Enugu Udenu Enugu Udi Imo Okigwe Kogi Ankpa

Kogi Dekina

Kogi Ofu

Kogi Olamabor

NG31 – Lagos peri-urban – fishing, poultry, piggeries, market gardening and coconuts

STATE LGA

Lagos Badagary Lagos Epe Lagos Ibeju/Lekki Lagos Ikorodu

NG32 – Coastal belt: maritime and inland fishing, cassava, plantain, oil palms and rubber

STATE LGA



NG32 – Coastal belt: maritime and inland fishing, cassava, plantain, oil palms and rubber

Anambra Anambra East Anambra Anambra West Anambra Onitsha North Anambra Anambra East Anambra Anambra West Cross River Biase Bayelsa Brass Bayelsa Ekeremor Bayelsa Kolokuma/Opokuma Bayelsa Nembe Bayelsa Ogbia Bayelsa Sagbama Bayelsa Southern Ijaw Bayelsa Yenegoa Cross River Akpabuyo Cross River Bakassi Cross River Calabar South Delta Bomadi Delta Warri North Lagos Ojo Ondo Ese-Odo Ondo IlajeEseodo Rivers Akukutor Rivers Andoni/O Rivers Asari-To Rivers Bonny Rivers Degema Rivers Gokana Rivers Ogu/Bolo Rivers Okrika Rivers Opobo/Nkoro

NG33 – Southeast cassava and oil palms with extensive off-farm work and trade

STATE LGA

Abia Ikwuano Abia Isiala Ngwa North Abia Isiala Ngwa South Abia Oboma Ngwa Abia Ohafia Abia Abia Ugwunagbo Abia Ukwa East Abia Ukwa West Abia Umuahia South Anambra Aguata




Anambra Anaocha Anambra AwkaNort Anambra AwkaSout Anambra Ekwusigo Anambra Idemili North Anambra Idemili South Anambra Ihiala Anambra Njikoka Anambra NnewiNort Anambra NnewiSou Anambra Ogbaru Anambra OrumbaNo Anambra OrumbaSo Anambra Onitsha South Anambra Oyi Cross River Odukpani Delta IsokoNor Delta IsokoSou Delta Ndokwa East Delta Oshimili North Delta Oshimili South Delta Patani Delta Ughelli North Imo Oguta Imo Ohaji/Eg Delta AniochaN Delta AniochaS Delta Burutu Delta Ethiope West Delta EthiopeE Delta IkaNorth Delta IkaSouth Delta Okpe Delta Ndokwa West Delta Sapele Delta Ughelli South Delta Ukwuani Delta Warri South Delta Warri South-West Imo Aboh-Mba Imo Ahizu-Mb Imo Ehime-Mb Imo Ezinihit




Imo Ideato South Imo IdeatoNo Imo Ihitte/U Imo Ikeduru Imo IsialaMb Imo Isu Imo Mbaitoli Imo Ngor-Okp Imo Njaba Imo Nkwerre Imo Nwangele Imo Obowo Imo Oguta Imo Ohaji/Eg Imo Orlu Imo Orsu Imo Oru East Imo Oru West Imo Owerri North Imo Owerri West Imo Unuimo Rivers Oyigbo Rivers Tai Rivers Abua/Odu Rivers Ahoada East Rivers Ahoada West Rivers Eleme Rivers Emuoha Rivers Etche Rivers Ikwerre Rivers Khana Rivers Obio/Akp Rivers Ogba/Egbe Rivers Omumma

NG34 – Northeast cattle, small ruminants and food crops with cross-border livestock trade STATE LGA

Borno Ngala Borno Gwoza Borno Bama Borno Kala/Balge Adamawa Madagali Adamawa Michika



NG34 – Northeast cattle, small ruminants and food crops with cross-border livestock trade Adamawa Mubi North Adamawa Mubi South Adamawa Maiha Adamawa Fufore

NG35 – Niger and Benue rivers fishing and foodcrops

STATE LGA

Various Along the banks of the Niger and Benue rivers



Annex 4: Seasonal and Consumption Calendars Figure 7. Seasonal Calendar (NG01 – Sokoto millet, cowpeas, groundnuts and livestock)

Seasons

Rainy season r r r r r r r r r r r r

Dry season d d d d d d d d d d d d

Lean season l l l l l l

Cropping

Millet h h p p p p s s w w w w w w h h

Rice (irrigated) p p p p s s s s w w w w h h

Sorghum h h p p p p s s s s w w w w w w

Sweet potatoes w w h h p p p p s s s s w w w w

Cowpeas h h p p p p p p w w w w h h

Groundnut w w h h p p p p p p s s s s w w w w

Vegetables h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

Livestock

Peak births b b b b b b b b

Peak milk availability m m m m m m

Peak livestock sales 1 1 1 1 1 1

Livestock diseases 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Livestock migration 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Other

