人 類 誌J.Anthrop.Soc.Nippon

95(4):477-436(1987)

Note on the Technique of Decapitation in Medieval Japan

Iwataro MORIMOTO

Department of Anatomy, St. Marianna University School of Medicine

Abstract A detailed technique of decapitation by the sword in the Middle

Ages could be elucidated from the skulls with the upper cervical vertebrae

of two males from Imakoji-nishi site, Kamakura, Kanagawa Pref., Japan,

which dated back to the Nanbokucho or early Muromachi period, i. e. the

latter half of the 14th century. The observations showed that in both males

the sword cut deep into the 4th cervical vertebra from the posterior right side and came a short stop halfway in the vertebral column, followed by a secondary

cut added to the 3rd cervical vertebra in a male to sever his head from the

body. Old Japanese tradition said that the anterior skin of the neck of the

convicted person should be left intact in decapitation. This seemed to indi-

cate that the old Japanese saying and the real technique of beheading in

the Middle Ages agreed with each other. In comparison with Iron Age

specimens from Sutton Walls, Great Britain, it was suggested that the

Japanese way of decapitation by the sword might be distinguishable from the old European by a primary clean but halfway cut deep into the neck

from behind to lop the head.

Keywords Bone injury, Decapitation, Middle ages, Japanese custom

Introduction

As yet a few papers have been made of

the skeletons of old-time Japanese whose

head had been cut off. As far as is known,

however, the decapitation is mostly supposed

indirectly on the basis of a special kind of

arrangement of the injuries cut by the so-

called Japanese sword only in the occipital

region of the skull remained. For example,

KAWAGOE (1965) suggested an unwritten

decapitation of a male on account of an

ovoid cut located at the occipital squama

of the skull from Ginza-nishi, Chuo-ku,

Tokyo, which dated back to the middle

stage of the Edo period, i. e. 18th century.

It was likewise mentioned by MORIMOTO

(1985) that a male would be beheaded with-out any record, considering the arrange-

ment of several injuries distributed in both

occipital and temporal bones of the skull

from Hitotsubashi Metropolitan High School

site, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, dating from the

early stage of the Edo period, i. e. 17th

century.

Recently, the author has examined two

Article No. 8721 Received July 4, 1987.

478 I. MORIMOTO

male skulls with the upper cervical vertebrae

from Kamakura which belong to the early

stage of the medieval Muromachi period,

i. e. 14th century, and found the sword cuts

not in the skull, but in the cervical vertebrae

giving direct evidence of decapitation by the sword. The present paper is primarily

devoted to the elucidation of the technique

of decapitation in the medieval Japan based

on the observations of them.

Materials

The skeletons examined consisted of the

skulls and upper cervical vertebrae of two

adult males, which dated back to the

medieval Nanbokucho or early Muromachi

period, i. e. the latter half of the 14th century. They were unearthed together from one and the same small pit near a

gate on the premises of those days in Imakoji-nishi archaeological site, Kamakura,

Kanagawa Pref., Japan (Fig. 1). In either

skull, the mandible is in a natural position,

though the left half of this bone of male B had been naturally broken post mortem

and lost. Since the skulls with the upper

cervical vertebrae were unaccompanied with

any other postcranial skeletons, it seemed

very likely that the heads cut off would be

carelessly buried in this place after the

identification of the convicted persons with neither ceremony nor returning the heads

to the bereaved families. All the bones

observed were in a fairly good state of

preservation. The ages of males A and B estimated from both cranial suture closure

and dental attrition would be in the twenties and in the thirties, respectively. No patho-

logical changes except the injuries in the

cervical vertebrae were found in their skeletons.

Observations

(1) Male A: The skeletal remains of male A examined consist of the skull and

the 1st to 3rd cervical vertebrae (Fig. 2).

The sword cut in question is found in the

right half of the antero-inferior part of the

body of the 3rd cervical vertebra (Figs. 2

to 4, 8 and 9). The cut surface is flat and

somewhat triangular in shape, and faces

downward and forward forming an angle

of about 50 degrees with a horizontal plane.

The postero-inferior side of the triangular

cut intersects the inferior surface of the

vertebral body, making a straight line

directing from the anterior right to the

posterior left, while the antero-superior left side of the cut runs obliquely from the

middle of the anterior surface to the left

part of the inferior surface of the vertebral body, forming a straight border line between

the cut surface and the successive broken area due to the impact of the sword. Judg-

ing from the shape and inclination of the

injured surface, the sharp edge of the sword

seems to have cut deep into the vertebral

body in an oblique direction from the lower

posterior right to the upper anterior left, and come to a full stop around the median

line, associated with the secondary breakage

at an area contiguous to the cut in the

anterior left part of the vertebral body.

