Not All Nonlabelers Are Created Equal: Distinguishing Between

Quasi-Feminists and Neoliberals

Supplemental to Caroline C. Fitz, Alyssa N. Zucker

and Laina Y. Bay-ChengVol. 36(3), September 2012

and podcast

DS1

Explore potential differences among women who endorse feminist ideals but not a feminist identity

Examine the phenomenon of “I am not a feminist, but…”

(see also Zucker, PWQ, 2004)

Purpose of Study

DS2

A response to discrimination and marginalization

Aims to empower women and produce equality

Can manifest in individuals’ attitudes, identities, or both

What does feminism mean to you?

What is feminism?

DS3

Who is a feminist? ◦ Women who label themselves as feminists and hold

feminist attitudes

Who is a nonlabeler?◦ Women who do not label themselves as feminist

yet hold feminist attitudes

Who is a nonfeminist? ◦ Women who neither label themselves nor hold

feminist attitudes

Categories

DS4

Quasi-feminists: individuals who closely resemble feminists in their attitudes and values but not identification

Neoliberals: individuals who hold some of the same positions as feminists on certain issues but for different ideological reasons

Nonlabelers are not all the same

DS5

Why might an individual be a “quasi-feminist?

Stigmatization of feminists

Little or no exposure to positive portrayals of feminists

Quasi-feminists

DS6

What is a neoliberal ideology?

Belief an equitable society is formed by personal responsibility and competition

The “American Dream”: Hard work + ability = success-regardless of group membership

Neoliberals

DS7

Potential Similarities and Differences

FEMINIST NEOLIBERAL

Support equal pay for equal work

Support affirmative action

Question sexual double standard

Support social justice and collectivism

Support equal pay for equal work

Oppose regulating opportunities

Adhere more to sexual double standard

See social justice as unnecessary-focus on individual effort and merit

DS8

Most past research has suggested nonlabelers are either: ◦ All quasi-feminist

Or◦ All Neoliberal

This study examines potential differences among nonlabelers into these two groups

Why this study?

DS9

Hypothesized Differences

Quasi-Feminists Neoliberals

Report weaker sexist beliefs

Report less support of meritocratic, system-justifying and social dominance beliefs

Report stronger sexist beliefs

Report stronger support of meritocratic, system-justifying and social dominance beliefs

DS10

Sample 1: ◦ 211 women ◦ Mean age 19.27 ◦ 153 (73%) in 1st or 2nd year of college

Sample 2: ◦ 301 women ◦ Mean age 19.19 ◦ 222 (73.8%) in 1st or 2nd year of college

Who was in the study?

DS11

Feminist Beliefs and Behavior Measure◦ Categorize participants as nonfeminists, feminists

or nonlabelers◦ Extent of agreement with three statements:

Girls and women have not been treated as well as boys and men in our society

Women and men should be paid equally for the same work

Women’s unpaid work should be more socially valued

Indicate whether they identify as feminist

How were constructs measured?

DS12

Perceptions of Meritocracy Inventory◦ Extent to which one believes in a system of equal

opportunity where success is based on individual merit

Just World Scale◦ Extent to which one believes people get what they

work for and what they deserve

Modern Sexism Scale ◦ Extent to which an individual believes sexism no

longer impacts society

Differentiation among nonlabelers

DS13

Ambivalent Sexism Inventory◦ Attitudes toward women that are antagonistic or

attitudes that reinforce traditional stereotypes about women

Equal Opportunity Scale◦ How strongly one believes that hard work and

ability are the determinants of success and support free competition without social policy to enforce equality

Social Dominance Orientation Scale for Others◦ Preference for inequality among social groups

Additional Measures in Sample 2

DS14

Feminists=60 participants

Nonfeminists= 62 participants

Nonlabelers= 89 participants◦ 45 (51%)=neoliberal ◦ 44 (49%)= quasi-feminist

Results

DS15

Differences among nonlabelers

Quasi-Feminists Neoliberals

Report weaker sexist beliefs

Modern Sexism Scale S1:M= 2.07 S2: M=2.08

Hostile Sexism S2:M= 2.47

Benevolent Sexism S2:M=2.70

Report stronger sexist beliefs

Modern Sexism Scale S1:M= 2.67 S2: M=2.60

Hostile Sexism S2: M= 2.72

Benevolent Sexism S2: M=3.06

All means between quasi-feminists and neoliberals were significantly different

Hypothesis was supported

DS16

Differences among nonlabelers

Quasi-Feminists Neoliberals

Report less support of meritocratic beliefs

Perceptions of Meritocracy Inventory S1:M= 3.21 S2: M=2.97

Report more support of meritocratic beliefs

Perceptions of Meritocracy Inventory S1:M= 3.89 S2: M=3.84

All means between quasi-feminists and neoliberals were significantly different

Hypothesis was supported

DS17

Differences among nonlabelers

Quasi-Feminists Neoliberals

Report less system-justifying beliefs

Just World Scale S1:M= 2.76 S2: M=2.45

Equal Opportunity BeliefsS2: M=2.77

Report more system-justifying beliefs

Just World Scale S1:M= 3.94 S2: M=3.81

Equal Opportunity BeliefsS2: M=3.72

All means between quasi-feminists and neoliberals were significantly different

Hypothesis was supported

DS18

Differences among nonlabelers

Quasi-Feminists Neoliberals

Report less social dominance beliefs

Social Dominance Orientation

S2: M=2.36

Report more social dominance beliefs

Social Dominance Orientation

S2: M=2.91

Means between quasi-feminists and neoliberals were significantly differentHypothesis was supported

DS19

See article for means for feminists and nonfeminists for all measures

See article for additional information regarding cluster analysis and MANOVA results

Additional Results

DS20

What are the possible implications of these findings?

Neoliberals see gender equality as a meritocratic issue rather than a feminist issue

Political differences among nonfeminists, feminists, quasi-feminists, and neoliberals

Implications of Study

DS21

Experiences of discrimination can have a detrimental impact on well-being◦ This impact may be heightened for neoliberals

who believe the world is fair and just Attributing negative experiences to

discrimination can protect self-esteem◦ Neoliberals may be at risk for blaming themselves

rather than recognizing bias◦ Quasi-feminists are more likely to recognize social

injustice when it occurs and not blame themselves

Women’s Personal Well-Being

DS22

Collective well-being and activism Neoliberals may be less

likely than quasi-feminists or feminists to work to improve women and other minority groups’ well-being

Neoliberals can be allies in activism efforts if issues are presented in terms of fairness

Quasi-feminists may engage in more activism if they are exposed to positive attitudes about feminists

DS23

Where should this topic of study go next?

Develop a single questionnaire to differentiate between quasi-feminists and neoliberals

Explore the impact of SES, ethnicity, sexual orientation or other identity factors

Future Directions

DS24

Questions or Comments?

DS25