Paid agricultural labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trade, firewood sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Fishing, brick making 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Food crop sales, border trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Main Hazards

Flooding 2 2 2 2

Insufficient rainfall 1 1 1 1

Crop pests 2 2 2 2 2 2

Cattle raiding 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Stress & High Expenditures

High staple food prices 2 2 2 2 2 2

Human diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Crops Legend p p Land prep s s Sowing w w Weeding h h Harvest

SepOct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug



Figure 8. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG01 – Sokoto millet, cowpeas, groundnuts and livestock)

Staple foods

Millet op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op

Sorghum mp mp op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Sweet potatoes mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Rice mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp

Income

Paid labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Firewood sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Brick making 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Expenditures

Staple foods peak 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Education/school fees 1 1 1 1 1 1

Holidays/celebrations 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Legend op op Own production mp mp Market purchase ik ik In-kind c c Gathering




Figure 9. Seasonal Calendar (NG02 – Kano-Katsina Sahel: millet, sorghum, sesame and gum arabic)

Seasons

Rainy season r r r r r r r r

Dry season d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d

Lean season l l l l l l l

Cropping

Millet h p p p p p s w w w h h h

Sorghum h p p p p p s w w w h h h

Cowpeas h p p p p p s w w w h h h

Sesame h p p p p p s w w w h h h

Groundnuts h p p p p p s w w w h h h

Sweet potatoes w w h h h p p p s s s s s w w

Tiger nuts w h h h h h p p p s w w w w w w

Hibiscus h h h p p p p s s w w w w h h

Gum arabic w w w w h h h p s s s w w w

Livestock

Peak births & milk availability 1 1 1 1


Livestock diseases 1 1 1 1

Livestock migration 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Other

Agricultural labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Petty trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Main Hazards

Flooding 1 1

Conflict 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Crop pests 1 1 1 1


High staple food prices 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Human diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1





Figure 10. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG02 – Kano-Katsina Sahel: millet, sorghum, sesame and gum arabic)

Staple foods

Millet op op op op op op mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk ik ik ik ik ik op

Sorghum op op op op op op mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk ik ik ik ik ik op

Peak Income

Petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Agricultural labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1

Livestock sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures

High staple food expenses 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Education/school fees 1 1

Holidays/celebrations 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2





Figure 11. Seasonal calendar (NG03 – Kano-Katsina Sudan: maize, sorghum, groundnuts and rice)

Seasons

Rainy season r r r r r r r r r r r

Dry season d d d d d d d d d d d d d


Cropping

Rice h h p p p s s w w w w w h

Maize h p p s s w w w w h h

Sorghum h h h h h p p s s w w w w w

Cowpeas w h h h p s p s w w

Groundnuts h h h h

Soya beans h h h p p s s w w

Sugar cane h h h h h h h h h h p p s s w w w w h h h h h h

Livestock

Peak births & milk availability 1 1 1 1

Peak livestock sales 2 2 2 2 2


Livestock migration 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Other

Agricultural labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood sales 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Surface mining 2 2 2 2 2 2

Main Hazards

Cattle raiding 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Farmer/herdsmen conflicts 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Crop disease and pests 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Flooding 2 2 2 2



Human diseases 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Crops Legend p p Land prep s s Sowing w w Weeding Green Harvest h h Harvest




Figure 12. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG03 – Kano-Katsina Sudan: maize, sorghum, groundnuts and rice)

Staple foods

Sorghum op op op op op op op op op op mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk

Maize op op op op op op op op op op mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk

Peak Income

Petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Farm labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Food crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Livestock sales 2 2 2 2

Cash crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Food processing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures

Staple foods 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Education/school fees 2 2

Holidays/celebrations 1 1 1 1 1 1





Figure 13. Seasonal Calendar (NG04 – Northeast Sahel: millet, sesame, cowpeas and livestock)

Seasons




Cropping

Millet p p s s s s s w w w h h

Sesame p p s s s s s w w w h h

Cowpea (early) p p s s w w h h

Livestock

Peak births b b b b

Peak milk availability m m m m m m mm

Peak livestock sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Livestock diseases 2 2 2 2 2

Livestock migration 1 1 1 1

Other

Dune palm fruit, honey 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood sales, petty trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Other wild foods 1 1 1 1

Main Hazards

Insufficient rainfall 2 2 2 2 2

Flooding 1 1

Pest/diseases 2 2 2



Human diseases 2 2 2 2 2





Figure 14. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG04 – Northeast Sahel: millet, sesame, cowpeas and livestock)

Staple foods

Millet op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm mk mk mk mk mk mk o op

