OPEN ACCESS Research Journal of Medicinal Plant

ISSN 1819-3455DOI: 10.3923/rjmp.2016.201.227

Review ArticleNigerian Folklore Medicinal Plants with Potential AntifertilityActivity in Males: A Scientific Appraisal

Linus Chia Saalu

Department of Anatomy, College of Health Sciences, Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria

AbstractIn spite of the many achievements in health care delivery in the current century as evidenced by the rapid progress and expansion oforthodox medicine, people in Nigeria like in most of the developing countries lack regular access to essential medicines. For these people,faith in and popularity of traditional methods have not decreased because modern medicine is unlikely to be a tenable treatmentalternative primarily because of its high cost. The cost of modern medicine is constantly increasing with improvements in modern healthtechnology and in many cases is inappropriate to the immediate needs of people in developing and underdeveloped countries. On theother hand, medicinal herbs are widely available and affordable, even in remote areas. In addition, consumers believe that herbalmedicines are safe because they are “Natural”. The constant resort to medical herbalism has however, thrown up certain health challengesarising from the side and unwanted effects of these herbs on the human anatomy and physiology. One such health condition is maleinfertility or sub-fertility as a result of the effect of medicinal herbs on the male reproductive organs. This review attempts to documentthose nigerian medicinal plants that possess the potentials to reduce male fertility particularly as demonstrated from the results of basicand allied medical sciences research and published in the peer reviewed scientific literature.

Key words: Medicinal plants, infertility, male, therapeutic/folkloric use, leydig cells, methanolic extracts

Received: October 07, 2015 Accepted: February 11, 2016 Published: March 15, 2016

Citation: Linus Chia Saalu, 2016. Nigerian folklore medicinal plants with potential antifertility activity in males: A scientific appraisal. Res. J. Med. Plant,10: 201-227.

Corresponding Author: Linus Chia Saalu, Department of Anatomy, College of Health Sciences, Benue State University, Makurdi, NigeriaTel: 08033200876

Copyright: © 2016 Linus Chia Saalu. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution License, which permitsunrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Competing Interest: The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files.

Res. J. Med. Plant, 10 (3): 201-227, 2016

INTRODUCTION

Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) isdefined as "A group of diverse medical and health caresystems, practices and products that are not presentlyconsidered to be part of conventional medicine”. It interprets"Complementary" medicine as being used together withconventional medicine, whereas "Alternative" medicine isused in place of conventional medicine (Hoffman and Fox,2006).

The CAM therapies are classified into four categories ordomains (May, 2011):

C Biologically-based practicesC Energy therapiesC Manipulative and body-based methods andC Mind-body medicine

Biologically based therapies in CAM use substances foundin nature, such as herbs, foods and vitamins. Some examplesinclude dietary supplements, herbal products and the use ofother so-called natural but as yet scientifically unproventherapies (for example, using shark cartilage to treat cancer)(Ruggie, 2004; Shealy and Dawson, 2006).

Medical herbalism or simply, herbalism or herbology, is“The study of herbs and their medicinal uses”. This definitioncan be extended to include the cultivation, collection ordispensing of aromatic plants, especially those considered tohave medicinal properties.

Other terms substituted for medical herbalism, includeherbal or botanical medicine or phytotherapy, previouslydefined as “The use of plant materials to prevent and treat illhealth or promote wellness” (Bekalo et al., 2009).

Medicinal plants play a crucial role in health care needs ofpeople around the world especially in developing countries(Rao et al., 2004; Bekalo et al., 2009). About 80% of thepopulations of most developing countries still depend on theuse of traditional medicine derived from plants(Cunningham, 1993).

The African continent has a long history with the use ofplants for medicinal purposes (Metz, 1991). Traditionalmedicine was the only source of health care in Nigeria inhistorical times.

Orthodox medicine was not formally introduced intoNigeria until 1860s when Sacred Heart Hospital wasestablished by the Roman Catholic Missionaries in Abeokuta(Bekalo et al., 2009).

In the past two decades, there has been a globalresurgence of interest in traditional medicine for the

treatment of ailments that defile orthodox medicineprincipally because many diseases have defiled or developedresistance to conventional drugs as well as a health systemcloser to the rural poor. As a result of this renaissance inunorthodox medicine, a lot of interest and attention havebeen drawn to the curative claims and norms (ethics) of herbalplants in different parts of the globe especially Africa and Asia.

Characteristics of herbal medicine: Herbal medicine hassome characteristics that make them unique and differentfrom synthetic drugs (Calixto, 2000). These include:

C The active principle is frequently unknownC The availability and quality control are frequently

problematicC Standardization, stability and quality control are feasible

but not easyC They have a wide range of therapeutic use and are

suitable for chronic treatmentsC Well-controlled double blind clinical and toxicological

studies to prove their efficacy and safety are rare whencompared with synthetic drugs but well-controlledrandomized clinical trial revealed they do exist

C They are cheaper than synthetic drugs

The medical systems in developing countries involve bothtraditional herbal systems and orthodox medicine. Due to theeconomic predicament of these countries, the people resortto the traditional herbal system for primary health care. InAfrica, particularly West Africa, new drugs are not oftenaffordable thus up to 80% of the population use medicinalplants as remedies (Kirby, 1996; Hostettmann and Marston,2002). World bank data on African development indicators2003 revealed that the ratio of medical doctors to totalpopulation for 1990-2000 in Nigeria was 1:5208. This conditionand the fact that international commercial orthodoxmedicines are becoming increasingly out of reach for mostNigerians have contributed to the dependence of a largepercentage of the Nigerian people on local herbal medicine(Sofowora, 1992).

Treatment offered by traditional herbal healers at theprimary health care leveled has greatly sustained the NigerianSociety before and after colonization.

IMPORTANCE OF MEDICAL HERBALISM IN AFRICA

World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that around80% of the population in Africa-use traditional medicines.About 85% of traditional medicine involves use of plant

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Res. J. Med. Plant, 10 (3): 201-227, 2016

extracts (Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1985). This would implythat the reliance on herbal medicine is immense. Toappreciate the extent of this dependence, it is estimated thatin Sub-Saharan Africa there is one traditional healer for every500 people, whereas there is only one medical doctor forevery 40,000 people. Therefore the importance of herbalmedicines in the life of Africans cannot be overemphasized.The re-insurgence of interest of herbal medicines in Africa isbacked by several reasons namely, the increasingly expensiveand unavailability of orthodox drugs to average incomeearners (Sofowora, 1992). Another reason is that manyailments are developing resistance to orthodox drugs, forinstance, the increasing resistance of malaria parasites tochloroquine which is the cheapest and the most commonlyused drugs for treating malaria in Nigeria (Odugbemi et al.,2007). Bacterial resistance to antibiotics is another classicalexample. The inability of Western orthodox medicine toprovide cure for some diseases and infections (e.g., HIV/AIDS)is a possible reason also. The ascendancy of the humanimmune deficiency virus has spurred intensive investigationinto plant derivatives which may be effective especially for usein developing and underdeveloped nations. The little or noside effects with use of herbal medicines are other factorsoften stated in favour of herbalism.

