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(NON)EQUIVALENCE IN

TRANSLATION

MEANING AND EQUIVALENCE

Prof. univ. dr. Elena Croitoru“Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati

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Meaning

"Every word (lexical unit) has something that is individual that makes it different from any other word. And it is just the lexical meaning which is the most outstanding individual property of the word". (Zgusta 1971:67, qtd. by M. Baker 1992:12).

The lexical meaning of a word or lexical unit may be thought of as the specific value it has in a particular linguistic system and the "personality" it acquires through usage within that system.

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Meaning

Four main types of meaning in words and utterances:

propositional meaning expressive meaning presupposed meaning evoked meaning

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Types of meaning

Propositional meaning - the relation between a word and what it refers to in a real or imaginary world, as conceived by the speakers of the particular language to which the word or utterance belongs

E.g. zdravăn - strong but un holteiu zdravăn, frumos şi voinic -

a sturdy, good-looking, handsome bachelor.

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Types of meaning

Expressive meaning - the speaker's feelings or attitudes rather than what words and utterances refer to

the same propositional meaning but a different expressive meaning (not only words and utterances within the same language - synonyms or near-synonyms - but also words and utterances from different languages)

E.g. a mângâia – used with its expressive meaning - belabour smb

a pofti pe cineva – to summon smb to

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Equivalence at the word level

ST: Şi cum află pricina, începe a ne pofti pe fiecare la Bălan şi a ne mângâia cu sfântul ierarh Nicolaie pentru durerile cuvioaselor muşte şi ale cuvioşilor bondari, care din pricina noastră au pătimit. (p. 10)

TT: As soon as he found out how they had got into this shocking state, he summoned each one of us in turn to Dapple-Grey's back and began to belabour us with St. Nicholas, bishop in parlibus, as retribution for the pains the martyred flies and the holy bumble bees had suffered at our hands. (p.11)

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Types of meaning

Presupposed meaning arises from co-occurrence of restrictions, i.e. restrictions on what other words or expressions we expect to see before or after a particular unit.

Two types of restrictions: selection restrictions collocation restrictions

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Types of meaning

Selection restrictions - a function of the propositional meaning of a

word - deliberately violated in figurative language

Collocation restrictions - semantically arbitrary restrictions which do not follow logically from the propositional meaning

e.g. to break the law – a eluda/încălca legea a face cu ochiul - a fura cu ochiul (Creangă)

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Equivalence

ST: Şi părintele mă iè la dragoste, şi Smărăndiţa începe din când în când a mă fura cu ochiul, şi bădiţa Vasile mă pune să ascult pe alţii, şi altă făină se măcina acum la moară. Nic-a lui Costache, cel răguşit, balcâz şi răutăcios, nu mai avea stăpânire asupra mea. (p. 12)

TT: The priest put me down in his good books and little Smaranda flashed a glance at me now and then; Master Vasile entrusted the coaching of other boys to me, and, as the saying goes, a different kind of flour was now being ground in the old mill. Nicà, Costache's son, loutish and bullying, with his grating voice, had no further hold over me. (p. 13)

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Types of meaning

Evoked meaning - arises from dialect and register variation. dialect - a variety of language within a specific community or

group of speakers Geographical - e.g. a Scottish dialect or American as

opposed to British English (e.g. lift – elevator)

Temporal - words and structures used by members of different age groups within a community; words used at different periods in the history of a language – (e.g. verily – really)

Social - words and structures used by members of different social classes – (e.g. scent – perfume; napkin – serviette)

Register - a variety of language that a language user considers appropriate to a specific situation.

