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Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

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Page 1: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Noise Reduction during embryonic development.

STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Page 2: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Or, many of us wouldn't be here ...

Embryonic Development : How to get from one cell to an adult multicellular organism.

Embryonic Development should be a very precise process despite all kind of noise and fluctuations ...

Page 3: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Outline :

1. A little background on genes, transcription and developmental biology.

2. What are the problems with our current understanding of embryonic development ?

3. What are the practical problems and how the embryo overcome these ?

Page 4: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Background on gene transcription.

Both computers and genes transcription machinery of cells are information processing units.

They are however, organised around completely different lines.

Page 5: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

• The computer's hard disk is a linear array of bits.

• Each program occupies a specific interval.

• The position and length of all the files are stored in a special table.

• The operating system refers to this table each time it is asked to execute a program in order to know which exact array of bits to load into the memory.

Information processing in computers :

Page 6: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

The Cell hard disk is its chromosome, which is a linear array of bases (A,T,C,G).

The equivalent of programs are called genes. Each gene contains the manual to make a specific protein.

Executing a program means reading a gene and copy it into RNA (transcription) and then send this RNA to a machine (ribosome) which will read it and make the protein (translation).

There is no central operating system, no specific table which contains the position of the genes on the chromosome and their length.

Information processing in living cells :

Page 7: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1
Page 8: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Gene products ( = proteins ) which control transcription of other genes are called transcription factor. They can either activate or inhibit a gene.

[A]

B p

rduc

tionBA

A B

[A]

B p

rduc

tion

Page 9: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Transcription factors can group into complicated gene network

A

BCD

E

XY

S

T

Z

Geneticists work, during the last 100 years, has been to uncover details of these networks in living organisms.

Page 10: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Background on embryonic dev.

● All cells have the same chromosomes,● During the first stages of development, each cell, depending on its position inside the embryo, express a specific set of genes

KrPdm1

Eagle

Page 11: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

● How do cells measure where they are inside the embryo ?● How do they then decide which gene they have to express ?

0.250 mm

0.180 mm

Fundamental question of Dev. Bio :

Page 12: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

● Morphogen Gradient ( >1900)

● “Self-regulated ” (~1980 )

Two Main class of models :

Page 13: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Morphogene Gradient model (Wolpert 69)

There is a transcription factor with a variable concentration across the embryo. Cells switch ON/OFF the expression of some genes by reading this signal and comparing it to a given threshold.

Cin

x

threshold

Cout

x

If (Cin > Threshold) Thenexpress GeneA

elsedon't express GeneA

Page 14: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

“Self Regulated models” Modèles (Turing 53)

There is no need to break the symmetry with an outside signal, it can spontaneously bereak all by itself !

X Y

X Y

Page 15: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

1987 : Bicoid is established as the paradigm of morphogens (Driever, Nusslein-Volhardt)

1989 and eve stipe 2 : Self regulated models are sent to trash.

Page 16: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

bicoid is the dream gene, with all the properties people would have predicted :

1- The bicoid RNA, provided directly by the mother, is localised at the anterior pole.

Page 17: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

2- The bicoid protein concentration gradient is established early and maintained.

Page 18: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

3- bicoid protein is a transcription factor for all downstream gap genes (and many more) :

– hunchback,

– kruppel,

– knirps,

– giant,

– eve ...

Page 19: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

4- Changing the gene's number of copy in the mother shifts expression domains in the embryo.

[bcd]

x

hb

x

Theory Experiment

Page 20: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

The basics are then completely understood ...

... But what about precision ?

Page 21: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Precision: similarity between genes expression domain in different embryos.

Page 22: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

A naive morphogene gradient model is too much sensitive to noise :

x

The initial gradient can vary from embryo to embryo.

x

The size of the eggs can vary.

The environnement can vay.

Page 23: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Do the experiments, and measure stuffs precisely,

... In the model system for embryonic development : Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly).

Page 24: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1
Page 25: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

bcd nos

hb

kr kni gt

?

eve hairy paired

mat

erne

lga

pPa

ir r

ule

Genetic network of the first stage of development.

Page 26: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

x

I bcd

hb

kniKr

bcd

hb

Kr

kni

gtgt

eve

imag

es d

e F

lyE

x (J

ohn

Rei

nitz

)

0.5 mm

Page 27: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1
Page 28: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

0.1 E.L.

Hill Coefficient : 10 !

If

Bcd hb

Page 29: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

What if we do the same measurements in >100 embryos ?

Page 30: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

bcd is extremely noisy (Std dev of the positional information : 7% EL)

But ...

hb extremely precise.(Std dev of the positional information : 1% EL)

Page 31: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Comparison between positional precision of bcd and hb expression domain.

Page 32: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Measuring the exponential decay of bcd gives the same results for its precision.

Page 33: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

There is no correlation between the egg size and bcd positional information (r ~ 0). But the correlation between hb and the egg size is perfect (r= 0.82) !

bcd hb

Page 34: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

No temperature variation effect !

bcd

hb

Page 35: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

OK, bcd is very noisy and does not know about the scale of the egg.

