Notes on the Demography of Algeria

Notes on the Demography of AlgeriaAuthor(s): Dorothy GoodSource: Population Index, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Jan., 1961), pp. 3-32Published by: Office of Population ResearchStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2731710 .Accessed: 06/05/2011 13:44

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3

C UR R ENT ITEM

NOTES ON THE DEMOGRAPHY OF ALGERIA

For the demographer the statistics on the population of Al- aeria possess a special inter-

est. From them he mayfollowover more than a centurythe adjustment to an inhospitable environment of two culturally contrasting populations, the one akin to Western Europe, the other to the traditional Moslem Mid- dle East. These historical contrasts assume new dimensions as both populations grow and the Moslems, economically retarded, rapidly extend their numerical preponderance. Although in other countries of North Africa one finds a similar cultural dualism and recent heightening of the problems of growth, he has less there to go on by way of demographic measurement. Even for Algeria the records have notable de- ficiencies.

Both Moslems and non-Moslems in Algeria are composed of somewhat heterogeneous elements. The non-Moslems (one million in 1954), as defined for statistical purposes, include French citizens born in Algeria or elsewhere in the French Union, Algerian Jews (established there since Roman times and recognized as French citizens since the Cremieux decrees of 1870), naturalized and alien immigrants from other European countries (notably Spain, Italy, Malta, Turkey), and those Mos- lems who, having renounced their special status, are no longer subject to Koranic law.[l] The Moslems (eight and a half million in 1954) include two main linguistic groups, in the proportion of one to four. The smaller group speaks Berber, an ancient language without a written al- phabet. The larger speaks Arabic. About one in ten of the Moslem population also speaks French, and about one in fourteen is bilingual in Arabic and Berber.[2]

The "island of the Maghreb," as the Arab geographers called the northwestern portion of the African continent, dominated by the Atlas ranges and surrounded by the Mediterranean and the Saharan "seas," has attracted traders, migrants, and conquerors for nearly five millenia. The advantages that attract - the location at the crossroads of contin- ents and the gentle climate of the coasts -are balanced, however, by difficulties of terrain and climate in the interior that have helped the "is- landers" to resistnewcomers. None has been able to hold the area long without challenge.

It is only since the coming of the French in the nineteenth century that the huge quadrilateral centerpiece of the Maghreb has been demar- catedasaunit and knownas Algeria.[3] The northern corner of the quadrilateral is the site of the bay and harbor of Alger (Algiers), the chief port and capital, almost equidistant from the Moroccan and Tunisian boundaries on the Mediterranean, here 680 miles apart. Inland the natural regional divisions roughly parallel the coast. First, a narrow coastal plain with a maritime Mediterranean climate and in many places fertile volcanic soils, borders the coast ranges of the Atlas. These are steep and rugged, with maximum heights of 7,600 feet and a drier climate, varying in local characteristics with the topography. These two regions together are known as the Tell. South of the Tellian Atlas are broad plateaus, which, though at an altitude of from 2,500 to 3,300 feet above sea level, form a depression between the coastal and the pre-Sa-

4

haran ranges of the Atlas. The northern portions of these plateaus are less well watered than the Tell but give pasture and arable land of fair quality. The southern portions and the pre-Saharan Atlas have only semi-arid steppe vegetation. Both portions have a continental climate, with cold winters and sharp changes of temperature between day and night. At the southern foot of the pre-Saharan Atlas ranges begins the almost rainless desert extending to the Sudan. The distance from Alger to the southern border is about 1,000 miles.

The same north-south regional pattern extends with modifications into Morocco and Tunisia, the one more mountainous and the other with a larger proportion of coastal plain. Modifications are also no- ticeable as between eastern and western Algeria. In the western half the ranges and plains follow a more linear pattern, and the desert makes incursions as far as the coast east and west of Oran. In the eastern half the topography is more twisted, the coastal plain is somewhat less narrow, and other routes give easy communication with the Tunisian plain. Both eastern and western ends of the Algerian Tell are drier than the central portions, and in the pre-Saharan ranges a break in the central part makes a natural gateway from the desert.

From 1870 to 1956 Algeria was divided administratively into three "departements," Oran, Alger, and Constantine, forming Northern Alge- ria, with a combined area of about 80,000 square miles, and the vast Southern Territories (Territoires du Sud) with an area of some three- quarters of a million square miles. In 1954 the population of 8.7 million in Northern Algeria gave a density per square mile of 108 for the three departements, while the 9.5 million of total population gave a density for Algeria as a whole of only 11 persons per square mile.[4] Since 1956theadministrative organization has been modifiedbycreating sub- divisions to accord more closely with natural regional divisions and with varying degrees of self -administration.[ 5]

Because of limitations of space, this survey will be mainly con- cerned with Northern Algeria. Both the past and the future of the South- ern Territories warrant study, however, especially in view of the recent major discoveries of petroleum there and of new possibilities of tapping subsurface waters.

Demographic History from Ancient Times to 1830

Man-made tools of early Paleolithic to late Neolithic age are found over the whole of North Africa and most of the Sahara, suggesting the migration of negroid people north across that then more fertile region to northwest Africa. Megalithic monuments in Tunisia and east- central Algeria suggest also that there may have been a meeting there with migrants of Indo-European origin. From excavations of skeletons and artefacts in caves it appears that migrants from the Middle East withaNeolithic herding and intermittent grain culture settled in northwest Africa about the time of the first writing in Egypt. In the third millenium B.C. Libyans, as inhabitants of the North African coast were known, are mentioned in Egyptian hieroglyphics as raiders, traders, and mercenaries. Inthe second millenium the "peoples of the sea" from the eastern Mediterranean, it is thought, brought knowledge of metal to northwest Africa.

In the 12th century B.C. Phoenician sea traders established permanent colonies at protected points along the coast, and four hundred years later, the largest of them, Carthage, in northern Tunisia, having

5

won maritime supremacy over the western basin of the Mediterranean, began to penetrate inland. By the fifth century it controlled the littoral in northern Tunisia and part of easternAlgeria, and the interior indirectly through alliance with native Berber princes. The Berbers who came in contact with the Carthaginians learned from them wine-making, mining, and the Punic language, and some intermarriage took place. Excavations in cave dwellings have shown, however, that Neolithic culture survived well into the Roman period. The name, Berber, is a corruption of the Romans' term barbarus.

In the third century Carthaginian power at its maximum extent, including the length of the North African coast and two-thirds of the Spanish peninsula, engaged Roman power in the prolonged struggle that ended in 146 B. C. with the destruction of Carthage and the taking over of its African possessions by Rome. At first the Roman conquerors followed the Carthaginian system of indirect rule, but in the first century A. D. the imperial legi6ns pushed Roman fortifications south to the Sa- hara and west at least to the River Chelif. In addition to the setting up of military posts, the Romans introduced colonies from Italy, granted land to Roman soldiers to encourage them to settle in Africa and to inter- marry with the indigenes, and permitted native Africans to become as- similated Romans. In the second and third centuries North'Africa sup- plied much of the grain on which Rome depended until the Imperial City fell to Alaric in 410 A. D. Genseric's Vandals, invading Africa by way of Spain, completed the conquest of the African provinces in 429 A. D. He continued the Roman institutions but was unable to maintain authority over the rebellious Berber tribes. The forces of the Eastern Empire displaced the Vandals and reasserted Roman influence, but they, too, failed to keep the Berbers in submission.

After the introduction of the camel into North Africa, probably in the fourth century A. D.,[7] nomadic Arab raiders from the desert made ever increasing inroads on the cultivated areas, until in 670 a small but well disciplined Arab force from Syria was able to establish a permanent capital in Tunisia and a substantial measure of political control. Berber opposition and rival dynasties continued to make trouble until the much more drastic and large-scale invasion of Arabs from upper Egypt in the 11th century brought in an estimated 200,000 persons with flocks and herds. The invaders laid waste mostof the settled countryside and effected the arabization of the coastal plains and upland plateaus, though not the mountain slopes andvalleys, to which the Berbers retreated. In the 12th and 13th centuries the Almohades, a Berber Moslem sect from Morocco, conquered North Africa, set up their capital at Tunis, and reigned there until 1269. The Maghreb then disintegrated into hostile small states without any clear hegemony.

Moors expelled from Spain in 1492 settled in port cities and began piratical activities, in which the Ottoman fleet supplanted them in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Turkish soldiery continued both to ex- ploit the interior and to send corsairs from the ports to prey on the ship- ping of the Mediterranean until 1830, when the French seized Alger as part of the long fight to clear the seas. After a number of shifts in policy concerning the troublesome new possession, the French in 1870 finally decided to extend and consolidate permanent control of the coast and interior.

Estimating population size by the nature of the economic base provides the vaguest of quantitative guesses in Northwest Africa. There was evidently dense population in parts of the coastal plains of Tunisia and eastern Algeria dependent on arable cultivation under the Carthagin-

6

ians. Archaeological evidence and contemporary historians confirm the spread under Roman rule of the cultivated area and the population supported by it throughout the coastal plains and, by the aid of highly developed irrigation systems, over the upland plateaus of Algeria. The excavations and other remains show a pattern of hundreds of thriving small towns across the high plains and alongthe littoral. In the interior, especially in eastern Algeria, there were scores of cities of from three to ten thousand population, and hundreds of villages.

The evidences of past migration in the extremely varied physical types present in Algeria today indicate extensive and long continued in- termixture, stopping short of complete fusion. The principal waves of immigrants known to have come into the area before the French -the Phoenicians, the Romans, the Vandals, the Arabs, the Moors, the Turks -

were noneof them able completelytosubmergethe Berbers or to stamp their own pattern as dominant throughout the territory.

