Non-Timber Forest Products between poverty alleviation and

market forces

Edited by Jean-Laurent Pfund and Patrick Robinson

cooperation

inter

Initiated by:Working Group “Trees and Forests in Development Cooperation”.

Members: Laurence von Schulthess (until mid 2005) and Ueli Mauderli (from mid 2005), SDC; Daniel Birchmeier, seco; Jean-Pierre Sorg, ETH Zürich; Christian Küchli and Sandra Limacher (from mid 2005), SAEFL; Ruedi Felber, NADEL; Jürgen Blaser and Jean-Laurent Pfund, Intercooperation; Peter Schmidt, Helvetas.

This permanent working group of forestry and development profes-sionals comprises members of SDC, the Swiss Agency for the Envi-ronment (SAEFL), the State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (seco), the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich (ETH Zürich), the Postgraduate Course for Developing Countries (NADEL), Intercoop-eration and Helvetas. It disseminates information on the important contribution which trees and forests can make to sustainable rural development and focuses on the synergies between diversified sus-tainable forest management and poverty alleviation.

Previous publications initiated by the working group are: – Dürr C., 2002: The contribution of Forests and Trees to Poverty

Alleviation. IC Series no 3. Intercooperation, Bern.– Brüschweiler S., Höggel U. & Kläy A., 2004. Forests and Water:

Managing Interrelations. Development and Environment Report No 19. Geographica Bernensia and CDE (Centre for Development and Environment).

Supported by:SDC, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and seco, State Secretariat for Economic Affairs.

Edited by:Jean-Laurent Pfund and Patrick Robinson, as a special publication of Intercooperation, and the editorial team of the Working Group “Trees and Forests in Development Cooperation”: Jean-Pierre Sorg, Ruedi Felber and Ueli Mauderli.

This paper is based on a workshop held on January 31st 2005 in Bern. The title of the workshop was: Between market forces and poverty alleviation: The contribution of Non-Timber Forest Prod-ucts. The objective was to clarify the potential role of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in poverty reduction strategies.

Cover photographs:Front cover: above from left to right: Brian Belcher, Brian Belcher, Christian Küchli; below: Christian Küchli. Back cover: above: Brian Belcher; below: Christian Küchli.

Foreword By Jean-Pierre Sorg 3

1. AWorkshoponNon-TimberForestProducts:Introduction

By Patrick Robinson & Jean-Laurent Pfund 4

2. PovertyAlleviationandForestConservation:TheRoleofNon-TimberForestProducts

By Manuel Ruiz Pérez 8

3. CommercialIssuesRelatedtoNon-TimberForestProducts

By Ousseynou Ndoye 14

4. NTFPDevelopmentandPovertyAlleviation:IsthePolicyContextFavourable?

By Geneviève Michon 20

5. NTFPPromotioninVietnam:PracticalExperiencesofaDevelopmentProject

By Ruedi Felber 27

6. NTFPsandPovertyAlleviationinKyrgyzstan:PotentialandCriticalIssues

By Kaspar Schmidt 28

7. SheaButterTreeProducts:“TheSavingsAccountofSahelianWomen”

By Jean-Marc Tendon, Mamadou Moustapha Diarra, François Picard, Cissé Djénéba Sow, Fogué Kouduahou & Amidou Ouattara 30

8. CertificationandLabelling:OpportunitiesforNon-TimberForestProducts

By Heini Conrad 33

9. InternationalMarketingofNTFPs By Susann Reiner 35

10.NTFPsandDevelopment:ElementsofSynthesis

By Jean-Laurent Pfund & Patrick Robinson 36

Table of contents

2

Reiner,SusannRegenwald-Institute.V.,Postfach1742,79017Freiburg,GermanyPhone:+497615561319Email:reiner@regenwald-institut.de

Robinson,PatrickCP90,2009Neuchâtel,SwitzerlandPhone:+41327536930Email:pat.robinson@bluewin.ch

RuizPérez,ManuelDpt.Ecologia–FacultadCiencias,UniversidadAutonomadeMadrid,28049Madrid,SpainPhone:+34914978000Email:manuel.ruiz@uam.es

Schmidt,KasparGroupedeforesteriepourledéveloppement,ETHZurich,andInternationalandRuralDevelopmentDepartment,UniversityofReading,UK,c/oETHZentrum,8092Zürich,SwitzerlandPhone:+41446323203Email:kaspar.schmidt@env.ethz.ch

Sow,DjénébaCisséDélégationIntercooperationauSahel(D-ICSahel),KorofinaSud–Rue96X747–BP:2386,Bamako,MaliPhone:+2232244460Email:icsahel@icsahel.org

Tendon,Jean-MarcCentreEcologiqueAlbertSchweitzer–CEASSuisse,2,ruedelaCôte,2000Neuchâtel,SwitzerlandPhone:+41327250836Email:jm.tendon@ceas.ch

Conrad,HeiniIntercooperation,Maulbeerstr.10,3001Bern,SwitzerlandPhone:+41313851010Email:hconrad@intercooperation.ch

Diarra,MamadouMoustaphaDélégationIntercooperationauSahel(D-ICSahel),KorofinaSud–Rue96X747–BP:2386,Bamako,MaliPhone:+2232244460Email:icsahel@icsahel.org

Felber,HansRudolfNADEL/ETHZ–Postgraduatestudiesondevelopmentcountries,ETHZentrum,8092Zürich,SwitzerlandPhone:+41446325097Email:felber@nadel.ethz.ch

Kouduahou,FoguéCEAS-Burkina,BP3306,Ouagadougou01,BurkinaFasoPhone:+22650373411Email:ceasdat@fasonet.bf

MichonGenevièveIRDMontpellier,BP64501,34394Montpelliercedex5,FrancePhone:+33467636982Email:Genevieve.Michon@mpl.ird.fr

Ndoye,OusseynouCenterforInternationalForestryResearch(CIFOR)c/oInternationalInstituteofTropicalAgriculture/HumidForestEcoregionalCenter,BP2008(Messa),Yaounde,CameroonPhone:+2372237434/2237522Email:o.ndoye@cgiar.org

Ouattara,AmidouCEAS-Burkina,BP3306,Ouagadougou01,BurkinaFasoPhone:+22650343008Email:ceas-rb@fasonet.bf

Pfund,Jean-LaurentIntercooperation,Maulbeerstr.10,3001Bern,SwitzerlandPhone:+41313851010Email:jpfund@intercooperation.ch

Picard,FrançoisDélégationIntercooperationauSahel(D-ICSahel),KorofinaSud–Rue96X747–BP:2386,Bamako,MaliPhone:+2232244460Email:icsahel@icsahel.org

List of contributors

3

Theworkinggroup“TreesandForestsinDevelopmentCooperation”ishappytopresentoncemorethere-sultsofitsactivitiestotheinterestedreaderandhopesthatthispublicationwillbefavourablyreceived.

Allovertheglobe,Non-TimberForestProducts(NTFPs)areanimportantaspectofforestmanagement.WhilethedebateincountriesintheNorthrevolvesprimarilyaroundservices (protection,biodiversity,recreation)andlessaroundproducts,thesituationisdifferentincountriesintheSouthandEast.There,productsof-tenplayanimportantroleforlocalcommunities,eitherforhomeconsumptionorthroughcommercialisationinlocalorregionalmarkets.

Ofcourse,questions regardingNTFPscanbedis-cussedindifferentways.Thetopicoftheworkshop,inwhichthepublicationhasitsorigin,wasdeliberatelyplacedataneconomicandsociallevel,inanattempttograspthecontributionofNTFPstopovertyalleviation.Webelievethatamodernapproachtomanagementofforestlandscapes,especiallyincountriesintheSouthandEast,hasfirstofalltoconsidertheproductsandtheservicesofferedbyforestsforthefulfilmentoftheneedsofthelocalpopulation.ItwasthereforelogicaltorelateNTFPstopovertyreductionandtoendeavourtoreviewthistheme.

Wehopethatthispublicationachievesitsgoalofbuild-ingawareness,intheframeworkofdevelopment,ontheproblemsrelatedtotheuseanddevelopmentofNTFPs,withdeterminationbutwithoutexcessiveop-timism.

Thisistheopportunitytowarmlythankallthosewhocontributedtothesmoothrunningoftheworkshopandtothepreparationofthispublication.Thisincludes,inthefirstplace,thespeakersandauthorsofthecon-tributions,butalsoall thosewithoutwhomsuchanendeavourcouldnothavebeenrealised.OurgroupAGWBwouldliketoexpressitsgratitudeparticularlytoSDCandsecofortheirfinancialsupportandtoJean-LaurentPfund,Intercooperation,thetruecraftsmanoftheworkshopandthepublication.

Zurich,28thofNovember2005Jean-PierreSorg

Foreword

4

BOX 1: “Definition” of NTFPs

SincetheNTFPconceptisdefinednotbywhatitis,butbywhatitisnot,thedebatehasragedoveritsdefini-tionsincethetermwascoinedin1989(Belcher2003,Neumann&Hirsch2000).Itevolvedfromtheterm“Mi-norForestProducts”preciselybecausethisdismissiveepithetdoesnotreflecttheireconomic,social,religiousorconservationimportance.ItisbelievedbymanythatthetermNon-WoodForestProducts,proposedandusedbyFAO,isnotinclusiveenoughofwhatisimpor-tantinNTFPs(e.g.theinclusionofcharcoal,fuelwood,tools,carvings,i.e.productsextractedusingsimpletechnologiesbypeoplelivinginorneartheforests).NTFPs are non-timber goods that are tangible and physical objects of biological origin(miner-als,servicesandforestbenefitsareexcluded)(Belcherop. cit.).TheimportantelementsofthedebateovertheNTFPconceptdependontheinterestsandprioritiesoftheproponents,andareusuallycentredontheexpect-edcontributionofNTFPstoconservationaswellasontheircurrentandpotentialbenefitstothepoorversustheirfurtherimpoverishment.Theelementsare:– The nature of the product–inclusion/exclusion

ofnon-industrialtimber,otherwoodproducts.– The source of the product–inclusion/exclusion

offorest/treeplantations,managedforest,grass-land,managedagroforestrysystemswithinagricul-turalland.

– The nature of production of the product–gath-eredonlyfromthewild,oralsoincludingthosethataredomesticated(e.g.rubber,cocoa,oilpalmandother industrialtreeplantationcropsaretypicallyexcludedfromNTFPs);butthedistinctionisblurredandunhelpfulsincemanyproductsoriginatefrombothwildanddomesticatedorsemidomesticatedproductionsystems.

– The scale of production–capitalintensive,indus-trialscaleversussmallscalemixedsystems;

– The ownership and distribution of benefits–onthebasisthatinmanycountries,ruralpeoplehaveaccessrightstoNTFPsbutnottotimber;howeveroftenthepoordonothaveaccessrightstothemorevaluableNTFPs(forfurtherdetails,seeBelcherop. cit.).

By Patrick Robinson & Jean-Laurent Pfund

Thispublicationistheresultofaone-dayworkshopinBerntoassessthestateofknowledgeonthecontribu-tionofNTFPs(Non-TimberForestProducts)tosocio-economicdevelopment,andparticularlytheirpoten-tialforruralpovertyreduction,aswellasthepossiblesynergiesbetweentheirsustainablemanagementandoverallforestandbiodiversityconservation.ItisonlywithathoroughunderstandingofthevariousfactorsatplayatdifferentlevelsofNTFPmanagementandtrade,thatOverseasDevelopmentAidcandesigninterven-tionstrategieswhichcanimproveNTFPs’contributiontopovertyreductioninasustainableway.Thework-shopprogrammeisdetailedinAnnexe1andthelistofparticipantsinAnnexe2.

1. NTFP use and trade – an ancient tradition

NTFPs (seedefinition inBox1)havebeenused forhomeconsumption,processed,commercialisedandtradedacrosscontinentsformillennia.Perhapstheold-estandbestplantproductexamplesarefrankincense(orolibamum)andmyrrh,preciousaromatic resinsfromBoswellia carteritreesandCommiphora myrrhashrubsrespectively,whichwerealreadytradedfromArabiatoWesternEuropeandIndia4’000yearsago(Dharmananda2003).Throughcarefulstepwisecon-trolofthetradechain,localtradersbecameextremelyrich.MostNTFPshavecontinuedtobecollectedfromthewild,butsome,suchasrubber(fromHevea brasil-iensis),havebeenproducedfromindustrialplantationsoutsidetheircontinentoforigin.

Amongstthetradedanimalproducts,examplesarelargenumbersoflivelions(fromNorthAfrica)andeventigers(fromIndia)forthearenasofancientRome,andmuskfromtheseveralmuskdeerspeciesofcentral

A Workshop on Non-Timber Forest Products: Introduction 1

The diversity of NTFPs is huge and corresponds to several different

types of management. Harvesting the sap of Hevea brasiliensis

is a well-known example of Non-Timber Forest “Production” (Photo

by Manuel Ruiz Pérez).

5

hasalsonothelpedunderstandingandprogressinre-searchanddevelopment.ThekeyspecificaspectsofNTFPs,whichdifferentiatethemfromtimberasanatu-ralandeconomicresource,are:– WhatNTFPsareishighlyvariableanddebated(see

Box1).– ResourceassessmentofNTFPsisusuallycompli-

catedforbothplantandanimalproducts.Forplantproducts, unlike timber, few standard inventorymethodscanbeapplied.Speciesspecificpopula-tioninventorytechniquesneedtobeadaptedandcombinedwithappropriateyieldassessmenttech-niquestoarriveatproductionfiguresforsuchdi-verseproductsasroots,tubers,leaves,fruits,sap,bark,etc.

– Sustainablemanagementandharvesting recom-mendationscan thereforebedifficult todevelop–theymayneedtobespeciesspecific.Traditionalknowledgeexistsbutisnotmadeenoughuseofbydevelopmentandforestryprofessionals.

– Qualityassessmentoftheresourceisdifficultwhenthevaluableingredient(s)oftheNTFPrequirescom-plexchemicalanalysis(e.g.medicinalproperties).Further,theconcentrationandqualityofthecommer-ciallyvaluableactiveingredientperdryunitweightofthespecificplantpartcanvarysubstantiallyac-cordingtoanumberoffactors.Thereisconsider-abletraditionalknowledgeonmanyofthesequalitycontributingfactors,butitisoftenbeingrapidlylostascommercialpressurebreaksageoldtraditionsofcollaborationbetweencollectorsandspecialisttraders/endusers(e.g.inAyurvedicmedicine).

– TheendproductsofmanyNTFPsareoftentheout-comeofaseriesofsuccessive,variedandsome-timescomplexprocessingmeasures.

– ThequalityofmanyNTFPsisnoteasyto“see”andadulterationisthereforepossibleandquitefrequentinsomeproducttypes(e.g.plantbasedmedicine).

– Itismucheasiertosmugglevaluable/trade-bannedNTFP products under another species/productnamethanfortimber.

– Certificationandfairtraderequirementscanbepar-ticularlydifficultand/orcostly to introduce,giventhelargepossibilitiestohidethetruesourcesoftheproducts.

– AssessingtheactualvalueandpotentialvalueofNTFPsiscomplicatedbyalltheabovefactors(seeBox2forsometradevalueestimates).

AsianandHimalayanalpineshrub/forests,whichhasbeenusedinperfumesandtraditionalmedicineofeastAsiaforover5000years(Pickrell2004).Muskiscur-rentlyused,apartfromperfumes,inasmanyas400ChineseandKorean traditional remedies, andcanfetchgramforgramthreetimesmorethanitsweightingold.Foroveracentury,themostfrequentlyusedtermwasMinorForestProductsforwhich,forexample,theBrit-ishImperialInstitutehadpublishedover450reportsannuallyby1910ontheirproduction,use,processingandcommercialpotential(Neumann&Hirsch2000).InBritishIndia,forestmanagementplansalreadyregular-lyincludedasectiononmanagementprescriptionsforminorforestproducts,includingtherightsandrespon-sibilitiesforcollectionbythelocalruralpopulation.

2. Overseas Development Assistance,

conservation and NTFPs

2.1 The upsurge of interest in NTFPs in development and conservation circles

Althoughdevelopmentandconservationcircleshavebeen interested inNTFPs fordecades, thereareanumberofreasonsforthegeneralspreadandupsurgeofinterestamongstthemsincethe80s,leadingtothebeliefthatthepromotionoftheirsustainableusecouldleadtoawin-winsituationforpovertyreductionandbiodiversityconservation.– ThedemandformanyNTFPsisgrowingfast(e.g.

medicinalplants)andtheirhabitatsandpopulationsareincreasinglythreatened.

– EconomicallyviableNTFPharvestingmaybelessdetrimental for forestcoverandbiodiversity thantimberharvesting.

– Sustainable incomes from NTFP harvesting andcommercialisationcanprovidesufficientincentivesforforestandothernaturalhabitatconservation.

– ThecontributionofNTFPstothelivelihoodsofthepoorisoftenhigh.

– SustainableNTFPharvestingandcommercialisationcancontributetopovertyalleviationandsustainablelivelihoodsforpeoplelivinginandaroundforests.

2.2 What’s special about NTFPs?

AnumberofissuesconcerningNTFPsmakethemadifficultgroupofproductstoframeintermsoftheircharacteristicsandactualpotential contribution topovertyalleviation,economicdevelopmentingeneralandtosustainablenaturalresourceconservation.TheambiguityandconfusionoverthedefinitionofNTFPs

6

2.3 NTFPs’ importance revisited

Morerecently,followingsystematicandcomparativeresearchonthecorrelationsbetweenkeyissuessuchasthelinksbetweenpovertyandNTFPuseandcom-mercialisation,resourcetrendsandownershiprights,amoredifferentiatedappreciationhasemergedbe-tweentheactualandpotentialroleofNTFPsforsus-tainablepovertyreductionandbiodiversityconserva-tion.Anumberoffactorshavebeenidentifiedwhichdeterminetheconditionsunderwhicheffortstopro-moteNTFPs forpoverty reductionandbiodiversityconservationcanrealisticallyleadtowin-winsituationsorindeedmayleadtotheoppositeeffect.

Theworkinggroup“TreesandForestsinDevelopmentCooperation”chosetoworkonthistopictogetaclear-erunderstandingofthepotentialsandconstraintsofinvestingmoreineffortstopromoteNTFPsasaleverforsustainablepovertyreduction,andtoidentifythestrategieswhichwouldhelptoincreasetheirpoten-tialandovercometheconstraints.WhilerecognizingthecrucialimportanceoftherangeofNTFPsinhomeconsumptionandinsupporttofarmingsystems,theworkshopaimedtoconcentrateonNTFPswhichhavealreadyorcouldpotentiallyhaveamarketbeyondtheareaofharvest/production.Assuch,littlereferenceismadetotheveryhigheconomicvalueofsomeverymajorNTFPssuchasfuelwood,fodderorsmallbuild-ingmaterial.

3. The workshop’s outcome: “from the El Dorado to the real power games …”

SomeofthedoubtsconcerningthepotentialforNTFPstohavethepositiveimpactswhichhavebeenclaimedandpromotedinthelasttwodecadescanbeattrib-utedtotheusualdangerofextrapolatinginageneralwayfromawholeseriesoflocationspecificsituationswithdifferentspeciesandproducts,withdifferentso-cio-economicandmarketintegrationsituations,andwithregionalvariationsinalternativelivelihoodoptionsofdifferentincomegroups.

ItalsoemergesthatthehopedforElDoradoofNTFPsforthepoorisjeopardizedbythepowergamesofthosefewwhodofindtheirElDoradoinNTFPs.Thispublica-tionistheoutcomeoftheworkshopandincludes:– Threemainpapers;– Fivecasestudies;– Andsomeelementsofsynthesis.

BOX 2: The economic value of botanical NTFPs

AnyattemptatassessingtheglobalvalueofNTFPsisobviouslyfraughtwithdifficulties,beitthevalueforlocalcollectorsandbeneficiariesorintermsoffinalproductmarketvalue.Nevertheless,withtherenewedinterestinNTFPsinthe80s,therehasbeenarecogni-tionthatthecollectivetradevalueofforestproductsotherthantimberwaslarge(Belcherop. cit.),andsomeevenclaimpossiblylargerthanthetotaltradeintropi-caltimber.Someindicatorsfromtheherbalandphar-maceuticaltradearetelling:– WHO(2003)estimatedthatthethenglobalmarket

forherbalmedicinesstoodatUS$60billion,wasgrowingsteadily,and25%ofmodernmedicinesaremadefromplantsfirstusedtraditionally.

– In1997,theworldtradeinrawmaterials(andthere-foreexcludingsubsistenceornon-marketeduse)forbotanicalmedicine(includingvitaminsandminerals)wasestimatedatUS$8billion,withglobalconsum-ersalesatUS$40billion(Laird1999),muchofwhichoriginatingfromwildsourcesincludingtrees;inIn-diaforexample,90%oftheplantspeciesusedbythepharmaceuticalindustryarecollectedfromthewildand33%ofthetotalneedoriginatesfromtrees(Chakrabarti&Varsney2001).

