Notes

Introduction

1. Heretofore, whenever I refer to the shaman, I mean both genders, since the shamanic figure not only apprehends both sexes but also often involves hermaphroditic behavior.

Chapter 1

1. See Waldemar Bogoraz, The Folklore of Northeastern Asia (New York: Putnam’s Sons, 1902), The Chukchee (New York: G. E. Stechert, 1904), Tales of Yukaghir, Lamut, and Russianized Natives of Eastern Siberia (New York: Anthropological Papers of American Museum of Natural History [AMNH] vol. 20 pt. 1, 1918); Waldemar Jochelson, Peoples of Asiatic Russia (New York: AMNH, 1928); and Knud Ras-mussen, The People of the Polar North (London: Kegan Paul, 1908), Across Arctic America (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969 [1927]), The Eagle’s Gift, Alaska Eskimo Tales (New York: Doubleday, 1932). (Hereafter, quotes that are not followed by a reference number belong to the one previously numbered.)

2. Mircea Eliade points out that “the few figures of Greek legend who can be compared with shamanism are related to Apollo,” in Mircea Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), 388.

3. According to W. K. C. Guthrie, Apollo’s original home is the north-western Asian area where Siberia is located, which points to an inter-esting correspondence with the origins of shamanism itself, in William Guthrie, The Greeks and Their Gods (Boston: Beacon, 1955), 204.

4. The Scythian poets’ feats are in “Herodotus IV.15.” Abaris’s magic flight is worth quoting: “Carrying in his hand the golden arrow, the proof of his Apollinian origin and mission, he passed through many lands dispelling sickness and pestilence by sacrifices of a magic kind, giving warnings of earthquakes and other disasters.” In Erwin Rohde, Psyche: The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality among the Greeks (New York: W. B. Hillis, 1925), 300.

5. See J. Burnet, The Legacy of Greece (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 57– 72; E. R. Dodds, The Greek and the Irrational (Berkeley:

Notes214

Sather, 1951), 145; and Charles H. Kahn, “Religion and Natural Phi-losophy in Empedocles’ Doctrine of the Soul,” in Archiv fur Geschichte der Philosophie [42: 1960] 30.

6. Shamanism was originally published in French in 1951. Eliade is cer-tainly the chief commentator on shamanism among Western thinkers, and in my opinion, the widespread view of shamanism as a fundamen-tal religious concept— that is, shamanism as the primary ingredient of religion— is the effect of his comments on the subject. Rather than being a neutral authority, Eliade is thus responsible for the creation of the category. A native of Romania, Mircea Eliade lectured in the École des Hautes Études of the Sorbonne and was chairman of the Department of History of Religions at the University of Chicago. Having published many important books on religious themes, Eliade was certainly the first Western scholar to take up the problem of shamanism and fully define it. Interestingly enough, before becoming a historian of religion, dedi-cating his life to the scholarly reinterpretation of the sacred dimensions of religion and thought, and aligning these against a contemporary desacralization of nature, Eliade had been an experimental writer in his native Romania, publishing novels (including occult fiction), travel writing, and personal philosophy. For a complete bibliography on Eli-ade’s early fictional work, along with his scientific ones, see Bryan S. Rennie, Reconstructing Eliade: Making Sense of Religion (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996), 261– 70.

7. E. J. Langdon points out the essential difference, in Eliade’s view, between soul flight (typical of shamanism) and possession (typical of African religions) in E. J. Matteson Langdon and Gerhard Baer (eds.), Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America (Albuquerque: Univer-sity of New Mexico Press, 1992), 4.

8. See Alfred Metraux, Ethnology of Easter Island (Honolulu: The Museum, 1940), “Religion and Shamanism,” in Julian Haynes Stew-ard, The Comparative Ethnology of South American Indians (New York: Cooper Square, 1963), Voodoo in Haiti (New York: Schocken Books, 1972 [1959]), The History of the Incas (New York: Pantheon Books, 1961); Harald Motzki, Schamanismus als Problem religionswis-senschaftlicher Terminologie (Bonn, Germany: University of Bonn, 1977); and Gerhard Baer, L’Ethnologie dans le dialogue interculturel (Fribourg, Switzerland: Editions Universitaires, 1983).

9. Eliade, Shamanism, 4. 10. Joseph Campbell, The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology (New York:

Penguin, 1991), 229. In chapter 6, Campbell deals with shamanism and points out the emphasis on the individual fast to acquire visions among the hunters. Accordingly, one could state that the very power of the shaman would be determined by such early visions. For more information on hunting cultures, see Ake Hultkrantz, Shamanic Heal-ing and Ritual Drama (New York: Crossroad Herder, 1992), 9– 10,

Notes 215

12, 17, 19; and Gerardo Reichel- Dolmatoff, Rainforest Shamans (London: Themis Books, 1997), 9, 14, 24, 41.

11. Eliade also mentions the “Kommandostäbe,” which are mysterious objects, found in prehistoric sites, that could be regarded as shamanic drumsticks. Eliade then summarizes Karl J. Narr’s study on the origins of shamanism, “Bärenzeremoniell und Shamanismus in der Älteren Steinzeit Europas,” as follows: “Animal skulls and bones found in the sites of the European- Paleolithic (before 50,000– ca. 30,000 BC) can be interpreted as ritual offerings . . . Soon afterward, probably about 25,000, Europe offers evidence for the earliest forms of shamanism (Lascaux) with the plastic representations of the bird, the tutelary spirit, and ecstasy.” Shamanism, 503.

12. Eliade, Shamanism, 508. 13. Eliade, Shamanism, 509. 14. Michael Harner, The Way of the Shaman: A Guide to Power and Heal-

ing (New York: Harper and Row, 1980), 79. 15. Joan Halifax, Shamanic Voices (New York: Arkana, 1979), 3. 16. Eliade, Shamanism, 509. 17. Eliade, Shamanism, 495. 18. Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971).

Hereafter, the Oxford English Dictionary is also referred to as OED. 19. See Julius Nemeth, “Über den Ursprung des Wortes Šaman und

einige Bemerkungen zur türkisch- mongolischen Lautgeschichte,” in Keleti Szemle [14: 1913– 14] 240– 49; Berthold Laufer, “Origin of the Word Shaman,” in American Anthropologist [19: 1917] 361– 71; G. J. Ramsted, “The Relation of the Altaic Languages to Other Language Groups,” in Journal de la Societe Finno- Oogrienne [53 (1): 1946– 47] 15– 26; and S. M. Shirokogoroff, Psychomental Complex of the Tungus (London: Kegan Paul, 1935), 268– 69.

20. The first usage listed in the OED is dated from 1698: “A. Brand Emb. Muscovy into China 50. If five or six of these Tonguese families happen to live near one another . . . they maintain betwixt them a Shaman, which signifies as much as Sorcerer or Priest.”

21. An interesting coincidence, reminding us of both the etymology and the elusive meaning of the word shaman, is the previous entry of the OED, sham, which reads like so: “a trick, hoax, imposture, something devised to impose upon, delude, or disappoint expectation.”

22. OED. 23. Halifax, Shamanic Voices, 4. 24. Joan Halifax, Shaman: The Wounded Healer (London: Thames and

Hudson, 1982), 84. 25. Nicolau Sevcenko, “No Princípio Era o Ritmo: As Raízes Xamânicas da

Narrativa,” in Dirce Cortes Riedel (ed.), Narrativa, Ficção e História (Rio de Janeiro: Imago, 1988), 134. (My translation.)

26. Sevcenko, “No Princípio,” 126.

Notes216

27. Jane Atkinson, “Shamanisms Today,” in Annual Review of Anthropol-ogy [21: 1992] 307. The works quoted by Atkinson are the following: Clifford Geertz, “Religion as a Cultural System,” in M. Banton (ed.), Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion (London: Tavistock, 1966); R. F. Spencer, “Review of Studies in Shamanism,” in American Anthropology [70 (2): 1968]; and Michael Taussig, “The Nervous Sys-tem: Homesickness and Dada,” in Stanford Humanities Review [1 (1): 1989].

28. Atkinson, “Shamanisms Today,” 308. 29. Langdon and Baer, Portals of Power, 1. 30. Langdon and Baer, Portals of Power, 3. 31. On the quoted authors, see William Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg,

The Yage Letters (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1963); Aldous Huxley, The Doors of Perception (London: Flamingo, 1994 [1954]); Timothy Leary, The Psychedelic Experience (New York: Citadel, 1995 [1964]); and Carlos Castaneda, The Teachings of Don Juan (Los Ange-les: University of California Press, 1968).

32. See Michael Taussig, The Devil and Commodity Fetishism in South America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), Sha-manism, Colonialism and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Jean Pierre Chaumeil, Between Zoo and Slavery: The Yagua of Eastern Peru in Their Present Situation (Copenhagen: International Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1984), La Politique des Esprits: Chamanismes et Religions Universalistes (Nanterre, France: Société d’ethnologie, 2000); and Jean Matteson Langdon, La Muerte y el Más Allá en las Culturas Indígenas Latino-americanas (Quito: ABYA, 1992).