The conflict between ethnic groups has been persistently rein- forced by the conflict between subsistence and specialized cultivation. The traditional life with nomadic or transhumant grazing of sheep, goats, and cattle and with some sedentary but primitive cereal cultivation, re- quires broad range areas with at least fitful rainfall and village sites with at least minimal water supply. Alternatively, much of that land can, it has been repeatedly proved, support a dense population by cultivation of field and tree crops, supported by irrigation works and capital invest- nent in other agricultural equipment. Without being able to define the

limits, we may conclude that in periods when the state powers defend- ing the interests of specialist cultivators were sufficiently powerful to insure peace and sufficiently tolerant to allow assimilation, numbers increased, but that in the intervening periods these were sharply cut down by wars, pestilences, and chronic poverty.

Population Growth and Distribution after the Coming of the French

Quinquennial census records with a few irregularities span the period since 1833 for the European population and since 1856 for the Moslem in the territory under French administration (by 1861 roughly northern Algeria and parts of the Southern Territories). From the beginning the attempt was made to count the European population by methods contemporaneously in use in France. Because of the difficulties en- countered in practice, how&ever, the quality of the census results does not justify analysis in detail until after 1901.[8]

In general the enum erations (Table 1) indicate almost a doubling of population between 1856 and 1901, a rise from 2.5 million to 4.7 million. The non-Moslem population rose from 24thousand eight hundred, including seven thousand eight hundred French in 1833 to 633 thousand eight hundred in 1901, and the Moslem population from 2.3 million in 1856 to 4.1 million in 1901. From the first the two populations were subject to dissimilar influences.

External events clearly influenced the sharp rise in the enumerated Moslem populationbetween 1856and 1861, when the Grande Kabylie was incorporated in Algerian territory, and the decrease between 1861 and 1872, years marked by epidemics (two of cholera, one of typhus, one of smallpox), a famine in 1868 with at least three hundred thousand vic- tims, and a major rebellion in the Kabylie in 1871 in which two hundred thousand indigenes and eighty-five thousand French clashed. The cen-

7

Table 1. Algeria: Enumerated Population and Intercensal Growth Rates, 1833-1954.

Census Municipal Populationa Popula- Total year tion sep- Popula-

Non -Moslemb Moslem c Total arately tion countedd

Thou- Growth Thou- Growth (In thousands) sands rate" sands rate"

1833 24.8 8.59 --

1836 32.1 10.92 -- -- -- --

1841 55.4 18.04 -- -- -- --

1845 114.0 4.83 -- -- -- --

1851 152.3 3.38 -- -- -- --

1856 180.3 4.06 2,307.3 3.38 2,487.7 8.4e 2,496.1

1861 220.8 2.64 2,732.9 -.60 2,953.7 13.1e 2,966.8

1866 251.9 1.74 2,652.1 -3.69 2,904.0 17.2e 2,921.2

1872 279.7 5.22 2,125.1 3.69 2,404.7 11.5e 2,416.2

1876 344.7 3.58 2,462.9 2.86 2,807.7 59.9 2,867.6

1881 412.4 2.39 2,842.5 2.90 3,254.9 55.5 3,310.4

1886 464.8 2.66 3,287.2 1.69 3,752.0 65.3 3,817.3

1891 530.9 1.72 3,577.1 1.11 4,108.0 16.7e 4,124.7

1896 578.5 1.83 3,781.1 1.55 4,359.6 69.8 4,429.4

1901 633.8 1.41 4,089.2 1.82 4,723.0 16.3e 4,739.3

1906 680.3 2.00 4,477.8 1.15 5,158.1 73.8 5,231.8

1911 752.0 .51 4,740.5 .38 5,492.6 71.3 5,563.8

1921 791.4 1.03 4,923.2 .90 5,714.6 89.7 5,804.3

1926 833.4 1.13 5,150.8 1.63 5,984.1 82.3 6,066.4

1931 881.6 1.41 5,588.3 2.09 6,470.0 83.6 6,553.5

1936 946.0 -.21 6,201.1 1.78 7,147.2 87.5 7,234.7

1948 922.3 1.08 7,679.1 1.59 8,601.4 80.4 8,681.8

1954 984.0 8,449.3 9,433.4 96.4 9,529.7

Computed at Office of Population Research.

a/ The municipal population includes all those enumerated except the separately counted groups. b/ Includes F'rench citizens, Jews, non-Mos- lem aliens, and between 1856 and 1881 Moslem aliens also. c/ Includes French Moslems and after 1886 alien Moslems also. d/ Includes mer- chant sailors, institutional population, students en pension, and unless otherwise noted military population. e/ Excluding the army.

Source: Algeria. 1954 Census, Vol. I, Table 1, p. 3.

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sus that would normally have been taken in 1871 was taken in 1872, and from that time on the Moslem total increased without interruption. Other additions to territory in southern Algeria, M'zab and Ouargla in 1882, El-Golea in 1891, and the Saharan Oasis Territory in 1900, were a factor in the increase. So, to an undetermined extent, was improvement in census coverage. Apart from these two factors, most of the Moslem growth must have been due to natural increase, since there is no evidence of extensive Moslem migration across Algerian borders.

For the non-Moslem s the intercensal gains f rom natural increase were smaller than those from net immigration. In fact, if Jews are not

Table 2. Algeria: Percentage Age Distributions and Sex Ratios By Broad Groups, 1954 Census.

Age group Per cent distribution Sex ratios' Males Females Both sexes 1000 (M/F)

Moslems

0-19 53.9 52.2 53.0 1l07 20-59 40.8 43.3 41.9 9 60 & + 5.3 4.5 5.1 1129.

100. 100. 100.

Non-Moslems

0-19 36.9 33.1 35.0 1023. 20-59 53.2 52.9 53.0 921. 60 & + 9.9 14.0 12.0 647.

100. 100. 100.


Source: Algeria. 1954 census, Vol. II, pp. 17, 28.

included, movements of births and deaths showed deficits in the periods preceding the censuses of 1836, 1841, 1846, 1851, 1856, and 1872, chiefly, of course, because the larger part of the European immigrants were single men; but the migration balance was positive for every intercensal period from 1836 to 1901. Until 1846 the annual rate of gain was equal to more than 30% of the non-Moslem population with Jews omitted; in 1851 10%o; then until 1872 between 1%' and 5%o. With Jews included in the non-Moslems, French citizens comprised less than half the total in each census up to 1872, except those of 1856 and 1861, when they represented 51%. In the census of 1872, the first in which Jews were included as French citizens in the non-Moslem population, the Jews numbered thirty- four thousand six hundred in a total of 280 thousand non-Moslems. From 1872 on the proportion of French citizens rose to 66% of the non-Mos- lem s in 1901, partly through further liberalization of naturalization laws in 1889, which provided henceforward automatic naturalization for aliens born in Algeria who on reaching age twenty did not repudiate French nationality. The rate of gain by immigration, however, after a rise to 5% in 1876, fell almost uninterruptedly to just under one per cent in 1901.

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During this period the areal distribution of the population altered materially. When the first census was taken, the French occupation was limited to a dozen towns on the littoral and their immediate outskirts. The Arab population occupied most of the coastal plains and inland plateaus, though avoiding the malaria-infested low-lying parts, and the Ber- ber-speaking population occupied the mountain slopes and valleys in northern Algeria.

By 1860 over two hundred communities of European settlement had been established or newly enlarged. These formed two compact groups about the port cities of Alger and Oran, and two chains of settlements lining the roads built from inland Constantine to the new port of Philippeville and the old port of B6ne. In the interior were a number of French military posts. During the next tumultuous decade French expansion slackened, and only a score of new or enlarged communities are noted. After the war of 1870 and the Algerian rebellion of 1871 the col- onizing effort was renewed, stimulated by the desire to provide for refugees from Alsace-Lorraine and making use of lands acquired byse- questration from the rebellious chiefs. Between 1871 and 1880 more than 250 European settlements were established or extended, notably on the western plains and on the high plateaus, and in the next twenty years another two hundred settlements.

By 1901 the Europeans were numerous throughout the littoral and river basins of the Tell, scattered on the high plateaus, few in the Saharan oases. That pattern remained little altered through the next half century. The demographic events of those decades, however, may best be observed from the vantage point of the 1954 census.