Demand for herbal medicine: For years, public interest hasincreased for natural therapies (mainly herbal medicine)all over the world including Africa (Grunwald, 1995;Robbers et al., 1996; Blumenthal, 1999). According toGrunwald (1995), there are several factors that lead to thepreference and growth of phytotherapeutic market worldwideand they include:

C Preference of consumers for natural therapiesC Great interest in alternative medicineC The belief that herbal medicine is devoid of side effect

since millions of people all over the world have beenusing herbal medicine for thousands of years

C The belief that herbal medicine is used for the treatmentof certain diseases where conventional medicine fails

C Improvement in the quality, proof of efficacy and safetyof herbal medicine and

C High cost of synthetic drugs

EFFECTS OF HERBAL MEDICINES ON MALEREPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Male reproduction anatomy is a complex structure thatinvolves the testes, epididymis, accessory sex glands and

associated hormones. Testes perform two highly organizedand intricate functions, called spermatogenesis andsteroidogenesis, which are crucial for the perpetuation of life.Spermatogenesis, a highly dynamic and synchronized process,takes place within the seminiferous tubules of the testis withthe support of somatic Sertoli cells, leading to the formationof mature spermatozoa from undifferentiated stem cells (Hessand de Franca, 2008). The interstitial compartment, whichcomprises leydig cells, is the site of steroidogenesis in thetestis (Osinowo, 2006).

Several plants are reported to enhance reproductiveprocesses in laboratory animal models. This has been severallydemonstrated in our laboratory. This include the findings that;grapefruit seed extract demonstrates profertility effects inmale rats (Saalu et al., 2008, 2010a, b), extract of Sesameradiatum enhances fertility in male Sprague dawley rats(Ukwenya et al., 2008), Moringa oleifera lamark (drumstick)leaf extract modulates testicular toxicity in rats (Saalu et al.,2011), aqueous extract of date (Phoenix dactylifera) protectstestis (Akunna et al., 2012), Laurus nobilis preserves testicularfunctions in crytorchid rat (Akunna et al., 2012), stem barkextract of Enantia chlorantha has testiculo-protective effecton Lead-induced toxicity in adult wistar rat (Oyewopo et al.,2012), bitter leaf has a modulating role on spermatogenic andsteroidogenesis functions of the rat testis (Saalu et al., 2013),Cissus populnea extract and Jatropha curcas extract hasameliorating effect on the rat testis (Oyewopo et al., 2014) andCroton zambesicus leaf extract has ameliorating capabilitieson the testis of rats exposed to pyrethroid-based insecticide(Akunna et al., 2014).

However, many basic science researches have shownseveral medicinal plants that hinder testicular functions.

The aim of this review is to collate all available data onnigerian medical plants with antifertility effects reported in thescientific literature.

The list of potential male antifertility Nigerian medicinalplants is presented with their photo, scientific name, commonname and the local nigerian names of the country in whichthey are available are indicated. The description of methodsused in the experiment model animals and the effect ofantifertility, doses, duration of exposure, the part used, thefolkloric usage and phytochemical composition are alsoincluded. Plants which did not show any significant antifertilityeffect were not included.

A total of 40 medical plants are reported in this review ashaving different antifertility activities. The collectedinformation are given below and also summarized inTable 1 and 2.

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Res. J. Med. Plant, 10 (3): 201-227, 2016

Table 1: Medicinal plants in Nigeria with potential antifertility pontentialsScientific name Common name Local Nigerian name Therapeutic/folkloric use Part usedAbrus precatorius Jumble beads Oju ologbo ( Yoruba), Damar Zaya (Hausa) Cough, convulsion, anemia, Root, leaves and

and Anya Mumu (Igbo) aphrodisiac, ulcer seedsAcacia auriculae formis Kasisa eleti (Yoruba) Astringent Stem barkAcacia concinna Velvet bean Yerepe (Yoruba) Ant-dandruff, skin diseases Stem barkAlbizzia lebbeck Siris Igbagbo (Yoruba) and Esheye shege (Bini) Diarrhea, low back pain Pod, barkAllamanda cathattica Golden Trumpet Orogbo-erin (Yoruba) and Izeni (Edo) Cough, waist pain, yellow fever LeafAllium sativum Garlic Ayuu (Yoruba), Tafarnawa (Hausa) and Stroke, eye pains Bulb

Ayo (Igbo)Aloe barbaderisis Aloe Vera Alon Erin (Yoruba), Ibube agu (Igbo) and Cancer eczema, wounds, acne, Root and leaf

Tinya (Hausa) ulcer, impotenceAnanas comosus Pineapple Ogede-oyibo (youruba), Akwu-oyibo (Igbo), Purgative, stomach upset Unripe fruit

Mbuer u buter (Tiv) and Eyop mbakara (Efik)Anethem graveolens Soya Alasisede (Yoruba) Headache, malaria LeafAspillia africana Bush marigold Yun yun (Yoruba), Kalankwa (Hausa) and Stop bleeding, promotes healing, Leaf

Friend of pepper Urangila (Igbo) antimalarialsAzadirachta indica Neem Dogonyaro (Hausa)/(Yoruba)/(Edo)/(Tiv) Malaria, chicken pox, Antifungal, Leaf

Antibacterial, AntihelminthsBambusa arundinaccea Common bamboo Gora (hausa), Kewal, kewe (fulfude), Stomach upset, antimalarial Shoot (tender)

Songough (Tiv), Otosi (ibo)Barleria prionitis Porcupine flower Sinkinmini (Yoruba) Fever, Anti-malarial RootCalotropis procera Qak Bomubomu (yoruba) Measles, diaphoretic emetic, Root

asthma, antipyreticCanabis sativa Ganja, indian hemp Igbo (Yoruba), Nwonkaka (Igbo) and Mood stimulant, sedative Root and leaf

Ikya (Tiv)Carica papaya Pawpaw Ibepe (Yoruba), Gwanda (Hausa), Okwuru Constipation, stomach upset Fruit and leaf

bekoe (Igbo) and Mpuer (Tiv)Celastrus paniculatus Intellect tree Rimi (Hausa), Vambe (TIv) Convulsion, headache SeedChromolaena odoratum Siam weed Akintola/Awolowo (Yoruba), Obiarakaka (Igbo) Stops bleeding, heals wounds, Leaf

and Ebe Awolowo (Edo) indigestion, stomach upsetCitrullus cobcynthis Bitter gourd Kwantowa (Hausa) and Egwusi (Igbo) Laxative, sexually transmitted Fruit

Wild gourd diseases, EpilepsyCurcuma longa tumeric Ata-Ile Pupa (Yoruba) Heart ,liver and chest problems, Entire part

fever ringwormDaucus carota Carot Karoti (Hausa) Antiinflammatory, Anti rheumatic, Tuber

feverFadogia agrestis Black magic Bakin gagai (Hausa) Black aphrodisiac StemGossypium herbaceum Cotton Auduga (Hausa), Owu (Igede), Ikro afor (Igbo) Wound dressing, general infertility, Seed/leaf

and Igi-ora (Yoruba) ailmentsLeptademia anastata Tears Yaadiya (Hausa) Cancer, antimicrobials Leaf and rootMormordica charanta African cucumber Daddagu (Hausa), Ejinrin (Yoruba), Alaban Asthma, cough, liver problems Leaf

adene (Ibo) and Dagdaye (Kanuri)Mucuna urens Cow itch plant Ewe-ina , yerepe (Yoruba) and Blood tonic, intestinal worms, Fruit and Leaf

Velvet bean Agba Ohia (Igbo) genito-urinary diseaseNicotiana tabacum Tobacco Ewe (Yoruba), Taba (Hausa), Anwere (Igbo), Convulsion, Epilepsy, toothache, Leaf