Considering both direction and inclination

of the cut in the 3rd cervical vertebral

body, it may safely be assumed that the

sword had come through the 4th cervical

vertebra obliquely from the posterior right

side, though this cannot be clearly exhibited

because the latter vertebra had been lost.

The mandibular ramus on either side which

is anteriorly and laterally opposite to the

3rd cervical vertebra in situ remains intact.

Note on the Technique of Decapitation in Medieval Japan 479

Fig, 1. Discovery of the skulls with the upper cervical vertebrae of males A (right) and B

(left) buried together into one and the same pit in Imakoji-nishi site, Kamakura. By courtesy of Mr. Norikata MATSUO of the Board of Education of Kamakura City.

Fig. 2. Right lateral aspect

of the skull with the 1st to

3rd cervical vertebrae of

male A. The arrow shows

the cut surface at the 3rd

cervical vertebral body in

profile.

480 I. MORIMOTO

Fig. 3. Right lateral aspect of the 1st

to 3rd cervical vertebrae of male A.

The long and short arrows show the

cut surface and the successive broken

area at the 3rd cervical body in profile,

respectively.

Fig. 4. Antero-inferior aspect of the 1st to 3rd cervical vertebrae of male A. The white (No. 1) and black (No. 2) arrows show the triangular cut surface

and the successive broken area at the 3rd cervical vertebral body, respec-

tively.

Note on the Technique of Decapitation in Medieval Japan 481

(B) Male B : The skeletal remains of male B observed are composed of the skull

and the 1st to 4th cervical vertebrae, though

the left half of the mandible had been lost

(Fig. 5). There are two kinds of cut sur-faces in the cervical vertebrae: main or

primary cut in the 4th cervical vertebra and accessory or secondary one in the 3rd.

The main cut is running through the

right transverse and superior articular pro-

cesses of the 4th cervical vertebra on a

nearly horizontal plane (Figs. 5 to 7, 10 and

11). As a result, only a small part chiefly

composed of the upper halves of the pro-

cesses above the cut surface remains,

whereas another majority of this bone is

lost. Since the 4th cervical vertebra is

mostly lost, it is not easy to say whether

the sword stopped so short in the vertebral

body or not. If, however, just the same as

seen in the 3rd cervical vertebra of male A

is true of the case as male B, the sharp

edge of the sword would run from the

posterior right to the anterior left to cut deep into the 4th cervical vertebral body of

male B, and come to a full stop halfway,

causing a secondary breakage of the verte-

bral body at an area contiguous to the cut

surface.

The accessory cut which seems to be

successively added on the neck in order to

sever the head completely from the body is

found in the 3rd cervical vertebra (Figs. 6,

7, 10 and 11). It runs obliquely upward and

to the right from the tip of the left inferior articular process to the upper margin of the

root of the right pedicle, resulting in the

cleanly divided bone. On the other hand,

the lamina of this vertebra is also broken

by the impact of the secondary cut and

lost. No injury is found in the 2nd cervical

vertebra located just above the 3rd cervical

vertebra in situ. The mandibular ramus on

the right side likewise remains intact, though

Fig. 5. Right lateral aspect of the

skull with the 1st to 4th cervical

vertebrae of male B. The arrow

shows the main cut at the 4th

cervical vertebra in profile.

482 I. MORIMOTO

Fig 6. Anterior aspect of the 1st to 4th cervical vertebrae of male B. The short arrows (No. 1) show the horizontal main cut surface at the 4th cervical vertebra in

profile, while the long arrow (No. 2) indicates the oblique secondary cut line at the 3rd, respectively.

Fig. 7. Inferior aspect of the 1st to 4th cervical vertebrae of male B. The arrows No. 1 show the main cut surface through the right transverse and superior articular

processes of the 4th cervical vertebra. The arrows No. 2 indicate the secondary cut surface at the left inferior articular process of the 4th cervical vertebra, while the arrows No. 3 show the same secondary cut edge at the inferior surface of the body

of this vertebra.

Note on the Technique of Decapitation in Medieval Japan 483

Fig. 8. Diagram to show the observed cut line (No. 1) which is drawn on the anterior

aspect of the cervical vertebrae in the case of male A. (The skeletal sketches in Figs. 8

and 10 are based on R. MONTGOMERY, Head and neck anatomy with clinical correlations,

McGraw-Hill International Book Co., Auck- land, 1981).

Fig. 9. Diagram to show the observed cut line (No. 1) which is drawn on the left lateral aspect of the neck in the case of

male A. (The sketches of the neck in Figs. 9 and 11 are based on J. L. HIATT and L. P.