The Size and Characteristics of the Moslem Population in 1954

Although the comparability of censuses before 1948 leaves much to be desired in both the quality and public availability of the data collected, the first census to be taken after World War II, that of October 31, 1948, benefited from many improvements in planning and subsequent analysis by the central statistical office. It was still necessary, however, to leave the responsibility for the local enumerations largely with resident officials, varying in aptitude and subject to other pressures. From the results obtained it appeared certain that the ration lists set up during the war and in use until shortly before the census date had been employed in many places, especially in the mixed communes, as the basis of the census count. The Service de la Statistique G6nerale estimated that the resulting inflation of numbers reported in these communes totaled some 220 thousand, distributed among the departements as: 80 thousand in Alger; 50 thousand in Oran; 85 thousand in Constantine; 5 thousand in the Southern Territories. The allocation of errors in detail proved impossible. Although this type of error was presumably not a factor in 1954, the uncertainties about the 1948 data invalidate most comparisons by communes between the two censuses.[9]

In the enumeration of October 31, 1954, the Moslem population legally resident in Algeria totaled 8,487,000. The exact figure is in doubt, for several reasons. In the first place, the total recorded in 1954 fell short by 258,000 of the expected population, estimated by combining the corrected 1948 census total with the natural increase and migratory movement recorded in the interval. In the detailed analysis of the 1954 returns inconsistencies, involving both omissions and double-counting, of the workers temporarily absent in Metropolitan France and of insti-

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tutional population, notably the military in Algeria, have come to light. Because of the outbreak of rebellion the detailed returns for some dis- turbed communes never became available, nor did those of Orleansville, destroyed in an earthquake, and some of the Southern Territories. Be- cause of such omissions, the population that is analyzed in the detailed tables of Volume II of the 1954 population census totals only 8,166,000. Finally, the age-sex structure of the Moslem population enumerated in 1954 continues to give evidence of the marked underenumeration of certain groups - infants of both sexes in the first year of life and females, especially those aged 15 to 19 and over 45 -that was evident in the 1948 census data. Official estimates of these deficits in 1954 are of the order of 0.7% for males and 5.7% for females. This is apart from the shortfall in the Algerian workers in France, of whom 162,000 were re- portedat their Algerian legal residence and an estimated 113,000 others were not counted.

Altogether, the real figure, including omitted infants and females and absent males, may have exceeded 9 million. This and a sim - ilarly inclusive estimate of 7.8 million at the 1948 census suggests an increase of 1.2 million in the six years. By contrast the increase between the enumerations of 1896 and 1948 was but 3.8 million. From a tempo of growth that in the first half of the century brought a doubling in fifty years, there has been a shift to a tempo that will mean doubling in not much more than twenty-five.

The census age structure of the Algerian Moslems is typical of young populations with highnatalityand high growth potential (Table 2). Because the age distributions by single years in 1954, though somewhat better than those of 1948, still show marked heaping at the round numbers for reported ages and years of birth, the comparison between the two censuses is best made bybroad age groups, and these remain in the same proportions. The exclusion of adult Algerian males absent in France from the analyzed population in both censuses introduces a systematic downward bias in the adult male age group, of perhaps 2 -1 / 2% to 3%, and the data are also subject to the census's omissions of infants and females.

Immigration may have brought a small increment. In 1954 85 thousand alien Moslems were recorded as Algerian residents, in 1948 about 70 thousand. Since the fragmentary data on movements across the land frontiers and on sea and air travel do not distinguish transients from migrants, except for the workers in Metropolitan France, no exact conclusions are possible on the external migration balance.

As regards internal migration, a comparison of the census data on arrondissement of residence cross-classified with arrondissement of birth in 1948 and 1954 shows that the Moslem population, though still not very mobile in the sense of permanently changing place of residence, was becoming more so in 1954. There were twenty arrondissements in all. In eleven in 1954and fourteen in 1948 95% or more of the (Algerian- born) residents hadbeenborn inthe same arrondissement. In three arrondissements only, in both census years, were less than 85% of the residents still in their arrondissement of birth. Of these three, the one with the lowest proportion, 68%, was the Alger arrondissement.[10]

From a comparison of these place-of -birth percentages with net migration for eacharrondissement between 1948 and 1954 as a percentage of total population (estimated on the basis of the difference between net natural increase and intercensal growth), one may distinguish between migration in the 1948-1954 intercensal period and that preceding

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it.[11] From this comparison it appears that in the 1948-1954 period the region of attraction was the littoral of the Tell, the regions of departure were the western and eastern ends of the Tellian Atlas and all the high plateaus, and the regions of little change were the central part of the Tellian Atlas and the Southern Territories. In the movements preceding 1948, the littoral was likewise the region of attraction, the regions

Table 3. Northern Algeria: Municipal Population by Urban and Rural Classifications, 1954 Census.

Classification Population Agglomer- Scattered Both

ated (in thousands)

Urban Communes

C.P.E. Communes - Prin- cipal Urban

Grand Alger (8) 471.3 98.6 569.9 Alger Dept. (6) 83.2 175.4 258.6 Oran Dept. (9) 515.6 65.1 580.7 Constantine Dept. (7) 349.5 113.8 463.3 Total, Principal Ur- ban (30) 1,419.6 452.9 1,872.5

C.P.E. Communes - Other Urban (16) 209.9 128.0 337.9

Total, Urban com -

munes (46) 1,629.5 580.9 2,210.4

Rural Communes

C.P.E. Communes - Ru- ral (286) 612.4 1,294.7 1,907.1 Communes Mixtes (78) 86.3 4,410.9 4,497.2

Total, Rural Com- munes (364) 698.7 5,705.6 6,404.3

Total, Northern Algeria 2,328.2 6,286.5 8,614.7

Source: Algeria, 1954 Census, Vol. I, Tables VI, VII, and IX.

of departure included the western end of the Tellian Atlas and the Aurbes Mountains in the southeast, and the regions of little change were the central part of the Tellian Atlas and the rest of the high plateaus. (The Southern Territories are not included 'in this computation.)

This comparatively low rate of mobility is paralleled by a high rate of illiteracy. According to the 1954 census, 86% of Moslem males aged 6 and over, and 9 5% of the females, could not read and write either French or Arabic. That some improvement was taking place is evidenced by the fact that the rates were slightly less high in the ages 6 to 19 (85% to 87% for the males,,91%oto 94%ofor the females) than in the agesabove 60 (89% and 90% for the males and 98% for the females). The rates in 1948 had been 90%for all males and 98% for females. As between 1939

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and 1955 the school attendance rate rose from 16 to 37 per 1,000 Mos- lem inhabitants .[12]

In the census of 1954, as in previous censuses since 1926, the urban population is defined as that resident in 46 particular communes de plein exercice (communes with elected councils). Within these communes, however, only the agglomerated population would be considered urban by the usual criteria. The rest live in more scattered settlements, including many douars (camping grounds for shifting herdsmen and part- time cultivators and their dependents). In Table 3 are shown the total municipal population and the agglomerated population of the 46 urban communes in 1954. The ruralpopulation, bythe official definition, com- prises the residents of the rest of the communes de plein exercice (286 in 1954) and of all the communes mixtes, which were governed by ap- pointed officials (78 such communes in Northern Algeria in 1954). In the Southern Territories there were another twenty communes with a still more centralized administration.

Although the Moslem population is in the great majority rural, the proportion is declining. By comparison with 1954, when 81% of the Moslem population of Northern Algeria lived outside the 46 urban communes, in 1948 84% did so, and at the beginning of the century 90%. Ev- idence on how much of the change is due to migration is largely lack- ing, but it seems probable that there has been a long continued rural-urban movement of Moslems on a small scale, especially toWards the largest agglomeratoins. In 1954 nearly half the urban Moslems lived in the four large agglomerations. Alger, Oran, Constantine, and B6ne. In the years between the 1906 and 1954 censuses, while the urban Moslems as a whole increased fourfold and the rural somewhat less than doubled, those in the Alger agglomeration increased sevenfold, in B6ne sixfold, and inOran and Constantine each fourfold. In round numbers there has been an absolute increase over the half century of about 2.7 million Mos- lems in the ruralpopulation, 400 thousand in the urban communes other than the four largest agglomerations, and 700 thousand in these latter.

The economically active population enumerated in the census of 1954 was almost exactly equal to that counted in 1948 -3.2 million (2.1 million males, 1.1 million females). In 1948 these totals represented a participation rate of 94% of the male population over age 15 and 51% of the female; in 1954 they represented only 92% of the males and 43% of the females. The entrance into the labor force of the small age classes born from 1940 to 1945 may largely account for the lack of expansion on the part of active males between the censuses, but as data on the age structure of the active population in 1954 have not yet been published, detailed comparison is impossible. The data on the economically active female population are subject to more errors and inconsistencies, probably in both enumerations.[13]

Data on the labor force in 1954 that have been published give for the agricultural and non-agricultural branches of activity the distribution by employment status (Table 4). These show some shift in the direction of non-agricultural occupations since 1948 (1.7 million active males in agriculture in 1948 and 1.1 million females; 1.6 million males in agriculture in 1954 and 1.0 million females). Much of this shift to non-agricultural occupations, however, may be accounted for by those unemployed in them in 1954 (130.5 thousand males and 2.6 thousand females); no such category is given in the 1948 census. In any case, comparisons with the 1948 census are somewhat inexact.

In the non-agricultural occupations those employed in 1954 comprised 415.7 thousand males and 45.2 thousand females. The largest

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Table 4. Algeria: Structure of the Active Male Population, Moslem and Non-Moslem, 1954 Census.

Numbers of active males Categories Mo s lem s Non - Mo s lem s

Thousands Per cent* Thousands Per cent*

Agricultural occupations

Heads of farm operations

Owners 494.5 15.8 Family assistants 478.0 3.9 Metayeursa 2.0 0.8 Tenant-farmers 0.8 0.3 Khammesb 57.0 - -

Total 1,032.3 48.18 20.9 7.61

Wage earners 563.9 26.32 8.3 3.02 of whom, regularly employed 107.2 3.0 1.09

All agricultural occupations 1,596.2 74.51 29.2 10.63

Non -agricultural occupations

Heads of undertakings and inde- pendents

Employers and artisans 27.5 1.28 17.3 6.30 Merchants 79.6 3.72 28.5 10.37 Professional workers 2.1 .10 9.2 3.35 Religious personnel 7.6 .35 0.9 .33

Total 117.1 5.47 55.8 20.31

Management and wage -earners

Management and technicians 9.2 .43 41.7 15.18 Clerical workers 14.7 .69 31.5 11.47 Skilled workers 97.1 4.53 69.5 25.30 Fishermen and miners 11.0 .51 2.2 .80 Manual workers 143.8 6.71 10.8 3.93 Domestic, other service personnel 17.3 .81 4.4 1.60 Army, police 5.6 .26 16.5 6.01

Total 298.6 13.94 176.6 64.29

Unemployed 130.5 6.09 12.9 4.70

All non-agricultural occupations 546.2 25.49 245.5 89.37

General Total 2,142.4 100. 274.7 100.