Itaba (Edo), and Taav (Tiv) ringworm, cold, ulcersPiper nigrun Black pepper Iyere (Yoruba), Uzize (Igbo) and Constipation, anti-inflammatory Leaf

Masooroo (Hausa)Pterocarpus santalinus Red sandal Gbengbe (Yoruba), Gunduruu (Hausa) and Skin diseases, antipyretic, Leaf

Nturukpa (Igede) antidiarrhoeaRicinus conmunis Castor bean Lara pupa (Yoruba) and Kulakula Veneral diseases Seed and Root

Nkpikpi (Hausa)Syzygium aromaticum Clove Kanum fari (Hausa) Cough and catarrh Flower budsSyzygium cuminii Skeels Ori (Yoruba) and Malmoo (Hausa) Purgative BarkTecoma stans Yellow bells Awun (Yoruba) and Ukhu (Bini) Antimalarial FruitsTerminalia superba Black limba Afara (Yoruba) and Baushe (Hausa) Antimalarial LeafThevetia peruviana Yellow oleandar Olomojo (Yoruba) Antimeasles, anti-diabetics Bark

Suicide treeTinospora Cordifolia Hearth leaves Epaikum (Yoruba) Anti-inflammatory StemTrigonella foenum-graecum Wild yam Osanwene (Yoruba), lemu (Hausa) and Antimalarial, chest diseases, Seeds

Olofa-nta (Igbo) abdominal upsetVigna angiculata Cowpea Owi-ahun (Yoruba) and Wakia-tunka (Hausa) 2 Leaf and StemZizyphas Mauritania Indian plum Magarya (Hausa) Antimalarial, abdominal upset Bark

204

Res. J. Med. Plant, 10 (3): 201-227, 2016

205

Table 2: Bas

ic m

edical sc

ienc

e re

search

dem

onstratio

n of

the m

ale an

ti-fertility pot

entia

ls of

Niger

ian m

edicinal plant

sSc

ient

ific na

me

Part use

dSo

lven

tDos

age

Dur

ation

Phytoc

hem

ical

Anim

al m

odel

Rese

arch

find

ings

Refere

nces

Abru

s pre

cato

rium

Seed

Aque

ous

400, 800

and

Alka

loids,

ster

oids

,Ra

tTe

sticular deg

ener

ation

Aded

apo et

al. (

2007

)16

00 m

g kg

G1 b.w

t. da

yG1

18 day

san

thoc

yann

ins f

ix oils

Etha

nol

100 m

g kg

G1 b.w

t. da

yG1

60 day

sRa

tRe

duce

d sp

erm

mot

ility

Rao (198

7)Met

hano

l20

mg m

LG1

Hum

an sp

erm

Redu

ced sp

erm

mot

ility

Ratn

asoo

riya et

al. (

1991

)Met

hano

l20

and

40 m

g kg

G1 day

G145

day

sMice

Redu

ced sp

erm

cou

nt,

Sinh

a an

d Mathu

r (19

90)

mot

ility and

viability

Aque

ous

50 m

g kg

G1 day

G130

day

sRa

t Re

duce

d sp

erm

cou

nt,

Bhatt e

t al. (

2007

) and

Redu

ced leve

l of t

esto

ster

one

Gigan

i et a

l. (20

12)

Albe

zzia le

bbec

kBa

rkMet

hano

l50

, 100

and

60 day

sSa

ponins

Rat

Sper

matog

enic arres

t with

redu

ced

Gup

ta et a

l. (20

04)

200 m

g kg

G1 day

G1sp

erm

cou

nt and

sper

m m

otility

Dec

reas

e in w

eigh

t of t

estis

Gup

ta et a

l. (20

05)

Acac

ia aur

iculae

form

isBa

rkTr

iterp

ene

20 and

50 m

g kg

G1 day

G140

day

sSa

ponins

Rat

Sper

m im

mob

ilizing

effe

ctPa

kras

hi et a

l. (19

91)

Allam

anda

catha

rtica

Leaf

Acqu

eous

150 m

g kg

G1 day

G114

, 28 an

dAl

kaloids

Mice

Redu

ced sp

erm

cou

ntSing

h an

d Sing

h (200

8)42

day

sSa

ponins

Alliu

m sa

tivum

Bulb

Aque

ous

0.25

g m

LG1

-Al

kaloids

Hum

anInstan

t im

mob

iliza

tion of

Chak

raba

rti e

t al. (

2003

)0.5 g m

LG1

Sapo

nins

ejac

ulate sp

erm

ep

ididym

al sp

erm

Dry pow

der

20 m

g an

d60

day

sRa

tAn

ti-sp

erm

atog

enic and

Ham

mam

i et a

l. (20

08, 2

009)

50 m

g kg

G1 day

G1an

ti-an

drog

enic activity

Aque

ous

500 an

d 10

00 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sRa

tRe

duce

d sp

erm

cou

ntOm

otos

o et

al. (

2010

)Re

duce

d sp

erm

mot

ility

Aloe

barba

dens

isLe

af50

% Eth

anol

70 and

100

mg kg

G1 day

G156

day

sSt

eroids

Dog

An

tiand

roge

nic ac

tivity

Dixit an

d Jo

shi (19

83)

Alka

loids

Tanins

Anet

hum

grave

olus

Seed

sAq

ueou

s70

and

100

mg kg

G1 day

G132

day

sAl

kaloids

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic effe

ctMalihez

aman

and

Sara (200

7)Sa

ponins

Terp

enoids

Aspillia afric

ana

Leaf

Met

hano

l10

0, 200

and

52 day

sTa

nins

Ra

t An

tispe

rmatog

enic effe

ctRu

th et a

l. (20

15)

400 m

g kg

G1 day

G1Ph

enols

Anan

as com

osus

Unr

ipe

Etha

nol

200 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sAl

kaloids

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic activity

Satyaw

ati (19

83)

fruit

Sapo

nins

Az

adirr

acht

a indica

Leaf

Dry pow

der

20, 4

0 an

d60

day

s Ta

nins

Rat

Dec

reas

e in w

eigh

t of s

eminal

Shaikh

et a

l. (19

93),

60 m

g kg

G1 day

G1Ph

enols

vesic

les

Josh

i et a

l. (19

96),

Dec

reas

ed sp

erm

cou

ntMey

man

d et

al. (

2002

),Hist

opatho

logica

l cha

nges

in te

stis

Kastur

i et a

l. (20

02) a

ndBisw

as et a

l. (20

02)

200 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sRa

bbit

Redu

ced sp

erm

cou

ntAl

adak

atti an

d Ah

med

(200

5)an

d Sh

aikh

et a

l. (20

09)

Res. J. Med. Plant, 10 (3): 201-227, 2016

206

Table 2: Con

tinue

Scient

ific na

me

Part use

dSo

lven

tDos

age

Dur

ation

Phytoc

hem

ical

Anim

al m

odel

Rese

arch

find

ings

Refere

nces

Bam

busa

Buds

Etha

nol

100 an

d 20

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sTa

nins

Rat

Impa

ired stru

ctur

al and

func

tiona

lMan

onay

agi e

t al. (

1989

)arun

dina

ecea

Alka

loids

activ

ity of t

he epididy

mis

Sapo

nins

Barle

ria prio

nitis

Root

Met

hano

l10

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

s Ph

enols

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic activity

Gup

ta et a

l. (20

00)