– InIndia,oftheapproximately2500medicinalplantsusedbytraditionalhealers,about500areutilizedbypharmaceuticalcompanies (Rao2001). India’sherbalproductindustryissaidtohavehadaannualturnoverofaboutUS$500million(officially)inthelate90swithaboutUS$100million‘sworthexported(officially),andwashopingtoexport7timesmoreby2005(Chakrabarti&Varsneyop. cit.).Therealvolumesandvaluesareprobablymuchhighergiventhatmuchoftheharvestingandtradeisillegal,deal-ingalsowithspecieswhichareofficiallyprotected.Severalstudiesshowthat20%to50%ofthespe-ciesusedarenowendangered;ratiosofthepricepaidupthemarketchainforthesameequivalentamountofrawproductareoften1forgatherers,5wholesale,10exporterandover1000fortheproc-essedmaterial(Charkrabarti&Varsneyop. cit.).

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References:

Belcher B.M. 2003:Whatisn’tanNTFP.InternationalForestryReview5,2:161–168.Chakrabarti L.; Varsney V. 2001:Tradingincontraband.In:DowntoEarth9,17:27–34.SocietyforEnvironmentCommunications,NewDelhi.Dharmananda S.2003:MyrrhandFrankincense.www.itmonline.org/arts/myrrh.htmLaird S.A. 1999: The Botanical Medicine Industry.In:Thecommercialuseofbiodiversity–Accesstoge-neticresourcesandbenefitsharing,Earthscan,Lon-don,pp.78–116.Neumann R.P.; Hirsch E.2000:CommercializationofNon-TimberForestproducts:ReviewandAnalysisofResearch.CIFOR,Bogor.Pickrell J.2004:PoacherstargetMuskDeerforper-fumes,medicines.NationalGeographicNews,Sep-tember 2004. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0907_040907_muskdeer.htmlRao K.S.2001.Foreword.In:ProceedingsoftheNa-tionalWorkshoponMedicinalPlants,Hyderabad,In-dia.12–14March2001.IssuedbyConservatorofFor-ests–Hyderabad,A.P.,India.WHO2003:Traditionalmedicine.FactSheetNo134.http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/

In walnut tree forests of

Kyrgyzstan, fodder is one of

most important natural re-

sources (Photo by Jean-Pierre

Sorg).

8

By Manuel Ruiz Pérez

1. Introduction

Structuralpovertyisoneofthemostpervasivesocialphenomena,whoseeffectisattractingincreasingin-ternationalattention.Thedefinitionandassessmentofpovertyhasevolvedfromaclassicalincome-basedmeasure(thetypicalbelow1$perdayoranyotheroffi-ciallyestablishedincomecriteria)toamultidimensionalperspectivethatincludesincome,health,culturalandsocial resilience,self-esteemandotherparameters(WorldBank2003).

Povertyanalysistendstodistinguishbetweenruralandurbanpoverty,signallingdifferentcauses,symptomsandabilitiesofpeopletocopewithinbothsituations.Thishasledtodifferentstrategiesatinternationallevel,whichtendtofocusonprimarysector-basedactivitiesforruralareasandonprovidinginfrastructureandgen-eralskillstoenterthesecondaryandtertiarysectorsinurbanareas.Inbothcases,thefightagainstpov-ertycombinestwoapproaches:astrategic,maximal-istapproachofeliminatingpovertythatconfrontsthestructureofthesystemthatgeneratespoverty;andatactic,povertyalleviationapproachthatcanbeeasilyacceptedandcarriedoutwithinthelimitsofthesys-tem(Angelsen&Wunder2003).Understandingthattheeliminationofpovertyistheultimategoal,weconcen-tratehereonthemorehumbleandtractableissueofhowtoreduceoralleviatepovertyespeciallyinruralareasofdevelopingcountries,andwhichhasbeenthefocusofourresearchforover15years.

Theinterestinforestconservationacknowledgestheseriouspressuresonforest,oneofthekeyterrestrialecosystems,withimportantglobalvaluesintermsofclimateandbiodiversity.Forestsareoneofthefast-estlosinggroundecosystems.Inordertoaccuratelyportraythisprocessweneedtodistinguishbetweenpermanentandtemporarydeforestation,forestdeg-radationandforestreplacement,normallysubstitutingnaturalforestsbyplantations(FAO2001).However,thecommonlyusedstatisticsareaggregatesofthesedif-ferentprocesses,andthereisthereforelittlepossibilityforaclearconsensusontheirrealmeaning,letaloneontheirimplicationsanddesirability(Matthews2001,Kaimowitz&Angelsen1998).

Whenanalysingthepressureonforestsweneedtoseparatethedirectfromtheindirectcauses(Barbier&Burgess2001,Geist&Lambin2001).Concerningthefirst,wecanmentiondifferentlevelsofagriculturalac-tivities,fromslash-and-burnsubsistencetolargescaleagro-industry;livestock;mining;reservoirs,roadsand

Poverty Alleviation and Forest Conservation: The Role of Non-Timber Forest Products2

othermajorinfrastructures;loggingandtheaggrava-tionthroughhumaninterventionofsomenaturallyoc-curringprocesseslikefires,hurricanes,etc.Indirectcausesincludemarketpressureandfailures(under-valuationofforestgoodsandservices);developmentplansandtaxpoliciesthatofferincentivestodeforest;landuseandtenureconditionsthattendtoconfronttheStatewithtraditionalpropertyrights;macroeconomicpoliciessuchasstructuraladjustmentsthatforcepeo-pletodependonforestexploitationtosurviveandthebroadsocio-economiccontext,includingpopulationgrowth,incomedistributionandexternaldebt.

2. Linking poverty and forests.

Therehavebeenthreecomplementarywaystocombatdeforestation/forestdegradation:– Tostopitthroughthecreationofprotectedareas

withdifferentdegreesofefficiencyandthattendtoconfrontlocalpopulations.

– Toimproveforestmanagementtechniques,espe-cially inconnectionto largescale loggingopera-tions.

– Topromoteamultifunctionalvaluationofforeststhatwouldencouragelocalactionstoprotectthem.

Thelatterhasthehighestpotentialtocombinepov-ertyalleviationandforestconservation,basedontwofacts:theco-occurrenceofforest-richandeconomi-callypoorterritoriesindifferentplaces–fromChinatotheCongoBasinortheAmazonregion–withaclearopportunitytotryandfindcommonsolutionsnotwith-standingthedebatablecausalitylinkandtheconver-genceoftheagendasoftheconservationanddevel-opmentgroupssincethe80s(Nepstad&Schwartz-man1992).

Thismultifunctionalvaluation isbasedonthreekeyassumptions(Myers1988,Panayotou&Ashton1992,Wollenberg&Inglis1998):1.Thatdeforestationistheresultofaconsistentand

pervasiveundervaluationofforestgoodsandserv-ices.

2.That increasingthemonetaryvalueofforestswillmakethemmoreattractivethanthealternativelandusescenariosbasedondeforestation.

3.Thatthere isaneedtodevelopstrategiestoaddvaluelocallyinordertoincreasethemonetaryvalueofforests.

This is thebasisofdifferent ‘conservation through commercialisation’approachesthatbecamepopularattheendofthe80swithconservationanddevelop-mentgroupsjoiningactionstotryandcapitaliseon

9

1.ThatNTFPsarewidelydistributed,contributingmorethantimbertoforestpeople’slivelihoods(Myersop. cit.,Panayotou&Ashtonop. cit.).

2.That theirharvesting isecologicallymorebenignthanalternativeforestornon-forestuses(Petersetal.1989).

3.Thatincreasingtheircommercialvaluewillcontrib-utetoanincreasedappreciationofforests,thereforecontributingbothtopovertyalleviationandtoforestconservation(Clay1992).

Almosttwodecadesofaccumulatedexperiencehavenowallowedforamoresoberandbalancedassess-mentofthepotentialcontributionofNTFPstothejointconservation-developmentagenda(seeNeumann&Hirsh2000,Arnold&RuizPérez2001forareview).Wepresentsomeofthoseissuesbelow.

InconnectionwiththecontributionofNTFPstoforestpeople’slivelihoods,thetwinquestionsraisedarehowmuchandwhobenefits.Theextentofthecontribution(‘how much’)hasdelvedintotheanalysisofforestde-pendencyanditslevel(forinstancehigh-low;perma-nent-sporadic;theroleofNTFPsassafetynets).Theirreallevelofsustainableusehasalsoconfronteddiffer-entvisions,fromacornucopian,almostinfiniteavaila-bility(Petersetal.op. cit.),tolimitedphysicalandcom-mercialopportunities(Godoyetal.2000).Likewise,thediscussionontheirfuturepotentialhasspannedfromanewElDoradothatwouldrealizetheirimmensepoten-tial(Balick&Mendelsohn1992)toarathermodestandincrementalrole(Simpsonetal.1996).

OneofthefrequentlyrepeatedstatementsisthatNT-FPsbenefitmostlythepoorestpopulations(Cavendish2000).However,withregardtothe‘who benefits’ques-tion,someauthorshaveconfrontedthiswiththepara-doxoftheappropriationofthevaluableresourcesbytherich,whilethepoorarebeingleftwiththecrumbsofthefeast(Dove1993).Therefore,itisimportanttounderstandwhenthepoorestbenefitfromNTFPs,andwhattypesofdevelopmentopportunitiescantheseforestproductsoffertolocallivelihoods.Ourresearchbasedon61casestudiesofcommercialproductionofagivenNTFPhastypifiedthreemainsituations(lateronexpandedtofive)withregardtotheroleofNTFPsinthehouseholdeconomyaspartofthegeneralhousehold

theseeminglypotentialsynergies(Evans1993,Stiles1994).Theseapproachescouldbeseparatedintotwocomplementarygroups.Ontheonehand,thecreationofnewmarkets(forexample,thepromotionofdebt-for-natureswapsorthepaymentforenvironmentalserv-iceslikewater,CO2orbiodiversity).Thishasbeenpro-posedatvariouslevels–fromlocaltonationalandin-ternational–normallylinkedtocompensationschemes(liketheNaturalForestProtectionProgrammeinChina,orwatershedmanagementagreements indifferentcountries).Anumberofinternationalinitiativesarenowreadytobepromoted,withtheKyotoProtocolandtheassociatedmarketforCO2emissionsstandingoutasthemostpromising.Aswithotherinnovativepropos-als,thereisalwayssomedistancebetweenthetheoryandreality.Criticsofthenewmarketapproachstressthedifficultytoallocateamarketvaluetointangibleslikebiodiversityorclimate,aswellastherealwilling-nesstocompensateforglobalservices.Likewise,theissueofnationalversusinternationalsovereigntyhasbeenraised.

Ontheotherhand,promotingalreadyexistingmarketsforforestproductsandservices(liketimber,NTFPs,biodiversityoreco-tourism)hasexperiencedathriv-ingandagitatedagendathathashadtheadvantageoftheexistingexperiencewithsuchactivities.Buildingonthem,frequentlymoreempiricistthanwellplannedactions,hasexpanded,tryingtoshortenthepathbe-tweenlocalproducersandtheirlocal,nationalorin-ternationalmarketsandtoreinforceforest-basedlocalincomegeneration.

3. What role for Non-timber Forest Products?

NTFPsattractedearlyattentionamongpractitionersandresearchersalike,basedontheconcatenationofthreelargelyuntestedassumptions:

Even in forest-rich countries, where logging is seen as the most

important forest activity, some medicinal plants represent big

markets. Pictured is an example from the Congo Basin (Photo by

Manuel Ruiz Pérez).

10

livelihoodstrategy(RuizPérezetal.2004a,Belcheretal.2005):subsistence,withlittleintegrationinthemarketeconomy,andmainlythroughthelocalcom-mercialisationoftheNTFPs;diversified,wellintegratedinthemarketbutrelyingonadiversifiedportfolioofactivities;andspecialised,alsohighlyintegratedinthemarketandrelyingtoagreatextentonthecom-mercialisationofaspecialisedNTFP(seeFigure1).Thesestrategiescanbeassociatedinageneralwaywithregionalmacro-featuresinthethreemaintropicalregions(Africa–subsistence;Asia–specialised;LatinAmerica–diversified).

Anotherimportantquestionraisedisthebalancebe-tweenfarm(orland)andoff-farmbasedincomeinfor-estrelatedhouseholdeconomies.Followingageneral-lyrecognisedtrendinmanycountries,forestpeople’slivelihoodisincreasinglyrelyingonoff-farmbasedac-tivities(Lanjouw&Feder2001).Whenthelatterrep-resentagoodopportunity,theshiftfromfarm-landtooff-farmactivitiestendstobefasterinbetter-offseg-mentsoftheruralpopulation.Ingeneral,wehypothe-sise(RuizPérezetal.2004b)thatwhenforestresourc-esofferagoodopportunityandadynamiccontextthistendstoberecognisedbythebetter-off;whenitisanaverageopportunityitisthemiddleincomegroupthattakesmostofit;whereaswhenitisaninferioroppor-tunityinastagnantcontext,itisthepoorestthatwilltendtoconcentrateonthem(seeFigure2).ThisposestheimportantquestionofthepotentialroleofNTFPsinruraldevelopmentandinparticularhowtheycan

beusedforthebenefitofthepoorestsegmentsoftheruralpopulation.

Theanalysisoftheenvironmentalbenefitsofpromot-ingNTFPshasalsoadvancedseveralnuanceswithre-gardtoearlieroptimisticassessments.ItisgenerallyacceptedthatNTFPharvestingtendstomaintainfor-estcover,particularlywhencomparedwithotheralter-nativelanduses(RuizPérezetal.2005).Theeffectsonbiodiversityarevariable;NTFPbasedactivitiesgener-allymaintainasubstantialamountofthespeciesnatu-rallyoccurring,althoughitcertainlyaffectsthem,spe-ciallythosemostsensitivetohumanpresenceorthosewhicharealsocollectedinparallelwiththecommer-cialgatheringofthemainNTFPs(Peters1994,Freese1997,Bennett&Robinson2000,Ticktin2004).Thisex-tractioncanalsoseriouslyaffectthepopulationsbeingexploited,particularlyinthecontextofwildgatheringandmarketexpansion.ThepromotionofcommercialusesofNTFPscanthenbeviewedasadouble-edgedsword,withpotentialandrisks(Redford1992).

It isworth stressing thepotential conflictbetweenshort-termandlong-termeffects.Thus,commercialcollectionofNTFPsmay,intheshortterm,representagoodstrategyforlocalpopulationstomaintaintheforestconditioninastatewhereitwillcontinuetopro-duceanumberofsubsistenceandmarketableprod-ucts.However,thesystemwillonlylastaslongasthealternativesarenotperceivedasbetter(Wilkie&Go-doy1996)inthelongerterm–forinstancethemoney

0 50 100

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% c

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hh in

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Figure 1: Generalised NTFP

based livelihood strategies (hh

means household in abbrevi-

ated form). The dots represent

the mean value for each group;

bars indicate the standard

deviation of the X and Y axis

variables within each group.

Modified from Ruiz Pérez et

al. 2004a

11

Similarly,NTFPbasedactivitiescouldhelppreventsomeoftheenvironmentallyworse-offscenarioswhileallowingforareasonablygoodlevelofforestcoverage,biodiversityandforest-relatedenvironmentalservices.However,carefulmonitoringofindividualspeciesun-derparticularpressure,oftheriskofincreaseforestdegradationthroughtheexpansionoftherangeoffor-estactivitiesandareasbeingexploited,andofthepo-tentialtrade-offsbetweenshort-termversuslong-termprocessesshouldbeimplemented.

WhileNTFPscansometimesbeawaytoofferdevelop-mentopportunitiestopoorpopulationsinaforestedenvironment,itcanalsobeapovertytrapthatwouldlimitpeople’soptionsandwouldriskthefutureoftheforests uponwhich they live.Applying thegeneraltrendsobservedand lessons learnt totheconcreteconditionsofeachparticularcaseistherealchallengefordevelopmentandconservationpractitioners.

earnedthroughNTFPsmaybeinvestedinotherop-tionsthatmayincreasethepressureontheforestinthelongterm.Thatisthecaseofsavingsusedtoin-creasesmallholders’livestockassets,theacquisitionofmechanicalsawsortheimprovementofroadsthatwillhaveanincreasedeffectontheexpansionofag-ricultureandothercommodity-orientedproductionattheexpenseofforests.

4. Concluding remarks

Forestpopulationsarenotstaticsocietiesthathingeuponanancestralwayoflife.Theyshouldbeviewedasflexible,dynamicandabletocreate,adaptandre-spond tonewopportunities.Researchhasshowedthatforestbasedincomecansometimesbesuchanopportunitytoimproveortogainaccesstomarkets.Thisrole,however,isnormallylimitedanditsrealiza-tionseemstoindicatearelationshipbetweenrelativelocalsocialpositionsandthecapacityandresourcestotaketheopportunityofthepotentialoffered(knowl-edgeofmarkets,possibilitytoinvestinrisk,contacts,powerrelations,timeavailability,differentopportunitycostsandabilitytocopewiththese,rights,etc.).Whileworkingonthisasadevelopmenttooltwokeycon-siderationsshouldbefollowed:nottoraiseunrealisticexpectationsandnottoopenopportunitiesinsuchawaythatcouldincreasethelevelofdispossessionofthepoor.

Figure 2: Theoretical model

of contribution of forest sector

to rural people’s income for

different forest development

contexts. Modified from Ruiz

Pérez et al. 2004b.

Farmer’s income

% o

f inc

ome

from

fore

st

mature forest sector, normal opportunitystagnant forest sector, inferior opportunityexpanding forest sector, superior opportunity

12

References:

Angelsen A.; Wunder S.2003:Exploringtheforest-poverty link:keyconcepts, issuesandresearchim-plications.CIFOROccasionalPaperNo.40.CIFOR,Bogor.Arnold J.E.M.; Ruiz Pérez M.2001:Cannon-timberfor-estproductsmatchtropicalforestconservationanddevelopmentobjectives?EcologicalEconomics39:437–447.Balick M.J.; Mendelsohn R.1992:Assessingtheeco-nomicvalueoftraditionalmedicinesfromtropicalrainforests.ConservationBiology6:128–30.Barbier E.B.; Burgess J.C.2001:TheEconomicsofTropicalDeforestation.JournalofEconomicSurveys15,3:413–432.Belcher B.; Ruiz Pérez M.; Achdiawan, R.2005:Glo-balpatternsandtrendsintheuseandmanagementofcommercialNTFPs:Implicationsforlivelihoodsandconservation.WorldDevelopment.September2005.33,9:1435–1452.Bennett E. L.; Robinson J.G.2000:Huntingofwildlifeintropicalforests.Implicationsforbiodiversityandforest

peoples.WorldBankBiodiversitySeriesNo.76.WorldBank,WashingtonD.C.Cavendish W.2000:EmpiricalRegularitiesinthePov-erty-EnvironmentRelationshipofRuralHouseholds:EvidencefromZimbabwe.WorldDevelopment28,11:1979–2003.Clay J.1992:WhyRainforestCrunch?CulturalSurvivalQuarterly16,2:31–37.Dove M.R.1993:Arevisionistviewoftropicaldefor-estationanddevelopment.EnvironmentalConserva-tion20:17–24.Evans M.I.1993:Conservationbycommercialization.In:HladikC.M.,HladikA.,LinaresO.F.,PagezyH.,SempleA.,HadleyM.(eds).TropicalForests,PeopleandFood:Biocultural InteractionsandApplicationstoDevelopment.MABSeriesvol.13.UNESCO,ParisandParthenonPublishingGroup,Carnforth,UK,pp.815–822.FAO 2001:TheGlobalForestResourceAssessment2000.FAO,Rome.Freese C. (ed.)1997:HarvestingWildSpecies:Impli-cationsforBiodiversityConservation.JohnHopkinsUniversityPress.Geist H.J.; Lambin E.F. 2001: What drives tropicaldeforestation?Ameta-analysisofproximateandun-derlyingcausesofdeforestationbasedonsubnationalcasestudyevidence.LUCCReportSeries4.Louvain-la-Neuve.Godoy R.; Wilkie D.; Overman H.; Cubas A.; Cubas G.; Denmer J.; McSweeney K.; Brokaw N.2000:ValuationofconsumptionandsaleofforestgoodsfromaCentralAmericanrainforest.Nature406:62–63.Kaimowitz D.; Angelsen A.1998:Economicmodelsoftropicaldeforestation.Areview.CIFOR,Bogor.Lanjouw P.; Feder G.2001:RuralNon-FarmActivitiesandRuralDevelopment:FromExperienceTowardsStrategy.RuralDevelopmentStrategyBackgroundPa-perNo.4,WorldBank,WashingtonD.C.Matthews E.2001:UnderstandingtheFRA2000.WorldResourcesInstitute.ForestBriefingNo.1.WRI,Wash-ingtonD.C.Myers N.1988:Tropicalforests:muchmorethanstocksofwood.JournalofTropicalEcology4:209–221.Nepstad D.C.; Schwartzman S. (eds.)1992:Non-timberproductsfromtropicalforests:evaluationofaconser-vationanddevelopmentstrategy.Advances inEco-nomicBotany9:vii–xii.

With regard to poverty reduction, the impact of NTFPs on poverty

cannot be generalised. When they are locally processed however,

they are usually advantageous for the regional economy (Photo by

Manuel Ruiz Pérez).