Computed at Office of Population Research

a Tenant farmers who pay rent in kind.

b Tenant farmers who receive one fifth of the crop and maintenance.

Source: Algeria. Serv. Stat. Gen. Bull. Mensuel, No. 42. Feb. 1957.

14

single group was that of unskilled workers and apprentices (143.8 thousand males, 1.4 thousand females). Heads of undertakings and indepen- dent operators of all kinds totaled 117.1 thousand males and 3.7 thousand females. Among all salary- and wage-earners (298.6 thousand males, 31.5 thousand females), those listed in the superior and second grades totaled 9.2 thousand males and 0.5 thousand females. Wage-earners identifiable as engaged in non-agricultural primary occupations totaled

Table 5. Algeria: Total Population Economically Dependent on the Traditional and the Developed Sectors, Moslems and Non-Moslems,

1954 Census.

Numbers dependent on the sectors: Branch of economic Traditional Developed Both activity (in thousands)

Mo sl e m s

Agriculture 5,125 700a 5,825 Non-agricultural activities 100 2,530b 2,630

Total Moslems 5,225 3,230 8,455

N o n - M o s 1 e m s

Agriculture - - 93 93 Non-agricultural activities -- 907 907

Total Non-Moslem s -- 1,000 1,000

Total Population

Agriculture 5,125 793 5,918 Non -agricultural activities 100 3,437 3,537

General Total 5,225 4,230 9,455

a Includes the permanent agricultural workers and their families.

b Includes those totally and partly unemployedandtheir families: about 990,000.

Source: Algeria. Serv. Stat. Gen. Tableaux de l'Economie Algerienne 1958, p. 24.

11.0 thousand male fishermen, miners, and quarrymen. How many of the remainder were engaged in other primary occupations, how many in manufacturing, and how many in service occupations is unclear from the published 1954 data, but it seems likely that as in 1948 the great majority were engaged in the third group.

In another published tabulation from the 1954 census, the distribution of the total population, Moslem and non-Moslem, according to economic dependence on the traditional or on the developed sectors is estimated (Table 5). According to this estimate, all of the Moslem agricultural population (5.2 million) except for the 109 thousand regularly

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16

employed agricultural workers and their dependents were still in the traditional sector, while almost all of the Moslem non-agricultural population and the whole non-Moslem population in both branches of economic activity were in the developed sector.

Table 6. Northern Algeria: Moslem Population: Percentage Distri- bution of Dwelling Types in Rural Communes, by Arrondissements

and Groups of Arrondissements, Census of Housing, 1954.

Group Percentage of total dwellings and Ar- Tents Caves Houses with roofs of All

rondisse- Thatch Clay or Tile European Oil types menta brick style cans

Group I Alger 0.2 0.0 17.7 10.6 61.9 6.4 3.1 100. Blida 0.3 0.1 32.6 8.6 50.4 6.1 2.0 100. Oran 0.8 0.0 25.9 7.1 59.2 6.4 0.5 100. Bone 2.9 0.5 57.7 14.8 20.5 0.9 2.8 100.

Group II Miliana 1.2 0.1 55.2 9.1 30.8 3.3 0.3 100. Medea 5.8 0.0 40.4 9.7 41.0 3.0 0.1 100.

Group III Aumale 9..1 0.4 24.4 12.8 51.8 1.2 0.5 100. Mascara 17.5 0.0 29.3 3.0 48.4 0.7 1.0 100. Sidi-Bel- Abb'es 16.7 1.0 19.7 1.5 58.8 1.6 0.6 100. Tiaret 31.4 0.4 26.5 3.1 37.1 1.2 0.3 100. Orleans -

ville 0.3 0.0 55.9 14.7 27.6 0.7 0.8 100. Mosta - genem 0.6 1.4 38.4 11.4 44.5 0.9 2.8 100.

Group IV Constan- tine 3.8 0.2 47.9, 5.3 40.5 1.8 0.5 100. Guelma 0.6 5.1 62.9 8.9 21.9 0.1 0.5 100. Batna 2.5 1.1 48.0 27.7 20.1 0.3 0.3 100. Setif 0.9 0.1 35.2 5.2 57.4 1.1 0.1 100. Philippe - ville 0.1 0.0 68.0 4.1 25.0 0.6 2.1 100.

Group V Tizi- Ouzou 0.0 0.0 7.4 2.9 87.5 1.3 0.9 100. Bougie 0.1 0.1 13.1 1.3 84.8 0.4 0.2 100. Tlemcen 9.3 0.4 48.0 6.9 33.6 1.4 6.9 100.


a For location of the groups of arrondissements, see map Fig. 1.

Source: Algeria. Serv. Stat. Gen. Donnees statistiques sur les immeubles et les logements [le 31 octobre 1954], Table VII-A, Tableau III.

17

As a means of differentiating the data on the Moslem traditional agricultural activities, correlative data from the housing census of 1954 have been analyzed in Table 6. For the 20 arrondissements into which the three departements of Northern Algeria were divided in 1954, ar-

Table 7. Northern Algeria: Moslem Population: Rural-urban Ratios, Sex Ratios, and Percentages of Males aged 20-59 ini Urban and

Rural Communes, by Arrondissements and Groups of Arrondissements, 1954 Census.

Group and Rural/ur- Sex ratios* in: Males 20-59 as % Arrondisse- ban ratio* Rural Urban of total males" in:

ment com- com- Rural Urban munes munes com- com-

munes munes

Group I Alger 1.00 1188 1166 44.1 45.8 Blida 2.32 1105 1031 43.7 43.9 Oran 1.15 1052 1052 40.9 44.8 Bone 2.13 1137 1041 41.8 44.2

Group II Miliana 18.19 1034 1050 41.7 46.4 Medea 9.10 1038 1031 42.7 41.2

Group III Aumale 44.12 995 1017 40.6 42.9 Mascara 4.08 1040 929 41.0 44.6 Sidi-Bel- Abbves 2.60 1071 968 40.7 41.7 Tiaret 9.12 1000 923 42.5 45.6 Orleans- ville 25.24 991 1039 40.3 40.6 Mostaganem 4.97 987 921 40.0 47.6

Group IV Constantine 5.71 988 1007 40.4 42.2 Guelma 4.51 1065 996 40.4 42.4 Batna 4.86 985 985 41.6 40.4 Setif 10.24 841 833 37.3 39.8 Philippe - ville 4.42 1012 1190 38.8 43.2

Group V Tizi-Ouzou 10.29 650 788 34.8 38.8 Bougie 9.14 787 877 37.4 35.4 Tlemcen 2.70 850 934 36.0 41.0

* Computed at Office of Population Research.

Source: Algeria. 1954 census, Vol. II, Table IX.

ranged in five homogeneous groups, there is shown the percentage distribution of seven types of dwellings in the rural communes of the arrondissements, each type characteristic of a traditional or developed agricultural or other economic activity.[14] Tents and cave dwellings,

18

the homes of nomadic and transhumant grazing people, are important in Group III (and Tlemcen in Group V), the arrondissements in which the high plateaus of western Algeria lie. The arrondissements of Group IV, which contain the high plains of eastern Algeria, have much less of these two types (the 5% of cave dwellings in Guelma is exceptional). Houses with thatched roofs, the homes of those engaged in cereal cultivation, often combined with some transhumant grazing, are predominant in most of Group IV and in parts of the Tellian Atlas. Flat-roofed houses of clay or hollow brick are the homes of sedentary cultivators engaged in mixed farming and fruit growing in the Saharan oases and the more arid parts of the north; this type does not predominate in any of the arrondissements of Northern Algeria, but is of importance in parts of the high plains of both east and west and at the eastern and western ends of the Tellian Atlas. The houses with hard tile roofs, the homes of simi- larly settled farmers and fruit growers of a Mediterranean tradition, are dominant in the Tellian Atlas, especially in those parts that are strongly Berber (Group V). The houses of European style and materials and the huts or barracks constructed mainly of empty gasoline tins (bid- ons), the homes respectivelyof the successful and the unsuccessful as- similated population, are of lesser numerical importance everywhere, and occur mainly in the arrondissements containing the chief ports in Groups I and IV.

From the data of Table 7 and the map of density of population one may deduce the areas where the traditional agriculture was failing to support the local population in 1954.[15] The arrondissements in which the rural sex ratio is low and the proportion of rural males aged 20-59 is markedly below the national proportion (Table 2), must have been ex- porting "surplus' males of working age. In the arrondissements of Se- tif, Tizi-Ouzou, and Bougie, the exodus is most evident. These are largely Berber-speaking regions practicing mixed farming and fruit growing in the central Tellian Atlas, where high rural density and ac- cessibility to the ports of the littoral has led to heavy emigration, including much to Metropolitan France. In the other parts of both eastern and western highlands the rural exodus is evidently less heavy and of shorter distance, though the larger proportions there of dwellings in- dicative of transhumant and nomadic grazing imply greater seasonal mobility.