Alka

loids

and Ve

rma et

al. (

2005

)Ca

lotro

pis p

roce

ra

Stem

Etha

nol

25 m

g kg

G1 day

G130

day

sSa

ponins

Rat

Testicular deg

ener

ative ch

ange

sAk

inloye

et a

l. (20

02)

bark

Phen

ols

Cann

abis

sativ

aLe

af

Met

hano

l25

mg kg

G1 day

G130

day

s Al

kaloids

Mou

seTe

sticular le

sion with

atrop

hy of

Saila

ni and

Moe

ini (20

07)

Sapo

nins

leyd

ig cells

Caric

a pa

paya

Seed

sCh

loro

form

20 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

s Ta

nins

Ra

t An

ti fertility effe

ctPa

thak

et a

l. (20

00)

Sapo

nins

Aque

ous

20 m

g kg

G1 day

G130

day

sTa

nins

Ra

t Inhibitio

n of

sper

m m

otility

Man

ivan

nan et

al. (

2004

)Sa

ponins

Celastru

s pan

iculatus

Seed

sEt

hano

l20

mg kg

G1 day

G130

day

sPh

enols

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic effe

ctBidw

ai et a

l. (19

90)

Tanins

Citru

llus c

oloc

ynth

isRo

ot

Etha

nol

50, 1

00 and

60 day

sSa

ponins

Antia

ndro

genic effect

Mali e

t al. (

2001

)20

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G1Ta

nins

Te

sticular deg

ener

ation

Chatur

vedi et a

l. (20

03)

Chro

molae

na odo

rata

Leaf

Aque

ous

250 an

d 50

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G114

day

sGlyco

sides

Rat

Antia

ndro

genic effect

Yaku

bu et a

l. (20

07)

Alka

loids

Tanins

Cu

rwm

a long

aRh

izom

eAl

coho

l50

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sCu

rcum

inRa

t An

tispe

rmatog

enic effe

ctAs

hok an

d Mee

naks

hi (2

004)

Sapo

nins

Tanins

Aq

ueou

s60

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G156

and

Mice

Supp

ression of

sper

matog

enes

isMish

ra and

Singh

(200

9a)

84 day

san

d fertility

Dauc

us carot

aTu

ber

Aque

ous

0.5 g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sPh

enols

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic activity

Shah

and

Varut

e (198

0)Ta

nins

Fado

gia ag

restis

Stem

Aque

ous

18, 5

0 an

d28

day

sTa

nins

Rat

Redu

ced te

sticular fu

nctio

nYa

kubu

et a

l. (20

08)

100 m

g kg

G1 day

G1Sa

ponins

Go

ssyp

ol her

bacu

mSe

edAq

ueou

s0.3 an

d 30

mg kg

G1 day

G160

day

sPh

enols

Rat

Antif

ertility

effe

ctZh

uang

et a

l. (19

86)

Alka

loids

Udo

h et

al. (

1992

)Le

ptad

enia hos

tata

Leaf and

Aque

ous

100, 200

, 400

and

60 day

sSa

ponins

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic effe

ctBa

yala et a

l. (20

11)

stem

800 m

g kg

G1 day

G1Ta

nins

Mom

ordica

cha

rant

acLe

afAl

coho

l25

mg/

100 g/

day

35 day

sAl

kaloids

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic,

Nas

eem

et a

l. (19

98)

Sapo

nins

antis

tero

idog

enes

is, ant

ian

drog

enic a

ctivities

Seed

Met

hano

l5 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sRa

tAn

tifer

tility

Yam

a et

al. (

2011

)Mor

ida lucind

aLe

afAq

ueou

s40

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G113

wee

ksFlav

onoids

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic pro

perties

Raji et

al. (

2005

)Al

kaloids

Tanins

Res. J. Med. Plant, 10 (3): 201-227, 2016

207

Table 2: Con

tinue

Scient

ific na

me

Part use

dSo

lven

tDos

age

Dur

ation

Phytoc

hem

ical

Anim

al m

odel

Rese

arch

find

ings

Refere

nces

Muc

una ur

ens

Seed

Etha

nol

70, 1

40 and

14 day

sSa

ponins

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic activity

Etta et a

l. (20

09)

210 m

g kg

G1 day

G1Ph

enols

Nico

tiana

tuba

cum

Leaf

Etha

nol

100 m

g an

d60

day

sGlyco

sides

Rat

Antia

ndro

geen

ic effe

cts

Lond

onka

r et a

l. (19

98)

200 m

g kg

G1 day

G1Al

kaloids

Sapo

nins

Pipe

r nigru

mFruit

Met

hano

l10

and

100

mg kg

G1 day

G130

day

sSa

ponins

Rat

Dec

reas

ed sp

erm

viability

D’Cru

z an

d Mathu

r (20

05)

Tanins

Fruit

Dry pow

der

25 and

100

mg kg

G1 day

G120

and

Mice

Antis

perm

atog

enic activity

Mish

ra and

Singh

(200

9b)

90 day

sPt

eroc

arpu

s san

talin

usSt

emAq

ueou

s10

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sSa

ponins

Mice

Sem

en coa

gulatin

g ac

tivity

Dha

wan

et a

l. (19

80)

Ster

oids

Ricinu

s com

mun

isSe

edEt

hano

l10

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sAl

kaloids

Rat

Alte

ratio

n in th

e m

obility m

ode of

Sand

hyak

umary et

al.

Tanins

mov

emen

t and

mor

pholog

y of

(200

3)sp

erm

sSy

zygium

aro

maticum

Flow

erHex

ane

15, 3

0 an

d 60

mg kg

G1 day

G135

day

sPh

enols

Mice

Deg

ener

ative ch

ange

s in th

eMish

ra and

Singh

(200

8)bu

dsSa

ponins

sem

inife

rous

tubu

les

Teco

ma stan

sLe

afEt

hano

l50

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sPh

enols

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic effe

ctMathu

rr et a

l. (20

10)

Alka

loids

Term

inalia su

perb

aFruit

Etha

nol

50 and

100

mg kg

G1 day

G160

day

sSa

ponins

Rat

Antia

ndro

genic effect

Srivas

tav et

al. (

2010

)Ta

nins

Thev

etia per

uviana

Stem

Met

hano

l10

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sAl

kaloids

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic effe

ctGup

ta et a

l. (20

11)

bark

Tanins

Tino

sper

a co

rdifo

liaSt

emMet

hano

l10

0 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sPh

enols

Rat

Anti-

iand

roge

nic effect

Prem

anath an

d Al

kaloids

Laks

hmidev

i (20

10)

Trigon

ella

Seed

Dry pow

der

100 m

g kg

G1 day

G160

day

sFlav

onoids

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic effe

ctKa

ssem

et a

l. (20

06)

foen

um-g

raec

umSa

ponins

Vign

a un

gicu

lata

Leaf

Aque

ous

200 m

g kg

G1 day

G130

day

sPu

re alkaloids

Rat

Antis

perm

atog

enic effe

ctUm

apathy

(199

3)Zizy

phus

mau

ritan

iaBa

rkAq

ueou

s0.1 an

d 0.5 m

g m

LG1

60 day

sSa

ponins

Rat

Sper

micidal pro

perties

Dub

ey et a

l. (20

11)

Glyco

sides

Res. J. Med. Plant, 10 (3): 201-227, 2016

C Abrus precatorius (Fig. 1)C Common name:

C Jumble beadsC Local nigerian name:

C Oju ologbo (Yoruba)C Damar Zaya (Hausa)C Anya Mumu (Igbo)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C CoughC ConvulsionC AnemiaC AphrodisiacC Ulcer