33. Langdon and Baer, Portals of Power, 4. 34. Rémi Siméon, Diccionario de la Lengua Nahuatl o Mexicana (México

City, México: Siglo Veintiuno, 1994), 304. 35. Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, Medicina y Magia (México City, México:

Instituto Nacional Indigenista, 1973), 104. (My translation.) 36. Beltrán, Medicina y Magia, 105. 37. Carlo Ginzburg, “On the European (Re)Discovery of Shamans,” in

Elementa, vol. 1 (Yverdon, Switzerland: Harwood Academic, 1993), 35. 38. See Ginzburg’s analysis of the identification of intoxicating herbs

smoked by both American Indians and Thracians, see Ginzburg, “European (Re)Discovery,” 28– 29.

39. Ginzburg, “European (Re)Discovery,” 26. 40. Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of

Rationality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 1. 41. Tambiah, Magic, 3. 42. Tambiah, Magic, 4. 43. Tambiah, Magic, 5. 44. Tambiah, Magic, 7.

Notes 217

45. Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1971), 50.

46. Tambiah, Magic, 18. 47. See Weston La Barre, “Hallucinogens and the Shamanic Origins of

Religion,” in Peter T. Furst (ed.), Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1990), 261– 78 and The Ghost Dance: Origins of Religion (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1970), 265– 70, in which he writes on shamanism as the root to all religious practices and/or beliefs— that is, as a proto- religious phenomenon.

48. The following works, which are the ones I refer to hereafter, are among the most representative examples of the early accounts of native culture in America:

Bernardino de Sahagún, General History of the Things of New Spain [1590] (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1953– 1982).

Fray Diego de Durán, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España y las Islas de Tierra Firme [1588] (Madrid: Ediciones Equili-brista, 1990).

Hernando Alvarado Tezozomoc, Crónica Mexicana [1598] (México City, México: Leyenda, 1944).

Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, Historia de los Indios de la Nueva España [1568] (Madrid: Historia 16, 1985).

Francisco Hernandez, Historia Plantarum Novae Hispaniae [1587] (México City, México: Imprenta Universitaria, 1942– 46).

Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón, Tratado de las Supersticiones de los Naturales de esta Nueva España [1629; English and Nahuatl] (Albany: Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, 1982).

Jacinto de la Serna, “Manual de Ministros de Indios, para el Conocimiento de sus Idolatrías y Extirpación de Ellas,” [1661] in Francisco del Paso y Troncoso (eds.), Tratado de las Idolatrias, Supersticiones, Dioses, Ritos, Hechizerías y Otras Costumbres Gentílicas de las Razas Aborígines de México (México City, México: Fuente Cultural, 1953).

Francisco Flores, Historia de la Medicina de México (México: n.p., 1888).

Manuel Orozco y Berra, Historia Antigua y de la Conquista de México (México: Editorial Porrúa, 1960).

49. For Pre- Columbian Indian literature, see the following: Miguel León- Portilla, “Have We Really Translated the Mesoamerican ‘Ancient Word?’” in On the Translation of Native American Literatures (Wash-ington, DC: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1991), and The Aztec Image

Notes218

of Self and Society: An Introduction to Nahua Culture (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1992); James Lockhart, Nahuas and Span-iards: Postconquest Central Mexican History and Philology (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991); Frances Kartunnen, “Nahuatl Lit-erature,” in The Inca and Aztec States, 1400– 1800: Anthropology and History (New York: Academic Press, 1982); and Dennis Tedlock, Popol Vuh: The Definitive Edition of the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life and the Glories of Gods and Kings (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985).

50. Frances Kartunnen, “Indigenous Writing as a Vehicle of Postconquest Continuity and Change,” in Elizabeth Hill Boone and Tom Cummins (eds.), Native Traditions in the Post Conquest World (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1998), 424.

51. See Siméon, Diccionario de la Lengua Nahuatl, xxiv, xxv, xxx, xxxi. 52. Bernardino de Sahagún, The Florentine Codex— The General History of

the Things of New Spain, edited by Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1951– 1982).

53. Sahagún, The General History, 184. 54. Munro Edmonson (ed.), 16th Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagún

(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974), 7. 55. John Keber, “Sahagún and Hermeneutics: A Christian Ethnographer’s

Understanding of Aztec Culture,” in Jorge Klor de Alva (ed.), The Work of Bernardino de Sahagún (Albany: Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, 1988), 53.

56. Keber, “Sahagún and Hermeneutics,” 54. 57. Charles E. Dibble, “Sahagún’s Appendices: ‘There Is No Reason to Be

Suspicious of the Ancient Practices,’” in Klor de Alva (ed.), The Work of Bernardino de Sahagún (Albany: Institute for Mesoamerican Stud-ies, 1988), 108. Dibble, who is responsible for the first translation of Sahagún’s Nahuatl text into English in 1950, offers here the thesis that Sahagún intended, through the appendices, to provide an education to the evangelists to come so that they were not blind to either the Indians practices or their own inability to understand them.

58. Keber, “Sahagún and Hermeneutics,” 55. 59. Sahagún, The General History, 184. 60. Keber, “Sahagún and Hermeneutics,” 57. 61. Sahagún, The Florentine Codex, 47. 62. Sahagún, The General History, 186. 63. In the introductory volume of The Florentine Codex, we can clearly see

Sahagún’s acknowledged bewilderment at the rituals he cannot fully understand: “To preach against these matters [idolatrous rituals], and even to know if they exist, it is needful to know how they practiced them in the times of their idolatry, for, though [our] lack of knowledge of this, they perform many idolatrous things in our presence without our understanding it,” 45.

Notes 219

64. Todorov claims that, as Sahagún compares the pagan deities to Greco- Roman ones instead of to the Christian one, he aims at a neutraliz-ing process wherein the “terms [god and devil] lose their qualitative nuances,” The Conquest of America (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 232. Keber, on the other hand, sees this as merely another example of Sahagún’s tradition— that is, the characterization of pagan gods as deceptive entities and idols as expressions of the demonic.

65. Sahagún, The Florentine Codex, 65. 66. Keber, “Sahagún and Hermeneutics,” 59. 67. Sahagún, The Florentine Codex, 77. 68. Dibble, “Sahagún’s Appendices,” 118. 69. Sahagún, quoted in Dibble, “Sahagún’s Appendices,” 118, from Fray

Bernardino de Sahagún Arte Adivinatoria [1585] (Mexico: Mexican National Library, 1954), 386.

70. Keber, “Sahagún and Hermeneutics,” 62. 71. Luis N. Rivera, A Violent Evangelism: The Political and Religious Con-

quest of the Americas (Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1992), 163. 72. Rivera, A Violent Evangelism, 156. 73. See Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas, Apologetica Historia Sumaría

(México: Universidad Autonoma de México, 1967), and The Devasta-tion of the Indies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992).

74. Rivera, A Violent Evangelism, 159. 75. Black Elk’s vision is the theme of the Chapter 2. 76. See Hernán Cortés, Letters from Mexico (New Haven: Yale University

Press, 1986), 155. 77. Rivera, A Violent Evangelism, 161. 78. Rivera, A Violent Evangelism, 166. 79. See the following articles, which explore the influence of Nahuatl

religion on Christianity. In his introductory remarks to 16th Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagún (Op. cit.), Munro Edmonson comments generally on the subject; Charles E. Dibble also refers to the theme in his article “The Nahuatlization of Christianity” in the same book; Lou-ise Burkhart, “Pious Performances: Christian Pageantry and Native Identity in Early Colonial Mexico,” in Elizabeth Hill Boone and Tom Cummins (eds.), Native Traditions in the Post Conquest World (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1998).

80. Edmonson, 16th Century Mexico, 14. 81. The other notable figures of Sahagún’s order engaged in similar activi-

ties (compilation of native data and catechization efforts) are Fray Andrés de Olmos, Fray Alonso de Molina, and Fray Toribio de Bena-vente Motolinia.

82. Nahuatl was in fact only one of the languages spoken by the peoples of Mexico, but since it was the one mostly used by the natives who lived near the capital, it took precedence over the other dialects.

Notes220

83. Charles E. Dibble, “The Nahuatlization of Christianity,” in Munro Edmonson (ed.), 16th Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagún, 226.

84. Dibble gives the example of “The Mother of God,” which instead of “Tonantzin” (an Aztec goddess), should be called “Dios Ynantzin” (literally mixing the Nahuatl word for mother, “Ynantzin,” and the Spanish for God, “Dios”) as expressed by Sahagún, 227.

85. Dibble, “Nahuatlization of Christianity,” 227. 86. According to Dibble, even richer than Sahagún’s texts (in terms of the

source for the assessing of Nahuatl style in Christian texts) are those by Fray Olmos, especially the “Huehuetlatolli,” or speeches of the elders, which deals with rhetorical orations. See S. Jeffrey Wilkerson, “The Ethnographic Works of Andres de Olmos,” in Munro Edmonson (chapter 3, Op. cit.), and Fray Juan Bautista, Huehuehtlatohlli: Testi-monios de la Palabra Antigua (México City, México: Fondo de Cul-tura Económica, 1991).

87. Fray Angel María Garibay Kintana (b. 1892/d. 1967)— named after his homonym, the Spanish viceroy of Mexico in the nineteenth cen-tury— is one of today’s authoritative voices in the study of Nahuatl lit-erature. See La Conquista Espiritual de México (México City, México: Editorial Jus, 1947), Historia de la Literatura Nahuatl (México City, México: Editorial Porrúa, 1953), La Literatura de los Aztecas (México City, México: J. Mortiz, 1964), and Poesía Nahuatl (México City, México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1993).