GARTNER, Textbook of head and neck anato- my, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1982).

that on the left is lost.

Brief Note

In the skeletons of both males A and B

examined, the primary cut for decapitation

resulting from the sword runs equally

through the 4th cervical vertebra from

behind, though a secondary cut is added to

the 3rd cervical vertebra of male B. It

should be noticed that the primary cut is

running in a direction from the postero-

inferior right to the antero-superior left in

male A (Figs. 8 and 9) and nearly horizon-

tally from the posterior right in male B

(Figs. 10 and 11). This seems to indicate

that the neck of each beheaded person is

rather in a horizontal than in a vertical

position during decapitation, and that the right-handed executioner is standing on the

slightly posterior left side of each crouching

convicted person.

As seen in the above mentioned cases of

KAWAGOE and MORIMOTO, the sword is

liable to miss the executioner's aim and

often to cut the head (or the shoulders) of

the convicted person, first because the con-

victed person sometimes makes his escape in the place of execution, and second be-

cause the executioner is not unusually poor at

the technique of decapitation. According to

484 I. MORIMOTO

Fig. 10. Diagram to show the observed main

(No. 1) and secondary (No. 2) cut lines which are drawn on the anterior aspect of

the cervical vertebrae in the case of male B.

Fig. 11. Diagram to show the observed main

(No. 1) and secondary (No. 2) cut lines which are drawn on the left lateral aspect

of the neck in the case of male B.

MORIKAWA (1978), it was a general method

of decapitation by the sword on the execu-

tion ground in the Edo period that the

convicted person who was formally sitting

back on his feet, with the knees on a

straw-mat, was mostly decapitated his head

just at the moment when his neck was reflectly extended forward because his big

toes were suddenly pulled backward by the

executioner's assistants. It was mentioned

by MORIKAWA that as the convicted person

was usually frightened on the execution

ground, so the executioner rarely beheaded him without any warning in the midst of a

small consolatory talk with him. Since the

head had been cut off precisely at the 4th

cervical vertebra in the present series, it

has to be realized that the two convicted

persons would be beheaded by one and the same executioner who should be ranked

with an expert or veteran in the way of

decapitation of those days, and possibly that

the convicted persons might be brave and

dignified warriors prepared for decapitation.

As seen in Iron Age specimens from Sut-

ton Walls of Great Britain reported by

CORNWALL (1954) and cited by BROTHWELL

(1981), the old European decapitation by the sword is used to result in cleanly divided

cervical vertebrae. The Japanese method

of decapitation, however, differs from the

European in the use of the sword. The

present observations make it quite clear that the sword generally cuts deep into the

cervical vertebral column and stops short

within it. It is, however, highly possible

Note on the Technique of Decapitation in Medieval Japan 485

that this halfway cut could put the con-

victed person quickly to death, because the

sword would sever not only the spinal cord,

but also the right vertebral and common

carotid arteries. Old Japanese tradition said

that the anterior skin of the neck of the

convicted person should be left intact at

the time of decapitation. This method of

decapitation was, according to SASAMA

(1980), in common use during the Edo period

(ca. 17th to 19th century) by reason of pre-venting both executioner and convict from

a stain on their clothes with the blood

spurted out of the beheaded body. That is,

if the cut head (with upper neck) was con-

nected with its counter part of the body by

the skin of the anterior region of the neck,

the head became to hang down forward

and the blood did not spurt but flowed out

steadily from the body. The author's mate-

rial indicates that the halfway-cut method of decapitation had been adopted not only

in the recent Edo, but also in the medieval

Muromachi period of Japan. This shows

that the old Japanese saying and the present

observations agree with each other. It is,

therefore, reasonable to suppose that the

Japanese method of decapitation in the Middle Ages is distinguishable from the old

European by a primary clean but halfway

cut deep into the neck from behind to lop

the head.

Acknowledgement

The author wishes to express his thanks

to Mr. Norikata MATSUO of the Board of Education of Kamakura City for material

and helpful suggestions.