Cowpea op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp o op

Income

Cash crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Food crop sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Peak firewood sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Peak paid labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Peak surface mining 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures



Holidays/celebrations 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Legend op op Own prod mp mp Market purchase ik ik In-kind c c Gathering




Figure 15. Seasonal Calendar (NG05 – Borno-Yobe-Bauchi millet, cowpeas, groundnuts and sesame)

Seasons

Rainy season r r r r r r r r r

Dry season d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d


Cropping

Millet p p p p s s w w w h h h

Cowpeas w w h h h h p p s s w w

Groundnuts h h p p p s s w w w w h

Rice (rainfed) h h h h p p p s s w w w w h

Rice (irrigated) p p p p s s w w w w h h h h

Sesame h h p p p s s w w w w w

Vegetables h h h h h h h h h h

Livestock

Peak births b b b b b b

Peak milk availability m m m m m m m m

Peak cattle sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Peak goat and sheep sales 2 2 2 2 2 2

Livestock diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Livestock migration 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Other

Brick making 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood sales, petty trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Groundnut oil extraction 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Tourism 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Main Hazards


Localized flooding 2 2 2 2

Pests/diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1



Human diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1





Figure 16. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG05 – Borno-Yobe-Bauchi millet, cowpeas, groundnuts and sesame)

Staple foods

Millet op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op

Rice mp op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Income

Peak paid labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Food crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Brick making 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Expenditures

Staple foods 2 2 2 2 2 2







Figure 17. Seasonal Calendar (NG06 – Sokot-Rima-Kano riverine rice and fishing and NG07 – Komadugu-Yobe irrigated peppers with rice, millet and vegetables)

Seasons

Rainy season r r r r r r r r r r



Cropping

Rice (rainfed) h h h h p p p p s s s s w w

Rice (irrigated) p p s s s s w w h h h h h h

Millet h h p p p p s s w w h h

Sorghum h h h h h h p p p p s s w w

Maize (rainfed) h h h h h h p p p p s s w w

Maize (irrigated) p p s s w w h h h h

Cowpeas h h h h h h p p p p s s w w

Groundnuts (rainfed) h h h h p p p p s s w w

Groundnuts (irrigated) p p s s w w h h h h

Cassava h h p p s s w w

Vegetables h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

Sweet potatoes p p s s w w h h

Red peppers (irrigated) p s s s w w h h h h p p

Livestock

Peak births b b b b b b b b b b



Livestock diseases 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Livestock migration 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Other

Peak fishing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Firewood sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Brick making 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Peak labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Cross-border trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trade & poultry sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Food crop sales 2 2 2 2 2 2

Main Hazards


Flooding 2 2 2 2

Pests and diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1


High staple food prices 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2






Figure 18. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG06 – Sokot-Rima-Kano riverine rice and fishing and NG07 – Komadugu-Yobe irrigated peppers with rice, millet and vegetables)

Staple foods

Millet op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op

Sorghum mp mp op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Maize op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Rice op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op op op

Peak income

Paid labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Petty trade & firewood sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Poultry sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Food crop sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Red pepper sales (fresh/dried) 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Peak staple food expenses 2 2 2 2

Education/school fees 1 1 1 1





Figure 19. Seasonal Calendar (NG08 – Lake Chad fishing, maize, cowpeas and vegetables and NG09 – Chad Basin: dry season masakwa sorghum and wheat)

Seasons




Cropping

Wheat (irrigated) p p p s s s w w w w h h

Masakwa (flood recession)

sorghum s s s s w w w w h h h h p p p p

Maize (irrigated) s s s s w w h h p p

Rice (irrigated) p p s s s s w w h h h h p p

Sorghum (rainfed) w w h h h h p p p p s s w w w w

Cowpeas h h h h h h p p s s s s s w w w

Millet h h h h h h p p p p w w w w h h

Sesame w w h h h h h h p p s s s s w w

Livestock

Peak births & milk availability m m m m m m m m m m m m



Livestock migration 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Other

Fishing peak 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Paid labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Food processing 1 1 1 1 1 1

Petty and cross-border trading 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Gum arabic 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Main Hazards

Drought/desertification 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Insufficient rainfall 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Crop diseases 2 2 2 2 2 2

Insurgency 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1


High staple food prices 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Human diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1





Figure 20. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG08 – Lake Chad fishing, maize, cowpeas and vegetables and NG09 – Chad Basin: dry season masakwa sorghum and wheat)

Staple foods

Millet op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op

Sorghum op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Maize op op op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Cowpea mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm

Rice pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm

Income

Agricultural labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Crop sales 2 2 2 2 2 2