88. Dibble, “Nahuatlization of Christianity,” 227. 89. Other important modern scholars working on Nahuatl include the fol-

lowing: Daniel G. Brinton, The Study of Nahuatl Language (Media, PA? 1886), Rig Veda Americanus, Sacred Songs of the Ancient Mexi-cans (New York: AMS Press, 1969); Walter Lehmann, Traditions des Anciens Mexicains, Texte Inédit et Original en Langue Nahuatl (Paris: Société des Americanistes de Paris, 1906); Leonhard Schultze Jena, Alt- Aztekische Gesange (Stuttgart: Kohlkammer, 1957); Miguel León Por-tilla, Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), Literatura del México Antiguo: Los Textos en Lengua Nahuatl (Caracas, Venezuela: Biblio-teca Ayacucho, 1978), La Filosofía Nahuatl Estudiada en sus Fuentes (México City, México: UNAM, 1993); Thelma D. Sullivan, Primeros Memoriales (by Sahagún) Paleography of Nahuatl Text and English Translation (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997); Alfredo López Austin, Hombre- Dios: Religión y Politíca en el Mundo Nahuatl (México City, México: UNAM, 1973), Textos de Medicina Nahuatl (México City, México: UNAM, 1975); and Georges Baudot, Tratado de Hechicerías y Sortilegios de Fray Andres de Olmos (México City, México: Misión Arqueológica y Etnológica Francesa en México, 1979).

90. See Dibble, “Nahuatlization of Christianity,” 228.

Notes 221

91. Burkhart, “Pious Performances: Christian Pageantry and Native Iden-tity in Early Colonial Mexico,” in Elizabeth Hill Boone and Tom Cum-mins (eds.), Native Traditions in the Post Conquest World (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1998), 362.

92. See, for instance, Bishop Zumarraga’s comment in his letter to Emperor Charles V in 1540: “The conversion of these natives cannot be not accomplished by preaching as they are moved by music and dancing,” in Maríano Cuevas (ed.), Documentos Inéditos del Siglo XVI para la Historia de México (México City, México: Editorial Porrúa, 1975), 99. (My translation.)

93. Burkhart, “Pious Performances,” 364. 94. Burkhart remarks that the Indians not only accepted the new religious

code but also flocked in unexpected numbers to the processions and celebrations of the Christian calendar. She quotes Fray Geronimo de Mendieta as he comments on the Easter parade, which was “one of the most lovely and solemn processions in Christendom,” and also the Dominican Agustin Davila Padilla who was impressed by the Indi-ans’ refutation of the demonic activities in favor of God: “The Indians exercise greater diligence now in the service of God than they formerly dedicated to that of the demon,” 367.

95. Burkhart, “Pious Performances,” 368. 96. Burkhart, “Pious Performances,” 369. 97. According to the Mexican Ecclesiastical Council, in 1585, the “rudes”

are those deemed incapable of mastering more than the rudiments of religious doctrine, as cited by Burkhart, from Stafford Poole, Pedro Moya de Contreras: Catholic Reform and Royal Power in New Spain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 153.

98. Louise M. Burkhart, The Slippery Earth: Nahua- Christian Moral Dia-logue in 16th Century Mexico (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1989), 35.

99. Burkhart, The Slippery Earth, 38. 100. Burkhart, The Slippery Earth, 39. 101. See Geronimo de Mendieta, Historia Eclesiastica Indiana: A Francis-

can’s View of the Spanish Conquest of Mexico (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1997).

102. Burkhart, The Slippery Earth, 40. 103. Burkhart, The Slippery Earth, 39. 104. For descriptions of the Spanish view of Indian religious practice as

satanic, see the following: Luis Weckmann, La Herencia Medieval de México (México: Colegio de México, 1984); Georges Baudot, Trat-ado de Hechicerías y Sortilegios de Fray Andres de Olmos (Op. cit.), La Vida Cotidiana en la América Española de Felipe II (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1983), Utopia and History in Mexico: The First Chroniclers of the Mexican Civilization 1520/1569 (Niwot: Univer-sity Press of Colorado, 1985); Fray Juan de Grijalva, Crónica de la

Notes222

Orden de N.P.S. Augustin (México: Juan Ruiz Impresor, 1624); Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The Conquest of New Spain (London: Folio Soci-ety, 1974); Francisco Paso y Troncoso, Relaciones Geográficas de la Diocesis de Michoacan (Guadalajara: n.p., 1958); and Edwin Edward Sylvest, Motifs of Franciscan Mission Theory in 16th Century New Spain Province of the Holy Gospel (Washington, DC: Academy of American Franciscan History, 1975).

105. Burkhart, The Slippery Earth, 44. 106. Serge Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico: The Incorporation of Indian

Societies into the Western World 16th– 18th Centuries (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993), 184.

107. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 185. 108. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 187. 109. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 190. 110. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 199. 111. The general point here is that colonial magic, although spread through-

out society, was “often just a system of defense, at the disposal of many rejected by colonial society.” Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 195.

112. In their book, Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred Healing and Hallucino-genic Powers (Rochester: Healing Arts Press, 1992), Albert Hofmann and Richard Evans Schultes offer the most complete listing of such plants, affirming also that shamans of the Southern Hemisphere are used to dealing with a wider variety than those of the northern regions of the planet due to the vastly greater number of the so- called sacred plants in the south.

113. Tezozomoc, Crónica Mexicana, 112. (My translation.) 114. It is interesting to observe Tezozomoc’s description of the shamans’

utterly fearless state when under the effect of the previously men-tioned bitumen, made out of ololiuqui (the native name for the LSD- containing ipomaea violacea seeds). According to him, the shamans would go to the darkest of caves at night not only to face but to scare off “native beasts such as lions, tigers, wolfs, snakes, etc.” One wonders how different America indeed might have been having animals only found today in Africa and Asia, like lions and tigers, unless the descrip-tion was itself less of a fair representation than a conceit despite the acknowledged biological understanding of the early chroniclers (Tezo-zomoc, in particular).

115. Prior to certain ceremonies, the shamans would fast for up to ten days in order to achieve the necessary altered state of consciousness. See Tezozomoc, Crónica Mexicana, 114.

116. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 213. 117. Gruzinski, by way of analyzing a few examples of the work of the

curanderos, shows how this figure helped the Church accomplish its objective. See Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, chapter 6: “Captur-ing the Christian Supernatural.”

Notes 223

118. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 214. 119. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 216. 120. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 217. 121. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 221. 122. Osvaldo F. Pardo, “Contesting the Power to Heal: Angels, Demons

and Plants in Colonial Mexico,” in Nicholas Griffiths (ed.), Spiritual Encounters (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1999).

123. This information would later be used in all of Hernández’s books on plants of New Spain (Op. cit.).

124. Pardo, “Contesting the Power,” 165. 125. Peter Cardenas, Problemas y Secretos Maravillosos de las Indias (México:

Bibliófilos Mexicanos, 1965), 172. 126. Pardo, “Contesting the Power,” 179n11. 127. Hernando Ruíz de Alarcón, “Tratado de las Superticiones y Costum-

bres Gentílicas que Hoy Viven entre los Indios Naturales de esta Nueva España” [1629], in Francisco del Paso y Troncoso (ed.), Anales del Museo Nacional de México (The Mexican National Museum, 1892).

128. Pardo, “Contesting the Power” 175. 129. A Spanish missionary and member of the Franciscan community in

Mexico during the first half of the sixteenth century, Benavente— as commonly done at the time— adopted an Indian nickname, Motolinia, meaning “poor” in Aztec.

130. Motolinia, “Historia de los Indios” (Op. cit.) in Spanish, 20. (My translation.)

131. Motolinia, “Historia de los Indios,” 21. 132. This substance, as well as other mind- altering ones, will be more thor-

oughly discussed in the chapter dealing with Castaneda and the emer-gence of ethnobotany.

133. Motolinia, “Historia de los Indios,” 22. 134. Motolinia, “Historia de los Indios,” 130. 135. Motolinia, “Historia de los Indios,” 131. 136. Motolinia, “Historia de los Indios,” 133. 137. Gloria Flaherty, Shamanism and the Eighteenth Century (Princeton:

Princeton University Press, 1992), 7. 138. Eliade’s book, Shamanism, has been the unquestioned reference book

of all students of shamanism since its publication in French in 1951. 139. Flaherty, Shamanism, 3. 140. Flaherty, Shamanism, 5. 141. Flaherty, Shamanism, 8. It is my contention that most of the previously

mentioned categories simply did not exist as such yet and belonged rather to the last one— that is, adventurers.

142. Flaherty, Shamanism, 10. 143. The eighteenth- century interest that Flaherty describes is also stimu-

lated by reports from places other than America, such as Europe and Siberia. She cites Lester S. King, The Philosophy of Medicine: The Early

Notes224

Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978); John Bell, Travels from St. Petersburg in Russia to Diverse Parts of Asia (Glasgow: R. and A. Foulis, 1763); Philipp Johann Tabbert von Strahlenberg, Russia, Siberia, and the Great Tartary (New York: Arno Press, 1970); James Grieve, The History of Kamtschatka (Glocester: R. Raike, 1764); and Johann Georg Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie (Paris: Desaint, 1767).

