Note: The majority of content in this powerpoint was obtained from the website of B. Dodge, Department of Applied Health Science at Indiana University

Note: The majority of content in this powerpoint was obtained from the website of B. Dodge, Department of

Applied Health Science at Indiana University.

http://phhp.ufl.edu/~bdodge/,

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 1

http://phhp.ufl.edu/~bdodge/



What is Qualitative Research?

• A holistic approach to questions--a recognition that human realities are complex. Broad questions.

• The focus is on human experience

• The research strategies used generally feature sustained contact with people in settings where those people normally spend their time. Contexts of Human Behavior.


Qualitative Research cont.• There is typically a high level of

researcher involvement with subjects; strategies of participant observation and in-depth, unstructured interviews are often used.

• The data produced provide a description, usually narrative, of people living through events in situations.

Cited from Boyd, pp. 67-68 in Munhall, 2001


Types of Qualitative Data

• 1. Interviews

• 2. Observations

• 3. Documents


Types of Qualitative Data• 1. Interviews

– Open-ended questions and probes yield in-depth responses about people’s experiences, opinions, perceptions, feelings and knowledge.

– Data consist of verbatim quotations with sufficient context to be interpretable.


Types of Qualitative Data cont.

• 2. Observations– Fieldwork descriptions of activities,

behaviors, actions, conversations, interpersonal interactions, organizational or community processes, or any other aspect of observable human experience.

– Data consist of field notes: rich detailed descriptions, including the context within which the observations were made.


Types of Qualitative Data cont.

• 3. Documents– Written materials and other documents,

programs records; memoranda and correspondence; official publications and reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic works, photographs, and memorabilia; and written responses to open-ended surveys.

– Data consists of excerpts from documents captured in a way that records and preserves context.


Qualitative Traditions of Inquiry

• 1. Biography--Life history, oral

history

• 2. Phenomenology--The lived experience

• 3. Grounded theory

• 4. Ethnography

• 5. Case Study


Biographical Study

– The study of an individual and her or his experiences as told to the researcher or found in documents and archival material.

– Life history--The study of an individual’s life and how it reflects cultural themes of the society.


Biographical Study cont.

– Oral history--The researcher gathers personal recollections of events, their causes, and their effects from and individual or several individuals.

– The researcher needs to collect extensive information about the subject of the biography


Biographical Study cont.

The writer, using an interpretive approach, needs to be able to bring himself or herself into the narrative and acknowledge his or her standpoint.


Phenomenology

– Describes the meaning of the lived experience about a concept or a phenomenon for several individuals.

– It has roots in the philosophical perspectives of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, etc.

--Max Van Manen, Munhall (Nursing)


Phenomenology

• Moustakas, 1994, p. 13: “to determine what an experience means for the persons who have had the experience and are able to provide a comprehensive description of it. From the individual descriptions, general or universal meanings are derived, in other words, the essences of structures of the experience.”


Grounded Theory

–Based on Symbolic Interactionism which posits that humans act and interact on the basis of symbols, which have meaning and value for the actors.


Grounded Theory cont.

• The intent of grounded theory is to generate or discover a theory that relates to a particular situation. If little is known about a topic, grounded theory is especially useful



–Usually have a question, don’t do a literature review in the

beginning.

–Usually do 20-30 interviews (maybe more than one time for

each person)



– Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously, until “saturation” is reached.

– Data reviewed and coded for categories and themes.


Grounded Theory cont.– Data analysis generates a visual picture, a

narrative statement or a series of hypotheses with a central phenomenon, causal conditions, context and consequences.

– The researcher needs to set aside theoretical ideas or notions so that analytical or substantive theories can emerge from the data.

– Systematic approach


Ethnography

– A description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system. The researcher examines the group’s observable and learned patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life.

– Involves prolonged observation of the group, typically through participant observation.


Ethnography

– Field Work– Key Informants– Thick description– Emic (insider group perspective) and

Etic (researcher’s interpretation of social life).

– Context important, need holistic view.– Need grounding in anthropology.


Ethnography cont.

– Need extensive time to collect data

– Many ethnographies may be written in a narrative or story telling approach which may be difficult for the audience accustomed to usual social science writing.


Ethnography cont.

–May incorporate quantitative data and archival documents.


Case Study

– A case study is an exploration of a “bounded system” or a case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context.

– The context of the case involves situating the case within its setting. which may be physical, social, historical and/or economic.


Case Study cont.

– Data collection strategies include direct observation, interviews, documents, archival records, participant observation, physical artifacts and audiovisual materials.

– Analysis of themes, or issues and an interpretation of the case by the researcher.