Small ruminant sales 1 1 1 1

Expenditures

High staple food expenses 1 1 1 1 1 1


Holidays/celebrations 1 1 1 1





Figure 21. Seasonal Calendar (NG10 – Hadeija-Nguru wetlands: mixed cereals and vegetables)

Seasons

Rainy season r r r r r r r r r r r

Dry season d d d d d d d d d d d d d


Cropping

Rice (irrig. - Hadeija Valley Project)

h h p s w w

Rice (irrigated) p p s s w w h h

Vegetables h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

Cassava p s p s w w w w h h h h

Sesame p s s s w w h h

Cowpeas h h h p s h h h h p p s s

Wheat p s w w h h

Maize s s w w h h p s w w h h p s w w h h p

Millet h p s s w w w h h

Livestock



Peak cattle sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Peak goat and sheep sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2



Other Livelihood Activities

Fishing 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Potash extraction 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Mat making 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Wild foods collection 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Firewood collection 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Main Hazards

Resource use conflicts 2 2 2 2 2

Reduced irrigation water 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Flooding 2 2 2 2



Human diseases 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2





Figure 22. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG10 – Hadeija-Nguru wetlands: mixed cereals and vegetables)

Staple foods

Rice op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op op op op op

Millet op op op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op

Cowpeas op op op op op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Wild foods c c c c c c c c c c c c c c

Income

Food crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Petty trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Paid labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Wild product sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Firewood sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Food processing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures








Figure 23. Seasonal Calendar (NG11 – Northwest sorghum, maize, soybeans and rice and NG12 – Northwest sorghum, maize and cotton with cross-border trade)

Seasons


Dry season d d d d d d d d d d d d d d


Cropping

Rice (rainfed) p p s s w w w w h h

Rice (irrigated) p p s s w w w w h h

Sorghum h h p s w w w w

Maize p s w w h h

Soybeans h h p s w w w w h h

Cowpeas h h p s w w w w

Cotton h h h h h h p s w w w w

Livestock

Peak births & milk availability m m m m m m

Peak livestock sales 1 1 1 1


Livestock migration 1 1 1 1 1 1

Other

Hunting, surface mining 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Wild foods 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood, timber sales, fishing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Food processing 1 1 1 1

Honey production 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Main Hazards

Insufficient rainfall 1 1 1 1 1 1

Flooding 2 2 2 2 2 2

Crop prests 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Cattle raiding 2 2 2 2

Insurgency 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1


High staple food prices 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Human diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1





Figure 24. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG11 – Northwest sorghum, maize, soybeans and rice and NG12 – Northwest sorghum, maize and cotton with cross-border trade)

Staple foods

Sorghum mp mp op op op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Maize op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm mp mp pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp op op

Millet op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op

Rice op op op op op op pm pm mp mp mp mp op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm

Income

Firewood and fish sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Honey production 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Wild food sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Surface mining 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Hunting 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures



Holidays/celebrations 2 2





Figure 25. Seasonal Calendar (NG13 – Northwest and central maize, rice, cowpeas and sweet potatoes and NG14 – Central sorghum dominant with maize, groundnuts and cowpeas)

Seasons




Cropping

Maize (rainfed) h h h h p p p s s s w w w

Maize (irrigated - cobs for roasting)

s w

Sorghum h h h h h h p p p p s s w w w w w w

Cowpea w w h h h h p p p p p p p s s w w w

Sweet potatoes h h h h p p p p s s w w w w w w

Yams h h h h h p h p h p p s s s s s w w w w w w h h

Groundnut h h h h h h p p p s s s w w w w h h

Soybean h h h h h h p p p p s s w w w w w w

Millet h h h h h h p p p s s s w w w w h h

Livestock

Peak births & milk availability m m m m m m m m



Livestock migration 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Other

Agricultural labor (wet and dry) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Brick making 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Transportation services 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Main Hazards

Cattle raiding 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Insufficient rainfall 1 1 1

Flooding 2 2 2 2



Human diseases 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2





Figure 26. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG13 – Northwest and central maize, rice, cowpeas and sweet potatoes and NG14 – Central sorghum dominant with maize, groundnuts and cowpeas)

Staple foods

Maize pk pk pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op

Sorghum op op op op pk pk pk pk mk mk mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Rice op op pk pk pk pk pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Cowpea op op pk pk pk pk pk pk pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Yam op pk pk pk pk pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op

Income

Food crop sales 1 1 1 1

Cash crop sales 2 2

Firewood & charcoal sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Petty trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Livestock sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Food processing 2 2 2 2

Expenditures








Figure 27. Seasonal Calendar (NG15 – Northeast maize dominant with rice, soybeans and groundnuts)