13

Neumann R.P.; Hirsch E.2000:Commercialisationofnon-timberforestproducts:reviewandanalysisofre-search.CIFOR,Bogor.Panayotou T.; Ashton P.1992:Notby timberalone.Economicsandecologyforsustainingtropicalforest.IslandPress,Washington.Peters C.M.; Gentry A.H.; Mendelsohn R.O. 1989:Valuation of an Amazonian rainforest. Nature 339:655–656.Peters C.M.1994:Sustainableharvestofnon-timberplantresourcesintropicalmoistforest:anecologicalprimer.BiodiversitySupportProgram,Washington,DC.Redford K.H.1992:Theemptyforest.BioScience42:412–422.Ruiz Pérez M.; Belcher B.; Achdiawan R.; Alexiades M.; Aubertin C.; Caballero J.; Campbell B.; Clement C.; Cunningham T.; Fantini A.; de Foresta H.; García Fernández C.; Gautam K.H.; Hersch Martínez P.; de Jong W.; Kusters K.; Kutty M.G.; López C.; Fu M.; Martínez Alfaro M.A.; Nair T.R.; Ndoye O.; Ocampo R.; Rai N.; Ricker M.; Schreckenberg K.; Shackleton S.; Shanley P.; Sunderland T.; Youn Y.2004:Marketsdrivethespecializationstrategiesofforestpeoples.EcologyandSociety9,2:4.[online]URL:http://www.ecology-andsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art4Ruiz Pérez M.; Belcher B.; Fu M.; Yang X.2004:Lookingthroughthebamboocurtain:ananalysisofthechang-ingroleofforestandfarmincomeinrurallivelihoodsinChina.InternationalForestryReview,6,3–4:306–316.Ruiz Pérez M.; Almeida M.; Dewi S.; Costa E.; Pan-toja M.; Puntodewo A.; Postigo A.; Andrade A.2005:ConservationanddevelopmentinAmazonianExtrac-tiveReserves:ThecaseofAltoJuruá.Ambio,34,3:218–223.Simpson R.D.; Sedjo R.A.; Reid J.W.1996:Valuingbio-diversityforuseinpharmaceuticalresearch.JournalofPoliticalEconomy104:163–185.Stiles D.1994:Tribalsandtrade:astrategyforculturalandecologicalsurvival.Ambio,23:106–111.Ticktin T.2004:Theecologicalimplicationsofharvest-ingnon-timber forestproducts. JournalofAppliedEcology41,1:11–21.Wilkie D.S.; Godoy R.A.1996:Trade,indigenousrainforesteconomiesandbiologicaldiversity.In:M.RuizPérez,J.E.M.Arnold,eds.Currentissuesinnon-timberforestproductsresearch.CIFOR,Bogor,pp.83–102.Wollenberg E.; Inglis A. (eds.)1998:Incomesfromtheforests.Methodsforthedevelopmentandconserva-tionofforestproductsforlocalcommunities.CIFOR–IUCN.Bogor.World Bank2003:WorldDevelopmentReport2004.MakingServicesWork forPoorPeople.TheWorldBank.WashingtonD.C.

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– Atthelocallevel,itincreasesruralemployment,es-peciallyforwomenandminorities.

– Itincreasestheawarenessofdecisionmakersanddonorsofthevalueofforestsproductsotherthantimberandthereforemayencouragethemtoreori-enttheirpoliciesandapproachesinawaythatinte-gratesbothtimberandNTFPs.

– Itprovidesmoreopportunities for regional tradewithinAfricaandbetweenAfrica,EuropeandNorthAmerica.

2. Socio-economic potential of NTFPs

NTFPs and poverty alleviationNTFPsareessentiallyanicheforthepoor(Arnold&RuizPérez1998).That is thereasonwhyanyeffortaimedatdevelopingthesectorwillbeveryimportantforpovertyreduction.AccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganisation(WHO2003),80%ofthepopulationinAfricauseNTFPsforprimaryhealthcareandNdoyeetal.(1999)estimatedthat70%oflocalcommunitiesuseseveralforestproductsforhealthpurposes.Thereasonsaregrowingpovertyandlackofopportunityinruralandurbanareas,whichpreventruraldwellersandpoorurbanhouseholdsfromaffordingthehighercostsofpharmaceuticalproducts.

Figure3comparesthecostsofmodernmedicinesandthecostsoftraditionalmedicinestocure,withcom-parableeffects,differentillnesses.Onthatbasis,rural

By Ousseynou Ndoye

1. Introduction

NTFPsareessentialforthelivelihoodofforestdepend-entpeopleandtheyhavesocial,culturalandspiritualimportance.Forexample,palmwinehasbeenusedforcenturiestoentertainsocialrelationships.Further-more,kolanutshaveveryimportantculturalvaluesinmanypartsofAfricaatweddingsandothertraditionalceremonies.ThecommercialissuesrelatedtoNTFPsanddiscussedherefocusprimarilyonmarketsandtheirroleintheprocessofexchangeandinassemblinganddistributing forestproducts inspace, timeandformthatisdesirabletoconsumers.

InAfrica,manyNTFPshavebeentradedforages.Sheabutterhasbeentradedsincethefourteenthcentury(Schreckenberg2004)whileAframomum spp.begantobetransportedtoEuropeasaspiceandcondimentintheearlymedievalperiod(Sunderlandetal.2004).

ThecommercialisationofNTFPsisimportantforsev-eralreasons:– Itenablesruraldwellersandpoorurbanhouseholds

todiversifytheirsourceofincomes,whichcontrib-utetotheirfoodsecurityandreducetheirlevelofpoverty.

– ItincreasestheeconomicvalueofNTFPstherebyincreasingtheawarenessandincentivesfor localcommunitiestoconservemanyforestproducts.

Commercial Issues Related to Non-Timber Forest Products3

Figure 3: Comparison of

costs of modern and traditional

medicine

cost to cure illness using western pharmaceuticals (CFAF)cost to cure illness using traditional medecine (CFAF)

Type of illness

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communitieswouldbemorerationalinusingtraditionalmedicinesthanusingmodernmedicinesbecausetheyarecheaper.

NTFPs and market examples from AfricaThemarketvalueofNTFPscanbeveryimportant.InCameroon, thecommercialvalueofRicinodendronheudelotiiinasinglemarket,New-Bell,Douala,wasestimatedatUS$248700in1998andUS$464235in1999(Ngono&Ndoye2004).TheannualvalueoftheAfricanplum(Dacryodes edulis)marketinCameroonwasestimatedatoverUS$7millionandexportstotheexpatriateAfricancommunity inEuropeandtheU.S.A.werevaluedatoverUS$2.2million(Awonoetal.2002b).ThetotalcommercialvalueofIrvingia spp.tradeintheyear2000intenmajormarketsintheforestzoneofCameroonstoodatoverUS$825000.

Regional trade remainsan importantaspectof theNTFPeconomyinCameroon.Forexample,thevalueofIrvingia spp.tradetoGabon,EquatorialGuinea,Ni-geriaandCentralAfricanRepublicwasestimatedatUS$260’000in1997(Ndoye&RuizPérez1999).ThesehighmarketvaluesarerepeatedinRioMuni,inEqua-torialGuinea,whereSunderlandetal.(1999)reportsthatIrvingia spp.kernelsaresoldmorewidelythananyotherNTFP.SalesofprocessedIrvingia spp.kernelstotheUnitedKingdom,America,andEuropearereport-ed,withabout100000potentialconsumersinthesemarkets(Lesley&Brown2001).

EuropeanandAmericanpharmaceuticalcompaniesareincreasinglyimportingNTFPsfromAfricafortheirchemicalpropertiesusefulfortheproductionoforgan-icmedicines.ExamplesincludePrunus africana, Paus-inystalia johimbe, Voacanga africana, Strophanthus gratus and Physostigma venenosum(Walter2001).In1999,thecommercialvaluesofPrunus africanaandPausinystalia johimbebarktotheeconomyofCam-eroonwereUS$700000andUS$600000respectively(CARPE2001).Forexample,Prunus africanaextract,usedforthetreatmentofbenignprostatehyperplasiainEuropeandAmerica,wasworthUS$200milliontopharmaceuticalcompaniesin1999(CARPEop. cit.).

Basedonapurelyillustrativeperunitweightcompari-son(i.e.notproduction), thepricesofsomelesser-knownNTFPsforlocalincomegenerationarecurrentlyhigherthanforcocoainCameroon(Ndoye&Tieguhong2004).AsillustratedinFigure4,theaveragepriceofakilogramofIrvingia spp.andRicinodendron heudelotiiweremorethan200%higherthantheaveragepriceofthesamequantityofcocoabeansbetween1996and2003.However,togobeyondsuchpriceobservations,i.e.toassessandcomparecocoa’seconomicpoten-tialwiththatofNTFPsforthesamesite,onewouldneedtotakeintoaccountothervariablessuchasunitareaproductionandtheiryearlyfluctuations,returnsonlabourinput,averageproductpriceandtheirfluc-tuations,etc.

Figure 4: Illustrative

comparison of the price per kg

of cocoa and other NTFPs

cocoaIrvingia spp,Ricinodendron heudelotii,

Year

CFA

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500

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16

NTFP markets and womenWomen are much involved in the NTFP gathering,processingandcommercialisation,which indicatesthatthepotentialisthereforNTFPrelatedactivitiestoempowerthemandraisetheirstatusinthehouseholdandinthecommunityatlarge.CIFORresearchhasshownthatwomenrepresentmorethan94%oftrad-ersoperatinginruralandurbanmarketsinCameroon(Ndoye et al. 1997). In Ghana, women coordinate85%ofthechew-sticktrade.InSouthAfrica,womencarryoutmorethan80%oftheharvestandtradeofumemezi(Cassipourea flanaganii)(Sunderlandetal.2004).

3. Economic failures

ThereareseveralshortcomingsthatarerelatedtothecommercialisationofNTFPs.Firstofall, thereisan increased pressure on the resource baseduetohigherdemandandunsustainableharvestingmeth-ods.AccordingtoNdoye&Tieguhong(2002),between1983–1985and1998,theaverageintensityofmonthlyharvestofPycnanthus angolensis,usedasacureforbreastcancer,rosetenfoldinandaroundMbalmayoForestReserveinCameroon;thatofDrypetes goss-weileri,usedascureforsexualimpotence,roseeight-fold.Over-harvestinghasledtosomespeciesbecom-ingscarcerandsuchscarcitytranslatesintoincreasingcostsoftreatingcommonailments.Theimplicationisthatthepoormaynolongergainaccesstomedicinalcuresasneedarises.

Manytreesexploitedbytimbercompanieshaveim-portantnon-timbervalues to localcommunities forsubsistence,incomeandhealthpurposes(Laird1999,Ndoye&Tieguhongop. cit.).61 % of the top timber species exported from Cameroon have non-tim-ber valuesandareusedbylocalcommunitiesandpoorurbanhouseholds (Ndoye&Tieguhong2004).Thusuncontrolledactivitiesoftimbercompaniesarelikelytodepletekeyforestresourcesandplacehighcostsonforest-dependentcommunities.

Anotherdifficultyisrelatedtotheroadcontrolsbypo-lice,gendarmesandmunicipalauthoritiesleadingtopaymentof“informaltaxes”orbribes.Forexample,accordingtoAwonoetal.(2002a),manyNTFPtrad-ersinCameroonarenotawareofthelevelsoftaxestheyneedtopaywhentransportingproductswithinandbetweencountries,leadingtowidespreadbriberyandcorruptionbothintheinteriorofthecountryandattheborders.Furthermore,CIFORresearchshowedthat“informal taxes” can represent up to 20 % of the traders’ gross revenue.Thiscreatesadisincen-

Box 3: Research and training for NTFP market development: women traders in Cameroon

In1996,CIFORstartedaresearchprogramonthemar-ketsofNTFPsintheHumidForestZoneofCameroon.1100traders,twenty-eightmarkets,selectedaccord-ingtotheirrolesinassemblinganddistributingNTFPs,wereincludedintheresearchprogramaswellasmar-ketsatthebordersbetweenCameroonandneighbour-ingcountries.In2000,CIFORstartedtrainingtradersusingtheinformationcollectedinthemarketsurveys.Thetrainingfocusedonthefollowingmodules:Market trends:Thismodulediscussesthetypesofmarkets(local,regional,nationalborders,international)aswellasthedifferentchannels(short,longdistanc-es)whereNTFPsflowfromproducerstoconsumers.Manytradersdonotrealizethattheycanincreasesig-nificantlythepricetheyreceivebysellingtheirNTFPsinmoredistantmarkets.Product specialization:Thismodulediscussestheadvantageanddisadvantageofbothspecializationanddiversification.Storage of forest products:ThelengthofstorageofNTFPsdependsontheperishabilityoftheNTFP,theavailabilityofadequatestoragefacilitiesandthespeedatwhichstocksarerotated.TheadvantagesofstoringNTFPsarehighlightedinthismodule(increasedprofit,reducedriskduetosupplyshortage).Availability of raw material:TradershavedifficultiesidentifyingtheareasthatsupplyNTFPs.TheobjectiveofthismoduleistoprovideinformationaboutvillagesandmarketsthataremajorsourcesofNTFPsupplytoguidethedecision-makingprocessoftraders.

In2003,CIFORassessedtheimpactofthetrainingpro-gramwith72traders(CIFOR2003).Accordingto81%ofthetraders,theinformationthatCIFORprovidedhadhelpedthemincreasetheirrevenuesbyanaverageof55%.Thisexperienceshowsthattargetedresearchcanprovideinformationthatcanbeusedtoimprovethemarketingstrategyandincomesoftraders.

17

tivefortraderswhoareobligedtotransferthesecostsintheformoflowerpricestofarmersandhigherpricestoconsumers.

4. Potential contribution of markets to poverty reduction in a sustainable way

NTFPmarketsareoftenthin,meaningthatasmallre-ductioninsupplyhasalargeeffectonquantitymarket-ed(Ndoyeetal.1999).Thischangestheassemblyanddistributionfunctionsofmarketsfromyeartoyear.Onewaytolimittheeffectofthinmarketsistoimprovethesupplythroughtechnologieslikeforinstancedomesti-cationmethods.DomesticationisexpectedtoraisetheproductivityofNTFPsfarhigherthanthatobtainedinnaturalforests.

Toachievewin-winoutcomes,i.e.toreconcileconser-vationanddevelopmentgoals,itwouldbenecessarytoworkwithruralcommunitiesbyinformingthemaboutthestatusoftheirresourcesandtheneedtomanagetheminasustainableway.Itisalsoimportanttoex-plaintocommunitiesthesustainablerateofharvestofdifferentNTFPs,theconsequencesofnotdefiningmanagementnormsandthetradeoffsbetweenprivategainsandsocialcostsofresourcedepletion.Com-munitieswouldthenbehelpedandtaughtalternativegatheringandharvestingmethodsthatwouldprovidemoresustainableoutcomes.

Improvingthemarketingstrategiesandincomesofru-raldwellersinvolvedinNTFPproductionandcommer-cialisationisanimportanttaskinlinewiththeMilleni-umDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).Thiscanbeachievedbystimulatingcosteffectivesmall-scaleforestbasedenterprisesthatwilluselabourintensivetechnologiesbasedonselectedNTFPs.Strategiesmay include:carryingoutfeasibilitystudiesonNTFPsbasedenter-prisesanddiscussingwithcommunitiesaboutvari-ousoptionsandtheirprofitability,traininglocalcom-munities(includingminoritiesandwomen)onhowtocommercialisetheirproductsbyassistingthemtotakeadvantageofsellingopportunitiesindistantmarkets,howtoanalyseandcapitalizeonmarkettrends,howtotakeadvantageofcommoditychainanalysisandhowtoemploystrategiessuchasverticalandhorizon-talintegration(e.g.cooperationwithothersmall-scaleentrepreneurs).

Manylocalinitiativesandinstitutionalarrangementsre-latedtoharvestingandmarketingingroupsorcooper-ativesshouldbepromotedtomakesurethe benefits from NTFPs are maximized and shared equitably for the prosperity and economic growth of com-

munities.Groupmarketingenablesruralproducerstointegrateseveralmarketingstrategiesandtocommandhigherpricesalongthecommoditychainifthequalityoftheproductisguaranteed.Furthermore,groupmar-ketingprovidestheopportunityforeconomiesofscaleintransportandforbetterbargainingpowertoobtainhigherproductsaleprices.

Moreinvestmentininfrastructureandprocessingtech-nologiesisneeded.Governmentsandtheprivatesec-torneedtoinvestanddevelopinfrastructuressuchasroadsandstoragefacilitiestoimproveaccessforruralproductionandtrade.ThiswilllowertransactioncostsandincreaseruralbenefitsfromproductionandtradeofNTFPs.

Securedpropertyrightsonlandandontheforestre-sourcesarekeyelementsthatwillstimulateruralcom-munities to invest in treeplantingandtoadopt im-provedtechnologiesrelatedtodomestication,harvest-ing,processing,andcommercialisation.Withouttheserights,itwillbeverydifficulttoachievebothlivelihoodimprovementsandresourceconservation.

5. Conclusion

NTFPsare important inthelivelihoodsofforestde-pendentpeopleandparticularlywomen,whoplayacrucialroleintheircollection,processingandtrade.AppropriatecommercialisationstrategiesofNTFPsin-creasetheopportunitiesforforestdwellers,increasetheireconomicvalueandprovideinformationthatwillraisetheawarenessofpolicymakersanddonorsoftheimportanceoftheseforestproductsandtheneedtoin-corporatetheminofficialstatisticsandpovertyreduc-tionprogrammes.Tomaximizethepotentialcontribu-tionofNTFPstolivelihoods,thereisaneedtoexplorelocal,national,regionalandinternationalmarkets.

Box 4: Group marketing

TheMapanjaPrunusHarvesters’UnionisinvolvedinharvestingandcommercialisationofPrunus africanaaroundMountCameroon.FarmersbelongingtotheUniongetmoredevelopment, conservationand fi-nancialbenefitscomparedtothosewhoareoutsidetheorganization(Tieguhongetal.2005).TheCenterforInternationalForestryResearch(CIFOR),theWorldAgroforestryCenter (ICRAF), theCentralAfricaRe-gionalProgrammefortheEnvironment(CARPE)andotherpartnersareworkingjointlyinsimilarexperiencesintheHumidForestZoneofCameroon.

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Therearemanychallengesthatneedtobedealtwithtoenable ruraldwellers to takemoreadvantageofNTFPdevelopment.Theseare,amongothers,provid-ingimprovedtechnologiestoincreasetheproductivityofNTFPs,helpingorganizelocalcommunitiesingroupmarketingandprovidingacost-effectivemarketinfor-mationsystem.Participatoryresearch,liketheexpe-riencethatCIFORdevelopedwithwomentradersinCameroon,needstobescaledupinotherprovincesofCameroonand inothercountriesofCentralandWestAfrica.ThecapacityoflocalNGOsshouldalsobedevelopedtoenabletheseinstitutionstoscaleupthisworkwithlocalcommunitiesandtradersinasus-tainableway.Finallygovernmentsandtheprivatesec-torhaveanimportantroletoplaybyreducingtransac-tioncosts(especiallyeliminatingtheunnecessaryroadcontrols)andimprovingroadandmarketinfrastructure(security,electrification,storage).

Women are not only involved

in harvesting but also in

trade, especially in Africa. In

Cameroon, they represent the

vast majority of NTFP traders

(Photo by Brian Belcher).