144. Flaherty, Shamanism, 11. 145. Flaherty, Shamanism, 13. 146. In the very first lines, we read the following: “The Age of discovery

brought forth a prodigious supply of information about the multifari-ous vestiges of shamanism all over the world. The methods used to gather this information can at best be termed elusive, and the means of disseminating it, eclectic.” Flaherty, Shamanism, 21. As I have shown before, contrary to what Flaherty states, the Spanish friars’ reports not only on shamanism but also on myriad cultural descriptions are far from elusive in their supply of information. They are in fact often methodical, extremely detailed exposures of life in the New World after and also, by means of extensive research, before the coming of the Europeans.

147. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 271. 148. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 274. 149. Gruzinski, The Conquest of Mexico, 275.

Chapter 2

1. Sir James George Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion pt. 6 (New York: Macmillan, 1951), 374.

2. Frazer, The Golden Bough, 374. 3. Halifax, Shaman: The Wounded Healer, 5. 4. Claude Lévi- Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: Chicago University

Press, 1966), 219. 5. Ruth- Inge Heinze, foreword to Mark Levy, Technicians of Ecstasy: Sha-

manism and the Modern Artist (Connecticut: Bramble, 1993), ix. 6. Jerome Rothenberg (ed.), Symposium of the Whole: A Range of Dis-

course toward an Ethnopoetics (Berkeley: California University Press, 1983), xi.

7. Rothenberg, Symposium, xi. 8. Rothenberg, Symposium, xv. 9. Jerome Rothenberg and David Guss (eds.), The Book, Spiritual Instru-

ment (New York: Granary Books, 1996), 3. 10. For Snyder’s work related to ethnopoetics, see the following: Earth

House Hold (New York: New Directions, 1969), Myths and Texts (New York: New Directions, 1978), The Old Ways (San Francisco: City Lights

Notes 225

Books, 1977), and He Who Hunted Birds in His Father’s Village: The Dimensions of a Hida Myth (Bolinas, CA: Grey Fox Press, 1979).

11. See Nathaniel Tarn and Janet Rodney, Atitlan/Alashka (Boulder, CO: Brillig Works, 1979); Dennis Tedlock, “On the Translation of Style in Oral Narrative,” in Journal of American Folklore [84 (331): 1971], Finding the Center: Narrative Poetry of the Zuni Indians (New York: Dial Press, 1972); and Dennis Tedlock and Barbara Tedlock (eds.), Teachings from the American Earth (New York: Liveright, 1975).

12. I will later be referring in some detail to the work of Anne Waldman, in relation to María Sabina, which in a way deals with the subject of cultural expropriation.

13. Rothenberg, Symposium, xii. 14. Robert Duncan, “From ‘Rites of Participation,’” in Rothenberg’s Sym-

posium, 328. 15. Rothenberg, Symposium, xiii. 16. In his prologue to the extract from Eliade’s prologue presented in his

anthology, Rothenberg indeed acknowledges Eliade’s authority on the subject as well as his taking off from Eliade’s title: “His [Eliade’s] work on shamanism is still the best guide to the subject, reinforcing an intuition long held of the shaman as artist and thinker as well as ‘medi-cine man, priest, and psychopompus.’” In the present coeditor’s book, Technicians of the Sacred (the title is itself a takeoff from Eliade’s “spe-cialist of the sacred” who masters the “techniques of ecstasy,” etc.), the shaman is viewed as a “proto- poet” and paradigm for the later vision-ary artist. Rothenberg, Symposium, 59.

17. Jerome Rothenberg, Technicians of the Sacred: A Range of Poetries from Africa, America, Asia & Oceania (New York: Anchor Books, 1969). This anthology— based on a pair of readings in New York City at the Poet’s Hardware Theater and the Café Metro in 1964— is clearly part of Rothenberg’s first steps toward a literature of the whole and what he would later be calling ethnopoetics. Thus as he tells us in the preface, “the idea for a ‘book of events’ came from a discussion with Dick Hig-gins about what he was calling ‘near- poetry’ and from my own sense of the closeness of primitive rituals . . . to the ‘happenings’ and ‘events’ he was presenting as publisher . . . I’ve kept the possibilities wide open: looking for new forms and media; hoping that what I finally assembled could be read as ‘contemporary,’ since so much of it is that in fact, still being created and used in a world we share” (xxiv, xxv). For other ear-lier works that can be seen as foundational of Rothenberg’s ethnopo-etic discourse, see the following: White Sun Black Sun (1960); “From a Shaman’s Notebook,” in Poems from the Floating World 4 (New York: Hawk’s Well Press, 1962); Ritual: A Book of Primitive Rites and Events (1966); Narratives and Real Theater Pieces (1967); and “Total Trans-lation: An Experiment in the Presentation of American Indian Poetry,” in Stony Brook [3– 4: 1969].

Notes226

18. Rothenberg, Symposium, xiii. 19. Jerome Rothenberg, “Ethnopoetics at the Millenium” (a talk for the

Modern Language Association, December 29, 1994). 20. Rothenberg, Symposium, xiv. 21. Rothenberg, Symposium, xv. 22. Rothenberg, Symposium, xvi. 23. Eliade, Shamanism, 510. 24. Eliade, Shamanism, 511. 25. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Twilight of the Idols, in Walter Kaufmann

(ed.), The Portable Nietzsche (New York: Penguin Books, 1982), 530. 26. These are Friedrich Nietzsche’s words in William Huntington (ed.),

The Philosophy of Nietzsche (New York: Modern Library, 1927), 869. 27. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 867. 28. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 951. 29. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 952. 30. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 955. 31. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 956. 32. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 959. 33. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 962. 34. That is to say, legendary— in Plato’s terms, philosophically naïve. Poet-

ically, of course, Homer is highly sophisticated. 35. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 967. 36. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 978. 37. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 983. 38. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 986. 39. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 988. 40. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 1021. 41. Dionysus’s devotees used to worship their god by means of a wild and

frantic cult. Every two years, in winter, a group of scarcely dressed barefooted women would climb the snowed mountains, and then they would run and dance under the sound of the tamboura. After that, in the climax of delirium, they would slaughter a wild beast and eat it raw. Thus they would acquire the god’s vitality and achieve the Dionysian ecstasy, in which their personalities were, for a while, substituted by the god’s.

42. Plato’s “Ion,” in Robert Maynard Hutchins (ed.), Great Books of the Western World (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1971), 144.

43. Plato, “Ion,” 144. 44. Plato, “Ion,” 142. 45. Plato, “Ion,” 145. 46. As stated by Nietzsche in The Birth of Tragedy, concerning the strong

influence of the Socratic mind upon his most eminent disciple and the banning of poetry from the Greek ideal State, “The youthful tragic poet Plato first of all burned his poems that he might become a student of Socrates . . . the Socratic maxims, together with the momentum of

Notes 227

his mighty character, was still enough to force poetry itself into new and hitherto unknown channels.” In Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 1022.

47. Plato, The Republic, in Robert Maynard Hutchins (ed.), Great Books of the Western World (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1971), 320.

48. Plato, The Republic, 320. 49. Plato, The Republic, 321. 50. Plato, The Republic, 322. 51. Plato, The Republic, 324. 52. Huntington, The Philosophy of Nietzsche, 1026. 53. Longinus, On the Sublime, trans. D. A. Russell (Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1965), xii. 54. Longinus, On the Sublime, xiii. 55. Longinus, On the Sublime, xiv. 56. Longinus, On the Sublime, 1. 57. Longinus, On the Sublime, 3. 58. Longinus, On the Sublime, 8. 59. Longinus, On the Sublime, 9. 60. Longinus, On the Sublime, 20. 61. The first one refers to Aeschylus: “The palace was possessed, the house

went bacchanal.” And the other one refers to Euripedes: “The whole mountain went bacchanal with them”(22).

62. Longinus, On the Sublime, 42. 63. Longinus, On the Sublime, 52. 64. William Blake, “A Memorable Fancy,” in M. H. Abrams (ed.), The

Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2 (New York: Norton, 1993), 60.

65. Leonard M. Trawick, Backgrounds of Romanticism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967), viii.

66. Goethe had a specific relation with shamanism and studied it deeply, as one can see in Gloria Flaherty’s “Goethe and Shamanism,” in MLN [104 (3): April 1989] 591: “Knowledge about shamans had prolif-erated to such a degree in the late 18th century . . . also inevitable was that Goethe, the humanist and the scientist, became involved with the shamanistic research of his times. Everything Goethe consciously or, perhaps, even unconsciously, absorbed from that research, he very definitely incorporated into his own poetic corpus. The sheer amount of evidence precludes the possibility of an occasional coincidence. Goethe knew about shamanism and regularly availed himself of that knowledge.”

67. Trawick, Backgrounds of Romanticism, ix. 68. M. H. Abrams (ed.), The Mirror and the Lamp (London: Oxford Uni-

versity Press, 1953), 22. 69. M. H. Abrams (ed.), The Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2

(New York: Norton, 1993), 18.