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Register

Variations in

the field of discourse (the domain one works in) – specialized

tenor – the degree of (in)formality social status

Mode – written or spoken

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Register

“A translator has to choose between changing the tenor to suit the expectations of the TR and transferring the informal tenor to give a flavour of the type of relationship” (Baker 1992: 16)

The T’s choice depends on what s/he perceives to be the overall purpose of the translation

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Synonyms

Synonyms - words different in form but (almost) identical in meaning

dictionary synonyms - absolute - relative contextual synonyms

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Synonyms

Absolute synonyms – - the same propositional, expressive, presupposed and evoked

meaning - extremely rare (technical and scientific language) e.g. set out - set off (start on a journey) - stylistic synonyms - the same propositional meaning but

different in their presupposed meaning used in specific functional registers

e.g. good-bye, farewell, adieu, ta-ta, bye-bye, so long

good-bye - stylistically neutral (la revedere, cu bine) farewell - archaic and poetic (cu bine, rămas bun) adieu - jokingly (adio şi n-am cuvinte) ta-ta and bye-bye - familiar (pa, pa şi pusi) so long - in spoken English (salut)

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Synonyms

Relative synonyms - cannot be replaced one by another because of the differences in meaning

synonymyc seriesContextual synonyms associated only

with certain words they depend on their context (e.g. good and kind

a good/kind fellow but Will you be so kind as to open the window?

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Synonyms

Context dependent synonyms Want, need Crafty (îndemânatic, priceput; viclean) A suferi A tremura: shake; tremble (fear, voice);

shiver; quiver (slightly, water); ripple (water); quaver (voice); shudder (horror);

flicker - quiver- dance (light, shaddow)

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Synonyms

Context dependent collocational patterns

A tremura … de furie – shake with anger… pentru – tremble for… din tot corpul – shake all over… în faţa cuiva – stand in fear of smb./ wuail before smb.… la gândul că/de – tremble / be terrified at the thought that /of

+gerund… ca frunza – shiver /quiver like a(n aspen) leaf… din toate mădularele - shake in every limb, tremble all over… tot – be all in a tremble… pentru pielea lui – tremble for one’s lifea-i tremura picioarele – be shaky on one’s legs

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Synonyms

Tremur trembling (of knees, hand) quivering (of face, water) shaking (of body, hand, bridge) quavering (of voice), tremulousness tremor (of fear, joy, anger), quake shiver (with cold), shudder (with horror) flutter, quiver, rustle (wings, leaves) thrill (fig.) earthquake

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Equivalence above the word level

collocations idioms and fixed expressions

collocations - presupposed meaning : "semantically arbitrary restrictions which do not follow logically from the propositional meaning of a word" (Baker 1992:14)

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Collocability

Synonyms or near-synonyms: different sets of collocates

English speakers typically break rules but they do not break regulations;

- they typically talk of wasting time but not of squandering time

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Collocability

Squander – a irosi, a cheltui (bani, timp) a risipi, F a toca, a face praf (bani, avere) a pierde (timp)

regulation speed – viteză legală/permisă

to exceed the regulation – a depăşi viteza legală observe the regulation /rules

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Collocability

Some collocations may seem untypical in everyday language but are common in specific registers.

e.g. dull highlights, vigorous depressions -odd in general English but common in the fields of photography and meteorology (Sinclair 1966)

Differences in the collocational patterning of the SL and TL difficulties in translation.

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Collocability

ST: Într-una din zile, ce-i vine părintelui, ne caută ceasloavele şi, când le vede aşa sângerate cum erau, îşi pune mânile în cap de necaz. (p.10)

TT: One day what should come into the priest's head but to inspect our prayer books. Seeing them all bloodstained, he clutched his head in horror. (p. 11)

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Collocability

Tension between accuracy and naturalness

SL collocations TL typical to TL preserving the meaning of the SL collocation

The translator’s final choice: between

what is typical and what is accurate

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Collocability

ST: Şi cu toată stăruinţa lui Moş Fotea şi a lui bădiţa Vasile, Smărăndiţa a mâncat papara, şi pe urmă şedea cu mâinile la ochi şi plângea ca o mireasă, de sărea cămeşa de pe dânsa. (p. 10)

TT: In spite of old Fotea's pleading and that of Master Vasile, little Smaranda got a good hiding and afterwards sat crying into her cupped hands like a bride, so that the very blouse shook on her back. (p. 11)

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Collocability

The cultural setting marks the difference SL collocations unfamiliar to the TRs

culture-specific collocations: concepts which are not easily accessible to the TRs

the translators choice: accuracy of meaning

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Collocations and idioms

collocations - flexible patterns of language which allow several variations in form: deliver a letter, delivery of a letter, a letter has been delivered

"Idioms and fixed expressions are frozen patterns of language which allow little or no variation in form and, in the case of idioms, often carry meanings which cannot be deduced from their individual components" (M. Baker, 1992:63).