Testicular degeneration characterized by reduced numberof cells in the epithelium along with reduction in the numberof sperm cells was observed when the aqueous extract ofAbrus precatorious was administered to male rats at doses of400, 800 and 1600 mg kgG1 b.wt. for 18 days (Adedapo et al.,2007). The alcoholic seed extracts of Abrus precatorious at adose of 100 mg kgG1 b.wt. for 60 days significantly loweredcauda epididymal sperm motility and brought about adecrease in the levels of succinate dehydrogenase and ATPasein the sperm of albino rats. Scanning electron microscopicstudies on sperm morphology revealed decapitation,acrosomal damage and formation of bulges on the mid pieceregion of sperms following exposure to Abrus precatoriousseed extracts (Rao, 1987). Irreversible impairment ofthe motility of human spermatozoa at a concentration of 20 mg mLG1 of the methanol extract of Abrus precatoriousseed extracts was reported, which may be due to the decline

Fig. 1: Abrus precatorius

in cAMP and enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species(Ratnasooriya et al., 1991). Dose-dependent decrease in theenzyme activity of 3", 3$, 17$-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenasesand degeneration of leydig cells were reported whenAbrus precatorius was administered to male rats (Sinha andMathur, 1990).

Administration of methanolic extract of the seeds ofA. precatorius (Fabaceae) (20 and 40 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1) for45 days in adult male mice caused a significant decrease incaudal sperm motility, count and viability. There was acomplete suppression of fertility at 40 mg kgG1 dose level. Thedecrease in weights of testes and Cauda epididymis of mice at40 mg kgG1 level was also observed (Bhatt et al., 2007).

Methanolic extract of A. precatorius seeds (5.0 and20.0 mg mLG1) showed inhibitory effects on the motilityof washed human spermatozoa. The extract causeda concentration-related impairment of percentagesperm motility. With the highest concentration tested(20.0 mg mLG1), the onset of the antimotility action was almostimmediate. In addition, this concentration impaired thefunctional integrity of the plasma membrane (hypo-osmoticswelling test) and viability (nigrosin-eosin stain) ofspermatozoa (Ratnasooriya et al., 1991).

Oral administration of crude mixture of A. precatoriusseeds at dose of 50 mg kgG1 b.wt., caused reduction in theepididymal sperm count and reduced level of testosteronewas also observed (Gigani et al., 2012):

C Albizzia lebbeck (Fig. 2)C Common name:

C Siris

Fig. 2: Albizzia lebbeck

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Fig. 3: Acacia auriculaeformis

C Local nigerian name:C Lgbagbo (Yoruba)C Esheye shege (Bini)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C DiarrheaC Low back pain

In male rats the methanolic extract of Albizzia lebbeckpods causes spermatogenic arrest and brought about asignificant decrease in sperm motility and density. There wasa marked reduction in the numbers of primary spermatocytes,secondary spermatocytes and spermatids (Gupta et al., 2004).Further, administration of saponins isolated from Albizzialebbeck L. (50 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1) for 60 days caused asignificant decrease in the weights of reproductive organs ofrats. The population of various spermatogenic cells inseminiferous tubules decline significantly (Gupta et al., 2005):

C Acacia auriculaeformis (Fig. 3)C Common name:

C AuriC Local nigerian name:

C Kasisa eleti (Yoruba)C Therapeutic/folkloric use:

C Astringent

In male rats, triterpene extract of the bark of Acaciaauriculaeformis at 20 and 50 mg kgG1 b.wt., for 40 dayscaused a sperm immobilizing effect (Pakrashi et al., 1991):

Fig. 4: Acacia concinna

C Acacia concinna (Fig. 4)C Common name:

C Velvet beanC Local nigerian name:

C Yerepe (Yoruba)C Therapeutic/folkloric usage:

C Ant-dandruffC Skin diseases

Acacia concinna is a climbing shrub. The tree is food forthe larvae of butterfly.

Methanolic extract of the bark of Acacia concinna 20 and50 mg kgG1 b.wt., for 40 days was shown to have spermicidaland semen coagulating effects in the rat (Kamboj andDhawan, 1982):

C Allamanda cathartica (Fig. 5)C Common name:

C Golden TrumpetC Local nigerian name:

C Orogbo-erin (Yoruba)C Izeni (Edo)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C CoughC Waist painC Yellow fever

Allamanda cathartica L. (Apocyanaceae) is widelygrowing perennial shrub. The leaves are smooth and

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Fig. 5: Allamanda cathartica

Fig. 6: Allium sativum

thick (Islam et al., 2010). The roots are used against jaundice,complications with malaria and enlarged spleen in traditional medicine. The flowers act as a laxative. Moreover, yellowAllamandah as also antibiotic action against Staphylococcus (Nayak et al., 2006).

All parts of the plant contain allamandin, a toxic iridoidlactone. Leaves and stems yield ursolic acid, $-amyrin and$-sitosterol. Plumericin and isoplumericin are extracted fromstem and root-bark, also from leaves and roots, besidesplumieride and long chain esters (Nithya and Muthumary,2011).

The oral administration of aqueous leaf extract ofA. cathartica (150 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 14, 28 and 42 days)induces infertility and changes in various male reproductiveendpoints in Parkes strain mice. Histologically, testes inextract-treated mice showed non-uniform degenerativechanges in the seminiferous. The treatment also had adverseeffects on motility, viability, morphology and on number ofspermatozoa in the cauda epididymidis. Fertility of theextract-treated males was also suppressed (Singh andSingh, 2008):

C Allium sativum (Fig. 6)C Common name:

C GarlicC Local nigerian name:

C Ayuu (Yoruba)C Tafarnawa (Hausa)C Ayo (Igbo)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C StrokeC Eye pains

Allium sativum, commonly called garlic is a species in theonion genus.

The crude aqueous extract of Allium sativum bulbpossesses spermicidal activity and showedthe mostpromising results by instantimmobilization of the epididymalsperm at 0.25 g mLG1 and human ejaculated sperm at0.5 g mLG1.

More than 50% reduction in sperm viability occurred intreated sperm, indicating the possibility of plasma membranedisintegration which was further supported by the significantreduction in the activity of membrane bound nucleotidaseand acrosomal acrosin (Chakrabarti et al., 2003). On the testes,use of garlic has been noted to compromise some malereproductive functions, as it affects spermatogenesis andtestosterone levels, which are vital to reproduction(Hammami et al., 2008, 2009).