Feminist Research• Uses feminist theory as the philosophical underpinning of

the approach.• Assumes most formal knowledge is generated by men.• Assumes that patriarchy and the use of power is harmful

to women.• Some feminists also recognize social class and race as

socially generated constructs that are used to oppress others.

Spring 2006Qualitative Research--Simpson 25

Feminist Research is often classified in the “qualitative research” family because:

• It is used to generate new knowledge.• It’s purpose is to create social change.• It argues against the “top-down,” hierarchal relationships

associated with male-dominated knowledge by minimizing the social distance between researcher and subject. Respondents often participate in the research process.

• It focuses on the position in society of research subjects and the researcher.

• The perspectives or standpoint of the subject and researcher are central in data collection and analysis.


The term standpoint refers to: • The perspectives or lived experiences of the

researcher and his or her subjects.• These perspectives vary based on the location

of individuals in the social structure. Are their perspectives different from those with privileged positions in society. Is this standpoint associated with oppression based on social class, ethnicity/race, gender, sexual orientation etc. or some combination of these attributes.


Designing a Qualitative Study

• Problem Statement or Statement of Need for the Study

• No hypothesis; Research questions which you want to answer instead.

• Opinions differ about the extent of literature needed before a study begins.

• Need to identify the gaps in knowledge about the topic.


Qualitative Study Design cont.

• Research questions that are too broad:– Does Buddhism account for the patience

that seems to dominate the Thai world view?

– How do leaders make their decisions?



• Research questions better answered by quicker means:

– What television programs do Brazilians watch most?

– Where can you buy postage stamps in Italy?



• Examples of Qualitative Questions– What do people in this setting have to know in order to

do what they are doing?

– What is the story that can be told from these experiences?

– What are the underlying themes and contexts that account for the experience?


Qualitative Sampling Strategies

• No probability sampling


Sampling Strategies cont.

• Decisions about sampling and sampling strategies depend on the unit of analysis which has been determined.– individual people– program, group organization or

community– genders, ethnic groups, older and

younger


Sampling Strategies cont. • Purposeful or Judgment Sampling

– “In judgment sampling, you decide the purpose you want informants (or communities) to serve, and you go out to find some” Bernard, 2000:176

– “Key Informants” are people who are particularly knowledgeable about the inquiry setting and articulate about their knowledge.



• Purposeful Sampling Strategies– Maximum variation– Homogeneous– Critical case– Theory based– Confirming and disconfirming cases



– Snowball or chain – Extreme or deviant case– Typical case– Intensity– Politically important cases– Random purposeful



– Stratified purposeful– Criterion– Opportunistic– Combination or mixed– Convenience


Qualitative Data Collection

• Rather than developing an instrument to use, the qualitative researcher is the instrument.

• Recording data: Field notes, tape recorders, video and photographic data

• Interviews must be transcribed.


Fieldwork Strategies and Observations

• “In the fields of observation, chance favors the prepared mind.” Louis Pasteur

• “People only see what they are prepared to see.” Ralph Waldo Emerson


Fieldwork Observations

• Learn to pay attention, see what there is to see, and hear what there is to hear.

• Practice writing descriptively• Acquiring discipline in recording field

notes• Knowing how to separate detail from

trivia to achieve the former without being overwhelmed by the latter.


Fieldwork Observations cont.

• Use rigorous methods to validate and triangulate observations.

• Reporting strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective, which requires both self-knowledge and self-disclosure.

• Participant observer or onlooker or both


Qualitative Interviewing

1. Informal conversational interview

2. Interview guide approach

3. Standardized open-ended interview

4. Closed, fixed-response interview


Qualitative Interviewing cont.

• Sequencing questions• Use words that make sense to the

people being interviewed.• Ask truly open-ended questions• Avoid questions which can be

answered with a yes or no.• One idea per question.• Be careful with Why questions.


Qualitative Data Analysis• When does analysis begin? During

data collection.• Thick description is the foundation for

qualitative analysis and reporting.• Organize the data. Read all the data

and get a sense of the whole.• Coding for recurring themes and

categories


Qualitative Data Analysis• Computer-assisted qualitative data

management and analysis– Ethnograph– NUD*IST (Non-numerical Unstructured

Data With Indexing, Searching and Theorizing) QSR N6 and QSR NVivo

– ATLAS.ti


Qualitative Data Analysis• Coding data

• Finding Patterns

• Labeling Themes

• Developing Category Systems

• Looking for emergent patterns in the data


ReferencesBernard, H.R. (2000). Social Research Methods:

Qualitative and Quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Creswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Munhall, P.L. (2001). Nursing Research: A Qualitative Perspective, 3rd Edition. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett

Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods, 3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