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References:

Awono A.; Ndoye O.; Schreckenberg K.; Tabuna H.; Isseri H.; and Temple L.2002a:Productionandmar-ketingofSafou(Dacryodesedulis)inCameroonandinternationally:Marketdevelopmentissues.Forests,TreesandLivelihoods12,1–2:pp.125–148.Awono A.; Lema Ngono D.; Ndoye O.; Tieguhong J.; Eyebe A.; Tonye Mahop M.2002b:Etudesurlacom-mercialisation de quatre produits forestiers non-ligneuxdanslaZoneForestièreHumideduCameroun:Gnetumspp.,Ricinodendronheudelotii,Irvingiaspp.,Prunusafricana.ReporttotheFAO,May2002.Arnold J.E.M.; Ruiz Pérez M.1998:Theroleofnon-tim-berforestproductsinconservationanddevelopment,inE.WollenbergandA.Ingles(eds)IncomesfromtheForest;methodsfortheDevelopmentandConserva-tionofForestProductsforLocalCommunitities,CenterforInternationalForestryResearch,Bogor,Indonesia,pp.17–42.CARPE (Central African Regional Program for the En-vironment)2001:Non-timberforestproducts:econom-icsandconservationpotential.CongoBasinInforma-tionSeries10.4p.CIFOR (Center for International Forestry Research) 2003:Scienceforforestsandpeople.CIFORannualreport2003.Bogor,72p.Laird S. 1999:Themanagementof forests for tim-berandnon-timberforestproductsinCentralAfrica.InNon-woodforestproductsofCentralAfrica.Cur-rentResearch IssuesandProspects forConserva-tionandDevelopment.Sunderland,T.C.H.,Clark,L.E.,Vantomme,P.(eds.).FAO,Rome,pp.51–60.Lesley A.; Brown N.2001:IrvingiagabonensisandIr-vingiawombolu:Astateofknowledgereportunder-takenforCARPE.OxfordForestryInstitute.UK.24p.Ndoye, O.;1995:Themarkets fornon-timber forestproductsintheHumidForestZoneofCameroonanditsborders:Structure,conduct,performanceandpol-icyimplications.UnpublishedCIFORReport.Bogor,Indonesia,86p.Ndoye O.; Ruiz Pérez M.; Eyebe A.1997:TheMarketsofNon-TimberForestProducts intheHumidForestZoneofCameroon.RuralDevelopmentForestryNet-work,NetworkPaper22c,ODI,London,22p.Ndoye O.; Ruiz Pérez M.; Eyebe A.1999:Non-woodforestproductsmarketsandpotentialforestresourcedegradationinCentralAfrica.In:T.C.H.Sunderland,L.E.Clark,P.Vantomme(eds.).CurrentResearchIs-suesandProspectsforConservation.FAO.Rome.pp.183–206.Ndoye O.; Tieguhong J.2002:Timberharvesting,non-timberforestproductsandrurallivelihoodsinCentralAfrica.ActesdelaquatrièmeCEFDHAC,Concilierlagestionsdesécosystèmesforestiersd’AfriqueCent-

raleetlaluttecontrelapauvreté,Kinshasa,10–13Juin,pp.117–126.Ndoye O.; Tieguhong J.C.2004:Forestresourcesandrurallivelihoods:TheconflictbetweentimberandNon-timberforestproductsintheCongoBasin.Scand.J.For.Res.19(Suppl.4):pp.36–44.Ngono L D.; Ndoye O. 2004: Njansang and bushmango:Cameroonianseedsinnationalandinterna-tionalmarkets.In:C.LopezandP.Shanley(eds).Rich-esoftheForests:Forhealthlifeandspirit inAfrica.pp.21–24.Schreckenberg K.2004:Thecontributionofsheabutter(VitellariaparadoxaC.F.Gaertner)tolocallivelihoodsinBenin.In:SunderlandT.,NdoyeO.(eds).ForestProd-ucts,LivelihoodsandConservation.CasestudiesofNon-TimberForestProductSystems.Volume2–Af-rica.Chapter6.pp.95–113.Sunderland T.C.H.; Clark L.E.; Vantomme P. (eds.)1999:CurrentResearchIssuesandProspectsforConserva-tion.FAO.Rome,pp.183–206.Sunderland T.C.H.; Harrison S.T.; Ndoye O.2004:Com-mercialisationofNon-timberforestproductsinAfrica:History,contextandprospects.In:SunderlandT.andNdoyeO.(eds.).ForestProducts,LivelihoodsandCon-servation.CasestudiesofNon-TimberForestProductSystems.Volume2–Africa,pp.1–24.Tieguhong J.; Ndoye O.; Joseph E.E.2005:Commu-nity-basedNTFPproductionandtradeforruralpovertyalleviationandresourceconservation:CaseofPrunusafricanaonMountCameroon,Cameroon.Paperpre-paredfortheInternationalconferenceonNTFPs,com-munityeconomicdevelopmentandforestconserva-tion,Victoria,Canada,25–27August.Walter S.2001:Non-woodforestproductsinAfrica:aregionalandnationaloverview.FAOworkingpaper.FOPW/01/1.303p.WHO2003:Traditionalmedicine.FactsheetNo134,revisedMay2003.http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/print.html

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kindofrelationslinkcollectorstousersortraders),andseewhicharethemainquestionsthatneedtobead-dressed.

2. NTFP collection: Who are the collectors?

Inmostforestareas,NTFPcollectorsarestillpeoplebelonging to local forest-dependent communities.Subsistenceproductsarecollectedbyvarioussocialcategories, including children, women and elders,whereasthecollectionofcommercialproductsisusu-allydominatedby youngmen.However,moreandmoreprofessionalcollectors fromoutsideenter theforestandcompetewithlocalcollectors.InIndonesiaforexample,theseoutsidersspecializeinthecollec-tionofhighvalueproductssuchaseaglewoodandbirdsnests(Mombergetal.2000).Professionalcollec-torsfromoutsidedeliberatelyignorelocalrulesregard-ingaccess,benefitsharing,orresourcemanagement.Theycollectasmuchastheycanintheshortesttimepossible,averydamagingstrategyfortheresource.Theseoutsidersalsospecializeinthecollectionofnewproductsforemergingmarkets(medicinalplants,or-namentalfishandbirds,forestpets),whichlocalpeo-pleusuallyignore(Michon2005).Theyapplya“har-vest-exhaust-move”strategy.Whenlocalpeopleun-derstandthepotentialbenefitsoftheharvestofsuchproducts,theresourceisalreadydeclining,andlocalbenefitsaremeager.

Policiesaimedatreducingthisunbalancedcompeti-tionbetweenlocalsandoutsidershavetoconsiderthedifferenceinboththelogicandthepracticeofforestproductcollectionbythetwomaincategoriesinvolved.Theseissuesconcerninthefirstplacethetheoryandpracticeofaccessrightstoforestresources.Incoun-trieswithastrongcentralizationofpowerandadminis-tration,accesstoforestlandsandresourcesishighlyrestrictedandtotallyignoreslocalcustomarysystems(Fox1993,Lynch&Talbott1995).Thegrantingofcol-lectionrightsoccursthroughtemporarypermits,orthroughstructuredconcessionaryorauctionsystems,whichtargetoutsidecapitalholdersmorethanlocalpeople.Localpeoplearethereforeconsideredas“il-legal”collectorsontheirowncustomarylandsandforresourcestheymanageundercustomaryrules.Thisunbalancedtreatmentoflocalversusoutsidesystemsisexperiencedbylocalpeopleasanabuseofpower.Besides,thede factosituationofopenaccesswhichaffectsmanyforestlandsinthetropicsincreasescon-flictsbetweenlocalsandoutsidersandfavoursunsus-tainablecollectionpractices,andmaintainslowpricesandthereforelowreturnsforcollectors.Communityforestmanagementsystems, jointmanagementbe-

By Geneviève Michon

1. Introduction

Forcenturies,peopleofthetropicalrainforesthavebeencollectingNTFPseitherfortheirsubsistenceorinexchangeformanufacturedproductsandmoney.AnimportantquestionforscienceanddevelopmentistoassesshowfarNTFPspresentlydo,orcould,at lo-callevel,helpalleviatepovertyandimprovethewelfareandlivelihoodsofforest-dependentcommunities.Inmanypartsoftheworld,subsistencegatheringisstillimportant.Hunting,fishingandplantgatheringprovideanimportantpartofthedietandhealthsystemofru-ralpeople,andanessentialpartofplantmaterialforhouseholduse.NTFPcollectionfortrade(“extractiv-ism”)hasbeenproposedasapromisingstrategyforpovertyalleviationinforestareas.Buthowfardoesre-alityprovidesubstantiatingevidenceforthispremise?If“extractivism”–anoldpracticeinthetropicalworld–hasindeedoftengivenrisetothefortunesandsocialupgradingofforestproducttraders,theroleofNTFPsinthesuccessofeconomicorsocialstrategiesoflocalcollectorsislessobvious.

Partoftheexplanationforthissituationislinkedtotheevolutionoftheindustrialandeconomiccontext.SincetheSecondWorldWar,manycommercialNTFPshavelosttheireconomicimportance.Somemarketspersisttodayfornicheproducts,andacollectionofnaturalchemicalsforpharmaceuticalorinsecticideindustriesisemergingasapromisingdomain.Theevolutionoftheglobalcontextisitselflinkedtomacro-economicpoliciesadoptedatnationalandinternationallevels.Butthisevolutionisonlypartoftheanswer.NTFPs,bydefinition,belongtotheforestrysector,whichis,historically,ahighlyregulatedsector(seeforexampleacriticalreviewinFay&Michon2005).Forestpoliciesandregulationsdoaffectthesocialandeconomicsuc-cessofNTFPmanagementatlocalandnationallevel.Theydefinewhohasaccesstowhichkindofresourcesandinwhichkindofforests.Theydeterminehowben-efitsofforestmanagement,collectionandtradearesharedamongstakeholders.Forestpoliciesandregu-lationsarethereforeessentialinthedeterminationofthesocialandeconomicattributesofforestmanage-ment,includingNTFPcollectionanduse.HowfardothesepolicieshelpNTFPmanagementtobenefitlocalpeople?Howcansituationsbechanged?Toanswerthesequestions,itisimportanttoconsiderthebasicstructuresofNTFPeconomicsatlarge,andtodiscusshowthesestructuresareimpactedorevendeterminedbyforest–andnon-forest–policies.Wewilldiscussherethesestructures(whoaretheprimarycollectors,wheredotheycollect,forwhichtypeofmarkets,which

NTFP Development and Poverty Alleviation: Is the Policy Context Favourable? 4

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numeroussystemsofdebtcreationlinkingcollectorsandmiddlemen,concessionairesorpatrons,withthe“aviamento”oftheBrazilian“extractivism”astheclas-siccasestudy:Aubertin1996)withpatronsdrawingthelargestshareoftheeconomicbenefitandredis-tributingonlysomesocialbenefit.Othersystemsareeconomicallyunsatisfactorybutarebasedonsatis-factorysocialcomplementarities,asdemonstratedinacasestudyconcerningbenzoin1collectioninNorthSumatra,wheretheapparent“exploitation”ofcollec-torsbyvillagetraders,showninthelowpricesgivenbythelattertotheformer,isbothexplainedandbalancedbythesocialattributeslinkingbothcategories(Katzetal.2002).Othersystemsappeartobeverymuchbal-ancedintermsofeconomicandsocialbenefitsharing,asdemonstratedinthecaseofdamar2collectioninthesouthofSumatra:consideringinputs–labor,invest-mentandrisk–andoutputs–grossandnetbenefits,collectorsreceiveanadvantageousshareoftheaddedvaluegeneratedbythecollection,handling,sortingandtrade(Michon&al.2001).

Policyissuesheremainlyconcernaccesstocapitalforlocalcollectors,whichisakeypoint.Facilitatingsys-temsofmicro-creditcouldhelpalleviatethechronicspiralofpovertyoflocalcollectorsandrelievethemfromtheirexclusiverelationtotheirpatrons,oratleastincreasetheirbargainingpower.

4. NTFP collection: In which “forest” does the collection take place?

ThevisionofNTFPcollectiontakingplaceonlyinun-touched,primaryforestsissomewhatmisleading.For-estextractionconcernsallkindsof lands, including“primary”and“secondary”forests,butalsowhatisclassifiedasagriculturallands.Alargepartofforestcollectionisusuallycarriedoutinwhatwehavecalled“domesticforests”(Michonop. cit.):forestedareasthatbeartreeswhichhavebeenplantedandforeststhathavebeenestablishedandappropriatedbylocalfarm-ers.Domesticforestsincludemanaged“natural”forestaswellasforestfieldsandfallowlands,andinclude“agroforests”,whicharemixedstandsoftreescultivat-edforcommercialpurposes–oftenNTFPproduction.InIndonesia,domesticforestsprovide95%ofthelocal

In this case from Indonesia, the harvester takes advantage of a tree

that his ancestor planted in 1927. Family networks are of crucial

importance with regard to access to resources (Photo by Christian

Küchli).

tweenforestersandlocalcommunities,arewelltriedanddocumentedsolutionsto integrate localpeopleinthemanagementofandbenefitsfromforestlands.However,balancedsystems,betweenlocalpeople,le-gitimateoutsiders,concessionairesandnationalau-thorities,mustbesoughtaftermoresystematically.

3. NTFP collection: Who are the actual beneficiaries of collection and trade?

NTFPcollectorsharvest forestproductsforvariousdestinations: localdirectconsumptionorhome in-dustry,localtraders,regionalindustries,middlemeninvolvedinlargetradechains–oftenforexportmar-kets–orofficialconcessionaires.Thisvarietyofdesti-nationsmakesitdifficulttodrawgeneralconclusionsaboutthemodesofbenefitdistributionbetweenthedifferent parties involved. In addition, conclusionsabouteconomicbenefitsharingmustbeconfrontedwith the issueof thedistributionofsocialbenefits.Somelocalandstill“traditional”collectionorganiza-tionalsetupsremainveryunbalanced(forexamplethe

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5. NTFP collection: For which markets?

NTFPsarecollectedforagreatvarietyofmarkettypes.Local,small-scalemarketsareconcernedwithprod-ucts fordirectconsumption– fruits,fishandmeat,vegetableandspices–orhomeindustries.Regionalornationalmarketsinclude“traditional”markets,andemergingurbanmarkets.“Traditional”marketsarenotuniform.Likelocalmarkets,theymaydirectlysellfor-estproductstourbanconsumers:freshorprocessedfruits,medicinalplants.Manyof thesemarketsaregrowinginimportanceasurbancentersandtheurbandemandforforestproductsarethemselvesgrowing:(agoodexampleistheincreasingimportanceofthenu-merousAmazonianpalmberriesandjuicessoldontheBelemmarketinBrazil(Muñiz-Miritetal.1995),orthegrowingbushmeatmarketsinthelargecitiesofcentralAfrica(Bahuchetetal.2001).Nationalmarketsalsotar-getindustries:medicinalplantsforAyurvedicmedicinefactoriesinIndia,rattancanesforfurnitureindustriesorbenzoinforcigarettefactoriesinIndonesiaforex-ample.Emergingurbanmarketsconcern“new”prod-ucts:forexampleforestpets–turtles,snakes,babymonkeysandcivets–andsingingorornamentalbirds,ortreefernsfororchidgrowinginIndonesia.Interna-tionalmarketsselleithertraditionalproductsinnichemarkets–dragons’bloodforlacquerwork,exportedfromtheforestsofSumatratoChinesefactories,rhinohornexportedfromAfricaandIndonesiatotraditionalmedicinefactoriesinChina,rawmaterialforlargein-dustries–rubberandotherlatex,resins,gums–,ornewproductsforemergingmarkets:plantmetabolitesforpharmaceuticalindustries,genesforlifeindustries.

NTFPcollectionforlocalmarketshasprovenrelativelysustainable,thoughnotprovidingimportantbenefitsatlocallevel.Thehistoryofforestproductscollectionandtradeforlargenationalorinternationalmarketshasshownhighinstability, linkedtogreatfluctuationsinforestproductdemandbyindustries.Thishasentailedopportunisticcollectionstrategies,wherecollectorsswitchfromoneproducttoanother(seeforexampleforBorneo:Sellato2001).

Thevalueaddedalongthetradechainscanbequitesubstantialforproductslikemedicinalplants,butre-mainslowforotherslikegums.Thepercentageofthetotalvaluecapturedatlocallevelisalsohighlyvariable.Thelackofbargainingpowerofthecollectorsfacingorganizedtradersandfluctuatinginternationalmarketsisfrequentandresultsinaloweconomicprofitabilityofthecollectionactivityitself.However,thecommonassumptionthatlocalcollectorsortradersare“exploit-ed”bymiddlemenisnotnecessarilytrue,andpoliciesaimedatreformingexistingtradechainsmustbede-

fruitsmarketedinthecountry,around80%oftheDip-terocarpresinstradedinandoutsidethecountry,forasignificantpartofthenationalrattanandbamboomar-ket,animmensepartofthefirewoodusedinthecoun-try,andthemajorityofsuchitemsasmedicinalplantsandhandicraftrawmaterials.Moreover,theyensuretheself-sufficiencyofmostruralhouseholdsincom-plementaryfoods,fuelwoodaswellaslightandheavyconstructionmaterial(Michon&deForesta1999).

Theuseofdomesticforestsisgovernedbyspecificrulesandobligations,whichoftenentersinconflictwithnational forestrypolicyand regulatory frameworks.Currently, theseframeworksapplytoareasthataredesignatedbylawasforestsanddefinedasrequiringspecialmanagement,whichimplieshighlyrestricteduseandmanagement.Theyaretotallycounterproduc-tivetoNTFPmanagementindomesticforests(Fay&Michonop. cit.)astheydonotaccommodatethespe-cificityof these forests,andthereforeoften leadtotheirdestruction,andtothelossofagreatpotentialforNTFPproduction.Forexample,theexportrestric-tionforrawrattaninIndonesia,thatoccurredinthelate80s,andwhichwasofficiallydesignedforthepro-tectionofthenaturalrattanstands,hasresultedinthetotalcollapseofcultivatedrattanforestsinKalimantan(Fried2000).Thispolicyhadbeenformulatedontheassumptionthat,giventhequantitiesexported,har-vestinglevelswereundoubtedlytotallyunsustainable.Ithadnottakenintoaccountthatmostoftheexportedrattancamefromplantedforestsownedandmanagedbylocalcommunities.InIndonesia,policiesconcern-ingsandalwoodcollectionontheislandofTimorweresorepressivethatlocalpeoplestarteduprootingsan-dalwoodwhichhadregeneratednaturallyontheirland(Michonop. cit.).

NTFPpoliciesshouldthereforepayparticularatten-tiontoallkindsoflocalinitiativesforNTFPintensifiedmanagementandcultivation.Theyshouldparticularlyconsidertherelevanceandlegitimacyofmanagementrulesunderlyingcultivation,including:– Accessandpropertyrules,includingablendofindi-

vidualandcollectiverightsandobligations,includ-ingrulesconcerninglands,butalsoonspecificpor-tionsofspace,orontreesorotherresources.

– Customarymanagementrulesandpractices.– Localeconomic,butalsosocialattributesofculti-

vated forests: role in livelihoodstrategies, role insocialcohesionand/orstratificationoffamiliesandvillagecommunities.

Thisimpliestheacknowledgementoflocalmanage-mentasaspecificdomainofproductiveactivity,inde-pendentofthelegaldomaininwhichittakesplace.

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velopedverycarefully(Michonop. cit.).InIndonesiaforexample,thereplacementof“traditional”clovetraderswho,supposedly,wereexploitinglocalcollectorsbygovernment-controlledentitieshasresultedinaseri-ousdropinprices,whiledeprivinglocalpeoplefromthesocialadvantagesoftheformerorganization.

Policiestargetingbettervalorizationatlocallevelaremorepromising.Throughadministrativeand finan-cialsupporttheycanhelpthedevelopmentof localprocessing,whichisagoodwayofaddingvaluetonaturalproducts.Policiestargetingtheremunerationofpropertyrights(propertyrightsontheresourceorintellectualpropertyrightsonrelatedknowledge)arestillweakasthe legalandfinancialmechanismsin-volvedifficultprocedures(Vivien2002).Certificationsystemsarecertainlypromisingasgreenlabels,fairtradeandappellationsoforigin constitutealterna-tivemechanismsforaddingvalueatlocallevel;theseshouldbemoresystematicallyexploredandsupportedbynationalandinternationalpolicies(Cormier-Salemetal.2005).

6. The numerous levels of regulations and rules for NTFP collection, use and trade

NTFPcollection,useandtradeareregulatedatdiffer-entlevels,whichincludelocal,nationalandinterna-tionallevels.

1. Regulations at local level: are they compatible with national policies?

ThefirstlevelforNTFPregulationconcernscustomaryrightsandinstitutions.Eventhoughthesesystemsare,byessence,quitevariablefromoneplacetoanother,theyshowgeneralcharacteristics:

What looks like a natural forest is in fact a Shorea agroforest

which, in addition to producing resin and other products,

contributes to maintaining key forest environmental services

(Photo by Christian Küchli).

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cludingconcessionaryrights,harvestingrestrictionsandmarketregulations.ThesenormsmostoftendonottakeintoaccounttheactualsituationandpracticeofNTFPcollectionanduseatlocallevel.Asaresult,thepracticesitdefinesareoftenincompatibleand/orincompetitionwiththeactualcollectionandmanagementbylocalpeople,whichresultsinreductionorrestric-tionofpotential income,overharvestingorresourcedestruction.Inaddition,NTFPregulationsaffectprod-uctsirrespectiveofthemanagementsysteminwhichtheyoccur,makingharvestingillegalevenfromculti-vatedresources,therebyclearlycreatingdisincentivesforNTFPcultivation(Michonop. cit.).

Atnationallevel,itisurgenttosetcriteriafordetermin-ingwhatforestlands/productsneedtoberegulatedandhow.Thisimpliesre-examiningwhichforestlandsdonotrequirestateregulation,speciallywithrespecttoEXISTINGlocalmanagementsystems,andthere-movalofforestry-relatedpoliciesandrestrictionsinar-easwheresuchrestrictionsarenotwarranted.

3. International policies and regulations affecting NTFP management

InternationalpoliciesandregulationsaffectingNTFPmanagementincludeinternationalmarketregulations(international tradeconventionsandrules,propertyrights,labelingsystems)orrelatetointernationalcon-ventionsrelatedtoconservationandbiodiversity(Con-ventiononBiologicalDiversity-art.8J-,CITES).