Administration of aqueous extract of garlic differentdoses (500 and 1000 mg kgG1 dayG1) to the wistar rats causedreduction in the percentage of morphologically normalspermatozoa as well as sperm concentration (Omotoso et al.,2010):

C Aloe barbadensis (Fig. 7)C Common name:

C Aloe veraC Local Nigerian name:

C Alon erin (Yoruba)

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Fig. 7: Aloe barbadensis

Fig. 8: Anethum graveolens

C Ibube agu (Igbo)C Tinya (Hausa)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Cancer eczemaC WoundsC AcneC UlcerC Impotence

Aloe babadensis is a succulent plant species. About 50%ethanolic extract Aloe barbadensis leaf extract 70 and

Fig. 9: Aspillia Africana

100 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 56 days showed antiandrogenicactivity in the dog (Dixit and Joshi, 1983):

C Anethum graveolens (Fig. 8)C Common name:

C SoyaC Local nigerian name:

C Alasisede (Yoruba)C Therapeutic/folkloric use:

C HeadacheC Malaria

About 70 mg and 100 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 32 daysof acqueos extract of Anethum graveolens seed extractexhibited antispermatogenic effects in the rat (Malihezamanand Sara, 2007):

C Aspillia Africana (Fig. 9)C Common name:

C Bush marigoldC Friend of pepper

C Local nigerian name:C Yun yun (Yoruba)C Kalankwa (Hausa)C Urangila (Igbo)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Stop bleedingC Promotes healingC Antimalarials

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Fig. 10: Ananas comosus

Methanol leaf extract of Aspillia africana 100, 200,400 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 52 days showedantispermatogenic effect in rat (Ruth et al., 2015):

C Ananas comosus (Fig. 10)C Common name:

C PineappleC Local nigerian name:

C Ogede-oyibo (yoruba)C Akwu-oyibo (Igbo)C Mbuer u buter (Tiv)C Eyop mbakara (Efik)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C PurgativeC Stomach upset

Ananas comosus also called pineapple is a tropicalplant with multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries.Ethanol extract of unripe fruit of Ananas cosmosus200 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 60 days showedantispermatogenic activity in rat (Satyawati, 1983):

C Azadirachta indica (Fig. 11)C Common name:

C NeemC Local nigerian name:

C Dogonyaro (Hausa)/(Yoruba)/(Edo)/(Tiv)C Therapeutic/folkloric use:

C MalariaC Chicken pox

Fig. 11: Azadirachta indica

C AntifungalC AntibacterialC Antihelminths

Administration of A. indica are reduced the fertilizingactivity and administration of dry powder of leaves of A. indicaat the dose level of 20, 40 and 60 mg ratG1 dayG1 results in adecrease in weight of seminal vesicle and decrease in thesperm count (Shaikh et al., 1993).

Histopathological and biochemical changes in the testisof rats treated with the leaf powder of A. indica were reported(Joshi et al., 1996). It suggested a possible reversibleantiandrogenic property of the leaves of A. indica in malealbino rats. Neem seed extract is reported to induceabnormality in spermatogenesis and sperms production insome of the seminiferous tubules (Meymand et al., 2002).Ultrastructural changes like intracellular spaces andvacuolization in sertoli cells and defects in the mitochondrialsheath of late spermatids were induced by leaves of A. indica(Neem) in the testis of albino rats (Kasturi et al., 2002).Neem oil proved spermicidal against rhesus monkey andhuman spermatozoa in vitro. Antifertility effect of neem oilhas also been studied and suggested to be a novel methodof contraception (Biswas et al., 2002). Contraceptiveeffects of A. indica leaves (500 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1) ontestosterone (0.25 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1) were also studiedin male rats (Aladakatti and Ahamed, 2005). Inclusion ofneem leaf meal up to 15% in the ration of matured rabbitbucks could cause mild supressive effect on thespermatogenesis, semen quality and seminiferous tubule

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Fig. 12: Bambusa arundinaecea

diameter male albino rat treated with low dose (0.6 mL ofneem oil/animal) and high dose (1.2 mL of neem oil/animal) ofneem oil revealed significant decrease in the seminiferoustubular diameter and number of spermatozoa (Shaikh et al.,2009):

C Bambusa arundinaecea (Fig. 12)C Common name:

C Common bambooC Local nigerian name:

C Gora (Hausa)C Kewal, kewe (Fulfude)C Songough (Tiv)C Otosi (Ibo)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Stomach upsetC Antimalarial

Bamboo buds ethanolic extract given 100 and200 mg kgG1 b.wt. daily for 60 days demonstrated impairedstructural and functional activity of the epididymis in the rat(Manonayagi et al., 1989):

C Barleria prionitis (Fig. 13)C Common name:

C Porcupine flowerC Local nigerian name:

C Sinkinmini (Yoruba)

Fig. 13: Barleria prionitis

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C FeverC Antimalarial

Also known as the porcupine flower is a species in thefamily Acanthaceae.

Male rats treated with isolated fractions of the B. prionitisroot methanolic extract (100 mg kgG1 for 60 days) showed asignificant reduction on spermatogenesis without affectinggeneral body metabolism. Sperm motility as well density incauda epididymides was reduced significantly. The populationof various spermatogenic cells such as primary spermatocytes,secondary spermatocytes and round spermatids weredeclined significantly in treated animals (Verma et al.,2005).

Oral administration of root extract of B. prionitis L. tomale rats (100 mg ratG1 dayG1) for the period of 60 days did notcause body weight loss. The root extract brought about aninterference with spermatogenesis. The round spermatidswere decreased by 73.6% (p#0.001). The extract reduced thefertility of male rats by 100%. Cross sectional surface area ofSertoli cells and mature leydig cell numbers were significantlyreduced (36.9%). Testicular glycogen contents were low.Antifertility effects of Barleria seemed to be mediated bydisturbances in testicular somatic cells functions (Leydig andsertoli cells) resulting in the physio-morphological events ofspermatogenesis (Gupta et al., 2000):

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Fig. 14: Calotropis procera

Fig. 15: Cannabis sativa

C Calotropis procera (Fig. 14)C Common name:

C Apple of sodomC Local nigerian name:

C Bomubomu (yoruba)C Therapeutic/folkloric use:

C MeaslesC Diaphoretic emeticC AsthmaC Antipyretic

Fig. 16: Carica papaya

This plant is also popularly referred to as giant milk weed.It is used to treat headache, painful swellings and carioustooth (Iwu, 1993). It was found to decrease testicular weightand it caused testicular degenerative changes in Wistar rat(Akinloye et al., 2002):

C Cannabis sativa (Fig. 15)C Common name:

C GanjaC Indian hemp

C Local nigerian name:C Igbo (Yoruba)C Nwonkaka (Igbo)C Ikya (Tiv)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Mood stimulantC Sedative

Cannabis sativa is an annual herbaceous plant in thecannabis genus, a species of the cannabaceae family.

Methanolic leaf extract of Cannabis sativa25 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 given for 30 days caused testicularlesion with atrophy of the leydig cells in the mouse(Sailani and Moeini, 2007):

C Carica papaya (Fig. 16)C Common name:

C PawpawC Local nigerian name:

C Ibepe (Yoruba)

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Fig. 17: Celastrus paniculatus

C Gwanda (Hausa)C Okwuru bekoe (Igbo)C Mpuer (Tiv)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C ConstipationC Stomach upset

The benzene chromatographic fractions of chloroformextract of the seeds of C. papaya possess reversible malecontraception potential and the effect appears to be mediatedthrough the testis without adverse toxicity (Pathak et al.,2000). Even aqueous extract of papaya bark has potentialcontraceptive activity. Further studies revealed that theinhibition of sperm motility may be due to ultrastructuralchanges in epididymis (Manivannan et al., 2004):

C Celastrus paniculatus (Fig. 17)C Common name:

C Intellect treeC Local nigerian name:

C Rimi (Hausa)C Vambe (TIv)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C ConvulsionC Headache

Celastrus paniculatus is a woody liana commonly knownas black oil plant, climbing staff tree and intellect tree.