Seasons




Cropping

Maize h h p p p p s s s w w h

Soybean h h h p p p p s s s w w w

Rice (rainfed) h h h p p p p s s w w w w

Cowpeas h h h p p s s s w w w

Groundnuts h h h p p p p s s s w w w

Sorghum h h h p p s s w w w w w w

Livestock


Peak milk availability m m m m m m m m m m m m

Peak cattle sales 1 1 1 1 1

Peak goat and sheep sales 2 2 2 2 2



Other Livelihood Activities

Paid labor; petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Brick making 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Larger trade 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Main Hazards

Insufficient rainfall 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Pests/diseases (fall army worm) 2 2 2 2

Flooding 1 1 1 1


High staple food prices 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2






Figure 28. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG15 – Northeast maize dominant with rice, soybeans and groundnuts)

Staple foods

Maize op op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mpop

Rice mp mp op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mpmp

Sorghum mp mp op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mpmp

Cowpea mp mp mp op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mpmp

Income

Paid labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Brick making; petty trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Firewood sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Expenditures

Staple foods 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2



Peak health costs 1 1 1 1 1 1





Figure 29. Seasonal Calendar (NG16 – High plateau Irish potatoes, maize, acha (Digitaria) and livestock and NG17 – Lower plateau rice, sorghum and cattle)

Seasons



Lean season l l l l l

Cropping

Irish potato (wet and dry) p p s w w h p p p s w w h h p p

Acha h h p s p s w w

Maize (rainfed) h h h h p s s s h h h

Maize irrigated) s s s w w w h h h

Rice (rainfed) h h h h p s s w w w

Rice (irrigated) p p s s w w w h h h h h

Sorghum h h h p p s s s w w w w w

Yam h h h h h s s s w w h h h h p h

Benniseed h h h h p s w w

Cassava w w p s s s s s s s w w

Groundnut p s p s w h w h h h

Livestock


Peak livestock sales 1 1 1 1

Livestock disease 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


Other


Firewood sales, trade, brickmaking 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Fishing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Wild food collection 1 1 1 1

Surface mining 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2



Human diseases 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2





Figure 30. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG16 – High plateau Irish potatoes, maize, acha (Digitaria) and livestock and NG17 – Lower plateau rice, sorghum and cattle)

Staple foods

Maize op op op op op op op mp op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op mp op op op op

Rice mp mp op op op op op op op op op op op mp op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Sorghum mp mp op op op op op op op op op op op mp op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Yam op op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op mp op mp op op

Irish potatoes mp mp mp mp mp mp op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op mp mp

Peak Income

Food crop sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


Cattle sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Casual labor 1 1 1 1 1 1

Trade, food processing, brickmaking 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures

High staple food expenses 1 1 1 1 1 1







Figure 31. Seasonal Calendar (NG18 – Ginger and turmeric with maize, sorghum, yams and acha (Digitaria) and NG20 – Central yams and maize belt, with cassava, rice and soybeans)

Seasons




Cropping

Yam (early) p p s s w w w w h h h h

Yam (late) h h h h p p s s p s w w w w w w h h

Maize (rainfed) h h p p s s w w w h

Maize (irrigated) p p s s w w w h h h

Cassava w w h h p s s s w w w w

Sesame h h h h p p p s w w w w

Soybean h h h h h h p p s s w w w w w w

Ginger h h h h h h h h p p s s s w w w w w w

Livestock

Peak births m m m m m m

Peak livestock sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1


Other


Food processing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Cross border trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2



Human diseases 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2





Figure 32. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG18 – Ginger and turmeric with maize, sorghum, yams and acha (Digitaria) and NG20 – Central yams and maize belt, with cassava, rice and soybeans)

Staple foods

Maize op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op

Yam op op op op op op pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp pm pm pm pm pm pm

Sorghum mp mp op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Cassava pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm op op op op op op

Acha op op op op pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Peak Income

Food crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1


Petty trade 1 1 1 1

Honey sales 2 2 2 2

Brick making 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Expenditures








Figure 33. Seasonal Calendar (NG19 – Benue river sugar cane, rice and sugar estate labor, NG21 – Niger and Benue rivers floodplain rice with maize, vegetables and livestock, and NG35 – Niger and Benue rivers fishing and food crops)

Seasons

Rainy season r r r r r r r r r r r r r r

Dry season d d d d d d d d d d


Cropping

Rice (irrigated) p p p p s s s s s s w w w w h h h h

Rice (rainfed) h h h h p p p p p p s s w w w w

Maize h h p p p p s s s s w w w w

Sorghum w w h h p p p p p p s s s s w w w w w w

Cassava w w h h h p h p s s s s w w w w

Sugar cane w w h h p p p p s s s s w w w w w w w w

Sesame w w h h p p p p s s s s s s w w w w

Livestock




Other


Brick making 2 2 2 2

Cross-border trading 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood collection 2 2 2 2