Moslem Population Change

The establishment of a system of vital statistics registration for the Moslem population comparable to that of the non-Moslems has en- countered many obstacles in Algeria as elsewhere in the Maghreb. From 1901 lists of births, marriages, divorces, and deaths were kept in reg- isters by local officials. Beginning January 1, 1954, the system of individual certificates was to have come into force, as it had been in France since 1907 and for Algerian non-Moslems since 1935, but the disturb- ances in local administration caused by the rebellion in 1954 and since have prevented the effective carrying out of the new system except in the urban communes. Official statistics of cause of death began to be collected only at the beginning of 1956. As a means of testing the coverage in the official series of vital events, data are reported separately for the better organized areas, notably the group of 30 principal urban communes. These statistics show such differences from the country- wide ones that the latter appear quite inadequate.

Natality In the data on total recorded births for all types of commune s9[ 16]

there was an upward trend in the apparent rate from the beginning of vi -

19

tal registration until 1956, reaching a high point at 44.8 births per 1,000 population in 1955. For the group of 30 urban communes (Table 8) the rate was at approximately that level in 1947, when the publication of the sample series began, and in 1955 it reached 49.2. In 1956, 1957, and 1958 the births registered for the country as a whole went down, while those for the urban communes went sharply up. In those years internal

Table 8. Northern Algeria: 30 Principal Urban Communes: Vital Rates and Estimated Size, 1947-1959, Moslem Population.

Year Birth Death Infant mor- Net nat- Estimated mid- rates rates tality rates ural in- year population

crease-" (in thousands)

1947 44.6 27.4 191 17.2 897

1948 45.9 24.9 178 21.0 912

1949 42.7 23.2 201 19.5 931

1950 44.1 21.4 197 22.7 962

1951 45.6 21.1 188 24.5 985

1952 48.0 19.1 168 28.9 1,011

1953 46.1 19.5 181 26.6 1,040

1954 49.2 18.4 155 30.8 1,070

1954a 46.5a l7.4a 154a 29.1a 1,133a

1955 49.2 16.7 143 32.5 1,169

1956 48.2 19.3 167 28.9 1,206

1957 53.1 23.0 171 30.1 1,243

1958 56.5 25.1 186 31.4 1,281

1959b 52.4b 20.7b 165 31.7b 1,613b


a Rates and estimates recomputed on the basis of the 1954 Census. b Urban population estimated on a new basis, beginning January 1959.

Source: Algeria. Serv. Stat. Gen. Bull. de Stat. Gen.: Statistiques Trimestrielles. Annual summaries in No. 1, each year.

migration movements, especially in the rural-urban direction, were heavy but not recorded, and the size of the population base for the rates for the urban communes apparently became too small. For 1959 the population in these communes was reestimatedon the basis of a sample survey throughout Algeria, but the birth rate appears still unduly high, and the demographers of the central statistical service do not accept it. On the contrary, in the report on vital events in 1959, issued by the A1- gerian Service deStatistique Generale early in 1960, the opinion is stat- ed that the natality rate in the 30 urban communes has begun to decline and that for the period 1955-1959 it stood at a level of 40 per 1b000 as compared with one of 45 per 1,000 in the preceding years. The change

20

is attributed to the number of couples separated by the hostilities and, for the first time, to a diffusion of contraceptive tendencies in the urban surroundings.[17]

Evidence from the 1948 and 1954 population censuses shows that high nuptiality and high natality both contribute to the high birth rates. In 1954 in the age group 50-54 only 2.7% of the women and 3.5% of the men remained single. The average age at marriage was low and even declining. According to the 1954 census 36% of the females aged 15 to 19 were married (as against 31% in 1948), and 5.6% of the males aged 15 to 19 (as against 4.5% in 1948). The number of polygamous marriages

Table 9. Northern Algeria: Average Number of Children Ever Born per Married Woman, Married between 1929 and 1954, by Age at

Marriage, in Urban and Rural Communes, 1954 Census.

Class of Average number of children born to Commune women married at ages

15-19 20-24 25-29 30 and +

M osl e m s

Urban communes 3.53 3.35 3.26 3.35 Rural communes 3.28 3.25 3.27 3.03 All communes 3.31 3.27 3.27 3.13

N o n - Mo sl e m s

Urban communes 2.87 2.34 2.19 1.79 Rural communes 2.91 2.44 2.27 1.73 All communes 2.88 2.36 2.20 1.78

Source: Algeria. 1954 Census, Vol. II, Tables X and XI, pp. 91 and 92.

reported, in decline at each census since 1886, dropped from 39 thousand in 1948 to 27thousand in 1954, and these were less proportionately in the urban than in the rural communes.

The census of 1948 was the first to seek data on size of family and by inference on differential natality. The questions asked included for each family (defined as the members of the same household), the age, marital status, and occupation of the head (male head, if present), number of children ever born, and number of surviving children under age 15 present in the household as dependents. Those under 15 serving as apprentices were not considered dependents. The data on surviving children, supplemented by information from a sample of birth registration forms, have been analyzed by Jacques Breil to give effective natality ratesby age of mother for the Alger agglomeration in 1948. From anal- yses of the base population and all the available data on births he arrived at the following indexes for the Moslem population of Algeria in 1948: crude birth rate per 1,000 of total population, 45; effective natality rate per 1,000 women aged 15-49, 200; gross reproduction rate, 3.15.[18]

Toobtainbetter data,thel954census asked concerning all married women the year of marriage, age at marriage, and number of live

21

born children ever borne. Data obtained have been analyzedfor the urban and the rural communes for 462,587 women whose years of marriage were from 1929 to 1954. The results show the expected earlier nuptiality in the rural communes, but, contrary to expectations, the average number of declared live births per woman is higher for the urban communes than for the rural, except for women married at ages between 25 and 29 (Table 9). To allow for the presumed greater omissions of infants under age 1 and of female children of other ages, the data forthe rural communes have been adjustedbythe census analysts, to give a revised estimate of completed natality about 10% higher for the rural than for the urban communes. Factors that might make for lower rural than urban natality and thus counteract the earlier age at marriage in the rural communes are greater incidence there of separations of marriage partners due to polygamy and to the absence of emigrant workers, and, perhaps, greater incidence of infertility among young wives and of puerperal mortality.

Other data from the 1954 census report completed natality for a total of slightly more than 50 thousand Moslem women aged 50 to 54 by age at marriage and socio-occupational class of the family head. These, too, have been tabulated separately for urban and for rural communes. Although the data here, also, probably omit many stillborn and non-surviving children, especially in the rural communes, some observations may be noted. For instance, in the agricultural occupations there appear to be no significant differences in completed natality between the traditional sector and the evolved sector in either urban or rural communes. In the non-agricultural occupations, the groups with the lowest employment status are in the lowest natality group (under 4.5 children per woman) inboth urban and rural communes. The lowermiddle-status ranges in both agricultural and non-agricultural occupations are in the low natality group in the urban communes but show higher natality in the rural communes. The wives of emigrant workers in Metropolitan France married between ages 15 and 19 are in the low natality group in both urban and rural communes, but those married from age 20 up are of average or above-average completed natality. Such observations sup- portthe premise that the rural-urbanmovement and the movementfrom agricultural to non-agricultural occupations are beginning to be reflected in a decline in natality.

These observations are further supported by data, presented graphically but not in tables in the census volume, showing number of children per woman aged 15 to 49 by mother's age, age at marriage, and schooling (whether illiterate, able to read and write, or the holder of a diploma). The holders of diplomas, unrepresented in the group married between ages 15 and 20, show in the groups married during the three subsequent age periods (20-25, 25-30, over 30) a lower natality rate than do the illiterate women and those able merely to read and write. -As betwene these two classes, for the groups married between ages 15 and 25 the differences are rather in timing than in total natality, but forl the groups married at ages above 25 the literate group has a lower total natality than has the illiterate group.

Mortality The annual rates based on total registered deaths in all communes

from 1909 to 1947 fluctuated within the range of 16.0 to 21.5 per 1,000. As no upward trend appeared with improving registration, except for the years of the first and second world wars, the actual rate, though higher than the apparent rate, must have been declining. Between 1947 and 1955 the latter dropped by one-half, from 24.9 to 12.3. The reported rates in 1956 and 1957 are 10.7 and 12.2. Obviously, the political events

22

since 1954 have so reduced the number of registered deaths as to make the rate meaningless.

For the 30 urban communes with more satisfactory registration, the rates (Table 8) show a pronounced, though less precipitate, fall between 1947 and 1955, from 27.4 to 16.7, and then the rate climbed back to a high of 25.1 in 1958. For 1959, when the population base was re- estimated, the general mortality rate of the 30 urban communes was 20.7. If it is true, however, that, as seems indicated by the very high birth ratesinthesecommunesbetween 1955 and 1959, the population base has

Table 10. Northern Algeria: 46 Urban Communes: Deaths by Age and Sex, 1955, Moslem Population.

Age Males Females Both Group Popu- Deaths* Death Popu- Deaths* Death Sexes

lation* rate lation* rate Death per per rate

10,000* 10,000*

0-14 288,413 7,765 269 274,622 7,114 259 264

15-29 173,208 953 55 182,060 762 42 48

30-59 198,126 2,486 125 182,546 1,328 73 100

60-79 31,501 1,507 478 33,541 1,098 327 401

80 & + 2,224 274 1,232 3,675 411 1,118 1,161

All ages 693,472 12,985 187 676,444 10,713 158 173


Sources: Urban populations from Algeria: 1954 Census, Vol. II, pp. 85- 90; Deaths by age and sex from Algeria. Stat. Serv. Gen. Annuaire statistique de l'Algerie, 1955, p. 51.

been underestimated, it must also be true that these death rates are in- accurate. At least it seems clear that aftera dramatic decline between World War II and the outbreak of the rebellion, Moslem mortality increased in the 30 urban communes during the hostilities as well as in the less well reported ones. The Service de Statistique Generale estimates the supplementary deaths (Moslems and non-Moslems) due to war conditions at 150 thousand for the five years 1955-1959.