Ethanolic extract of Celastrus paniculatus seed20 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 30 days showed antispermatogenicactivity in rat (Bidwai et al., 1990):

Fig. 18: Citrullus colocynthis

C Citrullus colocynthis (Fig. 18)C Common name:

C Bitter gourdC Wild gourd

C Local Nigerian name:C Kwantowa (Hausa)C Egwusi (Igbo)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C LaxativeC Sexually transmitted diseasesC Epilepsy

Administration of crude 50% ethanol extract ofC. colocynthis schrad roots to male albino rats at dose levelsof 50, 100 and 200 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for a period of 60 dayscaused a significant decreases in cauda epididymal spermmotility, density, number of pups and fertility (Mali et al.,2001). The 50% ethanolic extract of C. colocynthis extractshowed an antiandrogenic nature, thereby reduced reversibleinfertility in male albino rats. The testes showed degenerativechanges in the seminiferous epithelium and arrest ofspermatogenesis at the secondary spermatocyte stage(Chaturvedi et al., 2003):

C Chromolaena odoratum (Fig. 19)C Common name:

C Siam weedC Local nigerian name:

C Akintola/Awolowo (Yoruba)C Obiarakaka (Igbo)C Ebe Awolowo (Edo)

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Fig. 19: Chromolaena odoratum

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Stops bleeding heals woundsC IndigestionC Stomach upset

Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae) commonly known asSiam weed is a fast-growing perennial and invasive weed.

Oral administration of aqueous extract of C. odoratumleaves (250 and 500 mg kgG1 b.wt.) for 14 days in male albinorats revealed a significant reduction (p<0.05) in testicular bodyweight ratio and histological examination revealed disruptionin the arrangement of seminiferous tubules with no distinctbasement membrane. These changes were accompanied byreduction in the number of spermatozoa. All these resultsindicated that aqueous extract of C. odoratum leavespossesses antiandrogenic property by interfering withsteroidogenesis at the testicular level and this will adverselyaffect the functional capacity of the testes and the fertility ofthe animal (Yakubu et al., 2007):

C Curcurma longa (Fig. 20)C Common name:

C TumericC Local nigerian name:

C Ata-Ile Pupa (Yoruba)C Therapeutic/folkloric use:

C HeartC Liver and chest problemsC Fever ringworm

Fig. 20: Curcurma longa

Rats fed with Curcuma longa aqueous and 70%alcoholic extract for 60 days (500 mg kgG1 dayG1) showed areduction in sperm motility and density. C. longa may haveaffected the androgen synthesis either by inhibiting theLeydig cell function or the hypothalamus pituitary axis and asa result, spermatogenesis is arrested (Ashok and Meenakshi,2004).

Male mice of the Parkes (P) strain were orally administeredaqueous rhizome extract of C. longa (600 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1

for 56 and 84 days) showed adverse effect of on various malereproductive organs and fertility. The treatment had adverseeffects on motility, viability, morphology and number ofspermatozoa in the cauda epididymidis, serum level oftestosterone and on fertility. By 56 days of treatmentwithdrawal, however, the above parameters recovered tocontrol levels. The results show that C. longa treatmentcauses reversible suppression of spermatogenesis and fertility,thereby suggesting the potential of this plant in the regulationof male fertility (Mishra and Singh, 2009a):

C Daucus carota (Fig. 21)C Common name:

C CarotC Local nigerian name:

C Karoti (Hausa)C Therapeutic/folkloric use:

C Anti-inflammatoryC Anti-rheumaticC Fever

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Fig. 21: Daucus carota

Fig. 22: Fadogia agrestis

Aqueous extract of Daucus carota tuber0.5 g kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 given for 60 days exhibitedanti-spermatogenic activity in the rat (Shah and Varute, 1980):

C Fadogia agrestis (Fig. 22)C Common name:

C Black magicC Local Nigerian name:

C Bakin gagai (Hausa)C Therapeutic/folkloric use:

C Black aphrodisiac

Fig. 23: Gossypol herbaceum

Aqueous extract of the Fadoga agrestis stem 18, 50,100 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 28 days showed reduced testicularfunction in rat (Yakubu et al., 2008).

C Gossypol herbaceum (Fig. 23)C Common name:

C CottonC Local nigerian name:

C Mou (Tiv)C Auduga (Hausa)C Owu (Igede)C Ro afor (Igbo)C Igi-ora (Yoruba)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Wound dressingC General infertilityC Ailments

Gossypol, a yellow polyphenolic compound present in thestem, seeds and roots of Gossypium species. It is known toexert unique and selective effects upon reproduction invarious species such as rats, mice, hamsters, rabbits,monkeys and human beings (Coutinho, 2002). Thecontraceptive effect of gossypol was first discovered inChina. Gossypol was reported to invoke antifertility effectsin rats at 30 mg kgG1 b.wt., whereas a much lesser dose,0.3 mg kgG1 b.wt., could incite infertility in humans,making the compound very efficient in humans than in rats(Udoh et al., 1992).

Several studies affirm that gossypol treatment reducedthe level of serum testosterone and luteinizing hormones

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Res. J. Med. Plant, 10 (3): 201-227, 2016

Fig. 24: Leptadenia hastata

in dose and duration dependent manner (Zhuang et al.,1986). Gossypol acts directly on testes and inducesazoospermia or oligospermia (Zhuang et al., 1986):

C Leptadenia hastate (Fig. 24)C Common name:

C TearsC Local nigerian name:

C Yaadiya (Hausa)C Therapeutic/folkloric use:

C CancerC Antimicrobials

Aqueous leaf and stem extract of Leptadenia hastata100, 200, 400, 800 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 given for 60 daysshowed anti-spermatogenic activity in rat (Bayala et al., 2011):

C Momordica charantia (Fig. 25)C Common name:

C African cucumberC Local nigerian name:

C Daddagu (Hausa)C Ejinrin (Yoruba)C Alaban adene (Ibo)C Dagdaye (Kanuri)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C AsthmaC CoughC Liver problems

Fig. 25: Momordica charantia

Petroleum ether, benzene and alcohol extracts of theseeds of Momordica charantia tested in rats at the dose levelof 25 mg/100 g b.wt. for 35 days showed antispermatogenicactivity as the number of spermatocytes, spermatids andspermatozoa decreased.

Increase in cholesterol level and sudanophilic lipidaccumulation indicates inhibition in the steroidogenesis.Out of the three extracts, the alcohol extract was more potentin its antispermatogenic, antisteroidogenic and androgenicactivities (Naseem et al., 1998). It has been shown thatoral administration of M. charantia root extract(5 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 60 days) showed 100% antifertilityin the rats (Yama et al., 2011). There was marked decline intesticular germ cell population, leydig cell number andnuclear area as comported to controls. Serum testosteronelevel also reduced after extract treatment:

C Morinda lucida (Fig. 26)C Common name:

C Brimestone treeC Local nigerian name:

C Oruwo (Yoruba)C Njisi (Hausa)C Eze Ogu (Igbo)C Ufu ogile (Igede

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C FeverC AntimalarialC DiabetesC Heart diseases

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Fig. 26: Morinda lucida

Fig. 27: Mucuna urens

Morinda lucida is an evergreen shrub or small tomedium-sized tree bearing a dense crow of slender, crookedbranches.