Notes228

70. Abrams, The Norton Anthology, 19. 71. Abrams, The Mirror and the Lamp, 214. 72. H. C. Robinson, in Thomas Sadler (ed.), Diary, Reminiscences, and

Correspondence (Boston: Boston, Fields, Osgood, 1898), 35. 73. Blake, “A Memorable Fancy,” 59. 74. Blake, “A Memorable Fancy,” 55. 75. Blake, “A Memorable Fancy,” 26. 76. Blake, “A Memorable Fancy,” 33. 77. William Blake, in Frank Kermode and John Hollander (eds.), The

Oxford Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2 (New York: Oxford Uni-versity Press, 1975), 69.

78. Blake, “A Memorable Fancy,” 60. These are the last lines of Plate 14 and were chosen by Aldous Huxley to name his book The Doors of Perception, which I deal with at the end of this chapter.

79. Thomas De Quincey, “The Pains of Opium” from Confessions of an English Opium Eater in M. H. Abrams (ed.), The Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2 (New York: Norton, 1993), 452.

80. Eliade, Shamanism, 13. 81. Eliade, Shamanism, 14. 82. Eliade, Shamanism, 43. 83. Eliade, Shamanism, 109. 84. For more information on the importance of dreams in shamanism,

see Mircea Eliade, Shamanism, 67, 104, 168, 377; Ake Hultkrantz, Shamanic Healing and Ritual Drama, 17, 25, 32, 85– 87, 144– 45; Gerardo Reichel- Dolmatoff, Rainforest Shamans, 72, 87, 111, 116, 118, 206, 223; Michael Harner, Hallucinogens and Shamanism, 32– 38, and The Way of the Shaman, 74, 75, 99– 101.

85. See, for instance, De Quincey’s Confessions of an English Opium Eater and “The Pains of Opium,” Coleridge’s “The Ancient Mariner” and “Kubla Khan,” Shelley’s “Maríanne’s Dream,” Byron’s “The Dream,” and Keats’s “La Belle Dame sans Merci.”

86. Elisabeth Schneider, Coleridge, Opium, and ‘Kubla Khan’ (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1953), 9.

87. Schneider, Coleridge, 77. 88. Schneider, Coleridge, 78. 89. Schneider, Coleridge, 79. 90. Alethea Hayter, Opium and the Romantic Imagination (Berkeley: Cal-

ifornia University Press, 1968), 67. 91. Hayter, Opium, 68. 92. Hayter, Opium, 69. 93. Lord Byron, “The Dream,” in The Poems of Byron: A Selection (Lon-

don: Oxford University Press, 1966), 57. 94. Hayter, Opium, 69. 95. Marcus Boon argues that “writers discussed narcotics in the eighteenth

century and before— because opium was a drug that was in wide use in

Notes 229

European society from the time of the Renaissance, if not earlier,” in The Road of Excess: A History of Writers on Drugs (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002), 18.

96. For the most notable works related to the dream world of opium by some of these poets, see the following: Thomas De Quincey, Confes-sions of an English Opium Eater (London: Macdonald, 1956); Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Kubla Khan or a Vision in a Dream. A Fragment,” in M. H. Abrams (ed.), The Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2 (New York: Norton, 1993), 346– 49.

97. See J. Livingston Lowes, The Road to Xanadu (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1927); M. H. Abrams, The Milk of Paradise: The Effect of Opium Visions on the Works of De Quincey, Crabbe, Francis Thompson and Coleridge (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1934); Elisabeth Schneider, Coleridge, Opium, and ‘Kubla Khan’ (Op. cit.); and Ale-thea Hayter, Opium and the Romantic Imagination (Op. cit.).

98. Schneider, Coleridge, 31. 99. Hayter, Opium, 14. 100. Hayter, Opium, 331. 101. Hayter, Opium, 342. Hayter’s opinion seems to lie in a fear of having

to undergo the hellish worlds that the poets she analyzed had experi-enced themselves.

102. John Sutherland, “Turns Unstoned,” in Times Literary Supplement [30 October 1998] 30. All other references to Sutherland’s article are from the same page.

103. See Jane Millgate, Walter Scott: The Making of the Novelist (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1984); Catherine Peters, The King of Inven-tors: A Life of Wilkie Collins (London: Secker & Warburg, 1991); and Sue Lonoff, Wilkie Collins and His Victorian Readers (New York: AMS Press, 1982).

104. Coleridge, “Kubla Khan or a Vision in a Dream,” 346. 105. See Zachary Leader, Revision and Romantic Authorship (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1996), and Writer’s Block (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Walter Jackson Bate, Perspectives of Criticism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950); and Rich-ard Holmes, Coleridge: Darker Reflections (London: Harper Collins, 1998).

106. Percy Bysshe Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” in M. H. Abrams (ed.), The Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2 (New York: Norton, 1993), 755.

107. Abrams, The Mirror and the Lamp, 126. 108. Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” 753. 109. Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” 754. 110. Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” 755. 111. Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” 755. 112. Abrams, The Mirror and the Lamp, 127.

Notes230

113. Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” 757. 114. Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” 761. 115. Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” 762. 116. Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” 763. 117. Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” 763. 118. Shelley, “A Defense of Poetry,” 765. 119. John Keats, from “La Belle Dame sans Merci: A Ballad,” in M. H.

Abrams (ed.), The Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2 (New York: Norton, 1993), 787.

120. Robert Graves, The White Goddess (London: Faber and Faber, 1961), 9. 121. Graves, The White Goddess, 24. 122. Graves, The White Goddess, 25. 123. Graves, The White Goddess, 30. 124. Federico García Lorca, “The Duende,” in Rothenberg, Symposium, 51. 125. Federico García Lorca, “The Duende,” in Rothenberg, Symposium,

154– 66. I will be using here the page references from Rothenberg’s anthology Symposium of the Whole (Op. cit.), in which Lorca’s essay appears, significantly, as part of the range of discourse toward an ethnopoetics.

126. Arturo Barea, Lorca: The Poet and His People (New York: Grove Press, 1960), 3.

127. Lorca, “The Duende,” 43. 128. Lorca, “The Duende,” 44. 129. Lorca, “The Duende,” 45. 130. Lorca, “The Duende,” 45. 131. Lorca, “The Duende,” 46. 132. Lorca, “The Duende,” 47. 133. Lorca, “The Duende,” 49. 134. Lorca, “The Duende,” 50. 135. Huxley, The Doors, 10. 136. William Blake, in Geoffrey Keynes (ed.), The Writings of William Blake,

vol. 3 (London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 108. 137. M. H. Abrams (ed.), The Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2

(New York: Norton, 1993), 60. 138. Peter Stafford, Psychedelics Encyclopedia (Berkeley: Ronin, 1992), 5. 139. Huxley, The Doors, 3. 140. Huxley, The Doors, 5. 141. Huxley, The Doors, 7. 142. Huxley, The Doors, 8. 143. Huxley, The Doors, 11. 144. Huxley, The Doors, 12. 145. Huxley, The Doors, 20. 146. Huxley, The Doors, 23. 147. Huxley, The Doors, 29. 148. Huxley, The Doors, 42.

Notes 231

149. Huxley, The Doors, 43. 150. Huxley, The Doors, 44. 151. Huxley, The Doors, 46. 152. For criticism of Huxley’s point of view on chemically induced ecstatic

states paralleling transcendental mysticism, see Robert Charles Zaehner, Mysticism, Sacred and Profane (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957), 199.

153. Huxley, The Doors, 51. 154. Huxley, The Doors, 52. 155. Huxley, The Doors, 54. 156. Huxley, The Doors, 56. 157. Gary Snyder, “Poetry and the Primitive, Notes on Poetry as an Eco-

logical Survival Technique,” in Rothenberg, Symposium, 96. 158. Snyder, “Poetry and the Primitive,” 90. 159. Rothenberg, Symposium, 90. 160. In fact, Snyder’s peculiar blend of interests concerning literature, ecol-

ogy, and public policy have conferred him two literary awards in 1997: the first one, the Bollingen Prize for Poetry, acknowledges his literary standing, whereas the second, the John Hay Award for Nature Writ-ing, is in recognition of his work for environmental protection.

161. Snyder, “Poetry and the Primitive,” 90. 162. Snyder, “Poetry and the Primitive,” 91. 163. Snyder, “Poetry and the Primitive,” 91. 164. Snyder, “Poetry and the Primitive,” 93. 165. Snyder, “Poetry and the Primitive,” 94. 166. Snyder, “Poetry and the Primitive,” 97.

Chapter 3

1. John G. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988 [1932]), xiv. Nicholas Black Elk was a member of the Oglala, which refers to a tribe among the Sioux, or Lakota, the large group of Native Americans that live near the region of the Great Plains in North America.

2. James George Frazer, The Golden Bough (London: Oxford University Press, 1994), 57.

3. Alice Beck Kehoe, The Ghost Dance (New York: Holt, R & W, 1989), 51. This is a very controversial issue, and Lenore Stiffarm indirectly refutes Kehoe’s assertion when she shows the enormous differences among demographic censuses, mainly when opposing official numbers to independent accounts. Hence, as pointed out by Stiffarm, Henry F. Dobyns, an independent worker, “arrived at a tentative estimate of 90 to 112 million people” living in America in pre- Columbian times, whereas Douglas Ubelaker, working for the Smithsonian Institute, concluded that “the precontact native population of North America had been precisely 2,171,125.” In “The Demography of Native North

Notes232

America,” in M. Annette Jaimes (ed.), The State of Native America: Genocide, Colonization, and Resistance (Boston: South End Press, 1992), 26.

4. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture (Cambridge: Harvard Uni-versity Press, 1988), 44.

5. The Sacred Pipe (Baltimore: Penguin, 1971), xix. In the winter of 1947– 48, Black Elk granted a number of interviews on Lakota tra-ditional beliefs to Joseph Epes Brown who published them in 1953. In The Sacred Pipe, Black Elk parallels the seven sacraments of Roman Catholicism to seven rituals of Lakota religion. As with almost all the textual material involving Black Elk, The Sacred Pipe’s authenticity has been a growing topic in scholarly research. See Gregory P. Fields, “Inipi (Sweat Lodge),” in Clyde Holler (ed.), The Black Elk Reader (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2000); and Paul B. Steinmetz, “The New Missiology and Black Elk’s Individuation,” in Clyde Hol-ler (ed.), The Black Elk Reader (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2000), 169– 87, 262– 81. The idea of Wakan Tanka as a parallel to God is part of an attempt to see Plains religion as “higher,” more spiritual than others, because it is closer to monotheism, so it may be exagger-ated by white commentators.

6. Clyde Holler, Black Elk’s Religion (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995), 181.

7. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 113. 8. Raymond DeMallie, The Sixth Grandfather: Black Elk’s Teachings Given

to John G. Neihardt (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984). 9. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, xix. 10. Amanda Porterfield, “Black Elk’s Significance in American Culture,”

in Clyde Holler (ed.), The Black Elk Reader (Syracuse: Syracuse Uni-versity Press, 2000), 40.

11. Porterfield, “Black Elk’s Significance,” 41. 12. Porterfield, “Black Elk’s Significance,” 49. 13. Porterfield, “Black Elk’s Significance,” 51. 14. Porterfield, “Black Elk’s Significance,” 52. 15. See Robert F. Sayre, Thoreau and the American Indians (Princeton:

Princeton University Press, 1977). 16. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks, 7. 17. It is interesting to observe that, after the first edition, Neihardt changed

“as told to” to “as told through” on the title page, suggesting that he is acting as a medium.

18. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks, 19. 19. Accordingly, DeMallie sums up Elk’s Great Vision into 12 different

sections, of which I will only analyze the main ones concerning the Grandfathers: (1) Black Elk falls ill; (2) the two men take Black Elk up into the clouds; (3) Black Elk is shown the horses of the four direc-tions; (4) the bay horse leads Black Elk to the cloud tipi of the six

Notes 233

Grandfathers; (5) Black Elk walks the black sacred road from west to east and vanquishes the spirit in the water; (6) Black Elk walks the red sacred road from south to north; (7) Black Elk receives the healing herb of the north, and the sacred tree is established at the center of the nation’s hoop; (8) Black Elk kills the dog in the flames and receives the healing herb of the west; (9) Black Elk is taken to the center of the earth and receives the daybreak star herb; (10) Black Elk receives the soldier weed of destruction; (11) Black Elk returns to the six Grandfathers; and (12) the spotted eagle guides Black Elk home. In DeMallie, The Sixth Grandfather, 111– 42.

20. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks, 28. 21. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks, 30. 22. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks, 2. 23. R. Todd Wise, “The Great Vision of Black Elk as Literary Ritual,” in

Clyde Holler (ed.), The Black Elk Reader, 241. 24. Cf. Clyde Holler, “Lakota Religion and Tragedy: The Theology of

Black Elk Speaks,” in Journal of the American Academy of Religion [52 (1): 1984] 19– 45.

25. Wise, “The Great Vision,” 242. 26. Hilda Neihardt writes of an interview between her father and Black

Elk’s son, Ben, in which the latter explains why his father picked up that name:

We knew that you were a poet, but we have no word that translates for poet, so he called you a word sender. And he said, “A word sender. And it’s just like a garden, a flower garden. And it’s just like rain on a flower garden. And that the words as you go past, why, it leaves some of it and then leaves it green. And then when it is gone, at the end when you’re gone,” he said, “your words will be memories, and it will be always a long time in the west— as a flaming rainbow.”

In Hilda Neihardt, Black Elk & Flaming Rainbow (Lincoln: Uni-versity of Nebraska Press, 1995), 128.

27. For shamanism as mental illness, see the following: Waldemar Bogo-ras, The Chukchee (New York: G. E. Stechert, 1904); Marie Antoi-nette Czaplicka, Aboriginal Siberia (London: Oxford University Press, 1914); George Devereux, “Shamans as Neurotics,” in American Anthropologist [63: 1961] 1088– 90; J. Silverman, “Shamanism and Acute Schizophrenia,” in American Anthropologist [69: 1967] 21– 31; and Roger Walsh, “The Psychological Health of Shamans: A Reevalu-ation,” in Journal of the American Academy of Religion [65 (1): 1997] 101– 24.

28. Wise, “The Great Vision,” 243.

Notes234

29. See Paul Ricoeur, “Image and Language in Psychoanalysis,” in J. Smith (ed.), Psychiatry and the Humanities (New Haven: Yale Uni-versity Press, 1978), 293– 94.

30. Wise, “The Great Vision,” 245. 31. Reece Pendleton, “A Ghostly Splendor: John G. Neihardt’s Spiritual

Preparation for Entry into Black Elk’s World,” in American Indian Culture and Research Journal [19 (4): 1995] 213– 29.

32. Pendleton, “A Ghostly Splendor,” 216. 33. John G. Neihardt, All Is But a Beginning: Youth Remembered, 1881–

1901 (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972), 48. 34. Pendleton, “A Ghostly Splendor,” 218. 35. DeMallie, The Sixth Grandfather, 42. 36. As we are told by Pendleton, Neihardt was introduced to Vedantic

philosophy by Professor Durrin, a local tombstone maker who had hired him to work at his shop. As Neihardt explains, “In my fever-ishly groping teens I had been far more powerfully moved by Vedantist conceptions than by any faith widely held in the Occident.” In Poetic Values: Their Reality and Our Need of Them (New York: Macmillan, 1925), 20.

37. Pendleton, “A Ghostly Splendor,” 219. 38. Cited by Pendleton, John Neihardt letter to Dr. Horst Frens, 6 August

1939, in Neihardt Collection (Western Historical Manuscript Collec-tion, Ellis Library, University of Missouri).

39. Pendleton, “A Ghostly Splendor,” 227. 40. Introduction by Vine Deloria Jr. to Black Elk Speaks (Op. cit), xiv.

Deloria Jr. belongs to a lineage of Lakota writers somehow linked to Black Elk’s own story, which include his mother Ella Deloria, a linguist and ethnographer at the University of Columbia, who was the daugh-ter of a Yankton chief, Philip Deloria, himself the son of a medicine man who had (like Elk) become a Christian in order to help his people.

41. Neihardt’s primary motivation when he first set out to interview Black Elk was to gather information about the messianic movement of the Ghost Dance for his epic poem “A Cycle of the West.”

42. Michael F. Steltenkamp, Black Elk: Holy Man of the Oglala (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993), xv.

43. Steltenkamp, Black Elk: Holy Man, xvi. 44. William K. Powers, “When Black Elk Speaks Everybody Listens,” in

Christopher Vecsey (ed.), Religion in Native North America (Moscow: University of Idaho Press, 1990), 140.

45. Julian Rice, Black Elk’s Story: Distinguishing Its Lakota Purpose (Albu-querque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991), 152.

46. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 141. 47. William K. Powers, Beyond the Vision (Norman: University of Okla-

homa Press, 1987), 3.

Notes 235

48. Powers’s predilection for a literary approach seems clear as he usually embellishes his own narratives in ways inconsistent with a traditional Boasian approach, as in Yuwipi: Vision and Experience in Oglala Ritual (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).

49. Steltenkamp, Black Elk: Holy Man, 7. 50. Steltenkamp, Black Elk: Holy Man, 9. 51. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 35. 52. James R. Walker, who spent many years collecting information on

Lakota myths in situ, tells of the use of such a term among the Indians: “I have not yet [asked] an interpreter for the meaning of it but what he replied instantly ‘The Great Spirit.’ Today if any Lakota is speaking to a white man he will use this term to mean Jehovah or the Christian God and by common consent it has come to mean the Great Spirit. This was a stumbling block to me for many years, and very confusing when trying to get the concepts of the older Indians [like Black Elk] expressed by it.” Walker, Lakota Myth (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 8.

53. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 49. 54. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks, 3. 55. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 3. 56. Holler asserts that Black Elk in fact never ceased taking part in Lakota

rituals and ceremonies, without actually providing substantial evi-dence. As he puts it, “It cannot be said that Black Elk never again practiced traditional religion . . . a final observation may be relevant to the possibility that he continued to be involved with the Sun Dance or traditional religion or both during his years as a catechist.” In Black Elk’s Religion, 20.