Hb on the other hand is finally not very sensitive to the bcd, filters out all of the noise and make the signal proportionnal to the egg size.

But ....

Then what to do whith the Driever (and many others ) experiments ondosage modification of bcd ?

Page 36: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Background Measured Expected

bcd 1X 0.41 0.3bcd 2X (WT) 0.49 NAbcd4X 0.56 0.68bcd6X 0.59 0.79

We may change our view if we measure stuffs precisely ...

bcd

hb

Page 37: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

OK ... there are mechanisms which filter out the (huge) noise of the morphogene.

● maternal control ? Candidates : nos, caudal,torso,exu, staufen.

● zygotique control? ( Back to self-regulated models ?Candidates : Kr, kni, gt, runt, eve, ...

Page 38: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

To find the mechanism, we have to analyse the genetic network :

program : induce a mutation, and look at the effect not only on the position of the hb domain, but on its precision.

Page 39: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Example : Kr

1- Stuhl has demontrated that hb

regulates Kr (92)

2- Jackle “has demonstrated” that Kr mutation, shifts hb domain (86).

bcd

hb

kr?

This is all we need to make a nice feed-b acked, self correcting model !

Page 40: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Kr mutation has NO influence on hb, neither on its positon nor on its precision, which remain 1% !

Page 41: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

None of the genes of the network (or outside the network ) has any effect on hb precision !

Mutation Xhb n

WT 0.49 1 110

oskar 0.52 1.6 40nos 0.54 1.6 16hbmat,nos 0.47 1.4 31exu 0.51 2 21torso 0.5 1.4 30swa 0.52 2.5 17spg 0.51 1.7 9

Kr 0.49 1.1 29kni 0.48 1 11gt 0.46 1 16hb 0.45 1.1 17

X- 0.43 1.4 402R- 0.49 1.5 192L- 0.47 1.4 163L- 0.5 2 39

(10-2)

Page 42: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Mutating the maternal gene stauffen increases the errorrate of hb to bcd level 7% !

Page 43: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Back to more trivial models ?What if we had two maternal gradients : one anterior (bcd) activating hb, one posterior (very hypothetical) inhibiting it?

BcdP (hyp)

It works if the grads are correlated.

1- Hb position independent of Bcd noise.

2- Explain dosage modification experiments

3- Can compensate temperature variation.

Bcd hb P

Page 44: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Conclusions : ● Introducing the concept of precision and use of quantitative methods in dev. biol.● The bicoid as paradigm of morphogene dogma has to be revised.● All the noise is filtered out in one step ! ● The real morhogene seems to be hb.● Precision is under maternal control, via stauffen.

Page 45: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Stanislas Leibler (Rockefeller University, New York)

Eric Wieshaus (Princeton University, New Jersey)

Page 46: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Eves stripes rules or how the turing models where discarded.

Page 47: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Simple gradient model.

Activator : exp (-x/k) ; needs threshold t

Hb position : x = k log(1/t)

Shift in Hb in with n dose bicoid : dx = k log(n)

Anterion and Posterior gradient model.

Activator : exp (-x/k) ; Inhibitor exp ((x-1)/k)

Hb Position : x = ½ (independent of k )

Shift in Hb in with n dose bicoid : dx = (k/2) log(n)

Page 48: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

2- Aggrégation et Ecologie « neutre ».

Page 49: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Aggregation d'organism induit par le bruit stochastique des morts et des naissance.

Ou Comment les simples alea de la naissance peuvent induire les espèces à s'agglomerer, et ceci sans faire appel à une quelconque attraction social entre les individus.

Page 50: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Prenons un ensemble d'organismes qui se dupliquent (avec un taux ), meurent (avec un taux ) et diffusent (avec un coef D).

L'équation d'évolution de la concentration de ces bactéries est :

Si les taux de mort est de naissance sont égaux () , la diffusion tend à homogénéiser le milieu.

Page 51: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

La simulation « discrète » des bactéries a un effet exactement contraire :

A chaque pas de temps dt

1- Chaque bactérie décide au hasard, avec une proba dt (<<1), si elle se duplique ou si elle meure.2- Chaque bactérie effectue un mouvement brownien.

La diffusion ne peut pas empêcher l'agglomération, quelque soit son importance !

Modèle proposé pour expliquer l'agglomération des plankton à la surface de l'Ocean.

Page 52: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

L'erreur vient de l'ecriture même des équations continues.

En écrivant ces équations, qui concernent des quantités moyennes, on suppose que les fluctuations sont faible.

Cette hypothèse peut-être grossièrement violée !

Page 53: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Prenons un système à ZERO dimension, un ensemble de bactérie avec le même taux de mort et de duplication .

La probabilité, pour que le système, pendant un temps dt, passe de taille n à n+1 ou n-1 est

Si le système tombe à 0 individu, il ne s'en sort plus.