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(Non)equivalence with idioms

Idioms and fixed expressions which contain culture-specific items are not necessarily untranslatable. It is not the specific items an expression contains but rather the meaning it conveys and its association with culture-specific contexts which can make it untranslatable or difficult to translate: e.g. to carry coals to Newcastle

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Equivalence

Nida, Vinay and Darbelnet, Jakobson, Newmark, Catford, House, Baker, Katan, Bell, Munday

Three main approaches: linguistic approach - language focus pragmatic & semantic approach – culture

focus linguistic & pragmatic & semantic

approach - language and culture focus -> the cultural turn in translation studies

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Equivalence

Linguistic approach but interest in the semantic quality

Formal equivalence: focuss on the message in both form and

content a TL item which is the closest equivalent of

an SL word or phrase Dynamic equivalence: based upon the equivalent effect recreating the impact of the ST in the SL in

the receptor language (Nida 1969) Criticized for his binary system

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Equivalence

Semantic translation common features with Nida’s formal equivalence the TT remains in the SLC replicates deviated norms; loyalty to ST author.

Communicative translation resembles Nida’s dynamic equivalence foreign elements are transferred into the TLC respect for the form of the SL, but overriding loyalty to TL

norms. (Peter Newmark 1988) Equivalence – illusory

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Equivalence

Linguistic and communicative approach

Equivalence explored at different levels:

Equivalence at the word level Equivalence above the word level Grammatical Equivalence Textual Equivalence Pragmatic Equivalence (Baker 1992)

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Nonequivalence

Non-equivalence – no direct equivalent in the TL for a SL word, phrase, or idiom

Cultural nonequivalence (situational) Linguistic nonequivalence (grammar, vocabulary,

meaning)

“All types of translation involve: loss of information, addition of information and /or skewing of information" (Nida 1975: 27)

Shifts occur because the translator strives to

reproduce the text as faithfully as possible” (Popovic in Venuti 2000:122)

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Translating nonequivalence

• untranslability of a SL word, phrase, idiomatic

expression, structure in the TL at the linguistic level

• context dependence of meaning

• lack of similar cultural conventions in the TL

• lack of bicultural competence

• specificity and ST typology

• TT readability, fluency and acceptability

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Addition of information

Pragmatic strategy for solving non-equivalence

Information which is not present in the ST text may be added in the TT.

Information added: cultural – accounting for the differences between SL

and TL culture technical – related to the topic linguistic – explaining wayward use of words (Newmark

1988: 91)

Purpose: to avoid ambiguity & to explicitate.

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Deletion of information

Pragmatic strategy for solving non-equivalence

“Omission of a lexical item due to grammatical or semantic patterns of the receptor language"

(Baker 1992: 40)

If the item is not vital to the text, omission is allowed; not to be used to hide the ‘inability’ to translate.

Purpose: to avoid redundancy & awkwardness (Nida 1964: 228)

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Structural adjustment

Syntactic strategy for solving non-equivalence

Shift (Catford 1965) or transposition (Vinay and Dalbernet 1977) or alteration (Newmark 1988)

Change in the grammatical structure from SL to TL: categories, word classes and word order

Purpose: to adjust the form of the message to the structural

requirements of the TL to produce semantically equivalent structures to provide equivalent stylistic appropriateness (Nida 1964 : 226)

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Conclusions

over and under translation

equivalence - the ultimate goal of a translator

sometimes non-equivalence is needed to clear up the meaning

"Negotiation is the key to good translation" (Eco 2003)

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References

Nida, Eugene A. (1964) Towards a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Nida, Eugene (1975) Language Structure and Translation. Standford, California: Standford University Press.

Newmark, Peter (1988) A Textbook of Translation. London and New York: Prentice Hall International Ltd.

Bell, R.T. (1991) Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London: Longman.

Baker, Mona (1992) In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. London: Sage Publication.

Venutti, Laurence (2000) The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.

Munday, Jeremy (2001) Introducing Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge.