Northern Eurasia 1450-1750 AD. Northern Eurasia Japan: Political unification took 4 centuries due to Japan’s traditional feudal system. Political

Northern EurasiaNorthern Eurasia

1450-1750 AD1450-1750 AD


JapanJapan:: Political unificationPolitical unification took 4 centuries took 4 centuries due due

to Japan’s traditional to Japan’s traditional feudal systemfeudal system.. Political unificationPolitical unification would not happen would not happen

until late 500s and 1600s.until late 500s and 1600s. Japan’s development was influenced by Japan’s development was influenced by

Korean, Chinese, and European factors.Korean, Chinese, and European factors.


Unification would Unification would notnot be as difficult though be as difficult though for Japan as with China and Russia because for Japan as with China and Russia because of her of her smaller sizesmaller size; ; homogeneous homogeneous populationpopulation; and ; and natural boundariesnatural boundaries. .

Prior to unification, in the Prior to unification, in the 1100’s1100’s, “, “imperialimperial” ” unity (unity under an emperor) fell apart as unity (unity under an emperor) fell apart as regional warlords (regional warlords (DaimyosDaimyos) competed with ) competed with each other.each other.


TheoreticallyTheoretically, the emperor was the , the emperor was the ultimate ultimate source of political authority. source of political authority. Not in reality Not in reality though.though.

Daimyo’s were like European feudal lords Daimyo’s were like European feudal lords with their own castle, town, warriors with their own castle, town, warriors ((samuraisamurai), and ), and legal and judiciary structurelegal and judiciary structure. . They had their They had their own currency and schoolsown currency and schools..

Daimyos also had Daimyos also had trading agreements with trading agreements with European mariners.European mariners. From them they learned From them they learned how to manufacture and use gunpowder how to manufacture and use gunpowder weapons.weapons.

Northern EurasiaNorthern Eurasia• Regional daimyos developed their own urban Regional daimyos developed their own urban

centers. In a positive sense it helped develop the centers. In a positive sense it helped develop the nation economically.nation economically.

• In many ways Japan was more economically secure In many ways Japan was more economically secure than politically secure.than politically secure.

Daimyo’s, though, pledged loyalty to the Daimyo’s, though, pledged loyalty to the hereditary hereditary military commandermilitary commander, the , the shogunshogun, as well as to the , as well as to the emperor.emperor.

The Shogun possessed the military and political The Shogun possessed the military and political authority of Japan but, from the authority of Japan but, from the 1212thth to the 16 to the 16thth centurycentury, Japan was a country in , Japan was a country in civil war between civil war between daimyo forces.daimyo forces.

Northern EurasiaNorthern Eurasia One daimyo, One daimyo, Tokugawa IeyasuTokugawa Ieyasu, ,

emerges as supreme in emerges as supreme in 15921592, and , and forms forms shogunateshogunate or military or military government known as the government known as the ““Tokugawa “ShogunateTokugawa “Shogunate” at the ” at the castle town of castle town of EdoEdo (modern Tokyo) in 1603. It lasted (modern Tokyo) in 1603. It lasted 267 years until 1868.267 years until 1868.

This was a This was a family dynasty of family dynasty of shogunsshoguns, military leaders. , military leaders.

They They did not have the titledid not have the title or or position of emperor. The regional position of emperor. The regional daimyos still had strong influence daimyos still had strong influence though, but at least though, but at least Japan was Japan was politically unified as it never was politically unified as it never was prior to this.prior to this.

Japanese mon, or , family crest. This one is of the Tokugawa family.


• The The Tokugawa ShogunsTokugawa Shoguns controlled controlled the the 260 daimyo noble lords260 daimyo noble lords, or , or aristocracy, by giving them valuable aristocracy, by giving them valuable rice lands rice lands closeclose to the capital. to the capital.

• Non-supporters were given Non-supporters were given undeveloped landsundeveloped lands in the northern in the northern and southern regions.and southern regions.

• Daimyo marriage contracts and Daimyo marriage contracts and meetings with the emperor were meetings with the emperor were controlled by the shoguns.controlled by the shoguns.

Question: What is the strategy here?Question: What is the strategy here?

Tokugawa Ieyasu as shogun


This strategy would This strategy would also be followed by monarchs in also be followed by monarchs in EuropeEurope in order to control their aristocracies too. in order to control their aristocracies too.

Remember though, the Remember though, the Shogun was Shogun was notnot a monarch a monarch..

The emperor was to remain in The emperor was to remain in KyotoKyoto with with no political no political power.power.

• The aim of the Tokugawa shoguns was to The aim of the Tokugawa shoguns was to prevent prevent competing centers of power and centralize competing centers of power and centralize administration.administration.

• AlsoAlso to to restrict foreign influencerestrict foreign influence, especially from , especially from EuropeEurope, from upsetting stability., from upsetting stability.

Northern EurasiaNorthern EurasiaEuropean impact:European impact: 1453: the first Portuguese1453: the first Portuguese bring bring firearms,firearms, which which

Japanese will copy and use against themselves.Japanese will copy and use against themselves.

Jesuit missionariesJesuit missionaries, including , including Francis XavierFrancis Xavier, came , came to Japan in the 1500’s and had some successful to Japan in the 1500’s and had some successful religious impact among the peasants. By 1615 there religious impact among the peasants. By 1615 there were 300,000 Japanese Christians.were 300,000 Japanese Christians.

By 1580 there were 100,000 Japanese Catholic By 1580 there were 100,000 Japanese Catholic Christians, and the Jesuit order had been given free Christians, and the Jesuit order had been given free reign in the port city of reign in the port city of Nagasaki.Nagasaki.

1630’s a rural rebellion1630’s a rural rebellion of peasantsof peasants was blamed on was blamed on European influence, and European influence, and Christianity was bannedChristianity was banned by by the Tokugawa Shogunate.the Tokugawa Shogunate.


EdictsEdicts were issued were issued restricting contact restricting contact with foreignerswith foreigners by: by:

• Forbidding travel abroad,Forbidding travel abroad,• Prohibiting the production of large Prohibiting the production of large

ships,ships,• Expelling Europeans from Japan,Expelling Europeans from Japan,• Forbidding the importation of books,Forbidding the importation of books,• Restricting merchants to only a few Restricting merchants to only a few

Dutch and Chinese Dutch and Chinese at at NagasakiNagasaki..

Northern EurasiaNorthern Eurasia Tokugawa shoguns recognized that Tokugawa shoguns recognized that

merchants were needed merchants were needed to conduct to conduct commerce between the regions, to build commerce between the regions, to build economic wealth, so economic wealth, so commercial trade was commercial trade was emphasized, but with China, Korea, and emphasized, but with China, Korea, and Taiwan ( but not Europe).Taiwan ( but not Europe).

Although isolation was the goal of the Although isolation was the goal of the Tokugawa shoguns it Tokugawa shoguns it could not be enforcedcould not be enforced..

Compare this to Mongol economic strategy. Compare this to Mongol economic strategy.


• Stability brought peace and the Stability brought peace and the warrior class warrior class adapted itself to the needs of the state.adapted itself to the needs of the state.

• Warriors became more educated bureaucrats and Warriors became more educated bureaucrats and consumers of wealth.consumers of wealth.

• This is what the Tokugawa shogunate wanted and This is what the Tokugawa shogunate wanted and warriors (samurai) were brought into government warriors (samurai) were brought into government positions and intellectual pursuits.positions and intellectual pursuits.

• It was the goal of the Tokugawa shoguns to It was the goal of the Tokugawa shoguns to reducereduce the number of trained professional warriors and the number of trained professional warriors and end end the strong samurai culture.the strong samurai culture.

Northern EurasiaNorthern Eurasia EuropeEurope, though, was increasing its , though, was increasing its professional professional

soldier populationsoldier population with academies and career with academies and career offerings: France; Russia; Britain.offerings: France; Russia; Britain.

Japan now adopted a Japan now adopted a closed-country attitudeclosed-country attitude to the to the spread of foreign influences to maintain stability, but spread of foreign influences to maintain stability, but not to not to knowledgeknowledge of foreign culture of foreign culture..

Buddhism and neo-Confucianism entered from Buddhism and neo-Confucianism entered from China.China. Buddhism was adapted to the Japanese Buddhism was adapted to the Japanese perspective and became perspective and became ZenZen. It was suspect by strict . It was suspect by strict Shintoists.Shintoists.

The Japanese government became somewhat The Japanese government became somewhat xenophobicxenophobic..


Japanese exports amounted to some metal, and Japanese exports amounted to some metal, and porcelain, but not much else.porcelain, but not much else.

Nobles conducted their own tradeNobles conducted their own trade and and ignored the ignored the closed-country approach when it suited their closed-country approach when it suited their purpose.purpose.

Northern EurasiaNorthern Eurasia 1600s and 1700s were time of 1600s and 1700s were time of achievement in art, steel , and achievement in art, steel , and

potterypottery. Much of these skills were learned . Much of these skills were learned from from KoreansKoreans brought into Japan. brought into Japan.

KabukiKabuki drama emerged with spectacular staging effects. drama emerged with spectacular staging effects.

Merchants Merchants made use of this knowledge and were the made use of this knowledge and were the key to key to modernizationmodernization..

Cities like Kyoto, Edo, and Osaka grew with middle class Cities like Kyoto, Edo, and Osaka grew with middle class influence.influence.

Daimyos too forced trade and did gain influence.Daimyos too forced trade and did gain influence.

Note: Economic considerations often are at the center of political Note: Economic considerations often are at the center of political and social conditions.and social conditions.


Japan slowly Japan slowly transformed itselftransformed itself from a from a militarymilitary to a to a civilcivil society. This created society. This created problems with the military:problems with the military:

In 1702, for example, the incident of the In 1702, for example, the incident of the Forty-Forty-Seven RoninSeven Ronin. They were “masterless samurai” . They were “masterless samurai” who avenged the disgrace of their master by who avenged the disgrace of their master by assassinating his enemy. It was a samurai assassinating his enemy. It was a samurai right.right.

Ultimately, they were forced to obey the civil Ultimately, they were forced to obey the civil laws of society as being above their own laws of society as being above their own samurai code. samurai code.

They would have to commit They would have to commit ““seppukuseppuku.”.”


Merchants instrumental in the transition from a Merchants instrumental in the transition from a military to a civil societymilitary to a civil society. This presented problems . This presented problems though:though:

Merchants had great wealth.Merchants had great wealth. Merchants competed with aristocracy.Merchants competed with aristocracy. Merchants married aristocracy Merchants married aristocracy in contradiction to in contradiction to

Confucian rules.Confucian rules.

The The Tokugawa shoguns sought to protect Tokugawa shoguns sought to protect Japanese Japanese society from society from too much too much merchant influence.merchant influence.


Thus, while the Thus, while the Tokugawa ShogunateTokugawa Shogunate put put into place a political and economic system into place a political and economic system based upon based upon progress and innovationprogress and innovation, , Japanese society Japanese society outpaced the goveroutpaced the government.nment.

The Tokugawa shoguns embracedThe Tokugawa shoguns embraced neo- neo-Confucianism, Confucianism, althoughalthough many Japanese many Japanese adhered to traditional belief systems such asadhered to traditional belief systems such as Shinto.Shinto.

Northern EurasiaNorthern EurasiaChina:China:• When the Mongol When the Mongol YuanYuan dynasty ended in dynasty ended in

13681368, the , the MingMing and then and then QingQing rulers sought rulers sought to erase all Mongol cultural elements of the to erase all Mongol cultural elements of the Yuan dynasty.Yuan dynasty.

• They promoted They promoted Confucian social preceptsConfucian social precepts, , together with political stability in a large, together with political stability in a large, agrarian stateagrarian state. It was successful for nearly . It was successful for nearly 500 years.500 years.

• Royal families would be Royal families would be hierarchical and hierarchical and authoritarian, to protect their interests and authoritarian, to protect their interests and guarantee stability.guarantee stability.

Northern EurasiaNorthern Eurasia• The Ming relied on imperial officials called The Ming relied on imperial officials called

““mandarins,mandarins,” to oversea government policies in the ” to oversea government policies in the realm. Eunuchs used at court functions.realm. Eunuchs used at court functions.

• They promoted They promoted Confucian social preceptsConfucian social precepts, together , together with political stability in a large, with political stability in a large, agrarian stateagrarian state. It was . It was successful for nearly 500 years.successful for nearly 500 years.

• Confucian civil service exams and schools were Confucian civil service exams and schools were restored.restored.

• Emphasis on all things “Chinese:” names, language, Emphasis on all things “Chinese:” names, language, and dress. and dress.

• Emperor YongleEmperor Yongle moved the capital to moved the capital to Beijing, Beijing, sent sent naval expeditions to the Indian Oceannaval expeditions to the Indian Ocean, and refortified , and refortified the Great Wall.the Great Wall.

Northern EurasiaNorthern Eurasia• From the 1500s to 1664 the From the 1500s to 1664 the Ming EmpireMing Empire exerted exerted

influence on global economyinfluence on global economy..

• They used They used assembly-line productionassembly-line production of porcelain, of porcelain, silk and lacquered furniture.silk and lacquered furniture.

• Zheng He’sZheng He’s multi-decked junks carried troops and multi-decked junks carried troops and cargo into the Indian Ocean. His efforts though were cargo into the Indian Ocean. His efforts though were opposed by Confucian officials.opposed by Confucian officials.

• Note again the Asian emphasis on maritime wealth, Note again the Asian emphasis on maritime wealth, although not necessarily maritime empire. The Ming although not necessarily maritime empire. The Ming did not follow through, and recalled the fleet of did not follow through, and recalled the fleet of Zheng He.Zheng He.


Ming China declined due to Ming China declined due to internal problemsinternal problems aggravated by environmental problems of the “aggravated by environmental problems of the “Little Little Ice AgeIce Age” temperature drop. This ” temperature drop. This affected agricultural affected agricultural production forcing inflation.production forcing inflation.

InflationInflation also due to flow of silver from the west. also due to flow of silver from the west. Border threatsBorder threats and rebellions created war costs. and rebellions created war costs.

To prevent invasion from Japan, the Ming brought in To prevent invasion from Japan, the Ming brought in Manchu troopsManchu troops from Manchuria. ( Rome, Persia, from Manchuria. ( Rome, Persia, Ottomans). They were originally pastoral nomads Ottomans). They were originally pastoral nomads north of Korea.north of Korea.

Eventually, the Eventually, the Manchu rebelled and took BeijingManchu rebelled and took Beijing and set up their own dynasty. (C/c with Mamluk and set up their own dynasty. (C/c with Mamluk rebellion in Egypt against the Abassid ruler.)rebellion in Egypt against the Abassid ruler.)


The new dynasty was called the The new dynasty was called the QingQing (Ching). Today the Manchu are an (Ching). Today the Manchu are an ethnic ethnic minority in China.minority in China.

Portuguese, Spanish, and the DutchPortuguese, Spanish, and the Dutch gained gained only only limited trade accesslimited trade access..

A Portuguese ship reached China in 1513, A Portuguese ship reached China in 1513, but was not permitted to trade. but was not permitted to trade.


In time Spain and the Dutch could trade only In time Spain and the Dutch could trade only from a base in Taiwan. Eventually, the Dutch from a base in Taiwan. Eventually, the Dutch became the main European trader in East became the main European trader in East Asia.Asia.

To Europeans, trade with China was only To Europeans, trade with China was only second in importance to the spice trade of second in importance to the spice trade of southern Asia.southern Asia.


European contact with China was conducted largely through European contact with China was conducted largely through the Jesuits. the Jesuits.

Missionary Matteo Ricci adapted Catholic Christianity to Missionary Matteo Ricci adapted Catholic Christianity to Chinese culture by incorporating some Confucian concepts of Chinese culture by incorporating some Confucian concepts of ancestor worship. ancestor worship. Emperor KangxiEmperor Kangxi supported the Jesuits in supported the Jesuits in this.this.

• This combination of cultural traditions is called:This combination of cultural traditions is called:

syncretismsyncretism

Jesuits also introduced the latest science and technology from Jesuits also introduced the latest science and technology from Europe.Europe.


Economics:Economics: Chinese products gained in popularity in Chinese products gained in popularity in

Europe especially among the wealthy Europe especially among the wealthy and middle class: silk; tea; porcelain; and middle class: silk; tea; porcelain; and wallpaper. and wallpaper.

Trade was eventually conducted with Trade was eventually conducted with Europeans at certain market locations in Europeans at certain market locations in China from which trade could be China from which trade could be controlled: city of controlled: city of CantonCanton..


Europeans did not favor the Europeans did not favor the Canton trading system Canton trading system though.though.Question: Why?Question: Why?It limited European control over the trade.It limited European control over the trade.

• Eventually tea became a major import for Russia, Eventually tea became a major import for Russia, Central Asia, and the Middle East by land trade.Central Asia, and the Middle East by land trade.

• Western Europe acquired tea by the sea routesWestern Europe acquired tea by the sea routes. It . It competed with chocolate and coffee by the 1600s.competed with chocolate and coffee by the 1600s.


• Eventually, Eventually, the British replaced the the British replaced the Dutch Dutch and the main trading partner for and the main trading partner for China, but Britain imported more from China, but Britain imported more from China than it exported.China than it exported.

• Britain could not get China to relax the Britain could not get China to relax the Canton trading system Canton trading system even with a high even with a high level mission of diplomats known as level mission of diplomats known as the the Macartney mission Macartney mission (1792).(1792).


• 1793-17941793-1794: the British try to establish : the British try to establish diplomatic relations (embassy) with diplomatic relations (embassy) with China, but they are refused. China, but they are refused.

• Same with the Dutch, French, and Same with the Dutch, French, and Russians.Russians.

Question: why did the Chinese act this Question: why did the Chinese act this way?way?

To protect themselves.To protect themselves.


Jesuit descriptions of Chinese society Jesuit descriptions of Chinese society influenced influenced governments in Europe to want to rule in the style of governments in Europe to want to rule in the style of the Chinese emperors. the Chinese emperors.

Emperors were seen as Emperors were seen as philosopher kingsphilosopher kings and the and the French philosopher French philosopher Voltaire expressed admiration Voltaire expressed admiration for them.for them.

While the Ming and Qing succeeded in their goal of While the Ming and Qing succeeded in their goal of restoring Chinese tradition of Confucian hierarchy, restoring Chinese tradition of Confucian hierarchy, they could not preventthey could not prevent the the impact of new food crops impact of new food crops from abroad and of global trade on the economy.from abroad and of global trade on the economy.


Economic expansion was due to Economic expansion was due to tight tight controls by the government ( similar to the controls by the government ( similar to the mercantilism of western Europe.mercantilism of western Europe.

China was experiencing an increase in crops China was experiencing an increase in crops and food supplies and food supplies due to American and due to American and African products.African products.

This resulted in a This resulted in a population explosion to population explosion to 400 million people by the late 1700’s. 400 million people by the late 1700’s.


Russian Empire:Russian Empire:• From 1500 to 1800 Russia expanded from From 1500 to 1800 Russia expanded from

eastern Europe through northern Asia and eastern Europe through northern Asia and into North America.into North America.

With the Mongols gone, With the Mongols gone, MoscowMoscow becomes becomes the center of the Russian state.the center of the Russian state.

Ivan IV takes the title of Tsar in 1547Ivan IV takes the title of Tsar in 1547..


Russia expanded eastward into Siberia with Russia expanded eastward into Siberia with the help of the the help of the Cossacks.Cossacks.

Cossacks: people of southern European Cossacks: people of southern European Russia noted as cavalrymen and their Russia noted as cavalrymen and their service to the Tsar.service to the Tsar.

Siberia was known for its furs and timber.Siberia was known for its furs and timber.


Russia incorporated Asian peoples Russia incorporated Asian peoples including Mongolsincluding Mongols,, although Russians although Russians themselves were a branch of the Slavic themselves were a branch of the Slavic peoples of eastern Europe and mostly peoples of eastern Europe and mostly Orthodox Christians.Orthodox Christians.

Church (religion) could play politics but Church (religion) could play politics but would become would become corrupted by worldly or corrupted by worldly or secular affairs. secular affairs.


1613: The Romanov dynasty begins. 1613: The Romanov dynasty begins.

Highly autocratic dynasty.Highly autocratic dynasty.

Autocracy: Autocracy: Government by a single person having unlimited power; Government by a single person having unlimited power; despotism.despotism.

Early 1600s was a time of civil warfareEarly 1600s was a time of civil warfare when many peasants fled or when many peasants fled or became slaves.became slaves.

1649: Law passed that transformed peasants into serfs who were tied 1649: Law passed that transformed peasants into serfs who were tied to a piece of land. Serfs were under control of landowners who made to a piece of land. Serfs were under control of landowners who made up only 2% of Russia’s population.up only 2% of Russia’s population.

They were not slaves, which were owned by a master.They were not slaves, which were owned by a master.


From From 1689-17251689-1725: : Peter the Great tried to Peter the Great tried to reduce Russia’s reduce Russia’s

isolation and increase the empire’s size. isolation and increase the empire’s size.

Allowed Allowed foreign merchants foreign merchants in Moscow.in Moscow. Brought in western Europeans to train his Brought in western Europeans to train his

army.army.

Fought the Ottoman Turks to gain a Fought the Ottoman Turks to gain a warm-warm-water port on the Black Seawater port on the Black Sea and liberate and liberate Constantinople from Muslim rule.Constantinople from Muslim rule.

• A port there with open Mediterranean access A port there with open Mediterranean access would be the dream of Russian Tsars for would be the dream of Russian Tsars for centuries.centuries.

He failed!He failed!


He succeeded in creating a He succeeded in creating a Baltic Baltic Sea portSea port, though, and built a , though, and built a new new capital of St. Petersburg.capital of St. Petersburg.

Modernization was crucial to him: Modernization was crucial to him: Dress, grooming, socialization, etc.Dress, grooming, socialization, etc.

Politically, he was determined to Politically, he was determined to be an be an absolutist ruler.absolutist ruler.


Peter’s goals:Peter’s goals:1.1. To To westernizewesternize Russia like other nations of Russia like other nations of

Britain and France.Britain and France.2.2. Break the power of the nobles Break the power of the nobles ((BoyarsBoyars) by ) by

reducing their roles in government and the reducing their roles in government and the army.army.

3.3. ControlControl the Russian Orthodox Church the Russian Orthodox Church and and curb its power.curb its power.

4.4. Develop and empire: Develop and empire: expand into Alaska and the expand into Alaska and the American northwest for furs.American northwest for furs.


Catherine the Great (1762-1796):Catherine the Great (1762-1796): Russia was the Russia was the largest land empirelargest land empire, but not , but not

industrial like other nations.industrial like other nations. Did not want to oppose the noblesDid not want to oppose the nobles. This slowed . This slowed

Russian political and social development.Russian political and social development.

Expanded the military of Peter the Great.Expanded the military of Peter the Great.

17831783: finally beat the Ottomans in a war for the : finally beat the Ottomans in a war for the northern shore of the northern shore of the Black SeaBlack Sea. .

Would greatly Would greatly advocate the introduction of advocate the introduction of Enlightenment ideas. Enlightenment ideas.


Between 1500 and 1800Between 1500 and 1800, both Russia and , both Russia and China grew tremendously, China grew tremendously, butbut in actual in actual power power could not compete could not compete with Portugal, with Portugal, Netherlands, Britain, and France who had Netherlands, Britain, and France who had less territory but more world influenceless territory but more world influence..

Question: Why?Question: Why?

The aspect of commerce and free economic The aspect of commerce and free economic development based upon the development based upon the merchant merchant class and proper work ethic.class and proper work ethic.


Both China and Russia also had Both China and Russia also had oppressive oppressive social systems and were hierarchical. social systems and were hierarchical.

Both, although having a diverse social Both, although having a diverse social make-up, make-up, did not appreciate ethnic or did not appreciate ethnic or religious differences.religious differences.

By the 1700s, Russia had made the By the 1700s, Russia had made the greatest greatest progressprogress in catching up with its European in catching up with its European neighbors, although still had a problem neighbors, although still had a problem with military technology.with military technology.


Russia would develop a modern Russia would develop a modern warship fleet, warship fleet, but in keeping with but in keeping with Asian perspectiveAsian perspective, neither China nor , neither China nor Japan did likewise.Japan did likewise.

Socially, Russian and Chinese Socially, Russian and Chinese ethnic ethnic and cultural variation undermined and cultural variation undermined unityunity. Japan did not experience this . Japan did not experience this condition.condition.


Economically, Economically, China and Russia China and Russia supported forced laborsupported forced labor, while , while merchant status was unstable and merchant status was unstable and often constricted (in Russia due to often constricted (in Russia due to noble opposition, and in China due to noble opposition, and in China due to Confucian opposition).Confucian opposition).

Even Japan experienced suspicion of Even Japan experienced suspicion of merchant activity.merchant activity.

Documents

Northern Eurasia 1450-1750 AD. Northern Eurasia Japan: Political unification took 4 centuries due to Japan’s traditional feudal system. Political