Fishing peak 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Surface mining 2 2 2 2 2 2

Wild food & game 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Hazards



High staple food prices 1 1 1 1






Figure 34. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG19 – Benue river sugar cane, rice and sugar estate labor, NG21 – Niger and Benue rivers floodplain rice with maize, vegetables and livestock, and NG35 – Niger and Benue rivers fishing and food crops)

Staple foods

Rice mp mp op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp

Maize mp mp op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp

Sorghum mp mp op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp

Cassava op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp pk pk pk pk op op op op op op

Income

Labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


Petty trading 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Fish sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Food processing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures

Peak food expenses 1 1 1 1 1 1







Figure 35. Seasonal Calendar (NG23 – Citrus fruits with yams, cassava and groundnuts, NG24 – Cocoa dominant with oil palms, cereals and tubers, and NG30 – Cashews with tubers, maize and oil palms)

Seasons




Cropping

Cassava h h h h h h h h s s s s s w w w w w

Maize (early) h h p p p s s s w w w h h

Maize (late) w h h h p s s s w w

Rice (rainfed) p p p s s w w w h h h h

Rice (irrigated) p p s s s w w w h h p p s s w w w h h

Yams p s s s s h h h h h h p p s s w w h h h p p

Sorghum p s s s s h h h h h h p p p s w w h h h p p

Sweet potatoes w w h h h h h p p s w w h h p s

Oil palm h h h h h h h h p p s s w w

Cowpea w h h h p p p s s s w w

Cashew h h h h s s

Cocoa (harvest after 4 yrs) w w h h p p s s w w w w w w w w

Mango h h h h h h p p p s s s w w

Soybeans h h h h p p p s s s w w w w w w

Citrus h h h h h h p p p s s s s w w w w

Groundnuts (early) p p p s s w w h h h

Groundnuts (late) w h h p s s w

Sesame h h h h h h p p p s s s s w w w

Livestock



Livestock disease 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Other

Agricultural labor peak 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood and charcoal peak sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trading, transport 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Brick making, oil palm extraction 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Cross-border trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Main Hazards


Wildfire 1 1 1 1 1 1


High staple food prices 2 2 2 2 2 2 2






Figure 36. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG23 – Citrus fruits with yams, cassava and groundnuts, NG24 – Cocoa dominant with oil palms, cereals and tubers, and NG30 – Cashews with tubers, maize and oil palms)

Staple foods

Rice mp mp op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp

Maize mp mp op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp

Sorghum mp mp op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp

Cassava op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp pk pk pk pk op op op op op op

Income

Labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


Petty trading 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Fish sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Food processing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures

Peak food expenses 1 1 1 1 1 1







Figure 37. Seasonal Calendar (NG22 – Cassava dominant with rice, maize, yams and tree-crops, NG26 – Cross River cocoa with oil palms, rice, yams and plantain, NG27 – Southeast rice dominant with cassava, yams and oil palms, and NG28 – Southwest cocoa with oil palms, tubers and cereals)

Livelihood Zone 22 in this table refers to the areas that fall within the Savanna agro-ecology.

Seasons




Cropping

Rice (rainfed) h h p p p s s w w w h h

Cassava w w h h h h p p s s w w h h h p s s

Maize h h h h h h p p s s p s s s w w

Sweet Potato h h p p s s w w

Yams h h p p s s w w

Groundnuts p p s s h h

Cocoa (harvest after 4 yrs) w w h h p p s s w w w w w w w w

Oil Palm/Cashew (harvest after 4/5 yrs) h h c c c c w w

Livestock

Peak births 1 1 1 1

Peak sales 2 2 2 2 2 2

Livestock diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1

Other

Hunting, brick making, palm wine 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Firewood, transport, cassava, trading 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Honey, palm oil, fishing, timber 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Main Hazards

Farmer/herder conflict 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Insufficient rainfall 2 2 2 2 2 2

Crop pests/diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1


Cocoa price instability 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Communal land conflict 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


High staple prices 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Human diseases 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Crops Legend p p Land prep c c Transplant s s Sowing w w Weeding h h Harvest




Figure 38. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG22 – Cassava dominant with rice, maize, yams and tree-crops, NG26 – Cross River cocoa with oil palms, rice, yams and plantain, NG27 – Southeast rice dominant with cassava, yams and oil palms, and NG28 – Southwest cocoa with oil palms, tubers and cereals)

Staple foods

Cassava pk pk pk pk pk pk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk mk pk pk pk pk pk pk pk pk

Maize mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp pm pm op op op op op op op op

Yam op op pk pk pk pk pk pk pk pk op op

Rice pk pk pk pk pk pk

Cocoyam/Sweet Potato mp mp mp mp pk pk pk pk pk pk pk pk pk pk mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mpmp