Page 54: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1
Page 55: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Equation maîtresse :

Les moments :

Page 56: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Pour d > 0, il suffit de disposer des boites d'organismes le long d'un réseau à d dimensions. Chaque boite est soumis à : (i) les fluctuationsinterne de mort et de naissance ; (ii) fluctuations dues à la diffusion.

Page 57: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

La moyenne reste constante :

Page 58: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Pour les corrélations

Page 59: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Pour les corrélations

Page 60: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Les corrélations divergent avec le temps si d 2

Page 61: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Les individu s'auto-organisent en cluster pour d=1 ou 2 et la taille des clusters croit comme

si d=1

si d=2

A trois dimension, la croissance illimité d'aggrégats disparaît.

Page 62: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Le simple bruit stochastique discrète des morts et naissance peut provoquer le phénomène d'organisation en aggrégat,

sans qu'on ait besoin d'invoquer des interactions non-linéaire/sociale

Page 63: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Mais ce modèle est beaucoup trop simpliste

Les taux de mort et de naissance ne peuvent pas être indépendants de la densité :

si il y a trop de monde autour d'un organisme, les ressources localement disponible sont vite épuisé, et l'organisme ne pourra pas se dupliquer.

Page 64: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1
Page 65: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Hypothèses du modèle de Hubell :● Toutes les espèces (d'un même niveau trophique) sont strictement équivalent : même taux de mort, de naissance, de migration,...● L'espace est saturée : il faut qu'un individu meure pour qu'un autre puisse se dupliquer. La place libéré par la mort d'un individu peut-être prise par le descendant de n'importe quel individu ( encore vivant ) appartenant à n'importe quel espèce.

Page 66: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Considérons une espèce parmis d'autre :

Page 67: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

A d=0, Proba pour que l'espèce A passe de n à n+1 :

Proba pour qu'un individu d'un autre espèce meure

Proba pour qu'un individu d'espèce A se duplique.

J : nombre total d'individu (quelque soit l'espèce) dans l'écosystème (fixe).

Page 68: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

A d=0, Proba pour que l'espèce A passe de n à n-1 :

Proba pour qu'un individu d'un autre espèce se duplique

Proba pour qu'un individu d'espèce A meure.

Si n=0, il n y a plus d'évolution : l'espèce est éteinte.Si n=J, il n y a plus d'évolution : l'espèce est dominant.

Page 69: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

On peut, par les même procédés, généraliser à d dimension,et extraire les corrélations :

Page 70: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Solution exacte

Approx temps long

Page 71: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Les organismes de chaque espèce s'auto-organisent en cluster pour d=1 ou 2 et la taille des clusters croit comme

si d=1

si d=2

Si suffisemment de temps est accordé, un seul espèce dominera tout l'écosystème !

Cette tendance doit être nettement plus marqué dans les écosystèmes 1d (les lits des rivières, le long des plages, ...) quand dans les 2d (la plupart des écosystèmes).

Page 72: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

A d=3, un équilibre s'établit, les corrélations décroissent en ~1/r ,

Le système ne contient plus d'échelle charactéristique.

Page 73: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

La domination aux temps long par une espèce est limité par

● L'échelle des changements climatiques● L'échelle des mutations.

Combien d'espèce présents dans l'écosystème ?

Page 74: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Conclusions :

L'aggrégation est une conséquence des aleas de mort et de naissance.

Les intercations sociales, les niches écologiques ... peuvent bien sûr exister, mais leurs importance doit être mesuré à l'aune de l'étalon neutre.

Page 75: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

3- Intéraction prédateurs-proies

Page 76: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

La nature est dominé par les intéractions prédateurs-proies, parasite-hôte, pathogène-hôte.

ces intéractions forment des chaines alimentaires

Page 77: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Peut on comprendre la dynamique de ces populations ? Savoir si une chaine alimentaire est stable ? Prédire l'influence des perturbation qu'on y apporte ?

Page 78: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Plus modestement, peut on comprendre la dynamique d'une espèce de prédateur et d'une espèce de proie ?

Lotka et Voltera, 1930 :

Page 79: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Le modèle de Lotka-Voltera souffre de plusieurs défauts :

● Il est marginalement stable. Le bruit stochastique provoque l'extinction.● Il n'est pas spatial : n'importe quel prédateur a accèse à n'importe quel proie. ● N'a jamais été vraiment observé !!!

Page 80: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Construire un écosystème modèle :

● Spatialement étendu● Temporellement long ( ~ 100 générations )● Où tout les paramètres sont mesurables● Et qui permet de constituer des statistiques significatifs.

Espèce microbienne (prédateur : Dyctiostelium,

proie Klebsiella) à temps de générations rapide

Page 81: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

Microbes Fluorescentes (GFP,RFP,...)

Petri dish spatialement infini (60 mm)

Microscope automatisé et analyse d'image

Carte spatio-temporelle des deux populations.

Page 82: Noise Reduction during embryonic development. STATPHYS 22 Satellite Meeting, Zanjan June 27- July 1

A court terme, étudier : ● l'influence des fluctuations● le rôle de l'espace

A plus long terme,● Ajouter d'autres niveaux trophique.