抄 録

中 世に おけ る打ち首の技法

森本岩太郎

打 ち首(斬 首)の 所見が認め られ る古 人首例は比較的

少な く,偶 然に発見 された と しても,頭 蓋の刀創な ど

か ら斬首を間接 的に想定 した場合が 大部分を占める と

思われ る.著 者が最近経験 した鎌倉 市今小路西遺 跡出

土の南北朝期(14世 紀 後半)に 属す る斬 首 された2個 体

分の中世頭蓋の場 合は,切 られた上位頸椎が 一緒 に残

っていたので打ち首の技法が よ く分か る.当 時 の屋敷

の門付近に,A・B2個 体分の頭蓋 と上 位頸椎だけが

一 緒に埋め られていた.首 実験後 に首 だけが遺 族に返

されず,そ こに仮埋葬 された ものである らしい.2体

とも男性で,年 齢はAが 壮年期前半,Bが 壮年期後半

と推定 され る.頭 蓋は無傷で,そ れ ぞれの頸椎が 日本

刀 のよ うな鋭利 な刃物に よ り切断 されてい る.頭 蓋 と

第1～3頸 椎か らな る男性Aの 場 合,切 断面は第3頸

椎体 の前下部を右後下方か ら左前上 方へ走 って椎体の

途 中で止 ま り,そ の先の椎体部分 は刀の衝撃に よって

破壊 され失われ てい る.切 断面 の走 向か らみて,第4

頸椎(残 存せず)を 右後下方か ら切 断 した刃先が第3頸

椎体に達 して止 まった と思われ る.頭 蓋 と第1～4頸

椎か らな る男性Bの 場合,主 切断面 は第4頸 椎 の中央

を右か らほぼ水平に走 ってい る.切 断面 よ り上方にあ

る右横突起 と右上関節突起の上半部 だけが残存 し,そ

れ以外の第4頸 椎の大部分は失われ ている.Aの 場合

と同様に,刃 先が第4頸 椎の椎体 の途 中で止 ま って,

その先の部分が破壊 された もの と推定 される.別 に第

3頸 椎の左下関節突起先端部か ら右椎 弓根基 部上面 へ

向けて椎体を左下方か ら右上方へ斜 めに走 る副切断面

があ り,こ の副切断面に よって改 めて首 が切 り離 され

てい る.失 われた第3頸 椎の椎 弓板 も この とき壊 され

た と思われ る.切 断面の走向か らみ て,両 個体 とも,

垂直に立てた頸部を横切 りに され た とい うよ りは,む

しろ正座の よ うな低い姿勢を とって前方 に差 し伸べた

頸部を,左 側やや後方に立 った右利 きの執刀者 に よ り

切 り下 ろす形で右背後か ら鋭 く切断 され,絶 命 した と

推定 され る.こ の際,首 は一 気に切 り落 とされ ていな

い.こ れは俗に 「打ち首は クビの前皮一枚 を残す のが

定法」 と言われ るところに近似の所見 であ り,こ の技

法の確立が中世 まで さかのぼ り得 るもの であるこ とが

分か る.2体 とも最初 に 第4頸 椎部を 正確 に 切 断さ

486 I.MORIMOTO

れ,頭 蓋には刀創の見 られ ないところか ら,同 一 の練

達者に よって斬 首された と推測 され るが,切 られ たほ

うも死 を覚悟 した武士 であ ったか も知れない.英 国の

Sutton Walls 出土 の鉄器時代人骨におけ る斬首例の

よ うに,首 を刀で一気 に切 り離す のが昔 のヨー ロッパ

流のや り方 とすれば,中 世におけ る日本の打ち首では

頸部を後方か ら半切 して処刑す る点にその特徴があ る

と思われる.

References

BROTHWELL, D. R., 1981: Digging up bones. 3rd ed. 208pp. British Museum (Natural History) /

Cornell Univ. Press, New York. CORNWALL, I. W., 1954: The human remains from

Sutton Walls. Arch. J., London, 60: 66-78.

(Cited by BROTHWELL).

KAWACOE, T., 1965: Edo period excavated (in

Japanese). Maruzen, Tokyo.

[河 越 逸 行,1965:掘 り出 さ れ た 江 戸 時 代.丸 善,

東 京]

MORIKAWA, T., 1978:Japanese history of death

penalty (in Japanese). Nippon-bungei-sha, To-

kyo.

[森 川 哲 郎,1978:日 本 死 刑 史,日 本 文 芸 社,東 京]

MORIMOTO, I., 1985:Japanese skeletal remains in

Edo period (in Japanese). Archaeology Quar-

terly, 13:79-82. Yuzankaku, Tokyo.

[森 本 岩 太 郎,1985:江 戸 時 代 人 の 骨,季 刊 考 古 学,

13:79-82.雄 山 閣,東 京]

SASAMA, Y.,1980: Illustrated dictionary of

judicial and police systems and practice in Edo

(old Tokyo).

[笹 間 良 彦,1980:図 説 江 戸 の 司 法 警 察 事 典,柏 書

房,東 京]

森 本 岩 太 郎 聖マ リアンナ医科大学第2解 剖学教室

〒213川 崎市宮前区菅生2-1-16

Iwataro MORIMOTO Department of Anatomy, St. Marianna University School of Medicine

2-1-16 Sugao, Miyamae, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213, Japan