PoliciesrelatedtoNTFPinternationaltradearemarkedbyastronglackoftransparency(concerningnomen-clatures,productquality,tradechains),whichentailsdifficultiestoimproveeconomicefficiencyandben-efitdistribution.Thesepoliciesaretailoredforprod-uctsotherthanNTFPs,othertypesofactorsthanlocalforest-dependentcommunities,andtoothertypesoflogicthanmodernmarketlogic.MostofthemareNOTadaptedforforestproducts,actorsandlogic,andhavemorenegativethanpositiveeffectsonlocallivelihoodconditions.

Regulationsevolved from internationalconventionsmayonthecontraryprovideopportunities for localcommunitiestobenefitfromNTFPmanagementanduseataninternationalscale,butpracticallimitations(preciseknowledgeonopportunities,abilitytoargueforforest-dependentcommunitiesatinternationallev-el)arenumerous.

– Theydonotemphasizeuniformrights,butbundlesofspecificrightstailoredaccordingtoresources,users,oruses.

– TheyinvolverightsANDobligations.– They are quite flexible and adaptive, and easily

evolveasthecontextortheneedschange.– Theyarerecognizedandacknowledgedbyallpeo-

pleconcernedinthecommunity.– Theyareusuallynotunderstood/recognizedbyna-

tionalconstitutions/legislations.Itisimportanttostatethattheselocalregulationsys-temsdonotnecessarilytargetorguaranteesustaina-bility,unlessthereisafeelingofthreatonthepossibili-tiestocontinuetheeconomicactivity.However,sus-tainabilitymaycomeasasideeffectofgivenaccesssystemsormanagementpractices.Theselocalregula-tionsystemsdonotnecessarilyguaranteeanequitablesharingofeconomicbenefitsatthecommunitylevel.Evenifthesocialbenefitsoradvantagesaresatisfacto-ryforallthevarioussegmentsofthecommunity,manylocalregulationssystemsareaimedatstrengtheningthesocialandpoliticalpositionofcommunityelites,andnottodistributetheincomederivedbyforestman-agementtoallmembersinthecommunity.

Themainproblemsarisewhennationalforestregula-tionsystemsignorethesecustomarysystems.Con-flictsbetweennationallawsandlocalsystemsentail,amongothers,unsustainablemanagementorminingofforestresources,abuseofpowerandgrabbingofeconomicbenefitsby localelites,andsocialdisin-tegration. Therefore, policies targeting sustainableNTFPmanagementhavetoassesstherelevanceoflo-calmanagementsystems,andtofindtheoreticalandpracticalwaystoaccommodatelocalrightsinnationalsystems.

2. Regulations at national level

NationalpublicpoliciestargetingNTFPmanagementarecloselyrelatedtothenationalforestrypolicyframe-work.InSoutheastAsiaandinAfricaandtoalesserextentinLatinAmerica,theseframeworksinstituteaparticular“forestdomain”,distinctfromtheagrariandomain,administeredbytheState(inextremesitua-tionsasinIndonesia,localforestpeopleareconsid-eredassquattersonpublic forest lands:Fayetal.2000,Santosa2002).Theydonotrecognizethelegiti-macyoflocalforestmanagementonforestlandsandtheStatedesignates the legitimatemanagers (gen-erallytheStateitselfsecondedbyprofessionalsandcontractedagents).

Forestry frameworksregulateNTFPcollection,use,tradeandprocessingthroughestablishednormsin-

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4. The accumulation of rights and regulations

Ineachsinglelocation,NTFPmanagementisaffectedsimultaneouslybylocal,nationalandinternationalreg-ulations.Observationsshowthattheseregulationsareoftencontradictory,orincompatible,andthatthisac-cumulationistotallycounterproductive.Formoreben-efitstobeobtainedbylocalforest-dependentcommu-nities,itisurgenttore-examinetherelevanceofeachtypeofregulationandthecompatibilitybetweenthedifferentpolicies,lawsandregulationsatthedifferentlevels.

7. Conclusion

NTFPmanagementstrategiesarenotuniform:variouscategoriesofpeopleengageinmanagementforava-rietyofreasonsandinvariousways.Thesocialandeconomicbenefitsderivedfromthisactivityarealsohighlyvaried.

Ingeneral,NTFPmanagementremainsahighlyunpre-dictableoccupationforlocalforest-dependentcom-munities.Thisispartlyduetothehighlyfluctuatingandfleetingnatureoftheexternaldemandinforestprod-uctsasconveyedbyoutsidetraders.Uncertaintiesarealsointroducedbythefrequencyofabruptchangesinpolicies–orimplementationofpolicies–affectingNTFPs,suchasinIndonesiatheimpositionofconces-sionaryorauctionsystemsfortheexploitationofediblebirdsnests,orthecreationofauniquebuyingbodyasthebuyingsystemestablishedforrattaninthelate80s.Suchchangesmaydeeplyaffectpricespaidtoproducersandleadtothecollapseofthecollection,ashasbeenreportedforbirdsnests.

Farmersreacttothisdoubleuncertaintybymaximizingtheprofitabilityofextraction.Theconcernforimmedi-atesustainabilityisalwaysunderminedbythelackofsustainabilityinthemarketandpolicyenvironment.Inboomperiods,orintimesoffavourablepolicies,liketodaywithnewsystemslinkedtothedecentralizationofforestmanagementinmanytropicalcountries,theincentivesforharvestingasmuchaspossible– i.e.immediateprofit,competitionwithoutsiders,abuseofpowerfromexternalauthoritiesonlocalcollectors–areobviouslyhigherthanincentivesforsustainablemanagement.However,commercialNTFPmanage-ment,consideredasaneconomicactivitymadeofasuccessionofcollectingbooms,oftenappearstobequitesustainableandprofitableforforest-dependentcommunitiesoverlongperiodsoftime.ThemainthreattothefutureoflocalNTFPmanagement,andtothebenefitsforlocalcommunities,isinmanycasesnot

theintensityatwhichtheactivity iscarried-out,butthepresentforestconversiondynamicstonon-forestuseswhichdonotbenefitlocalpeople,andwhicharestronglydeterminedbyglobalnationalandinternation-alpolicies.

Inanypolicysupportprogramme,localNTFPmanage-mentshouldbeconsideredinaglobalenvironmentrelatinglocaldynamicstonational/internationalmar-ketandpolicytrendsinshort,mediumandlongterm.Today,thereisamarkedtendencytomineproductsinnaturalforests,andtointensifyNTFPmanagementthroughdomestication,cultivationandthecreationofstrongerpropertyregimes.Itisthereforemoreimpor-tantforpoliciestofosterthemaintenanceofadiverse“domesticforest”,controlledby localpracticesandacknowledgedrulesthatcanbeusedinaflexibleway,thantoedictpoliciesandregulationsaimedatthepro-tectionofspecificproducts.Thisisessentialsincethecomplementaritybetween“forest”and“agriculture”isstillessential inallruralareaswherefarmersdonothaveenoughcapacityfor incomeaccumulationandarestillquiteexposedtorisk.Maintainingpatchesofappropriatedforestsinfarmlands,inordertoretaintheforest/agriculturecomplementaritiesisthekeyforlive-lihoodimprovement,atleastuntilotherstrategiescanbeusedonfarmlands.This,again,concernspoliciesthatarenotstrictlyrestrictedto“forest”,butaddressesmoregloballyresourcemanagementandlanduse.

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servation.ZernerC.(ed.).ColumbiaUniversityPress,NewYork,pp.259–284.Muñiz-Mirit N.; Vamos R.; Hiraoka R.; Montagnini F.; Mendelson R.1995.Theeconomicvalueofmanag-ingtheaçaípalm(EuterpeoleraceaMart.)intheflood-plainsoftheAmazonestuary,Pará,Brazil.ForestEcol-ogyandManagement87:163–173.Santosa H.2002:ForestAreaRationalizationinIndo-nesia:AStudyontheForestResourceConditionsandPolicyReform.WorldAgroforesrtyCenter,Bogor,In-donesia.Sellato B.2001:Forest,resourcesandpeopleinBu-lungan.Elementsforahistoryofsettlement,trade,andsocialdynamicsinBorneo,1880–2000.Bogor,Indone-sia:CenterforInternationalForestryResearch.Vivien F.-D. (ed.),2002:Biodiversitéetappropriation:lesdroitsdepropriétéenquestion.Elsevier,NaturesSciencesSociétés,collectionEnvironnement,Paris,pp.87–113.

References:

Aubertin C.1996:HeursetmalheursdesressourcesnaturellesenAmazoniebrésilienne.CahiersdesSci-enceshumaines,32,1:29–50.Bahuchet S.; De Maret P.; Grenand F.; Grenand P. 2001:Desforêtsetdeshommes.Unregardsurlespeuplesdesforêtstropicales.Bruxelles:APFT-UniversitéLibredeBruxelles,Editionsdel’UniversitédeBruxelles.Cormier-Salem M.C.; Juhé-Beaulaton D.; Boutrais J.; Roussel B. (eds.)2005:PatrimoinesnaturelsauxSuds–Territoires,IdentitésetStratégieslocales.IRDEdi-tions,Paris.Fay C.; Sirait M.; Kusworo A.2000:GettingtheBound-ariesRight:Indonesia’sUrgentNeedtoRedefineitsForestsEstate.OccasionalPaperWorldAgroforestryCenter,Bogor,Indonesia.Fay C.; Michon G.2005:RedressingForestHegemony.WhereaForestryRegulatoryFrameworkisBestRe-placedbyanAgrarianOne.ForestandPeople,SpecialIssue“RuralLivelihoods,ForestsandBiodiversity”.Fox J. (ed)1993:LegalFrameworksforForestManage-mentinAsia,Honolulu,EastWestCenter.Fried S.G.2000:Tropicalforestsforever?Acontextu-alecologyofrattanagroforestrysystems.In:People,plantsandjustice.Thepoliticsofnatureconservation.ZernerC.(ed.).ColumbiaUniversityPress,NewYork,pp.204–233.Katz E.;GarcíaC.;GoloubinoffM.2002:SumatraBen-zoin(Styraxspp.).In:ShanleyP.,PierceA.,LairdS.A.,GuillenA. (eds.),TappingtheGreenMarket.Certifi-cationandManagementofNon-TimberForestProd-ucts.WWF/UNESCOPeopleandPlants/KewGardens,Earthscan,UnitedKingdom,pp.246–256.Lynch O.; Talbott K.1995:BalancingActs:Community-BasedForestManagementandNationalLawinAsiaandthePacificWashingtonDC.WorldResourcesIn-stitute.Michon G.2005:Domesticatingforests.Howfarmersmanageforestresources.Bogor,Indonesia.IRD-CI-FOR-ICRAF.170p.Michon G.; de Foresta H.1999:Agro-forests:Incorpo-ratingaforestvisioninagroforestry.In:Agroforestryandsustainableagroecosystems.BuckL.,FernandezE.,LassoieJ.AdvancesinAgroecologyVol.3.New-York.Michon G.; Foresta H. de; Kusworo A.; Levang P.2001:TheDamarAgro-ForestsofKrui, Indonesia:JusticeforForestFarmers.In:People,PlantsandJustice.ThePoliticsofNatureConservation.ZernerC.(ed.).Colum-biaUniversityPress,pp.159–203.Momberg F.; Puri R.; Jessup T.2000:Exploitationofgaharu,andforestconservationeffortsintheKayanMentarangNationalPark,EastKalimantan,Indonesia.In:People,plantsandjustice:thepoliticsofnaturecon-

1Benzoinisafragrantresin,traditionallycollectedintheforestsofSoutheastAsia,usedinIndonesiaincigaretteproduction,andex-portedtotheMiddleEastandEuropeforvariouspurposes:incensefactories,pharmaceuticalandperfumeindustries.2Damarisaresinexportedasarawmaterialforpaintandvarnishindustries.

27

By Ruedi Felber

ThiscontributiondescribestheexperiencesoftheEx-tensionandTrainingSupportProject3(ETSP)inNTFPpromotioninsomedistrictsofVietnam.ETSPiscon-tributingtopovertyalleviationinuplandareasthroughimprovedtrainingandextensionservicesinnaturalre-sourcemanagement.Itskeyapproachesatlocallevelareparticipatoryplanningandidentificationandpro-motionofpromisingbestpractices.

Vietnamisachievingsignificantprogressincombat-ingpoverty.However,povertyratesarestillveryhighamongstethnicminoritieswhorepresent15%ofthepopulationandwhoaremainlylivinginruraluplandareaswhereforestlandisdominant.Theforestisanimportantsourceofsustenanceforthelocalpopula-tion.NTFPsplayanimportantrole inthisregardbyprovidingfood,medicinesandconstructionmaterials,especiallyforethnicgroups.

FieldstudiesinitiatedbyETSP(Wetterwaldetal.2004)documentthatmosthouseholdscollectorcultivateNTFPsandmorethan100speciesareusedinacom-mune.TheseNTFPsareofmultiplepurposeandareusedeitherforhomeconsumptionorfortrading.Butassoonastherearehighmarketdemandsforhigh-valueNTFPssuchasbambooorrattan,theyareover-exploited.

However,therearelimitedincome-generatingoppor-tunities fromnaturalgrowingNTFPstosignificantlyincrease livelihoodopportunities.Hindering factorsarethelackofappropriatemanagementtechniques,uncleartenureanduserrightsituationandthecom-plexandfragmentedmarketsystemforNTFPs(manytradingactors,unstablesupply,lowvaluesandpricefluctuations).

Despite thedeprivedeconomicsituation, therearepromisinglocalinitiativessuchassmall-scaleNTFPprocessinginitiatives(broomandhatproduction),cul-tivationofwell-growingNTFPsinhomegardensandfieldsnear the villages (bambooshootproduction)andenrichmentplantationinnaturalforest(cinnamon)whichprovethepotentialtodevelopnichemarkets.

To fostersuchopportunities,anadaptedtoolkit forparticipatoryfieldmethodsisneededtoidentifypo-tentialNTFPsandadequatemanagementtechniquesandtoestablishefficientlinkstoprivatesectormarketactors.

ETSPhasbeenintensivelyadjustingandapplyingasetoftoolsessentialforNTFPpromotion:

– ParticipatoryfieldstudiestograspthepotentialandproblemsregardingtheroleofNTFPsintheliveli-hoodsystemoftheruralpoor.

– CommunedevelopmentplanningusingPRAtoolswithwhichneed-basedactivitiesareidentifiedandprioritised.

– RapidMarketAppraisalwithwhichvaluableNTFPsareidentified,theirmarketsystemsaredescribedandthebasisformarketinterventionsareprovided.

– ParticipatoryInnovationDevelopmentwhichreliesonthediverseknowledgeoffarmers,extensionistsandresearchers.WithPID,newtechnologiesandapproachesareidentifiedinexperimentsandprom-isingresultsarethenscaledupthroughextensionactivities.

InETSP’sexperience,communityforestry–basedonclarifiedlandtenureanduserrights–offersapromisingframeworktopromotethesustainableeconomicuseofNTFPsrespectingthecombinedgoalsofbenefitinglo-callow-incomeproducersandmaintainingecosystemservices.

Reference:

Wetterwald O.; Zingerli C.; Sorg J.-P.2004:Non-timberForestProducts inNamDongDistrict,CentralViet-nam:EcologicalandEconomicProspects.In:Schweiz.Z.Forstwes.155,2:pp.45–52.

NTFP Promotion in Vietnam: Practical Experiences of a Development Project5

Broom production by a women’s group of Nam Dong, Thua Thien

province (Photo by Ruedi Felber).

3ETSPisfinancedbytheSwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCo-operation(SDC)andimplementedbyHelvetas,SwissAssociationforInternationalCooperation.

28

Therefore,theeconomicimportanceofNTFPsforpoorhouseholdsvariesconsiderablybetweenyears, asshowninFigure5.

ThepotentialofNTFPstocontributetopovertyallevia-tioninthewalnut-fruitforestsandcriticalissuescanbesummarisedasfollowsusingthethreedimensionsof theWorldBank’spovertydefinition (WorldBank2001):

Opportunity– NTFPsfromthewalnut-fruitforestsandotherforests

inKyrgyzstanclearlyofferinterestingincomeoppor-tunitiestolocalhouseholds.

– Poor households have at least some access tocommerciallyvaluableNTFPs,inparticulartowal-nuts.

– There isapossibility togenerateaddedvaluebyprocessingNTFPsinlocalcommunities.

Security– Wideyieldfluctuationsofwalnutsandofsomeother

commerciallyinterestingNTFPslimittheroleofNT-FPsassafetynetsforthepoor.

– Itisthereforecriticallyimportantthatpoorhouse-holdsalsohaveaccesstoothersourcesofincomethanNTFPsinordertoincreasetheirlivelihoodse-curity.Infact,peopledependingsolelyonNTFPsmaybecometrappedinpoverty.

– Marketdemand forNTFPs is increasing,both intermsofthenumberofproductsrequestedaswell

By Kaspar Schmidt

The State owned walnut-fruit forests in SouthernKyrgyzstanprovideawiderangeofdifferentNTFPs,includingwalnuts,fuelwood,hay,rosehips,wildap-plesandplums,mushrooms,medicinalherbs,wildfood-plantsandberries.Someoftheseproducts,inparticularwalnuts,wildfruits,fuelwoodandhay,playasignificantroleinthelivelihoodsoflocalpeopleduringtheongoingdifficultprocessoftransitiontoamarketeconomy.Otherpotentiallymarketableproductsarecurrentlynotbeingused,mainlyduetolackingmarketdemandorverylowprices.Itisestimatedthatin2002about55%ofthepopulationintheregionofthesefor-estsand44%ofthepopulationnationwidelivedbelowthepovertyline(UN2003).

TheNTFPscollected in thewalnut-fruit forestsareusedtocoversubsistenceneedsandasasourceofincome.PoorhouseholdsgainmostoftheirNTFP-re-latedincomefromsellingwalnuts.Somealsomakemoneyfromrosehipsandwildapples,whereasonlyfewhouseholdssellotherNTFPs.TheyusetheincomegainedfromNTFPsprimarilytosatisfybasicneeds.Onlysomepoorhouseholdscanadditionallyinvestinothereconomicactivitiessuchaslivestockrearingandintotheirsocialnetwork(Schmidt2005).Agoodwalnutharvestallowsapoorfamilytosustainalivingforuptooneyear.However,walnutsarenotareliablesourceofrevenueasthereare,onaverage,onlytwotofourgoodwalnutharvestsperdecade(Müller&Sorg2001).

NTFPs and Poverty Alleviation in Kyrgyzstan: Potential and Critical Issues6

Figure 5: Relative importance

of different sources of income

and subsistence in 2002 (good

walnut harvest) and 2003

(hardly any walnuts) for poor

households; results of partici-

patory scoring exercises;

N 2002 = 30, N 2003 = 19.

livestock rearingtillage, horticulture,beekeepingNTFPsoff-farm activitiessocial benefits

Num

ber

of p

oint

s (Y

out

of 2

0) a

lloca

ted

to a

vaila

ble

sou

rces

of i

ncom

e

0

2002

5

10

15

20

2003

29

astheirtotalvolume.Thismighteventuallyreducethedependencyofpoorhouseholdsonwalnuts.

– However,accesstoagivenNTFPbecomesmorecompetitivewithitsincreasingcommercialisation.Underthesecircumstancesthepoorrisklosinguserrights,whilepowerfulhouseholdstendtoprofitex-cessively.

Empowerment – TheallocationofuserrightstoNTFPsisoftennon

transparentandtherearetendencies infavourofrich, influentialhouseholds.AdeliberatefocusonprovidingandguaranteeingaccesstoNTFPsforthepooristhereforerequiredtoachievepovertyallevia-tion(Fisheretal.2004).

– KyrgyzstanhasanationalpovertyreductionstrategytowhichtheStateForestServiceisalsocommit-ted.However,thishigh-levelpolicyhasnotyetbeentranslatedintoconcreteactionsfortheempower-mentofthepoorinthefield.Oneofthereasonsforthisisthatthereisstilllittleunderstandingoftheso-cialaspectsof“sustainableforestmanagement”.

Thus,itcanbeconcludedthatNTFPsinthewalnut-fruitforestscancontributetopovertyalleviationprovidedthattheinstitutionalarrangementsgoverningaccesstotheproductsarereformed.Thisconclusionapplies,toacertainextent,alsotoNTFPsfromothertypesofforestinKyrgyzstan.

References:

Fisher R. J.; Schmidt K.; Steenhof B.; Akenshaev N. 2004:Povertyandforestry.AcasestudyofKyrgyzstanwithreferencetoothercountriesinWestandCentralAsia.LSPWorkingPaper13.LivelihoodSupportPro-gramme(LSP),FAO,Rome.62p.http://www.fao.org/sd/dim_pe4/pe4_040907_en.htm(01/11/2005).Müller U.; Sorg J.-P.2001:GestionmultifonctionelledesforêtsdenoyerdusudduKyrgyzstan:tradition,problèmes actuels, perspectives. SchweizerischeZeitschriftfürForstwesen152,3:138–144.Schmidt K.2005:Knowledgeandstrategiesoflocalpeopleinforestmanagement.Aresearchprojectcon-tributingtothedevelopmentofparticipatoryapproach-estoforestmanagementinthewalnut-fruitforestsinKyrgyzstan.ProgressreportfortheResearchFellowPartnershipProgrammeforAgriculture,ForestryandEnvironment(ZILSDC).TheUniversityofReading,ETHZurich,20p.UN2003:CommonCountryAssessment.TheUNSys-temintheKyrgyzRepublic,Bishkek,70p.World Bank 2001: World Development Report2000/2001:AttackingPoverty.NewYork,OxfordUni-versityPress,335p.