In addition to the data on births and deaths reported for the 30 urban communes, data are reported also for the urban communes as a whole, a total of 46 communes until 1958 and of 55 communes in 1959. For the year 1955 data on deaths by sex and age are given for the 46 communes, which may be combined with the data on their age distributions in the October 31, 1954, census, to give age-specific rates (Table 10). The results there indicate fairlycloseagreementbetweenthe general mortality rate and that in the 30 urban communes, but several age- specific rates point to underregistration, which must be common to both sets of data, particularly in the registered deaths of infants and females.

On the basis of the Algerian Moslem death rates for the years 1948-1951 by sex and age groups (quinquennial to age 20 and decennial

23

above age 20) and their age distributions by single years from the 1948 census, corrected for underregistration under age one, Jacques Breil has constructed an abridged life table. The results give for males an expectation of life at birth of 44 years and at age 10, of 51 years. For females the comparable values are 49 and 55 years.[19] These contrast with the values he obtained for the non-Moslem population in the same period: for males at birth, 60 years, and at age 10, 56 years; for females, at birth, 67 years and at age 10, 63 years.

Infant mortality rates for the 30 urban communes since 1947 have been about twice as highas the evidently defective rates basedon the infant deaths reported for the country as a whole. In the 30 urban communes the lowest rate, 143 per 1,000 live births, is that for 1955. By 1958 it hadreturned to a higher level than in 1948, 186as compared with 178. These rates are notably higher than those for some other countries with young populations and high birth rates. Between 1950 and 1954, while the infant death rate for Moslems in the 30 urban communes de- clined from 197 to 155, the annual average for Mexico was 92, for Ma- laya 91, for Ceylon 77, for Singapore 70, and for Taiwan 34.[201

Natural Increase Clearly, there is a large element of conjecture in the vital rates

for the Moslem population. Even in the 30 urban communes uncertainties obscure the size and nature of the omissions in the registration of vital events, the size of the denominator populations in the postcensal years, and the applicability of rates based on the 30 communes to the rest of the urban communes and to the rural ones. Subject to all these reser- vations, the rise in the 30 communes' yearly rate of net natural increase from 17.2 per 1,000 in 1947 to 31.4 in 1958, and on the new basis 31.7 in 1959, is sufficiently striking.

Yet these rates of natural increase may not be the highest the Algerian Moslem population will experience. Their general mortality rates are still well above the level to which those of the countries already mentioned, whose birth rates and age structures resemble the Algerian Moslems', have fallen in the postwar years. For example, in the years 1950-1954, while the Moslem death rate in the 30 urban com- munesfell from 21.4per 1,000 to 18.4, the average annual rate for Mex- ico was 15.5, for the Federation of Malaya 13.9,for Singapore 11.0, for Ceylon 11.6, and for Taiwan 10.1. In several of these countries further declines tookplace after 1954. If, as their experience suggests is likely, a further fall in the Algerian Moslem death rate should precede any substantial decline in the birth rate, the Algerian Moslems in a few years maybe expectedtohaveanaturalincrease rate of 35 or more per thous- sand.

Migration The major international migration movement involving Algerian

Moslems is that of workers who go to Metropolitan France for a part of their active years. The emigration began about 1907, increased during World War I, reached a peak in 1928, and became a reverse movement duringthe depression. The French censuses enumerated 70,000 Alger- ians in 1926, and somewhat less in 1936. The number in 1946is uncer- tain, but was probably less than 50,000. Since 1946 annual migration records have been kept. Between 1946 and 1959 these show a net excess of departures from Algeria each year except 1958 (Table 11).

A question on characteristics of the member of the family re- portedas absent in France at the time of the 1948 Algerian census provided information on a sample of 57,466 men and 236 women out of an

24

estimated total of 180,000 emigrant workers.[21] These replies showed that more than nine-tenths of the emigrant males were between the ages of 20 and 59 and that from the ages 25-29 upward the majority were married, though not accompanied by their wives.[22] About two-thirds were Berber-speaking, nearly all could speak French as well, and a somewhat larger proportion than in the whole population of Algerian Moslems, 16.5% as compared with 9%, could read and write Arabic or

Table 11. Migrations of Algerian Workers to and from Metropoli- tan France, 1946-1959.

Number of migrants Annual excess of Year Departures Returns Departures Returns

from Algeria to Algeria from Algeria to Algeria (in thousands)

1946 35 12a 23a

1947 67 22 45

1948 81 54 27

1949 83 75 8

1950 89 65 24

1951 143 88 55

1952 149 134 15

1953 134 123 11

1954 165 136 29

1955 202 173 28

1956 86 84 2

1957 76 58 18

1958 49 60 11

1959 74 52 22

a Estimated.

Source: as for Table 8.

French. They came in greatest numbers from the Grande Kabylie in Al- ger Departement and from the Petite Kabylie, Setif, and Aur'es Moun- tains regions in Constantine Departement.

Movements of refugees across the frontiers during the hostilities since 1954 have been variously estimated. On June 23, 1960, the repre- sentative of the FLN in New York wrote in a letter to the New York Times in terms of 300,000 Algerian refugees. On November 2, 1960, accordingtoadespatch in that publication, the League of Red Cross So- cieties reported 130,590 Algerian refugees in 27 centers in eastern Mo- rocco.

The Non-Moslem Population

As the demographyof the non-Moslem populationof Algeria has been the subject of detailed review and analysis elsewhere, its size,

25

characteristics, and movements will be but briefly sketched here.[23]

At the census of 1954 the non-Moslem population, including both the municipal population and the separately counted, totaled 1,042 thousand, as compared with 936 thousand iri 1936 and 974 thousand in 1948. The 1954 population for which data have been analyzed totaled 980 thousand, of whom 469 thousand were males and 511 thousand females. The sex ratio, below unity, 0.918 in 1954 and 0.920 in 1948, has been characteristic of the non-Moslem population only since 1936. The earlier censuses showedproportionsvaryingfrom 1.410 in 1886to 1.000 in 1911. The ratio rose and fell with the ebb and flow of immigration and with the inclusion or exclusion of the army in the various censuses. After 1901 the gains by natural increase exceeded those by migration in every intercensal period except 1916-1921.

Like the sex ratio, the age composition by broad classes barely changed between 1948 and 1954. In the former year the proportions were: ages 0-19 years, 36%; 20-59 years, 53%; 60 and over, 1l1% . In 1954 these were 35%, 53%, and 12%, respectively (Table 2). In 1911 the proportions had been 44%, 50%, and 6%o. The Algerian non-Moslem population, although older than the Moslem, is younger than that of Metropol- itan France. In 1954 the proportions under age 20 and aged 65 or over were 35% and 8% respectively forthe Algerian non-Moslems,as against 31% and 11.5% for Metropolitan France.

The 980 thousand of analyzed population in 1954 included 932 thousand of French nationality and 48 thousand aliens, among whom 36 thous- sand Spaniards formedthe largest component. Of those of Frenchnation- ality 766 thousand were reported as born in Algeria, 120 thousand in Metropolitan France, one thousand in other parts of the French Union, and for 45 thousand others place of birth was not indicated. The proportions illiterate were but 53 per 1,000 males of all ages over 6, and 73 per 1,000 females, and the rates were twice as high in the groups aged 60 and over as in those under age 45.

The non-Moslem population is in the majorityurban. For North- ern Algeria the proportions, 78% urban and 22% rural, did not change between 1948 and 1954. In the preceding censuses there had been a steady decrease since 1886 in the per cent rural (36% in 1886). In absolute numbers the non-Moslem rural population increased until 1906, remained relatively stable until 1936, dropped from 230 thousand in 1936 to 201 thousand in 1948, then increased to 211 thousand in 1945. The numbers of the urban population increased from 441 thousand in 1906 to 709 thousand in 1936, stood at the same figure in 1948, but by 1954 rose to 760 thousand.

The economically active population increased from 332 thousand in 1948 to 355 thousand in 1954, the males from 259 thousand to 275 thousand and the females from 73 thousand to 80 thousand. The occupational structure of the active male population shown in Table 4 contrasts with that of the Moslems in the preponderance of the non-agricultural occupations over the agricultural, by nearly nine to one, and in the relative importance of the managerial and skilled occupations in the non-agricultural sector. Similar contrasts, though less in degree, appear when the Algerian non-Moslem occupational structure is compared to that of Metropolitan France, whei4e in 1954 26.6% of the active males were en- gagedinagriculture and those engaged in non-agricultural activities as heads of undertakings and members of professions were but 15.3% of all economically active males.[23]

The vital rates of the non-Moslem population of the 30 urban communes appear inTable 12. Birth rates basedon the registrations in all

26

communes are usually from one and a half to two points below those for the 30 urban communes, while death rates for the larger group are closely comparable with those for the 30 communes until 1955. The infant mortality rates behave more variably, usually at a level from two to six points higher for all communes than for the 30 urban ones. How

Table 12. Northern Algeria: 30 Principal Urban Communes: Vital Rates and Estimated Size, 1947-1959, Non-Moslem Population

Year Birth Death Infant Mor- Net Nat- Estimated mid- rates rates tality rates ural In- year population

crease"k (in thousands)

1947 24.1 12.0 85 12.1 662

1948 23.3 11.0 79 12.3 670

1949 23.2 10.3 73 12.9 678

1950 22.3 9.8 70 12.5 691

1951 21.7 9.9 56 11.8 699

1952 21.4 8.9 54 12.5 708

1953 20.4 8.6 46 11.8 716

1954 20.8 8.6 40 12.2 725

1954a 20.5a 8.4a 40a 12.1a 736a

1955 20.2 8.9 39 11.3 745

1956 20.0 10.6 40 9.4 753

1957 20.9 11.1 38 9.8 759

1958 21.8 10.4 40 11.4 768

1959b 22.0b 9.3b 34b 12.7b 840b


a Rates and estimates recomputed on the basis of the 1954 census.

b Urban population estimated on a new basis, beginning January 1959.