57. As told to Steltenkamp by Lucy Looks Twice, Elk’s daughter, in Black Elk: Holy Man, 33.

58. Steltenkamp, Black Elk: Holy Man, 34. 59. Steltenkamp, Black Elk: Holy Man, 40. 60. William K. and Marla N. Powers, “Putting on the Dog,” in Natural

History [95 (2): 1986] 6. 61. It is interesting to observe that Lucy herself, despite her ardent Cath-

olic faith portrayed by Steltenkamp, eventually turned to traditional religion, an event the Jesuit significantly fails to mention. As told by Holler, “Her religious commitment seemed to have changed shortly after speaking to Steltenkamp; Hilda Neihardt (John Neihardt’s daughter) reports that after her husband, Leo, died in 1974, Lucy Looks Twice was very disappointed in Christianity. At the suggestion of friends, she read Black Elk Speaks for the first time, subsequently becoming a pipe carrier.” Holler Black Elk’s Religion, 13. After the publication of Steltenkamp’s Black Elk: Holy Man, Neihardt’s older daughter, Hilda, published Black Elk & Flaming Rainbow, in which she recollects her father’s visits with Black Elk. According to Steltenkamp,

Notes236

Hilda’s intention was mainly to advertise her father’s book, and hence any kind of Christian- based allusions, like Steltenkamp’s, were not welcome. As the Jesuit himself writes, “Because of our very different interest in Black Elk’s story, Hilda Neihardt and I will perhaps always represent polar perspectives,” from “Retrospective on Black Elk: Holy Man of the Oglala,” in Holler’s The Black Elk Reader, 110. Accord-ingly, Steltenkamp argues that even though her work came to be con-sidered an authoritative contribution by Holler, Hilda misinterpreted Lucy’s alleged conversion to the old ways (by becoming a pipe carrier after finally reading Black Elk Speaks), relying on a mere photograph of Lucy carrying the pipe for a promotional play based on Black Elk Speaks. As can be seen, this ongoing debate seems far from ending and reveals once again the ambiguous character of Elk’s Lakota Catholi-cism, typical of the shaman’s effort for the continuation of his vision.

62. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 135. 63. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 73. 64. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 100. Holler is here quoting from Walker’s

narrative in Raymond J. DeMallie and Elaine A. Jahner (eds.), Lakota’s Belief and Ritual (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980), 405.

65. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 107. This passage was quoted from Fran-ces Densmore, Teton Sioux Music (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 61, 1918), 96.

66. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 135. 67. James Mooney, The Ghost Dance Religion (Chicago: Chicago Univer-

sity Press, 1965), 14. 68. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks, 243. 69. Mooney, The Ghost Dance, 14. 70. As shown by Steltenkamp, Black Elk, 112, Black Elk was truly

delighted to perform the old rituals again in the company of his grand-son. DeMallie’s explanation for Elk’s motivation is quite significant: “These sacred rituals appear to have been to teach white audiences that the old- time Lakota religion was a true religion, not devil worship as the missionaries claim,” The Sixth Grandfather, 66.

71. Clyde Holler, The Black Elk Reader, xiv. (My emphasis.) 72. It is interesting to observe that within the range of this other cultural

horizon, Black Elk has been embraced by New Age activists in general. Two examples worth mentioning here are Richard Erdoes and John Lame Deer, Lame Deer: Seeker of Visions (New York: Simon and Schus-ter, 1972), and William S. Lyon and Wallace Black Elk, Black Elk: The Sacred Ways of a Lakota (New York: Harper Collins, 1990). Both works rely heavily upon the revitalization of old rituals at the expense of any Christian allusion formerly connected to traditional Lakota belief, as with later representations of Black Elk’s Catholic years. Accordingly, Steltenkamp writes, making his own judgments on what Black Elk himself felt, that “together, Wallace and Lame Deer represent a late

Notes 237

twentieth- century ideology that asserts that to be Indian means to be non- Christian. Their thought is the exact opposite of what the revered Black Elk spoke, believed, or felt.” In Holler, The Black Elk Reader, 114.

73. Holler, The Black Elk Reader, xv. Another interesting recurring parallel in Holler’s representation of Black Elk is his comparison between the teachings of the leaders of Native American and Christian religions— that is, Elk and Jesus— in that both teachings, stemming from a living oral tradition, “are appropriated and adapted by [their] successors.”

74. Ruth J. Heflin, “Black Elk Passes on the Power of the Earth,” in Clyde Holler (ed.), The Black Elk Reader, 18. For the other Lakota writ-ers, see the following: Charles Eastman, Old Indian Days (New York: McClure Phillips, 1907), The Indian Today: The Past and Future of the First American (Garden City: Doubleday, 1915), From Deep Woods to Civilization (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1977); Ella Delo-ria, Dakota Texts (New York: AMS Press, 1974), Waterlily (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988); and Luther Standing Bear, My People the Sioux (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), Land of the Spotted Eagle (Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 1978).

75. Heflin, “Black Elk,” 18. 76. Heflin, “Black Elk,” 3. 77. Heflin, “Black Elk,” 4. 78. Heflin, “Black Elk,” 6. Accordingly, William K. Powers writes that

Lakota shamans “were distinguishable from the common people not only by their ability to interpret sacred knowledge but also by their ability to communicate in a special language unintelligible to the unini-tiated.” In Oglala Religion (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 65. This sacred language is a common motif in shamanism as can be seen in my next section, in which María Sabina, despite being illiterate, also makes use (reading) of a language known only to those trained in interpreting the sacred.

79. Heflin, “Black Elk,” 7. 80. See DeMallie, The Sixth Grandfather, 58– 62. 81. Heflin, “Black Elk,” 16. 82. Elaine A. Jahner, in the introduction to Walker, Lakota Myth, 29. 83. James R. Walker, Lakota Myth, 205. 84. David Murray, “Autobiography and Authorship: Identity and Unity,”

in David Murray (ed.), Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Represen-tation in North American Indian Texts (Bloomington: Indiana Uni-versity Press, 1991), 71.

85. Steltenkamp, Black Elk: Holy Man, 92.

Notes238

Chapter 4 1. Mazatec is an unwritten language. As explained by Henry Munn, “It

is a tonal language in which the meaning of a word is determined by its intonation as well as by its phonetic features.” In Estrada, María Sabina (Santa Barbara: Ross- Erikson, 1981), 193.

2. The following books represent Wasson’s work most relevant to Sabina and his overall project on the cultural use of sacred mushrooms in the history of mankind: Valentina Pavlovna Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson, Mushrooms, Russia, and History, vol. 2 (New York: Pantheon Press, 1957); Robert Gordon Wasson and Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1968); R. Gordon Wasson, George and Florence Cowan, and Willard Rhodes, María Sabina and Her Mazatec Mushroom Velada (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974); R. Gordon Wasson, Albert Hofmann, and Carl A. P. Ruck, The Road to Eleusis: Unveil-ing the Secret of the Mysteries (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanov-ich, 1978); R. Gordon Wasson, The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica (New York: McGraw Hill, 1980); R. Gordon Was-son, Stella Kramrish, Jonathan Ott, and Carl A. P. Ruck, Persephone’s Quest: Entheogens and the Origins of Religion (New Haven: Yale Uni-versity Press, 1986). For the complete bibliography on Gordon Was-son’s work, which counts almost one hundred entries, see Thomas J. Riedlinger (ed.), The Sacred Mushroom Seeker (Rochester, VT: Park Street Press, 1997), 257– 66.

3. R. Gordon Wasson, “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” in Life Maga-zine [13 May 13 1957] 44– 60.

4. See Robert Evans Schultes, “Plantae Mexicanae II: The Identification of Teonanacatl, a Narcoti Basidiomycete of the Aztecs,” in Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets [7 (3): February 1939], and “Teonanacatl: The Narcotic Mushroom of the Aztecs,” in American Anthropologist [42 (3): July– September 1940] new series, pt. 1. Two years after Weit-laner’s acquisition, his wife was one of the first white people to partici-pate in a “velada,” or vigil, the sacred mushroom ceremony, as we learn from R. Gordon Wasson, The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Meso-america (New York: McGraw Hill, 1980), 288. On the evening of July 16, 1938, Jean Bassett Johnson, a young anthropologist, together with three others (Bernard Bevan, Irmgard Weitlaner, and Louise Lacaud), were present at a magic mushroom ceremony in Huautla de Jiménez, Mexico. The experience, which has been considered the earliest first-hand account of white people being allowed at such an event, was told by Johnson in a conference at the Mexican Anthropological Society on August 4, 1938, and later published as “Some Notes on the Mazatec” (México: Editorial Cultura, 1939). See also Johnson, “The Elements of Mazatec Witchcraft,” in Ethnological Studies 9 (Gothenburg, Swe-den: Ethnographical Museum, 1939).

Notes 239

5. Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, in Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble (eds. and trans.), General History of the Things of New Spain (op. cit.). This work is also known as The Florentine Codex. Other early accounts include the following: Hernando Alvarado Tezozomoc, Crónica Mexicana (op. cit.); Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, Historia de los Indios de la Nueva España (op. cit.); Francisco Hernandez, His-toria Plantarum Novae Hispaniae (op. cit.); and Jacinto de la Serna, “Manual de Ministros de Indios,” (op. cit.).