A Kyrgyz farmer and his son

bringing walnuts from their

forest plot to the village (Photo

by Kaspar Schmidt).

30

population,thedevelopmentofthefoodindustryalsohastorelyonitsexportcapacityandpotential.Be-foreallvalueadditionpossibilitiesescapelocalpopu-lations,andparticularlywomen,itwouldmakesensetopromotelocalenterpriseswhichcouldincreaseem-ploymentandgeneraterevenueinawaywhichisso-ciallyequitable.

Thepotentialharvestinbothcountriesfromtheexist-ingtreeresourceisestimatedtobemorethandoublethatisactuallyharvested.Theaimoftheprojecttopro-motelocalprocessingofsheabutterintosecondaryproducts,andinparticularcosmeticcreamsandsoapforwhichthetechnologyiswellestablished,willen-ablereallocalneedstobeincreasinglysatisfiedwhilegeneratingadditionalincomeforwomen.

3. The constraints

3.1 Resource constraints and other production aspects of the shea butter tree

Thelateststudiesshowaworryingageinginthepopu-lationsofsheabuttertreesinthewholeregion,insuf-ficientregeneration,asignificantreductionintreeden-sity(duetocuttingandnaturaldeath)andanhighlevelofparasiticattackonthetrees.

3.2 Organisational and marketing constraints

Thequalityofsheabutterproducedwithtraditionaltechnologyvariessubstantially.Further, theextrac-tionrateisonly50%ofwhatcanbeachievedbymoremoderntechnologies.Hence,thelargemultinationalcompanies,mainlyinEuropeandJapan,whichdomi-natetheinternationalmarket,prefertoimportrawsheabutternutsforextraction,therebypreventingvaluead-ditionlocally.Ruralwomenselltheirprocessedbutterinlocalmarketsatrateswhichdonotsufficientlycom-pensatetheirarduouslabourinvestedintheharvestandprocessing.

4. Objectives and strategic orientation

Onthebasisofthecurrentstatusofthereflectionsofprojectpartnersandbeneficiaries,theobjectivesandstrategicorientationscanbedefinedasfollows:

Overall objective:throughtheestablishmentofin-dependentsheabutterproductchains,butagreeduponaccording tonegotiatedcommitmentswithinanetworkofdifferentprofessions,thecompetitive-nessoflocalactorsisstrengthened,thevalueofthe

By Jean-Marc Tendon, Mamadou Moustapha Diarra, François Picard, Cissé Djénéba Sow, Fogué Kouduahou & Amidou Ouattara

“LeKarité,l’orvertdesfemmesduBurkina”(acom-monsayinginBurkinaFaso)

1. Context and resource description

Thesheabuttertreeoccursinthesparsedrysavannahforestsofthesahelo-sudanesezoneofAfrica.Severalproductsofthetreehaveimportantuses,apartfromsheabutterwhichisextractedfromthenuts.Thefatcontentofthesheabutternutsrangesfrom40to55%,itsextractedbutteristraditionallyusedincookingand80%ofthepopulationofbothcountriesconsumesheabutter.Itisalsousedasafuel,forsoap,candlesandwaterproofing,andtheresiduesusedasanimalfeed.Itisusedindustriallyinthemanufactureofchocolate,lipstickandothercosmetics.

Itisinthecontextofwishingtoimprovesheabuttertreeproductionanditscontributiontorurallivelihoodsthroughvalueadditionlocally,thataprojecthasbeenestablished inBurkinaFasoandMalibytheCentreEcologiqueAlbertSchweizer(CEAS)andIntercoop-eration(IC).

2. Socio economic importance

Severalaspectsofthesocio-culturalenvironmentareanadvantageforsustainableharvestingofsheabutternuts,traditionalproductshavingstrongsymbolicandsocialvalueintheregion,andthenutsoftenbeingthetraditionalwayofsavinginvillageeconomies,particu-larlyforwomen.

Theharvestingandmarketchain,withitsnumerouslayers (village, local, regional,nationaland interna-tionalmarkets),remains“efficient”butdoesnotsuf-ficientlybenefitwomenwhoaretheactorsatthebaseofthemarketchain.TheannualturnoverofsheabuttermarketedinBurkinaFasocontributes10%oftheGDP(and25%oftheNTFPcontributiontoGDP).Itisoneofthemostprofitableproductsfortraders.ItisexportedtomostEUcountries,toAsiaandtotheUSA,whereitisusedinthefood,cosmeticsandpharmaceuticalindustries,aswellastoneighbouringSenegalandtheIvoryCoast.

Traditionallysheabutteractedasasavingcommod-ityforwomen.Duetothesmallmarketforhomecon-sumptionandthelowpurchasingcapacityofthelocal

Shea Butter Tree Products: “The Savings Account of Sahelian Women”7

31

treeanditsproductsispromotedandthespeciesisprotected.

Strategic orientations:– Protectionandregenerationoftheresource(trees

andagroforestrysystems);apartfromtechniquesenablingan improvement inthedomesticationofthespecies,agreedmanagementmechanismoftheagroforestrysystemneedtobepromotedatvillageandcommunitylevels.

– Qualitycontrolofcollectionandstorageofnutsandkernels.

– Optimisationofthesheabutterproductionprocessanditsconservation,promotionofmarketsforqual-itykernels.

– Promotionofsheabasedproductswithappropri-atetechnology,includingimprovementofthequalityandpackagingofderivedproductsandvalueaddi-tionofprocessingresidues.

– Strengtheningoftheorganisationalandfinancialca-pacityofthestakeholdersthroughthepromotionofdialogueamongsttheactorsoftheproductchain.

Participatory technology

development increases the

potential for local processing.

Here the example of the locally

developed shea butter churn

(Photo by Jean-Marc Tendon).

32

6. Conclusions and prospects

Traditional production system:Giventhelabori-ousnessofsheabutterrelatedwork,woulditnotbeappropriatetoundertakegendersensitisation,inordertofreethetimerequiredbywomenforqualityandvol-umeproduction?

Problems concerning local/national processing:Whatproductsforwhichconsumers?Analysisofthewholemarketchain;proceduresandconditions foraccesstointernationalmarkets.Whichtechnologyforcompetitiveproducts?

Value addition for by-products:Whatisthepoten-tialforcake,pulpandotherproductsfromthetree?

Quality norms – Fair trade – Organic label certifi-cation:Donationalandinternationalqualitynormsex-istforsheabutterproducts?Whodefinesthem?Whatarethecertificationprocedures?Docapacitiesexistatnationallevelfordoingso?In the cosmetics sector, many companies expresstheirinterestforfairtradesheabutter.Duetothelowvolumeavailableonthemarket,anditstotalabsenceforrefinedbutter,thesecompanieshavetopurchasethebutterfromfoodindustrymultinationals.Byget-tinginvolvedinfairtradeforcosmetics,therewouldbenocompetitionwiththesebigcompaniessincethepotentialmarketinvolvesonly1%oftheirrequiredvol-ume.Whatarethepossibilitiesforbenefitingwomen’sgroupsfromtheseopportunities?

Toenablewomentomaintaintheircrucialandtradi-tionalrole insheabuttercollectionandprocessing,technicalinnovationsneedtobeintroducedforvalueadditionforlocalandspecialised(organic,fairtrade)markets.Will theconditionsnecessary for organicproductlabellingallowforsufficientprofitabilityinthesheabuttermarketchain?

Charter of professionals of shea butter:Tobringwomen’sgroups intoa federationandtoguaranteethequalityofalltheproducts,acharterofsheabut-terprofessionalswillbeestablished,asrequestedbybeneficiariesgroups.Theproductlabel,whichshouldemergefromthisprocess,willguaranteehumaneworkconditionsandrespectfortheenvironment.

5. Activities – Progress to date

Training

TrainingandcapacitybuildinghavebeenundertakenbyCEASforover900womenfromBurkinaandMalionthreemajortopics:– Collectiontechniques,producttreatmentandbutter

extractioninbothworkshopsandthefield.– Soapmanufacturingtechniques.– Groupformationformanagement,marketingand

commercialisationofsheabutteranditsby-prod-ucts.Participatorystudiesconcerningneedsandconstraintsfortheestablishmentofanorganicprod-uctmarketchain.

Research and development

RandD inordertoreduce labourandenergycon-sumption,toimproveand/orensureproductquality,topromotemarketingandtoimprovethetreepopulationdensityandproductionpotentialhasalreadyproducedthefirstresults:– Technologies for improvedsoapproductionhave

beendeveloped.– Animprovedsheabutterchurnhasbeendeveloped

andoperateswithanextractionyieldof40to45%comparedtoamaximum27%yieldwithtraditionalmanualmethods.

– Establishmentofoperationalpremises inOuaga-dougouforRandDincosmetics.

– Technologyandnewproductdevelopment.– Concerningproductpromotionandmarketing,re-

searchhasbeenundertakenatseveraltradefairsbythegroupsinitiatedbytheproject,andseveralinternationalproductoutletshavebeenidentified.

– Theearlierstudiesindicatingreducedtreepopula-tionsandsheabutternutproductionhavebeencon-firmed,andabetterunderstandingisemergingofthefactorsresponsibleforthesereductions.Researchconductedundertheaegisoftheprojectshowthat,toovercomethesignificantdifficultiesinproductivetreepropagationinnurseriesduetothelongperiodbeforefruiting,graftingofmoreproductiveindividu-als ispromising.Mechanicalparasitecontrolhasalsobeenfoundtobefeasibleandpractical.

33

By Heini Conrad

Duetothemarketsuccessofmanycertifiedorganicandfair-tradeproductsindifferentcountries,therehasbeenagrowinginterestinrecentyearsincertificationandlabellingtobeexpandedtomoreproductsectors.Intheforestrysectoralso,adiscussionandexperi-mentstoassessthepossiblepositiveimpactandsus-tainabilityoftheuseofcertificationandeco-labellinghavestarted.

Mostoftheexistingcertificationandlabellingschemesfocusondifferentaspectsof sustainability in theirstandards.Itappearsthatfromtheintroducedschemesfocusingonecological,socialandeconomicissues,thefollowingmightbeofinterestfortheNTFPsector:– FSC(ForestStewardshipCouncil)fortheecological

practiceswithforestproductsincludingNTFPs.– IFOAM(InternationalFederationofOrganicAgricul-

tureMovements)withtheirguidelinesforwildhar-vestedproducts.

– FLO(Fair-tradeLabellingOrganizationInternation-al)withtheirsocio-economicapproachtorelevantproductsforsmallfarmers’communities.

InordertojudgethefeasibilityofNTFPcertification,someoftheminimalrequirementsvalidforallcertifica-tionschemesneedtobeconsidered:– Accountable and controllable standards ac-

cepted by the sector Thecomplexityofsocial,ecologicalandmarketing

issuesraisedbyNTFPsrequiresawideapproach;ontheotherhandthestandardsandguidelinesneedtohaveaclearfocus(andsimplemessage)andbeaspractical(andmeasurable)aspossibleandun-derstandabletoallactors.Otherwisethesystembe-comestoocomplicatedandtooexpensive.

– Minimal organisation of primary producers and transparent chain of custody

Certificationrequiresatrackingsystemtoensurethatproductsofferedcomefromcertifiedsourcesandarenotmixedwithnon-certifiedsourcesontheirwaytothemarket.Thisrequiresahighleveloforganization,especiallyattheprimarylevel,andtheorganisationofsmallholdersandtheircapac-itytokeepaminimaladministrativeinfrastructureiscritical.Also,allotheractorsinmarketingandtrans-formationalongthevaluechainoftheproductneedtoagreeontherequiredtransparencyofalltransac-tionsofcertifiedproductsandtokeeprecordsoftherequireddata.

– Third party inspection and clear monitoring procedures

Increasingly, companies claim to act in anenvi-ronmentallyandsociallyresponsibleway.Onlyin-

dependentthirdpartycertificationcanensureac-countabilityandalleviateconsumerconfusionandrewardcorrectmanagement.

– Credibility and markets Certificationisamarket-basedtool.Itisvaluableonly

incaseswheretradersandconsumersarereceptivetotheobjectivespromotedthroughalabel.Themainmarketopportunitiesarefoundincountrieswherethecredibilityofthelabelholderisessentialforthemarketacceptanceofanycertificationandfortheirimpactonimprovedmarketaccess.

– Volume Thesizeandscaleofanoperationdeterminetheac-

cesspossibilitytocertification.Alladdedcostsofcertificationshouldbecoveredthroughmarketpric-es.Thismeansthattraders,andattheendconsum-ers,willneedtopaymoreforacertifiedproductinordertomakecertificationeconomicallyviable.

NotmanyNTFPscanactuallyfulfiltheabovementionedrequirements.AlthoughthetotalmarketvalueforNT-FPsisestimatedinbillionsofdollars,acloserlookintotradechainsandmarketsrevealsamarketsubdividedintomanyproductsandinverydifferent,specializedandsmallmarkets.Thisdrasticallyreducestheop-portunitieswhichcertificationmaygivetoNTFPs.ThebestpotentialforNTFPsareawell-organizedproducerbackground,atransparentchainofcustody,aconsid-erablevolumeoftradeandamarketdemandlinkedtoawidelyrecognizedcertificationandlabel.Someproductsthatmighthavethesefeaturesare:Braziliannut,sheabutter,palmheart,chicleandsomemedicalplants.Thebest-knowncrediblelabelinEuropethatisrelatedtoNTFPsisundoubtedlytheFSClabel.

TheRainforestAlliance’sNTFPMarketingandMan-agementProject(Shanleyetal.2002)whichexploredthefeasibilityofNTFPcertificationaffirmsintheles-sonslearnedsofarthat:– Certification can help market value-added

products Itwasshownthatmarketpositionscanbeimproved

byincreasingvalue,andnotvolume,bytappingpre-miumpricesasaresultofcertification.

– Opportunities may lie within existing market and products

CertifiedNTFPs that reachsociallyandenviron-mentallyconsciousconsumersmayenjoyincreasedmarketaccessandmarketshares.

– Certification can appeal to certain niche mar-kets

ThesuccessfulmarketingofcertifiedNTFPsislikelytoidentifypossiblemarkets,companies,communi-tiesandconsumergroupswillingtopurchaseenvi-ronmentallyfriendlyandfairproducts.

Certification and Labelling: Opportunities for Non-Timber Forest Products8

34

Theselessonsunderlinetheneedtoidentifyandas-sessopportunitiesforcertificationofNTFPsfromthemarketside.Wheneverpossibleitshouldbethroughexistingcommercialdemandratherthanbytryingtobuildupnewmarkets.Itisaboutmatchinganincreas-ingconsumerawarenesswithproducerneeds;findingthetradepartnerswillingtoworkinaframeworkthatcangive,equallytoconsumersandproducers,guar-anteesforenvironmentallysoundandfairtrade.

Reference:

Shanley P.; Pierce A.R.; Laird S.A.; Guillén A.2002:Tappingthegreenmarket:certificationandmanage-mentofnon-timberforestproducts.Earthscanpubli-cations.London.

35

By Susann Reiner

Withonlyafewexceptions,internationalmarketsforNTFPsarenichemarkets.This,however,alsomatchesthecharacterofmostNTFPs,ashardlyanyofthemhavethepotentialtofeedintolargemarketswithoutthusthreateningsustainableresourcemanagement.

Thetradesectorsthatthe‘Regenwaldladen’(amajorprojectoftheRainforestInstituteinGermany)access-esconcerningNTFPsarealsocurrentlythemaintradesectorsforNTFPsingeneral.Theseare:(a)Thefairtradeandorganicmarkets,withthemain

requirementsofthesesectorsbeingthattheprod-uctsareproducedinasociallycorrectandenvi-ronmentallyfriendlywayandthattheymeetorganicstandards.IngeneralNTFPsshouldmeettheor-ganicstandardwithoutanyproblem,astheyareoftengrownwildor inasemi-domesticatedwaywithoutanytreatment.

(b)The‘eco’market,whichrequiresthatproductsareenvironmentallyfriendlyandfreefrompollutants.In thissector,NTFPscanprovidealternatives toconventionalproducts,suchaschildren’srainwearmadefromnaturalrubberimpregnatedfabricasasubstitutefortheoftenhighlycontaminatedcon-ventionalrainwear.Thissectorprovidesgoodop-portunitiesfortheinnovativedevelopmentofNTFPderivedproductsandforincreasedvalueaddition.

(c)The‘speciality’markets,whereproductsservespe-cialpurposesorapplicationssuchashealthfood,supplementsandwellnessproducts.

Thecharacteristic featuresof theabovementionedtradesectorsarethatinallcases:– Marketsarerelativelysmall,sotheymatchtheca-

pacityofthemorewidelyoccurringNTFPs.– Tradechainsareshort,thusenablingfairpricecal-

culationsforallpartiesinvolvedandalsofacilitatingcommunicationbetweentheconsumerandthepro-ducer.Thefeedbackcanthenspeedupimprove-mentandfurtherdevelopmentoftherelevantprod-uctsandproductionmethods.

ForsuccessfulinternationalmarketingofNTFPs,itisessential toprovidesubstantialgeneral informationontheproducts,productionprocessesandinsomecasesalsoonproducers,asunlikewithmostothertradedgoods,littletendstobeknownaboutNTFPsabovearegionallevel.Particularly,thefairtrademarketsectoralsorequiresgeneraltransparencyconcerningproductionandmarketingforthewholechainfromtheforesttotheconsumer.

Inordertoaccessinternationalmarkets,itisalsoes-sential for theproducers tohaveahigh levelofor-ganisationandclearaccessrights.Onlywhentheseconditionsaremet,long-termco-operationataninter-nationallevelispossible,ensuringalsothesustainedavailabilityoftherelevantNTFPs.

Inaddition,producersbenefitgreatlywhenNTFPsarelocallyprocessedforaddedvalue,asthisbringsawholerangeofadvantagestotheproducercommu-nity,e.g.higherearnings,concomitantlocalcapacitybuilding inprocessingtechniques,diversificationofoccupationswhichthenmightbringaboutagenuinedevelopmentincentivefromwithinthecommunityandbasedontheresourcesavailabletothecommunity,whichsupposedlyleadstohighervalueaddition.Suchgenuinelocaldevelopmentcanthenhelptosupportregionalidentitybuilding,andeventuallyalsoreducespressureontheforest.

International Marketing of NTFPs9

36

stockproductionsystemsaresustainable(e.g.thatsoilfertilitycanbemaintained).Insomecases,in-comesfromNTFPsmightbeusedforinvestinginunsustainableactivities(Ruiz Pérez this volume),butashighlightedforKyrgyzstan(Schmidt this volume),poorhouseholdsusetheNTFPderivedincomeforbasicneedsandonlyfewcaninvestinothereco-nomicactivitiessuchaslivestockrearingorintheirsocialnetwork.

Nevertheless,NTFPs’rolein“mitigatingpoverty”forthepoorestremainsvital.AccordingtotheWHO,80%ofthepopulationofdevelopingcountriesuseNTFPsforhealthandnutritionalneeds(Ndoye this volume,WHO2003).Accordingly,equitable ac-cess to forest resources by local people must be a priority for decision-makers and land-use planners.Unfortunately,existingpolicyframe-workssometimespreventthisessentialcontributionofNTFPs,especiallywheretheoverridingperceivedcommercialfunctionisthatoftimberandistheonlyonetakenintoaccountinnationalpolicies(Michon this volume).

NTFP markets in the “bigger picture”

NTFPmarketsareverydiverseandgenerallyspe-cialized.Theycanbeinternational“bigbusinesses”,forinstanceforsomemedicinalplants,ortheycanremainimportant locallyorregionally.Concern-ing the contribution of NTFPs to forest peo-ple’s livelihoods, the twin questions raised are “how much” and “who benefits”(Ruiz Pé-rez this volume).Forpovertyreduction,itmaybejudicioustosupporttheNTFPdependentpoortoimprovetheirpotentialforincreasingtheirearningssustainablythroughadequateinterventionsatthelevelofeasilyaccessiblelocal-regionalmarkets,betheyurbanorrural.

Evenifthechallengesforimprovingrevenuestolo-calpeoplefromNTFPswhichcouldbeorarealreadytradedinternationallyareveryconsiderable,some experiences to date indicate that the poten-tial benefits may be large.Forthosewhicharealreadytraded,thekeyissuesarelocalvaluead-ditionthroughincreasingprocessinglocally,andinlocalpeoplebeingabletobargainforbetterpricesinvariousways,includingbeingpro-activeinac-cessingdirectlythemarketshigherupthemarketchain.Forthosewhichclearlyhaveapotentialtobetradedinternationally,the range of issues which will have to be tackled over the years to ac-cess “globalised” markets can contribute to essential learningevenifthesearelimitedtofewproducts,limitedquantitiesoroftenunprocessedproducts.