Source: Algeria. Serv. Stat. Gen. Bull. de Stat. Gen.: Statistiques Trimestrielles. Annual summaries in Bulletin No. 1, each year.

much of these differences are due to better registration in the urban com - munes and how much to other factors, one cannot state with certainty, thoughthe differences in completeness of registration are obviously less significant than for the Moslem population.

In general non-Moslem natalityas registered in the 30 communes was declining moderately in the period 1947-1955, and has shown a slight increase during the period 1956-1959. Generalmortality fell by nearly one-third between 1947 and 1954, and has mounted moderately in the years 1955-1959, exclusive of non-Moslem military casualties. Infant mortality, after falling by more than half between 1947 and 1954, remained stable between 1955 and 1958, and fell to a low point of 34 in

27

1959. As a result of the changing trends, the net natural increase rate in 1959 was very little higher than in 1947, 12.7 per thousand as compared with 12.1.

A comparison of non -Moslem trends in vital rates with those for Metropolitan France shows that natality levels were markedly higher in Algeria from 1881 to 1940. The postwar increase in French births had no counterpart in the Algerian non-Moslem births, and in the postwar years the ratesfor the twopopulations have come into close proximity. If the rates for Algeria as a whole are taken, the differences from the French rates are negligible; the birth rates for the 30 urban communes, however, remain consistently higher than those for all Metropolitan France. With its older population, France has had higher general mortality rates than the Algerian non-Moslems since the 1906-1910period, but French infant mortality rates have been lower than those for non- Moslem Algerians ever since World War I. The natural increase rates for Metropolitan France approached those for all Algerian non-Mos- lems in the period 1946-1949 but thereafter have been from one to four points below them. The rates for the Algerian non-Moslems in the 30 urban communes remained above those for Metropolitan France from 1947 on and reached their widest divergence in 1959, at 12.7 per 1,000 as against 7.0 for France.

Since 1954 both internal and external migration movements on a considerable scale have affected the non -Moslem population. Internally, an exodus from the countryside to the cities, for protection and because of the expansion of urban economic activities, has been noted in the annual reviews since 1954. It was estimated that the population of greater Alger had increased from 600 thousand at the end of 1954 to 800 thousand at the end of 1958. Migration between France and Algeria as a result of the military activities has been heavy in both directions. Alger- ians of French stock and their families have moved to France, while military forces andtechnicians, many with their families, have moved from France to Algeria. Although the figures are not obtainable, the Algerian Service de la Statistique Generale is of opinion that the two external movements have nearly balanced each other. In the report for the year 1959 it is estimated that for the non-Moslems between the end of 1954 and the end of 1959 a total increase (both migratory and natural) of the order of 8% to 9% took place.

Policy and Prospects

The food production of the traditional agricultural sector, it seems clear, has not kept pace in output with population growth. In ce- realsbothannual production and cultivated area remained nearly static overthe twenty-year period 1939-1959, except for yearly variations due to the weather. In 1939 the yields of hard wheat in quintals per hectare averaged 5.3 for the Moslem agricultural sector, 10.1 for the Algerian non-Moslems, and 15.4for Metropolitan France. In 1954 the difference had widened; the comparable figures were 5.0 quintals per hectare for the Algerian Moslems, 11.0 for the non-Moslems, and 23.5 for Metro- politan France.

The contrast in economic activity between urban and rural populations has become accentuated inthe past few years. The presence of 400 thousand French military forces and the intensive activity connected with the discovery, production, and transportation of Saharan petroleum since 1953 have helped to produce a still continuing upswing, especially in the principal port cities, Alger, Oran, and B8ne, in building, public

28

works, metal processing, transport and communication, miscellaneous trades, hotels, and, above all, government administration.

In the rural areas a factor productive of disorganization has been the relocation, mainly since 1957, of some 1,250,000 Moslems in re- groupment centers under the protection of the French army. In some cases the initiative was taken by inhabitants of isolated hamlets or douars who sought refuge at military posts. In other cases the initiative came from the army to deprive the rebellion of logistic support or to prevent forced recruitment by the rebel forces. Although many relocated persons were able to work in fields outside the centers by day, the normal organization of production was inevitably more or less disrupted.

Government policy to deal with the subsistence problem has been embodied in the form of economic development plans, of which there have been four since 1949. The first two were four-year programs, 1949 -1952 and 1953-1956; the third, the Maspetiol Plan, begun in 1956-1957 was to continue to 1964, but the more ambitious Constantine Plan, proposed by President de Gaulle in 1959 for the period 1959-1963, has taken prece- dence.

The goals of the Constantine Plan include proposals to increase both industrial and agricultural production, the one by 96% and the other by 27%, as measured in value of annual output, and to provide 420,000 new full-time jobs, of which 192,000 would be for skilled workers. In the industrialization plans, a steel-making complex at B6ne and a petro- chemical one at Arzew, near Oran, oil and gas pipelines from the Hassi- Messaoud fields to B6ne and from the Hassi R'mel fields to Oran and Alger, as well as subventions to other industries, figure largely.

In the agricultural plan, the program deals with soil and water conservation; the modernization of traditional methods by means of a network of agricultural agents and local demonstration and training centers; encouragement of credit cooperatives; reform of land tenure by making the clearance of titles cheaper and quicker, providing cadastral surveys, and acquiring and redistributing land to small holders. A spe - cial feature of the plan is the creation of the "Thousand Villages," to be newly laid out and constructed for the million and a quarter regrouped persons in temporary housing. The state provides public services for the village and for the individual a site, building materials and specifi- cations, and instruction to enable the new owner to build his own house. Four pilot zones in difficult regions were set going in 1960 to carry out these plans.

For the year 1960 the investment scheduled for economic development totaled 958.9 million N. F., in which 430 million N. F., about 45% of the total, was allotted to forest and soil conservation, agricultural assistance, and rural facilities (equipment, housing, communications); another 114 million N.F. was allotted for public works to improve water supply; and in the budgeted investments for industry and power was an item of 8 million N. F. for rural electrification.

The Government has drawn up no specific program for a policy directly to influence natural increase rates. For wage -earners government-administrated family allowances, lower than those in Metropolitan France, have been in effect for some years and will presumably be extended to the proposed augmentation of the labor force. The improvement of public health facilities, undoubtedly a factor in the marked fall in mortality after World War II, may be expected to produce further mortality declines when peaceful conditions return. The provision of

29

elementary schooling, scheduled to be complete for all children by 1966, and expanded education of other types, may be expected to accelerate the modernization process. The trend toward urbanization, especially to concentration in the large agglomerations, noticeably intensified in the years since 1954 and likely to intensify further, the Government hopes to channel into a better balanced urban distribution.

All such planning for the future is charged with complexities, because of the different significance of economic development in the Mos- lem and the non-Moslem contexts. For the Moslems economic development implies a basic transformation of the traditional subsistence economy and of the social values on which it rests. For the non-Moslems economic development means rather the attainment of a momentum of rising productivity in the already modernized part of the economy, to keep pace with productivity trends in the economically advanced countries. These two operations, difficult enough in themselves, must be accomplished while the Moslems are increasing with a rapidity characteristic of some of the fastest growing populations of Asia and Latin America and the non-Moslems are increasing but slowly, at rates characteristic of the mature countries of Western Europe. For the admin- istrators of the government in the next decades, whoever they may be, the problems of the dual demographies will be many and inescapable.

Dorothy Good

REFERENCES

1. France. Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economi- ques, and Ministere de la France d'Outre Mer. Service des Sta- tistiques d'Outre-Mer. Les recensements demographiques dans les pays d'outre-mer (etude methodologique). Bulletin Mensuel de Statistique d'Outre-Mer, Supplement Serie Etudes, No. 35, Jan. 1957. Paris, 1956. 162 pp.

2. Algeria. Service de Statistique Generale. Resultats statistiques du recensement de la population du 31 octobre 1954. Vol. II. Sexe, age, etat matrimonial, lieu de naissance, instruction. Alger [1959]. 151 pp. Tables XII and XIV.

3. Bernard, Augustin, and Flotte de Roquevaire, R. de. Atlas d'Al- gerie et de Tunisie. Ouvrage publiee par le Gouvernement Gene- ral de l'Algerie avecla participation de la Tunisie. Alger, Jules Carbonel, and Paris, Emile LaRose, 1925-. Fascicules [Maps and texts]: I. Geologie. II. Hypsometrie. III. Climatologie. IV. Vegetation. V. Demographie. VI. Population indig'ene. VII. Ha- bitation rurale des indigenes. XII. Colonisation officielle. XIII. Agriculture. XIV. Ressources minerales.// Vidal de la Blache, P., and Gallois, L., Eds. Geographie Universelle. Tome XI. Af- rique septentrionale et occidentale. Premiere partie. General- ites -Afrique du Nord. By Augustin Bernard. Paris, Armand Colin, 1937. 284 pp.