Income

Peak agricultural labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trading 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


Peak crop sales 2 2 2 2 2 2

Peak cash crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Peak food processing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures

Peak staple food expenses 1 1 1 1

Education/school fees 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


Legend p p Own production mp mp Market purchase ik ik In-kind c c Gathering

purchase and in-kind payment

purchase and in-kind payment




Figure 39. Seasonal Calendar (NG22 – Cassava dominant with rice, maize, yams and tree-crops and NG33 – Southeast cassava and oil palms with extensive off-farm work and trade)

Seasons




Cropping

Cassava s s h h h h p p p p s s s s s s w w w w s s

Maize h h h h p p p p s s s s h h h h w w

Rice (rainfed) h h h h p p p p s s s s w w h h

Rice (irrigated) s s w s w w w w h h p p s s w w w h h p p

Yams h h h h p p s s s s s s w w w w w w

Plaintain w w w w w h h h h h p p p p s s s s w w w w w w

Pineapple h h h h h h p p s s s s w w w w w w w w

Cocoyam h h h h p p s s s s s s w w w w w w

Oil Palm, Cocoa, Cashew w w h h h h h h p p p p s s s s w w w w w w w w

Rubber h h h h h h h h h h p p p p s s s s w w w w w w

Kola Nut w w h h h h h h h h p p p p s s s s w w w w w w

Livestock

Peak births/milk availability b b b b b b b b b b

Peak sales m m m m m m



Other (peak times)

Petty trading 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Brick laying 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Handicrafts 1 1 1 1

Blacksmith, soap making 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Transportation 1 1 1 1

Tailoring 2 2 2 2

Leatherwork 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Hair dressing 2 2 2 2 2 2

Catering services 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Main Hazards


Herdsmen attacks 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Crop pests/disease 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Livestock pests/disease 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1





Aug SepDec Jan Feb May JunApr JulOct MarNov



Figure 40. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG22 – Cassava dominant with rice, maize, yams and tree-crops and NG33 – Southeast cassava and oil palms with extensive off-farm work and trade)

Staple foods

Cassava op op op op op op op op op op op op pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp pm pm op op

Maize op op pm pm op op op op pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op op op

Rice pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp pm pm

Yam pm pm op op op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Plaintain pm pm op op op op op op op op op op pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Income (peak times)

Crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Petty trading 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Paid labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Transportation 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Brick laying 1 1 1 1 1 1

Carpentry 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures

Staple foods 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2




SepOct Nov Dec Jan Jul AugFeb Mar Apr May Jun



Figure 41. Seasonal Calendar (NG25 – Mambila highland: cattle, maize, Irish potatoes, tea, coffee and kola nuts)

Seasons

Rainy season r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r

Dry season d d d d d d


Cropping

Maize h h h h p p p s s s s w w w w

Irish potatoes p p s s s s w w w h h h h h h h

Beans p p p s s s w w h h h h h

Sweet potatoes h h h h p p p s s w w w

Tea h h h h p p p p p s p s s s s s s s h h h h h h

Coffee h h h h h h s s s s s w w w w w

Kolanut h h h h h s s s s w w w w w w

Livestock

Peak births & milk availability 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


Livestock diseases 2 2 2

Other

Agricultural labor peak 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood & timber sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty & cross border trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Tourism 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


High staple food prices 1 1 1 1

Human diseases 2 2 2





Figure 42. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG25 – Mambila highland: cattle, maize, Irish potatoes, tea, coffee and kola nuts)

Staple foods

Maize op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp pm op

Irish potatoes pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op op op op op pm pm

Beans pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op op op pm pm

Rice mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Peak Income

Agricultural labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Petty trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Food crop sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Brick making 1 1 1 1

Expenditures

Peak staple prices 2 2 2 2







Figure 43. Seasonal Calendar (NG29 – Southwest rice, cassava and cattle with cross-border trade)

Seasons




Cropping

Rice h h p p s s s w w h h

Cassava w w w w h h h h p p p s s s s w

Yam h p p s s s s s s s w w w w w w h h h h

Maize h h p p p p s s s w w w h h

Cashew h h h p s s s w s w

Groundnut p s p s w w w h h h

Mango w w p h p h s h s w s w w w

Shea-nut tree (shea butter) h h h h h h h h p p p s s s s w s w w w

Livestock

Peak cattle births/milk production m m m m m m m m m m

Peak goat/sheep births b b b b

Livestock diseases 3 3 3 3 3 3


Other

Paid agricultural labor 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Food crop & product sales 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Chicken and goat sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trading 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Main Hazards

Peak herdsmen attacks 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Crop pests/diseases 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Flooding 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Wildfire 2 2 2 2 2 2