By Jean-Laurent Pfund & Patrick Robinson

Theaimoftheworkshopwasto“clarifythepotentialroleofNon-TimberForestProductsinpovertyreduc-tionstrategies”.Theday’sevaluationbytheaudiencehighlightedtwotypesofparticipantsandcorrespond-inglydifferentdegreesofsatisfaction:some“high-lev-el”specialistswereslightlydisappointedbythelackof“newfindings”,whereasstudentsandgeneralistswereverypleasedwiththeinformationprovided,the“stateoftheart”.Basedonthespeakers’contributions,wetryheretosynthesizewhatwefeelarekeyelementsofthis“stateoftheart”,evenifitremainsveryriskytotrytogeneralizeinthedomainofNTFPs.

Thewidevarietyofspecies,harvestedplantparts,products,collectorsandcommunitycharacteristics,socio-culturalconditions,tradechaincharacteristics,and marketing situations in producer and destina-tioncountriesmakesitverydifficulttodrawgeneralconclusionsaboutNTFPs,especiallyonrecommen-dationsforequitablebenefitdistributionbetweenthedifferentpartiesinvolved.What the workshop has achieved is to help highlight a number of key issues around a number of important themes which must be considered carefully when em-barking on NTFP related development support.Onthebasisofthese,itshouldbeeasieratleasttoasktherightquestions,andframethemintheappropri-atethematiccontext,sothatappropriateinterventionscanbedevelopedtoconcretelytackletogetherpov-ertyreductionandbiodiversityandnaturalresourceconservation.NTFPsmaynotbethegeneralisedElDoradowhichsomepeoplehadhopedfor,butgivencertainconditionstheycanindeedmakeasubstantialandsustainabledifferencetothelivesofthepoor–iftherightinterventionsaredesignedsothattheydonotremaintheoftenunsustainableElDoradoofthefew.

NTFPs as safety nets

ThetraditionalandstillcrucialroleofNTFPsinruralandremoteareasistheirnumeroususesforsub-sistence purposes.Overandabovetheirregularuse,theyalsoactassafetynetsastheyprovideproductsandevenextra income helping to over-come bad yearsoreventsandtolimitunexpectedresourceshortages(Ruiz Pérez this volume).

Theconflictingaspectofthisrelianceisthatforestsprovideassetsusefulforthepoorestbutthat,in many cases, deforestation for agriculture or for livestock husbandry can be perceived as a more efficient way to reduce poverty–aslongasthepoorhavetitlesandcontrolovertheclearedforestlands,andthatthenewagricultureandlive-

NTFPs and Development: Elements of Synthesis10

37

Withregardtothelocationoftheprocessingactivi-ties,Germany,rankedthirdworldwideasanimport-erofmedicinalplantsandalsothirdasa(re)exporterofprocessedproducts(andwiththemostreliabledataonNTFPtradeamongstthebigtradernations),providesinterestinginsights:itimported849spe-ciesin1992fromthetemperateAsianregionalone(otherimportswereof343speciesfromAfrica,318fromTropicalAsiaand207fromSouthAmerica),butmostofwhichwereprocessedinGermany(Lange&Schippmann1997).This shows the potential there is for value addition locally.

Notonly themarkets,butalso thenatureof theproductsandtheirprocessinghavetobecarefullydifferentiated.Forinstance,value per unit weight of the raw product and processing charac-teristics are key determinantsinassessingthepotentialforaproducttobeeconomicallyviablefordifferentmarkets. Inaddition,thelocationwheretheharvestedproductcanbeprocessedandthe distancesoverwhichtheproducthastobetrans-portedwillinfluence its competitivenessanddeterminehowclosetotheproductionsiteithas

tobeprocessedtoremaincompetitive,andhowfaritcanbetradedbeyondlocalmarketsandrightthroughtointernationallevels.Finally,the“shelflife”oftheharvested,processedandmarketedcompo-nentsalsohastobeconsidered–amongstothercharacteristics–inanybusinessanalysis.

The“free”accesstothe“minor”productsandthesometimescorrespondinglyhighdemand(Europe-anandAmericanpharmaceuticalcompaniesarein-creasinglyimportingNTFPsfromAfrica,Ndoye this volume)haveinseveralcasesledtoopaque mar-ket chains and international trade.Theunder-lyingreasonsfornon-transparentmarketchainsareseveral:thebusinessadvantagesofkeepingtradeandproductprocessingsecrets,taxevasion,cam-

Orchids are often sold near humid forests by local dwellers. How

long will the resource last and sustain a trade to contribute to

people’s livelihoods is of course also a key question in the context

of poverty reduction (Photo by Brian Belcher).

38

processes.Conversely,wherewomenareinvolvedinNTFPharvestingbecausethereturnsaretoolowtoattractmen,orbecausetheyhavetakenoverwhatusedtobemen’sworkbutthesehaveoutmi-gratedforbetterearnings,their involvementwithNTFPsmaynothelpinanywaytocontributetotheireconomicandpoliticalemancipation.In the worst cases, women may even become excluded from their traditional role in NTFPsbecauserightsand/orbenefitsarecapturedbymenincaseofincreasinglyinterestingbenefits.

Inadditiontothespecificityofproductsandmar-kets(Ndoye, Michon this volume),thesocialcontextlogicallyaddssomecomplexitytotheunderstand-ingofNTFPs’productionandmarketing.In rap-idly expanding NTFP markets and for NTFPs which are “radically market-oriented”, the impact on equitable benefit sharing and pov-erty reduction is generally negativeandalsogenerallynegativebyreinforcingthepoors’lackofinfluenceonpoliticsandpolicydebate(Ruiz Pérez this volume).Marketinformationplaysacoreroleandoutsiders,whocontrolinformation,thereforedeveloprelativelymoreimportanceandpower.

Indecentralizedprocesseswithlowlocalaccounta-bilityandpoorgovernance,if NTFP production is domesticated, the landless/poor peoplewhotraditionallycollectedfromthewild(perhapsalongsustainableharvestingprinciples)have a strong risk of being excluded.

NTFP harvesting and resource conservation

Thesafetynetaswellastheincome-generationroleofNTFPsisknownfromseveralareasoftheworldtobeinjeopardyasNTFPresources,atleastforsome important species, are fast depleting(Chakrabarti&Varshneyop. cit.forIndia):theviciouscircleofincreasedpoverty,withreducedbargainingcapacitybycollectors,canleadtoanincreaseinunsustainableharvestingintensitiesascollectorsrequiretoharvestmoretoobtainthesameincome.Withtheloweredharvestingefficiency,duetothereducedresource,theincomeperunitamounthar-vestedisevenmorereduced.

Ingeneral,NTFPmanagementremainsahighlyun-predictableoccupationforlocalforest-dependentcommunities (Michon this volume).ForNTFPstobeharvestedsustainably,anumberofkeyfactorsneedtobecombined.Firstly,thecapacityforanyNTFPpopulationto withstand harvesting de-pends on the plant part which is harvested(e.g.bark,root,tuber,leaves,sap,fruits,flower),theharvestingintensity,frequencyandtiminginrelationtoannualphenologicaldevelopment,andtherefore

ouflagingtradeinprotectedspecies,etc.Thedif-ficultytomonitorandcontrolNTFPflowsandtradeincreaseswiththedegreeofprocessingofthesoldproduct.

NTFP markets and rural people’s strategies

Havinganalysedseveralcasestudies,CIFOR’sre-searchershavedistinguishedtwolivelihoodstrate-giesrelatedtoNTFPsbesides their “safety net” role: “mixed” and “specialized” strategies(Ruiz Pérez this volume).Thedifferencesbetweenthesetwostrategiesarecrucialintermsofhouse-holds’ livelihoodpotential andmayoccur in thesamelocationandforthesameproduct.ThemixedstrategyintegratesNTFPharvestingorproductioninitsoverallfarmingstrategy,whereasthespecializedstrategyisamaindriverofoverallhouseholdpro-ductionandearnings.Inthelattercase,investmentlevels(e.g.atproductionlevelsuchasdomestica-tionprocesses,inqualitycontrolandinmarketing)areusuallyconsiderablyhigherthaninthe“mixed”strategycategory.

Eveninexistingmarkets,oneoftherecurrentpov-erty-related issues remains:very low returns are usually obtained by producers/harvest-ers in comparison to those of intermediaries and trading specialists. Locally,benefitsaremuchhigherfor“rich”householdsandforskillfuloutsiders(Chakrabarti&Varshney2001forIndia,SmithOlsen&Helles1997forNepal).Thisinequi-tablebenefitsharingoftenincreasesinthecaseofspecies/productswhichareprotectedbylaw:forinstanceinNepal,whilebenefitsharesinnonre-strictedherbsareoverall11%,43%and12%forprimarycollectors,localtradersandexporttradersrespectively,for restricted speciesthebenefitsharingis7%,22%and52%respectivelyshow-ingclearlythatinthelattercaseit is the outside export traders which increase their benefit substantially to the detriment of local people(Karkietal.2003).Nevertheless,commercializa-tionofNTFPsenablesruraldwellersandpoorur-banhouseholdstodiversifytheirsourceofincome(Ndoye this volume).

NTFPs are often of particular importance to women, but the context can lead to radically different situations for them.Insituationswherewomenarethetraditionalharvesters/producersofNTFPsandsometimesof theirprocessedprod-ucts,thecaseinmuchofsub-SaharaAfricaandespeciallyforfoodandmedicinalproducts(Ndoye, Tendon et al. this volume),theymaybeabletousetheirskillsandknowledgetoimprovetheirstatusandincreasetheircontributiontodecision-making

39

onthespecies’reproductiveand/orregrowthca-pacity.Generally, local people have detailed knowledge of these aspects.Secondly,theac-tualharvestingintensity,frequencyandtimingmustbeaccordingtothespecies’capacitytoreproduce/regrow,andthisishighlydependentontheinterestandeffectivepossibilityoftheharvesterstorestrictharvestingintensitytolevelswhichdonothamperlongtermsustainability.Thirdly,theecologicalre-quirementsoftheNTFPspeciesneedtobeopti-mallymaintained,e.g.ifshadeisrequiredandthesurroundingforestisharvestedfortimber,thenirre-spectiveofthecarewhichlocalharvestersmaygivetoappropriateharvestingintensityoftheNTFP,thedeterioratingecologicalconditionswillnotallowthespeciestodeveloporreproduce.Foralltheseas-pects,traditionally developed harvesting rulesoftenexist.Thesehave to be respected and in-tegrated in any development of new regula-tory regimes.

Ifthereisaneed for developing NTFP resource specific inventories and monitoring schemes,oneshouldrememberthatforest inventorytech-

niqueshavebeendeveloped for timberandarelargelyirrelevantformostNTFPs.“Scientific”solu-tionsaretobefoundmoreincomplexplantecologymethodologieswhichhaveonlybeenappliedtofewNTFPsituationssofar,becauseoftheirveryhighcosttomeaningfulresultratio.Further,localpeopleneedtobeabletoapplytheinventoryandmoni-toringtechniquesifthesearetocontributetotheirdecisionsoverharvestingintensity.Localtraditionalharvestershaveoftendevelopedtheirownindica-torstoassessthesustainableharvestingpotentialofanNTFPpopulation,andanynewmethodologyshouldconsiderthesecarefullyandprobablycom-bine traditional knowledge and more modern scientific methods (Baker2001,NSCFP2001,Paudeletal.2002,Wong2000).

ExamplesofNTFPoverexploitationarenumerousandcorrespondtoclassicexamplesofnaturalre-sourcedepletion. Insomeforestareas,profes-sional collectors from outside deliberately ignore local rules and can apply the “harvest-exhaust-move” strategy(Michon this volumeandincreasinglythecasewithNTFPsinIndiaChakra-barti & Varshney op. cit.). The famous Kuznets’curveandmanyotherschematicdepletiontrendsinnaturalresourcemanagementhighlighttherisksofoverexploitationbyharvestingwildresourcesbe-foreinterestdevelopsininitiatingintensivemanage-ment.InthecaseofmanyNTFPs,theirdisappear-anceprovokeslesspublicresponseinternationallythanforfaunaortimberspecies.Atlocallevel,how-ever,andparticularlywithincreasedempowermentandthedevelopmentofcommunityforestmanage-ment,therearenumerousrecent examples of lo-cal people managing to prevent outside trad-ers and collectors from entering NTFP areas.

NTFPs and certification

CertificationschemeshavebeenmuchdebatedfortimberproductsbutdohavesomepositiveimpactsinEuropeanmarketsespeciallythroughlobbyingactivitiesofNGOssuchasWWFfortheFSClabel.Forthetimebeing,muchmoretimberiscertifiedindevelopedcountriesbecauseofthehigh trans-action costsandotherrequirementsinvolvedwithcertification.Insuchacontext,thesearchforsus-

Traditional knowledge should be the initial basis for designing sus-

tainable production schemes but it does not mean that scientific

research is not needed for some important species (shown here a

baobab) (Photo by Jean-Pierre Sorg).

40

estfortimberorforintensiveagricultureorlivestockdevelopmentmayleadtoafurtherinequitabledis-tributionofrightsinfavourofexternalandbetteroffinvestors,resultinginnegative impactsonforestsandonthelongtermsituationofthepoor,unless radical and pro-poor changes are introduced at policy level and effectively implemented.

Ultimately,accessandmanagement regulationsmustreconciletheoften“top-down”landdevelop-mentplanningwithlocalandsometimessophisti-catedcustomary rules.Thelatter“naturally”take into account the multifunctionality of forestswhereaslanduseplanningcanhavethetendencytoconsideronepriorityfunctionforonespaceunit.SeveralexamplesandMichon (this volume)demon-stratehoweverthattraditionallocalforestmanagersnormallytryto“domesticate”thewildproductionofsomeNTFPseitherinconjunctionwithotherforestactivitiesorwithotherfarmingactivities(agrofor-estry).

In thecaseof intensive domestication proc-esses,e.g.cultivationofaforestspeciesinagri-culturalfieldsoragroforestrysystems,many tech-nical, economic and social aspects should be known and considered before embarking on this option.Firstofall,theeffectonproductqualityofgrowingtheNTFPinadifferentecologi-calenvironmentmustbeassessed.Secondlytheremaybeproductqualityvariabilitywhichisdeter-minedbyinherentgeneticvariability intheNTFPwildpopulations.Insuchcases,itiscrucialtoen-surethattheappropriateselectionofplantingmate-rialismadeandforsomeNTFPproducts,suchasmedicinal,thiswouldrequiresubstantialresearch,althoughagainsometraditionalknowledgeexistsevenonthisaspect.Further,thetransitionfromwildharvestedtocultivatedproductsmayradicallyalterthebalanceofadvantages/disadvantagesbetweendifferentbeneficiariesofthemarkets.Whileland-lesspeoplemayhavetakenadvantageofthegrow-ingcommercialisationofaNTFP,theymaybecomethefirstvictimsofanintensivedomesticationproc-essusuallyledbysolidoutsideinvestors.Lange&Schippmannop. cit.recognisedthatformedicinalplants,itmaynotyetbeeconomicallyviabletocul-tivatethemajorityofthespecies.Interestingly,Ger-mandrugtraders’knowledgeonthepercentageoftheirimportedproductsoriginatingfromcultivationandfromthewildvariedfrom“80%fromcultiva-tion”to“90%fromthewild”,thereasonbeingthattheydonotknowtheprovenanceofthepurchaseddrug (seldomarecertificatesoforigin required).Theseauthorsestimatedthatonaverage70%Ger-many’stradedmedicinaldrugsarecollectedfromthewildand30%grownincultivation.

tainablyproducedproductshasbeenmoreimpor-tantthanitsrealimpactonpovertyreduction.

Other labels target fair-trademechanismsmorethanorganicandsustainablecriteria.NotmanyNTFPscancurrently fulfil therequirements.The best potential for NTFPs is with well-organ-ized producer backgrounds, a transparent chain of custody, a considerable volume of trade and a market demand linked to a widely recognized certification and label(Conrad this volume).Someproductsthatmighthavethesefea-turesare:Brazilnut,sheabutter,palmheart,chicleandsomemedicinal,aromaticandspecialisedfoodplants.

OpportunitiesforcertificationofNTFPsexistandcanappealtocertainniche markets,eveniftheexpectedbenefitsshouldbecarefullyidentifiedandassessedfromthemarketside,andbenefitsharingprocessesfromthepolicyside.Theinformationonproductswhichmaybeattractivefor“responsible”consumersiscentralfortheassessment.Thedif-ferent labelsmusthighlightthespecificity that appeals to the customer.Eveniftheadded-valueforproducersisnotassuredineachcase,labellingcanbringmoreregularityindemandovertimeandcanhelpproducerstoadapttheirproductionandtoconformmoreeasilytotheexpectedqualityandotherrequirements.

NTFPs and regulatory frameworks

As theyhaveoftenbeenconsideredas “minor”products,access regulations toNTFPsaregen-erallymoreclearlyembeddedinthecustomary rightsthaninspecific“modern”andoftenhighlyregulatedexternalmanagementandcontrolmech-anisms (Michon this volume),exceptforsomeofthemostimportantNTFPs.Inforest-richcountries,whereloggingisofcentralimportance,NTFPsareneglectedexceptifconcessionholderscaneasilymarketthem.Inforest-poorercountries,competi-tionfordifferentlandusescanalsoleadtoapoorconsiderationofNTFPs’productionpotential.De-spitethesafetynetroleofNTFPs,forestsareoftenperceivedasalandreserveoravailableresource,evenorespeciallyforpoorfarmers.

Inthiscontext,access to land and resource use regulations are the basic parameters that determine the type of resource management and the benefits rights,whichcanbeexpectedfromtheoutset.Regulationsmaypotentiallyhaveapositiveimpactiftheuseandmanagementrightsaregiventoruralpoorandif,asaresult,interestandcommitment inconservationmeasuresdevelop.Unfortunately,inmanycases,higheconomicinter-

41

Basedonabasic, concrete and effective rec-ognition of the rights of local populations,modernregulationswillhave toconsider forestsandforestproducts

i. ina landscape perspective, i.e.consideringthefarming system as a wholeandthemultiplefunctionsofforestedecosystems,and

ii.withinanapproachensuringthelivelihoods of each social group.

Intheprocessofdevelopingsuchpolicies,NTFPscanbeusedtohighlightthediversityandtheim-portanceofforestproductusesandmarketingforpoorpeopleandtoensurethatcustomaryuses/rightscanbeincorporatedinthenewregulations(Paudeletal.2002),oralternativelythatequitablecompensationcouldbeprovidedfor lostaccessandrights.

NTFPs and international trade negotiations

Thissectionwasnotthoroughlydiscussedduringthemeeting.However,theauthorswantedtocompletetheelementspresentedontheregulatoryframeworksbysomeshortinformationonthe“Trade-Related As-pects of Intellectual Property Rights”whicharecurrentlystillmuchdebatedattheinternationallevel.

Ineachsinglelocation,NTFPmanagementisaf-fectedsimultaneouslybylocal,nationalandinter-nationalregulations.Observationsshowthattheseregulationsareoftencontradictory,orincompatible,andthatthisaccumulation of regulations is to-tally counterproductive.Formorebenefitstobeobtainedbylocalforest-dependentcommunities,itisurgenttore-examinetherelevancyofeachtypeofregulation,andthecompatibilitybetweenthedif-ferentpolicies,lawsandregulationsatthedifferentlevels(Michon this volume).

Information sharing is particularly complexwhentheexchangesoccurattheinternationallevelandhavenaturalproductsasobject.Thelinkbe-tweenNTFPdevelopmentandbiodiversitycon-servation/equitywasalreadydebated in relationtoextractivereservesmorethan20yearsago.Ac-tivistsandothersarguedbitterlyoverthewisdomofthiscourse,thoseagainstarguingthatdrawingpoorpeopleevencloserintomarketrelationswouldonlyleadtotheirfurtherlong-termimpoverishment,whiledivertingscarceresourcesfromthestruggleforlandandotherfundamentalrights(Forte1999).

The‘South’arguedintheTRIPs(Trade-relatedAs-pectsofIntellectualPropertyRights)negotiationsthatintellectualpropertyrightswerenotatradeis-sueatallandwerealreadycoveredbyanexistingUNorganisation,theWorldIntellectualPropertyOr-

ganisation(WIPO).Howeverkey Northern inter-estswereabletoshiftIntellectualPropertyRights(IPRs)negotiationstotheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT),whichledtotheestab-lishmentoftheWorld Trade Organisation(Forte1999).

In2003duringthe18thGlobalBiodiversityForum,participantsfromabroadrangeofinterestgroupsdiscussedthelinkbetweentheWTO’sTrade-Re-latedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights(TRIPs)Agreement and the Convention on Biodiversity(CBD).They called for the protection of tradi-tional knowledge and biological and cultural diversity in the face of trade liberalisation.Therewasgeneralagreementthatirrespectiveofwhetherpatentsover life formsareallowed,dis-closureoftheoriginofgeneticresourcesandtra-ditionalknowledgeshouldberequired.ThiscouldbeaddressedforinstanceintheongoingreviewofTRIPsAgreement,whereparticipantsalsonotedthatthelinkbetweenIPRsandhumanrightsshouldbeexplored(ICTSDreporting2003).