4. France. Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economi- ques, and Ministere de la France d'Outre-Mer. Service des Sta- tistiques. Annuaire statistique de l'Union Francaise 1949-1954. Fasc. 1. Paris, 1956. 138 pp. Ref., p. 8.

30

5. The reorganization has proceeded by stages on the basis of decrees dated 20 May 1957, 17 March 1958, and 7 November 1959. As of the latest of these Northern Algeria is divided into 13 departements and 76 arrondissements. For a redistribution of the municipal population enumerated in the 1954 census and for 1959 estimated populations forthese units, see: Algeria. Service de Statisti- que Generale. Bulletin Mensuel de Statistique Generale, No. 68. Nov. 1959. P. 1.

6. The main sources for this section areas follows. Coon, Carleton S. Caravan: the story of the Middle East. Rev. ed. New York, Henry Holt, 1958. xiii, 386 pp.// Julien, Ch.-Andre. Histoire de l'AfriqueduNord: Tunisie-Algerie-Maroc. Paris, Payot, 1931. XVI, 866 pp. and2 folding maps. Idem. Vol.I. Des origines a la conquete arabe (647 ap. J. C.). Revue et mise'a jour par Christian Courtois. Ibid., 1951. 333 pp. Vol. II. De la conquete arabe a 1830. Revue et mise a jour par R. LeTourneau. Ibid., 1952. 367 pp.// Tenney, Frank, et al., Editors. An economic survey of an- cientRome. Vol.IV. Part I. Roman Africa. By R. M. Haywood. Baltimore, The JohnsHopkins Press, 1938. Pp.1-119.// Warm- ington, B. H. The North African provinces from Diocletiantothe Vandal conquest. Cambridge, The University Press, 1954. vi, 124 pp.// Van der Heyden, A.A.M., and Scullard,H. H. Atlas of the classical world. Nelson, 1959.

7. Demougeot, Emilienne. Le chameau et l'Afrique du Nord romaine. Annales, Economies, Societes, Civilisations 15(2):209-247, plus folding map and 4 pp. of plates. March-April 1960.

8. Algeria. Service de Statistique Generale. Resultats statistiques du denombrement de la population effectue le 31 octobre 1954. Al- ger, [1956]-. Vol. I. Population legaleou de residence habituelle. Repertoire statistiquedes communesd'Algerie. [1956]. XLVIII, 287 pp. Introductory text and retrospective tables.// Bernard, A., and Flotte de Roquevaire, R. de. Op. cit., Fascicules V and XII.// Chouraqui, Andre. Les juifs d'Afrique du Nord. Marche vers l'Occident. Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1952. v, 398 pp.// Demont'es, V. Lepeuple algerien. Essai de demographie algerienne. Alger, Gouvernement General de l'Algerie, 1906. 619 pp. and folding map.

9. The main sources for this section areas follows. Algeria. Ser- vice de Statistique Generale. Resultats statistiques du denombrement de la population effectue le 31 octobre 1948. Alger, 1950-. Vol. I. Population legale ou de residence habituelle. Repertoire statistique des communes d'Algerie. 1950. xxiv, 148 pp. Vol.II. Population non musulmane: etat civil et activite professionnelle. 1951. 93,122 pp. Vol. III. Population musulmane. Etat civil et activite professionnelle. 195, 94, 124 pp. Vol. IV. Familles. 1954. 206pp.// Algeria. ServicedelaStatistiqueG"enerale. De- mographie en 1955. Bulletin de Statistique Generale, Statistiques Trimestrielles, No. 1, 1956. Pp. VII-IX.

10. Algeria. 1954 Census, Vol. II. Table XIX.

11. Algeria. 1954 Census, V61. I. pp. XL-XLI.

12. France. Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economi- ques. Annuaire statistique de l'Union Fran9aise 1949-1954. Fasc. I. P. 50.

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13. Algeria. 1948 Census, Vol. III. Pp. 59-65.// Algeria. Service Central de Statistique. Population active par categorie socio-professionnelle au 31-10-1954. Algerie entiere. Bulletin Mensuel, No. 42. Feb. 1957. P. 1.

14. Bernard, A., and Flotte de Roquevaire, R. de. Op. cit., Fasc. VII.

15. Despois, Jean. La repartition de la population en A lgerie. Annales: Economies, Societes, Civilisations 15(5):915-935. Sept.-Oct. 1960. [Accompanied by folding map. Bertin, Jacques, Compiler. Al- gerie: distribution de la population, Musulmans, non Musulmans, d'apres le recensement du31 octobre 1954. [Scale], 1:1,000,000. Paris, Laboratoire de Cartographie de l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, 1960.]

16. Algeria. ServicedelaStatistique Generale. Annuaire statistique de l'Algerie 1959. Nouvelle Serie, onzieme volume. Alger, May 1960. 233 pp. P. 22. Table VI. Mouvement general de la population de 1906 a 1958. Population europeenne. P. 38. Table XXIX Mouvement general de la population de 1909 a 1958. Population musulmane. See also previous issues.

17. Algeria. Service de la Statistique Generale. La situation demographique et economique de l'Algerie en 1959. I. Population-emploi. Bulletin de Statistique Generale, Statistiques Trimestrielles, No. 1, 1960. Pp. IX-X.

18. France. Haut Comite Consultatif de la Population et de la Famille. La population frangaise. Rapport du.... Paris, La Documentation Frangaise, 1955. Tome II. La population en Algerie: etude de de6- mographiequantitative. By Jacques Breil. 1957. 128 pp. Chap- ters V and X. See also his study: Breil, Jacques. Essai de de- termination du niveau et des tendancesdelafecondite des musulmans d'Algerie. Pp. 795-808 in: Proceedingsof the World Popu- lation Conference, 1954. Papers: Vol.I. Meeting8. Rome, 1955.

19. France. Haut Comite Consultatif de la Population et de la Famille. Op. cit., pp. 88-90.

20. These and other rates are recorded in the Statistics section of the July 1960 issue of Population Index.

21. Algeria. 1948 Census. Vol.III. Appendice. Travailleurs musulmans enMe"tropole. Pp.87-94.// France. Institut National d'E- tudes Demographiques. Les Algeriens en France: etude demo- Xraphique et sociale. Ouvrage realise en collaboration avec les

Etudes Sociales Nord-Africaines." Travaux et Documents, Ca- hier No. 24. Paris, Presses UniversitairesdeFrance, 1955. 166 pp.// Chevalier,Louis. Le problemedemographique nord-Afri- cain. Institut National d'Etudes Demographiques, Travaux et Do- cuments, Cahier No.6. Paris, Presses Universitaires'de France, 1947. 221 pp. Troisieme partie. Le fait de l'immigration.

22. At the census taken in Metropolitan France on May 4, 1954, nearly six months before the Algerian census, 208,540 Algerian Moslems were enumerated, of whom 187,000 were males aged 15 and over, 9,680 were females of those ages, and 11,780 were children. As this total is well above the 161,821 of emigrant Moslems in France reported in the Algerian census and includes more women and children, it may well be that those emigrant workers who take their

32

wives withthemrormarryin France are less likely to be reported asabsentmembersby theirfamiliesin Algeria. See: France. In- stitut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques. An- nuaire statistique de la France 1956. Soixante-deuxi'me volume. Paris, 1956. P. XVIII.

23. France. Haut Comite Consultatif de la Population et de la Famille. Op. cit./ / Henry, Louis. La situation demographique de l'Afrique du Nord. Pp. 12-38 in: France. Institut National d'Etudes De- mographiques. Les Algeriens en France. Travaux et Documents, Cahier No.24. Paris, 1955.// Tabah, Leon. La population algerienne: croissance, niveau de vie, investissements. Population (Paris) 11(3):429-460. July-Sept. 1956.// Weiler, H. Peuple- ment et de'mographie. Pp. 141-197 in: Alazard, J., et al. Initia- tion a l'Algerie. Paris, Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1957. XII, 423 pp.

24. France. Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Econo- miques. Recensement general delapopulation de mai 1954. Re- sultats du sondage au 1/20eme. Population active. ire Partie: Structure professionnelle. Paris, 1958. P. 64.

25. Algeria. Service de Statistique Generale. Le programme d'e- quipement de l'Algerie pour 1960. Bulletin Mensuel de Statistique Generale, No. 69. Dec. 1959. P. 1.// Economist Intelligence Unit Limited and the Cartographic Department of the Clarendon Press. Oxford regional economic atlas. The Middle East and North Africa. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1960. VIII, 135 pp.// France. Ministere des Armees. Le plan de Constantine. Tropiques: Revue des Troupes d'Outre-Mer (Paris) 58(431):32-49. Aug.-Sept. 1960.// Gendarme, Rene. L'economie de l'Algerie: sous developpement et politique de croissance. Cahiers de la Fon- dation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, Institut d'Etudes Politi- ques d'Alger, No. 101. Paris, Librairie Ax-mand Colin, 1959. 387 pp.// SecretariatSocial d'Alger. Lesous-developpement en Algerie. Alger, 1959. 193 pp.// Yacono, X. L'economie algerienne. Pp. 371-416 in: Alazard, J., et al. Op. cit.