High staple food prices l l l l l l l l l


Crops Legend p p Land prep c c Fire tracing s s Sowing w w Weeding h h Harvest

transplant

Aug SepDec Jan Feb May JunAprOct MarNov Jul



Figure 44. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG29 – Southwest rice, cassava and cattle with cross-border trade)

Staple foods

Rice op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp op

Yam op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Maize op op op op pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op

Cassava pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op op op op op pm pm pm pm

Vegetables mk mk mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mk mk op op op op op op op op mk mk

Wild foods c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c

Income

Paid labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Food crop sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Cashew nut harvest labor 1 1 1 1 1 1

Peak charcoal sales 2 2 2 2 2 2

Shea nut harvest labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Peak hunting 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


Expenditures

Staple foods 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1



Festivals (e.g. masquerade) 2 2 2 2 2 2


SepOct Nov Dec Jan Jul AugFeb Mar Apr May Jun



Figure 45. Seasonal Calendar (NG31 – Lagos peri-urban – fishing, poultry, piggeries, market gardening and coconuts and NG32 – Coastal belt: maritime and inland fishing, cassava, plantain, oil palms and rubber)

Seasons

Rainy season r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r

Dry season d d d d d d d d

Lean season l l l l l l l l l l

Cropping

Rice h h p p s s s w w h h

Vegetable h h h h p p p p s s s s h h h h p p s s

Cassava p p s s w w p p p p s w s s s s h h h h h h p p

Maize w w h h h h p p p s s s w w h h h p p s s s

Yam p p s s s s p p p p

Fishing

Inland fishing

Coastal fishing peak 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Aquaculture (fish farming) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Livestock

Peak poultry production b b b b b b b b

Peak pig production 3 3 3 3 3 3

Peak livestock births b b b b b b b b b b

Livestock diseases 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Other

Artisanal activities 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Fish smoking 1 1 1 1

Palm wine production 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Hunting 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Sand dredging labor 2 2 2 2 2 2

Main Hazards

Flooding 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Crop pests/diseases (rice) 2 2

Oil/Industrial waste pollution 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1


High staple prices 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Human diseases 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1


transplant

SepAugOct Nov May Jun JulDec Jan Feb Mar Apr



Figure 46. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG31 – Lagos peri-urban – fishing, poultry, piggeries, market gardening and coconuts and NG32 – Coastal belt: maritime and inland fishing, cassava, plantain, oil palms and rubber)

Staple foods

Rice op op pk pk pk pk mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op

Cassava mp mp op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp op op op op mp mp mp mp

Maize mp mp mp mp op op pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp op op pm pm pm pm

Fish mp mp mp mp pk pk pm pm mp mp mp mp pk pk pk pm pm pm pk pk pm pm mp mp

Yam/Plantain mp mp mp mp mp mp pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm mp mp pk pk pk pk mp mp

Income

Peak crop sales 1 1 1 1

Peak food product sales (cassava, fish) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Artisanal products 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Peak firewood, palm wine sales 2 2 2 2

Local agricultural labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Expenditures

Peak staple food expenses 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


Holidays/celebrations 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Legend p p Own production mp mp Market purchase ik ik In-kind c c Gathering

SepAugOct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul



Figure 47. Seasonal Calendar (NG34 – Northeast cattle, small ruminants and food crops with cross-border livestock trade)

Seasons




Cropping

Millet h h p p p p s s s s w w w h

Rice (rainfed) h h h h p p p s s s w w w w w w

Maize h h p p s s s s w w w w h h

Sorghum h h p p s s s s w w w w h h

Yams h h h h p p s s p s w w w w w w h h

Cowpea h h h h p p p p s s s w w w

Groundnut h h h h p p p p s s s w w w w h

Vegetables h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

Livestock

Peak births b b b b b b b b b b

Peak milk availability m m m m m m m m m m




Other

Cross border trade 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Paid labor 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Firewood sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Food processing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Main Hazards

Insufficient rainfall 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Crop pests 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2








Figure 48. Consumption Calendar for Poor Households (NG34 – Northeast cattle, small ruminants and food crops with cross-border livestock trade)

Staple foods

Millet pk pk pk pk op op op op op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm

Sorghum pk pk pk pk op op op op op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm

Rice mp mp mp mp op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Maize mk mk mk mk op op op op op op op op pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pk pk

Yam op op op op op op pm pm pm pm mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp pm pm pm pm pm pm

Cowpea mp mp mp mp op op op op op op op op mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp mp

Income


Firewood sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Petty trade 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Crop sales 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Expenditures



Holidays/celebrations 2 2



Documents

Nigeria Livelihood Zone Map and Descriptions 2018 · This product aims to identify livelihood patterns and trends to provide a starting point for early- warning assessments ... Indeed,