AttheWTOCouncilforTrade-relatedAspectsofIntellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) in October2005,discussionsondisclosure of the source of biological materials and related traditional knowledge in patent applicationsonceagainsaw countries, especially USA and India, clashonwhethersuchapatent-basedsystemwasin-deednecessarytoensuretheequitablesharingofbenefitsfromgeneticresources(ICTSDreporting2005).

NTFPs in Oversea Development Agency (ODA) interventions

Emphasize site-specific information

Context specific information is necessarytoevaluate thepotentialofNTFPs’harvestingandcommercialisation,andtounderstandtheireconom-icreturnsaccordingtothedifferentsocialgroups,especiallywomenandpoorsegmentsofthepopu-lation.Evenifgeneralizationsaredifficulttomakeonthebasisofdifferentgeographicalareas,socio-culturalenvironmentsandproducts,ODA partici-patory interventions can provide site-specific and up-to-date informationtomarketandpolicyspecialistsonNTFPs’rolesandresourcesbasedonlocalconditions.Theycanalsofacilitate the search for realistic and equitable trade-offs in terms of regulations between local and of-ficial levels.

Maintaining and monitoring sustainabilitystillneedssubstantialfurtherworkinthecaseof

42

Ensure social cohesion and access to benefits for poor populations

Effective local organizationsareseenasaba-sisforsustainablemanagementofforestproductsandofitscontrol.However,manylocalregulationsareaimedatstrengtheningthesocialandpoliti-calpositionofcommunityelites(Michon this vol-ume).Consequently,povertyalleviationgenerallyrequiresfocused development interventions/initiatives for poor segments of the popula-tions(examplesofsheabutterinSahel,walnutsinKyrgyzstanandotherNTFPsinVietnamandNepal(Tendon et al., Schmidt, Felber this volume,Karlietal.op. cit.,Paudeletal.op. cit.forNepal).Thetradeoffsbetweenprivategainsandsocialcostsofresourcedepletionshouldbeexplainedtocommu-nities(Ndoye this volume).

Especiallyinthecaseoflucrativemarketchains,thereturnsgiventoproducersareverylowandoutsid-ersandnon-traditionalcollectorscantakeadvan-tageeitherofbetteraccesstomarketinformationortoinvestmentmeans(moneybutsometimesalsomanagementrights).Suchfrequentsituationsrep-resentthreatstosustainabilityandtolocal liveli-hoods.ODA can promote empowerment and “community forestry” strategies/modalities of forest managementwheresuchpossibilitiesexistand/ordevelopparticipatorycommunitynatu-ralresourceuserightsintargetingequitablesolu-tionsforpoorpeople(Michon this volume,Karkietal.op. cit.).Inanycase,policies aimed at reform-ing existing trade chains must be developed very carefully, becausethecommonassumptionthat“middlemen”exploitlocalcollectorsortradersisnotnecessarilyalwaystrue(Michon this volume).

Wherelanduseisinfluencedbymajoragriculturalorforestproducts(cotton,oilpalm,etc.),thepres-sureforforestlandconversioncanbesohighthattheprospects for forestconservationare inanycasedoomedwithoutstrongandeffectivepoliticalwilltocounteractthesepressures.Insuchcomplexsituations,State regulation and control as well as innovative collaborative partnerships be-tween communities, authorities and the pri-vate sector are all needed.Consequently,Ndoye (this volume)proposestostimulatecost-effective

NTFP harvesting. Simple evaluation techniquesareneededbutinventorymethodsaretobedevel-oped,wherepossiblebasedonvalidatedtraditionalknowledge,forthedifferenttypesofNTFPsandlo-callyadaptedforadoptionasuserbasedself-inven-tories.Theneedforbetterbasicinformationissogreatthatsomeaction research,withorwithoutresearchpartners,shouldbedevelopedbyODAprogrammesifNTFPsarepartofhouseholds’as-setsandstrategies.Someresearchfindingshavebeenshownbytheauthors(Ruiz Pérez, Schmidt this volume),andtheroleof“participative innovation development”wasespeciallyhighlighted(Felber this volume,andseealsoworkonlocallydevelopedinventoryguidelinesinNepal,NSCFP2001).

Local populations do not always deal with “social matters” as

perfectly as one could imagine. Pictured is the case of an

old Nepalese woman carrying a heavy fodder charge (Photo by

Christian Küchli).

43

small-scale forest enterprises and Michon (this volume)mentionsthatbalancedsystemsmustbesoughtmoresystematicallybetweenlocalpeople,legitimateoutsiders,concessionairesandnationalauthorities.

Tosumup,thesocial contributions of NTFPs and their potential for the poor need to be better integrated in crucial policies at nation-al level.Theelementstoconsiderinpriorityatthepolicylevelare:

– Equitableaccesstoresourcesandtobenefits. – Regulationmodalities,localaccountabilityand

transparencyofmarkets (no “informal taxes”,Ndoye this volume).

– Simplificationofprocedures(administrative,le-gal,financial).

– Differentiationof theexistingforest typesandmanagedlandscapesandanalysisofthespecificresource/productpotentialaccordingtothevari-ousexpectedfunctionstobeensuredbyforestsandtrees.

– Focusonadaptivelocalgovernanceprocessesbasedontheusuallyflexiblecustomaryrules(Mi-chon this volume)andoncollaborativenetworksratherthanon“perfect”Stateormarketregula-tions.

Ensure capacity building, facilitate trade associations and links to known/transparent market chain

Market information is obviously a core ele-ment of the “power games”characterizingbothtraditionallyvaluablemarketsandthosewhichareexpanding/developing.Theprovisionofvalidandtargetedmarketinformationcontributestotheem-powermentoflocalproducersandtradersasisil-lustratedbymanyexamples (Ndoye, Felber, this volume,Karkietal.op. cit.,Paudeletal.op. cit.forNepal).

Withsharingandanalysingmarketinformationaswell aswithproductgroupingand resulting im-provedpricenegotiationcapacity,interest group associations or federations are in a better bargaining positionwithtradersandthepolicy-makers.Producerassociationsandfederationscanevenbeseenasfuture“substitutes”forODAstake-holdersiftheykeepastronglinkwiththelocalhar-vestersandtradergroupsorco-operatives(Karkietal.op. cit.).

Ideally, ODA and/or associations could supportthelocal harvesting/processing/small trader groups, inadditiontomarket information, inthedomainofmicro-credit(toavoidrisksduetoknownfluctuatingyieldsandprices)andevenwithinvest-ment in localprocessing.Facilitatingsystemsof

micro-creditcouldhelpalleviatethechronicspi-ralofpovertyoflocalcollectorsandincreasetheirbargainingpower (Michon this volume).Alterna-tivelyODAcouldpromoteenterprise promotion through collaborative arrangements and pub-lic-private partnershipsbetweenexistingindus-triesandlocalproducergroupsandtheirfedera-tions(Karkietal.op. cit.).

CommercialinterestsmaybesmallformanyNTFPs,butsomehaveconsiderablevalue(somemedicinalplants)andothersareimportantnichemarkets.Lo-cal processing or part processingisthemosteffectivewaytoaddvalueintheleastdevelopedcountriesandODAsmaystudythepossibilitiesfornationalpoliciestoenableincentivesforfacilitatingsuchinvestments.Forinstance,Felber (this volume)mentionspromisinglocalinitiativesfromVietnamsuchasbroomandhatproduction.Inothercases,ODAscanhaveaverysubstantialroleinbreaking the opaqueness of the market andprovidingbetterinformationthroughbackwardandforwardlinkages.Thisismademucheasierwheretheprod-uctispurchasedintheODA’scountry.Labelling,certificationandevenproductswhicharepromotedbuthaveanunofficiallyrecognizedidentitycanalsobeattractiveandprovideappropriateinformationtoenableconsumerstoactina“sociallyanden-vironmentallyresponsible”mannerwhichcanthenbereflectedinhigherpriceslowerdownthemarketchain.

Finally,aspects of marketingarenotonlyimpor-tant intermsofcustomer informationbutalso intermsofcommercialbenefits(Reiner this volume).Forexportproducts,aprofessionalapproachandmodernadvertisingtechniquesareneededtore-maininlinewithothercommodities,even,orespe-ciallyif,theycomefroma“leastdeveloped”envi-ronment.Forspecificproductsandmarketschains,ODAprogrammescanusesomeNTFPsasexam-plesofproductcommercialisationsothatthecom-mercialcapacitiesgainedwiththeproductcanbeusedforothermarketingactivities.

44

References:

Baker N. (ed.)2001:Developingneeds-basedinventorymethodsforNon-TimberForestproducts.WorkshopreportorganisedbytheEuropeanTropicalForestRe-searchNetwork.http://www.etfrn.org/etfrn/workshop/ntfp/ntfpproceedingsfinal.pdfChakrabarti L.; Varsney V.2001:Tradingincontraband,pp.27–34,andPredicting the future,pp.35–41. InDowntoEarth,SocietyforEnvironmentCommunica-tions,NewDelhi,India,9,17.Forte J.1999:EmergingLocalandGlobalDiscoursesonNTFPuseandstudy:aviewfromGuyana.SeminarProceedings,‘NTFPResearchintheTropenbosPro-gramme:ResultsandPerspectives’,28January1999(M.A.F.Ros-Tonen,ed.).TheTropenbosFoundation,Wageningen,theNetherlands,pp.33–43.ICTSD reporting 2003:Workshop2:CBD-TRIPsRe-lationship.SpecialIssue8September2003.Bridges.http://www.ictsd.org/biores/03-09-08/story4.htmICTSD reporting2005:USandIndiaclashondisclo-sureatTRIPsmeeting.BridgesVol.5Nr19,28.10.05.http://www.ictsd.org/biores/05-10-28/story3.htmKarki M.; Das B.; Robinson P.; Schaltegger E.2003:NepalForestResourcesPromotionProject;ProjectAppraisalandWorkingPapers.SwissDevelopmentCooperation,Bern,Switzerland,36p.Lange D.; Schippmann U.1997:TradeSurveyofMedic-inalPlantsinGermany–AContributiontoInternationalSpeciesConservation.Bundesamt fürNaturschutz,Bonn,Germany,128p.+annexes.NSCFP 2001:Participatory InventoryGuidelines forNon-TimberForestProduct.NepalSwissCommunityForestryProject,Kathmandu,Nepal,74p.Paudel D.; aus der Beek R.; Bhujel J.B.2002:Non-Tim-berForestProducts:TrainingManualforFieldFacilita-tors.NepalSwissCommunityForestryProject,Kath-mandu,Nepal,120p.Smith Olsen C.; Helles F.1997:MedicinalPlants,Mar-kets,andMarginsintheNepalHimalaya:TroubleinParadise:MountainResearchandDevelopment17,4:363–374.WHO 2003: Traditional medicine. Fact Sheet 134.http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/WongJ.L.G.2000:Thebiometricsofnon-timberfor-estproductresourceassessment:Areviewofcurrentmethodology.Reportprepared forprojectZF0077.Departmentfor InternationalDevelopment,ForestryResearchProgramme,UK,174p.www.etfrn.org/etfrn/workshop/forum/ntfpwong.htm

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Program NTFP Workshop, January 31st 2005 – Bern

Between market forces and poverty alleviation. The contribution of Non-Timber-Forest Products

Chairmanship: Martin Sommer (SDC), Daniel Birchmeier (seco), Laurence von Schulthess (SDC)Morning moderation: Christian KüchliAfternoon moderation: Jean-Pierre Sorg

Speaker Topics of presentations09.00 Introduction Martin Sommer Daniel Birchmeier09.15 NTFP & Poverty Manuel Ruiz-Pérez ‘Globalpatternsandhouseholdsstrategies’,NTFP CIFOR-Spain definitions,globalpatternsandtrends,esp.NTFPin thehouseholdsstrategies09.45 Questions(clarif.)10.00 Break10.30 Market forces Ousseynou Ndoye ‘Commercialissues’,marketsandtradeissues,trade & NTFP CIFOR-Cameroon organisationanddevelopment10.50 Questions(clarif.)11.00 NTFP & Policy Geneviève Michon ‘Policyandregulations’,regulatoryframework,policy IRD-France anddevelopment,includingtraditionalknowledge11.20 Questions(clarif.)11.30 Discussion12.15 Lunch13.15 Roundtable: Kaspar Schmidt ‘Fieldconditions’Kyrgyzstan presentations ETHZ/UniversityofReading, UK Ruedi Felber ‘Fieldconditions’Vietnam NADEL,ex-Helvetas Jean-Marc Tendon,CEASChainofcustodyKaritéMali Heini Conrad,IC LabellingBio/Fair/Organicmarkets Susann Reiner Marketing–NTFP Regenwaldladen13.45 Roundtable: discussion14.30 Break15.00 Plenary discussion16.00 Synthesis Jean-Laurent Pfund,IC16.15 Closure Laurence von Schulthess/ Daniel Birchmeier

Annexe 1: Programme of the Workshop

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Name Organisation CommunicationAuerLuzius GeosystemSA Phone:+41218862230. E-Mail:luzius@geosystem.chBirchmeierDaniel seco Phone:+41313240914 E-Mail:daniel.birchmeier@seco.admin.chBloeschUrs Consultant Phone:+41323416327 E-Mail:bloesch@swissonline.chBornerMonica WWFSwitzerland Phone:+4112972232 E-Mail:monica.borner@wwf.chBratschiDieter NTFPFoundationBern Phone:+41763209296 E-Mail:djbratschi@bluewin.chBretscherAdrian SIPPO Phone:+41443655462 E-Mail:abretscher@sippo.chBukoberoSajad IUED Phone:+41764059020 E-Mail:bukobero@etu.unige.chCaminadaLeo Caminada&Partner Phone:+41418520707 BACOAG E-Mail:caminada@cp-air.chConradHeini Intercooperation Phone:+41313851010 E-Mail:hconrad@intercooperation.chCrole-ReesAnna CDC Pone:+41216256464 E-Mail:crolerees@bluewin.chDiarraMamadouM. ICDelegationSahel E-Mail:mmdiarra@icsahel.orgDurrerStephan ProNatura Phone:+41613179246 E-Mail:stephan.durrer@pronatura.chFavreJean-Cyril GEOSUDSA Pone:+41269198150 E-Mail:jcfavre@geosud.chFelberRuedi NADEL Phone:+4116325097 E-Mail:felber@nadel.ethz.chFleischliSimon CentreEcologique Phone:+41327250836 AlbertSchweizer E-Mail:simon.fleischli@caramail.comGallandPierre Consultant Phone:+41327255457 E-Mail:npgalland@swissonline.chGasanaJames Intercooperation Phone:+41318251010 E-Mail:jgasana@intercooperation.chGerritsAndreas SDC Phone:+41313223328 E-Mail:andreas.gerrits@deza.admin.ch

Annexe 2: List of participants

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GodiFrançois GGConsultingS.a.r.l Phone:+41218878812 E-Mail:ggconsulting@vtx.chGrecoClaudia Intercooperation Phone:+41313821010 E-Mail:cgreco@intercooperation.chGuzmanDavid EPFL Phone:+41216933262 E-Mail:david.guzman@epfl.chHafnerOthmar Phone:+41319720822 E-Mail:ot.hafner@bluewin.chHeintzOlivier BarkCloth,DE Phone:+49(0)700-22752568 E-Mail:barkcloth@barkcloth.deHilfikerKarin Helvetas Phone:+4113686500 E-Mail:karin.hilfiker@helvetas.orgHuwilerFranziska Intercooperation Phone:+41313851010 E-Mail:fhuwiler@interccoperation.chJenalMarcus SIPPO Pone:+4113655612 E-Mail:mjenal@sippo.chKläyAndreas CDE Phone:+41316318822 E-Mail:andreas.klaey@cde.unibe.chKüchliChristian BUWAL Phone:+41313247780 E-Mail:christian.kuechli@buwal.admin.chMalachViera Infosud Phone: E-Mail:MauderliUeli ETHZ Phone:+4116323203 E-Mail:ueli.mauderli@env.ethz.chMaurerRolf TULUMSA Phone:+41916066373 E-Mail:info@tulum-consult.comMesserliPeter NCCRNorth-South Phone:+41316313058 E-Mail:peter.messerli@cde.unibe.chMichonGeneviève IRDFrance Phone:+33(0)467636982 E-Mail:genevieve.michon@mpl.ird.frMorelJack Assamba Phone: E-Mail:MühlethalerUrs SHL Phone:+41319102111 E-Mail:urs.muehlethaler.fwi@shl.bfh.chMüllerAlois SeeconAG Phone:+41414610753 E-Mail:alois.mueller@seecon.ch

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NdoyeOusseynou CIFORCameroon Phone:+2372237434 E-Mail:o.ndoye@cgiar.orgPfundJean-Laurent Intercooperation Phone:+41313851010 E-Mail:jpfund@intercooperation.chPleinesThierry Brücke–Lepont Phone:+41264255151 E-Mail:Thierry.pleines@bruecke-lepont.chReinerSusann Regenwald-Institut Phone:+497615561319 E-Mail:reiner@regenwald-institut.deRobinsonPatrick Consultant Phone:+41327536930 E-Mail:pat.robinson@bluewin.chRobledoCarmenza Intercooperation/EMPA Phone:+41313851010 E-Mail:crobledo@intercooperation.chRodunerDaniel LBL Phone:+41523549769 E-Mail:daniel.roduner@lbl.chRuiz-PérezManuel UniversidadAutonoma Phone:+34914978000 deMadrid,Spain E-Mail:manuel.ruiz@uam.esSamynJean-Marie Intercooperation Phone:+41313851010 E-Mail:jsamyn@intercooperation.chSansonnensBertrand ProNatura Phone:+41763960222 E-Mail:bertrand.sansonnens@pronatura.chSchaltenbrandHans Helvetas Phone:+4113686500 E-Mail:hans.schaltenbrand@helvetas.orgSchildRegula CDE Phone:+41332227550 E-Mail:regula.schild@gmx.chSchmidtEva Consultant Phone:+41313056244 E-Mail:eva.schmidt@gmx.chSchmidtKaspar ETHZ/Univ.ReadingUK Phone:+41446323203 E-Mail:kaspar.schmidt@env.ethz.chSchmidtPeter Helvetas Phone:+4113686500 E-Mail:peter.schmidt@helvetas.orgSchneiderJürg BUWAL Phone:+41313226895 E-Mail:juerg.schneider@buwal.admin.chSeelandKlaus ETHZ Phone:+41446323219 E-Mail:klaus.seeland@env.ethz.chSieberPatrick NADEL Phone:+41313334859 E-Mail:psieber@giub.unibe.ch

49

SommerMartin SDC Phone:+41313259282 E-Mail:martin.sommer@deza.admin.chSorgJean-Pierre ETHZ Phone:+4116323214 E-Mail:jean-pierre.sorg@env.ethz.chSpackSimone HE-Arc Phone:+41323420316 E-Mail:sspack@freesurf.chStaubliFranziska SIPPO Phone:+4113655489 E-Mail:fstaubli@sippo.chSteimannBernd InstituteofGeography Phone:+4116355165 ZH E-Mail:bernd@geo.unizh.chStrasserBalz UniversityofZurich Phone:+4116356512 DeptofGeography E-Mail:balz@geo.unizh.chStreitKathrin StudentTendonJean-Marc CEASMali Phone:+41327250836 E-Mail:ceas.ne@bluewin.chThönnissenCarmen SDC Phone:+41313220305 E-Mail:carmen.thoennissen@deza.admin.chUkkermanRob SNVNetherlands Phone:+31703440114 E-Mail:R.Ukkerman@snv.nlVonReitzensteinEckart NADEL Phone:+41313318571 E-Mail:Eckart.vonReitzenstein@gmx.deVonSchulthessLaurence SDC Phone:+41313223359 E-Mail:laurence.vonschulthess@deza.admin.chVonSuryFelix Intercooperation Phone:+41313851010 E-Mail:fvonsury@intercooperation.chWaltherRoger UNACO Phone:+41797125756 E-Mail:roger.walther@unaco.chWengerRuth Intercooperation Phone:+41313851010 E-Mail:rwenger@intercooperation.chWernerFrank Consultant Phone:+4114629378 E-Mail:frank.werner@gmx.chWieserMartin RuralConsult Phone:+41327512895 E-Mail:ruralconsult@bluewin.chWilkesJerylee Student Phone:+41764896994 E-Mail:jeryleew@yahoo.comWüthrichKurt HSB Phone:+41323440396 E-Mail:kurt.wuethrich@bfh.ch

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ZieschangOlaf Phone:+41787930391 E-Mail:o.zieschang@bluewin.chZingerliClaudia ETHZ Phone:+41446323222 E-Mail:claudia.zingerli@env.ethz.chZossoGéraldine Phone:+41227820558 E-Mail:gzosso@yahoo.frZürcherErnst HSB Phone:+41323440367 E-Mail:ernst.zuercher@hsb.bfh.ch

Natural Resource ManagementRural EconomyLocal Governance and Civil Society

Maulbeerstrasse 10P.O. Box 6724CH-3001 Berne, Switzerland

T +41 31 385 10 10F +41 31 385 10 09info@intercooperation.chwww.intercooperation.ch

cooperation

inter