Aqueous leaf extract of Morinda lucida400 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 13 weeks had antispermatogenicproperties on the rat (Raji et al., 2005):

C Mucuna urens (Fig. 27)C Common name:

C Cow itch plantC Velvet bean

Fig. 28: Nicotiana tabacum

C Local nigerian name:C Ewe-inaC Yerepe (Yoruba)C Agba Ohia (Igbo)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Blood tonicC Intestinal wormsC Genito-urinary disease

Ethanolic seed extract of Mucuna urens 70,140, 210 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 14 days exhibitedanti-spermatogenic activity in the rat (Etta et al., 2009):

C Nicotiana tabacum (Fig. 28)C Common name:

C TobaccoC Local nigerian name:

C Ewe (Yoruba)C Taba (Hausa)C Anwere (Igbo)C Itaba (Edo)C Taav (Tiv)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C ConvulsionC Epilepsy,C ToothacheC RingwormC ColdC Ulcers

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Fig. 29: Piper nigrum

Ethanolic leaf extract of Nicotiana tabacum 100,200 mg kgG1 dayG1 for 60 days showed anti-androgenic effectin the rat (Londonkar et al., 1998):

C Piper nigrum (Fig. 29)C Common name:

C Black pepperC Local nigerian name:

C Iyere (Yoruba)C Uzize (Igbo)C Masooroo (Hausa)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C ConstipationC Anti-inflammatory

Piper nigrum L. commonly known as black pepperbelongs to family Piperaceae. The fruits of P. nigrum are notonly important as a spice or flavoring agent but have alsobeen prescribed for cholera, dyspepsia, diarrhea, variousgastric ailments and paralytic and arthritic disorders.

Oral administration of fruit powder of P. nigrum (25 and100 mg kgG1 b.wt. dayG1 for 20 and 90 days) to male mice ofthe Parkes (P) strain adversely affects sperm parameters andalso caused marked alterations in male reproductive organs(Mishra and Singh, 2009b).

Piperine (1-piperoylpiperidine) is an alkaloid present inthe fruits of black pepper (Piper nigrum), long pepper(Piper longum) and other piper species. Epididymal spermcount and motility decreased at 10 and 100 mg kgG1 andsperm viability decreased significantly at 100 mg kgG1.

Fig. 30: Pterocarpus santalinus

Piperine could damage the epididymal environment andsperm function (D’Cruz and Mathur, 2005):

C Pterocarpus santalinus (Fig. 30)C Common name:

C Red sandalC Local nigerian name:

C Gbengbe (Yoruba),C Gunduruu (Hausa),C Nturukpa (Igede)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Skin diseasesC AntipyreticC Antidiarrhoea

Aqueous extract of Pterocarpus santalinus stem100 mg kgG1 dayG1 for 60 days demonstrated semencoagulating activity in mice (Dhawan et al., 1980):

C Ricinus communis (Fig. 31)C Common name:

C Castor beanC Local nigerian name:

C Lara pupa (Yoruba)C Kulakula Nkpikpi (Hausa)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Veneral diseases

Ethanolic extract of Ricinus communis seed100 mg kgG1 dayG1 for 60 days showed alteration in

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Fig. 31: Ricinus communis

Fig. 32: Syzygium aromaticum

motility, mode of movement and morphology of sperms in rat(Sandhyakumary et al., 2003):

C Syzygium aromaticum (Fig. 32)C Common name:

C CloveC Local nigerian name:

C Kanum fari (hausa)C Therapeutic/folkloric use:

C Cough and catarrh

Fig. 33: Syzygium cuminii

Syzygium aromaticum L. commonly known as clovebelongs to family Myrtaceae. It is used as a spice to add flavorto exotic food preparations.

Oral exposure of hexane extract of flower buds ofS. aromaticum in three doses (15, 30 and 60 mg kgG1 b.wt.) fora single spermatogenic cycle (35 days) in Parkes (P) strainmice induced non-uniform degenerative changes in theseminiferous tubules associated with decrease in daily spermproduction and depletion of round and elongated spermatidspopulation (Mishra and Singh, 2008):

C Syzygium cuminii (Fig. 33)C Common name:

C SkeelsC Local nigerian name:

C Ori (Yoruba)C Malmoo (Hausa)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Purgative

Alcohol extract of the seed of Syzygium cuminii100 mg kgG1 dayG1 for 60 days showed anti-spermatogeniceffect in rat (Shad et al., 2014):

C Tecoma stans (Fig. 34)C Common name:

C Yellow bellsC Local nigerian name:

C Awun (Yoruba)C Ukhu (bini)

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Fig. 34: Tecoma stans

Fig. 35: Terminalia superba

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Antimalarial

Ethanol leaf extract of Tecoma stans 500 mg kgG1 dayG1

for 60 days demonstrated anti-spermatogenic effect in rat(Mathur et al., 2010):

C Terminalia superba (Fig. 35)C Common name:

C Black limba

Fig. 36: Thevetia peruviana

C Local Nigerian name:C Afara (Yoruba)C Baushe (Hausa)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Antimalarial

Ethanol extract of the fruit of Terminalia superba 50 and100 mg kgG1 dayG1 for 60 days showed anti-androgenic effectin rat (Srivastav et al., 2010):

C Thevetia peruviana (Fig. 36)C Common name:

C Yellow oleandarC Suicide tree

C Local nigerian name:C Olomojo (Yoruba)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Anti -measlesC Anti-diabetics

Methanol extract of stem bark of Thevetia peruviana100 mg kgG1 dayG1 for 60 days showed ant-spermatogeniceffect (Gupta et al., 2011):

C Tinospora cordifolia (Fig. 37)C Common name:

C Hearth leavesC Local nigerian name:

C Epaikum (Yoruba)

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Fig. 37: Tinospora cordifolia

Fig. 38: Trigonella foenum-graecum

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Anti-inflammatory

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) belongs to theMenispermaceae family. It is reported to possessanti-spasmodic, antiinflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-diabetic,antioxidant properties (Premanath and Lakshmidevi, 2010):

C Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fig. 38)C Common name:

C Wild yam

Fig. 39: Vigna Ungiculata

C Local nigerian name:C Osanwene (Yoruba)C Lemu (Hausa)C Olofa-nta (Igbo)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C AntimalarialC Chest diseasesC Abdominal upset

Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fenugreek) is a member ofthe Fabaceae family. Fenugreek is native to the area from theeastern Mediterranean to Central Asia and Ethiopia and muchcultivated in Pakistan, India and China. Its dried ripe seeds arevariously referred to as Trigonella seeds or as Fenugreek.

Trigonella foenum-graecum tends to reduce the malefertility by reducing testosterone concentration, spermsconcentration and inhibiting mass and individual motility ofthe sperms (Kassem et al., 2006):

C Vigna ungiculata (Fig. 39)C Common name:

C CowpeaC Local Nigerian name:

C Owi-ahun (Yoruba)C Wakia-tunka (Hausa)

C Therapeutic/folkloric use:C Toothache

Aqueous extract of leaf of Vigna ungiculata200 mg kgG1 dayG1 for 30 days showed anti-spermatogeniceffect in rat (Umapathy, 1993):

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Fig. 40: Zizyphus mauritiana

C Zizyphus mauritiana (Fig. 40)C Common name:

C Indian plumC Local nigerian name:

C Magarya (Hausa)C Therapeutic/folkloric use:

C AntimalarialC Abdominal upset

Ziziphus belongs to the kingdom; plantae, order; roasles,division; magnoliophyta, class; magnoliopsida, family;rhamnaceae, genus, Ziziphus. Z. mauritiana is a fast growingsmall to medium-sized, single or multi-stemmed, spiny shrubor tree, which is almost evergreen but is deciduous during thedry season. It can reach up to 12 m tall and 30 cm diameter atbreast height but is highly variable in size and generalappearance. The bark is dark grey, dull black or reddish withlong vertical fissures, reddish and fibrous inside. The branchesare spreading and droop at the ends.

Acqueous bark extract of Zizyphus mauritiana 0.1 and0.5 mg/mL/60 days showed spermicidal properties(Dubey et al., 2011).

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