6. Sahagún, The General History, 666. 7. Sahagún, The General History, 505. 8. The article contained numerous pictures taken in situ by Allan Rich-

ardson, as well as many drawings of the mushrooms by Roger Heim. The pictures include the surrounding areas of Huautla and others, depicting the ritual itself, show some never before seen facial expres-sions of awe and ecstasy.

9. Wasson, “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” 45. 10. Wasson and Wasson, Mushrooms, Russia, and History, 290. 11. Wasson and Wasson, Mushrooms, Russia, and History, 289. 12. Wasson and Wasson, Mushrooms, Russia, and History, 290. 13. Wasson and Wasson, Mushrooms, Russia, and History, 295. 14. Wasson and Wasson, Mushrooms, Russia, and History, 294. 15. Wasson, “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” 53. 16. Wasson, “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” 57. 17. Wasson, “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” 57. 18. For Wasson’s full account of this “brief history of the sacred mush-

rooms,” see his “The Hallucinogenic Mushrooms,” in The Garden Journal (New York: New York Botanical Garden, January– February 1958), 1– 6.

19. That is not to say he dismissed all poets as mycophobes; on the con-trary, Wasson regarded some bards, and Blake seems to be his favor-ite, as the very epitome of mycophilia, as when he states that “all the visions had that pristine quality which we associate most often with the magic of supreme literary expression, especially great poetry.” In Was-son and Wasson, Mushrooms, Russia, and History, 302.

20. Wasson and O’Flaherty, Soma, 183. 21. Wasson and O’Flaherty, Soma, 182. 22. Andrew Weil, writing a book review of Wasson’s Persephone’s Quest,

in Journal of Psychoactive Drugs [20 (4): October– December 1988] 489– 90.

23. Wasson, Hofmann, and Ruck, The Road to Eleusis, 11. 24. It had happened, to name a few, with Roger Heim in the 1960s, Wendy

Doniger with Soma (at a time when the now renowned Vedic scholar was starting her career), with the Cowans and the Rhodes in the Velada project (who helped him with ethnomusicology), and again with C. P. Ruck (a professor of classics at Boston University) and his old friend

Notes240

Albert Hofmann with The Road to Eleusis. Cf. note 2 in this chapter for bibliographical references on these works; see also Roger Heim and R. Gordon Wasson, “The Mushroom Madness,” in Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets [21 (1): June 1965].

25. As told by Richard Evans Schultes, in Riedlinger, The Sacred Mushroom Seeker, 15. This book is a tribute to Wasson comprising many essays about him and his work.

26. Wasson, Hofmann, and Ruck, The Road to Eleusis, 12. 27. Wasson read his paper on November 15, 1956. 28. Wasson, Hofmann, and Ruck, The Road to Eleusis, 12. 29. Wasson, Hofmann, and Ruck, The Road to Eleusis, 17. 30. Wasson, Hofmann, and Ruck, The Road to Eleusis, 18. 31. Wasson, Hofmann, and Ruck, The Road to Eleusis, 21. (My empha-

sis.) See William Blake’s “Auguries of Innocence,” in Frank Kermode and John Hollander (eds.), The Oxford Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 69.

32. Wasson, Hofmann, and Ruck, The Road to Eleusis, 21. 33. Frances Kartunnen, Between Worlds: Interpreters, Guides, and, Survi-

vors (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1994), xi. 34. Kartunnen, Between Worlds, xiv. 35. Kartunnen, Between Worlds, 217. 36. Kartunnen, Between Worlds, 218. 37. Eliade, Shamanism, 4. 38. See Halifax, Shamanic Voices; and Rothenberg, Technicians of the

Sacred. 39. See R. Gordon Wasson and Sylvia Paul, “The Hallucinogenic Mush-

rooms of Mexico and Psylocibin: A Bibliography,” Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets [20 (2): 1963] 25– 73; Fernando Benitez, Los Indios de México (México: Era, 1970); Halifax, Shamanic Voices, 127– 35, 195– 213; Gary Doore (ed.), Shaman’s Path (Boston: Shambhala, 1988); Peter T. Furst (ed.), Flesh of the Gods, the Ritual Use of Halluci-nogens (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1990), x, xv, 9, 10, 20– 24, 191– 98, 276; Jane Atkinson, “Shamanisms Today,” 320; John W. Allen, “María Sabina: Saint Mother of the Mushrooms,” in Ethnomy-cological Journals [1: 1997] 1– 27; Ines Hernandez- Avila, “Mediations of the Spirit,” in American Indian Quarterly [20 (3): 1996] 338– 41; Donald F. Sandner and Steven H. Wong, The Sacred Heritage: The Influence of Shamanism on Analytical Psychology (New York: Rout-ledge, 1997), 10, 11, 45– 50, 56.

40. Estrada, María Sabina, 73. 41. The only exception seems to have been Sabina herself, as I have shown

previously. 42. See Rigoberta Menchú, I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman

in Guatemala, edited by Elisabeth Burgos- Debray (London: Verso, 1984). This is the English version translated from the original in

Notes 241

Spanish by Ann Wright, Me Llamo Rigoberta Menchu y Así me Nació la Conciencia, which means, “My name is Riboberta Menchú and thus my conscience was born.” Menchú was in fact the Nobel Peace Prize Laureate in 1992 for her longstanding efforts in defending her native Quiche Indians against acculturation and assimilation during the civil war in Guatemala, from the early 1970s until the late 1980s.

43. Estrada, María Sabina, 23. 44. Estrada, María Sabina, 194. 45. See Terence McKenna’s Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original

Tree of Knowledge A Radical History of Plants, Drugs, and Human Evolution (New York: Bantam, 1993) for a radical theory on the role of mushrooms in human evolution and in the advent of language.

46. Estrada, María Sabina, 40. 47. Estrada, María Sabina, 43. 48. Estrada, María Sabina, 46. 49. Estrada, María Sabina, 47. 50. Meredith Sabini, “The Book of Knowledge in Shamanism and Mys-

ticism: Universal Image of the Source,” in Sandner and Wong, The Sacred Heritage, 46. In this essay, Sabini analyzes the dreams and respective visionary materials of St. Teresa de Avila, María Sabina, Dr. Anna Kingsford, and Carl G. Jung.

51. Carl G. Jung in Gerhard Adler (ed.), Selected Letters of C. G. Jung: 1909– 1961 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 18. For works concerning Jung’s interest in shamanism, as well as his influence in works dealing with shamanism, see the following: Stephen Larsen, The Shaman’s Doorway: Opening Imagination to Power and Myth (Bar-rytown, NY: Station Hill Press, 1988); James Downton, “Individua-tion and Shamanism,” in Journal of Analytical Psychology [34: 1989] 73– 88; C. J. Groesbeck, “Carl Gustav Jung and the Shaman’s Vision,” in Journal of Analytical Psychology [34 (3): 1989] 255– 75; H. Senn, “Jungian Shamanism,” in Journal of Psychoactive Drugs [21 (1): 1989] 113– 21; Carol Laderman, Taming the Wind of Desire: Psychology, Medi-cine, and Aesthetics in Malay Shamanistic Performance (Berkeley: Cali-fornia University Press, 1991).

52. Estrada, María Sabina, 50. 53. Estrada, María Sabina, 52. 54. Estrada, María Sabina, 55. 55. Estrada, María Sabina, 56. 56. Estrada, María Sabina, 64. 57. Jerome Rothenberg and David Guss (eds.), The Book, Spiritual Instru-

ment (New York: Granary Books, 1996), 1. 58. Estrada, María Sabina, 110. A more thorough discussion of Sabina’s

chants is given later.

Notes242

59. Henry Munn, “Writing in the Imagination of an Oral Poet,” in Jerome Rothenberg and Steven Clay (eds.), A Book of the Book (New York: Granary Books, 2000), 251.

60. Munn, “Writing in the Imagination,” 252. 61. Munn, “Writing in the Imagination,” 252. 62. According to Munn, the German scholar, Curtius— writing in 1956

about the metaphor of the Book of Nature in European literature— contended that such was the case not only in Egypt and Mesopotamia but also in pre- Columbian Mexico.

63. Munn, “Writing in the Imagination,” 253. 64. Henry Munn’s link with the Mazatec world is indeed very close. As

Rothenberg explains, his “connection is itself a part of the recent his-tory of Huautla. His entry, circa 1965, was as one of those ‘oddballs’ labeled by Wasson, but he was a genuine seeker as well, after the great bust of 1967, he returned to Huautla, married into the Estrada family, and has since become his own witness and a devoted student of Maza-tec culture.” In Estrada, María Sabina, 9.

65. Munn, “Writing in the Imagination,” 253. 66. Munn, “Writing in the Imagination,” 254. 67. Munn, “Writing in the Imagination,” 255. 68. Munn, “Writing in the Imagination,” 255. 69. As I have shown before, the Duende is an important term for some

modern poets, as in the case of García Lorca. 70. R. Gordon Wasson, George Cowan, Florence Cowan, and Willard

Rhodes, María Sabina and Her Mazatec Mushroom Velada (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974), xxviii.

71. Wasson, Cowan, Cowan, and Rhodes, María Sabina, ix. 72. Alfredo López Austin (ed.), Historia Mexicana, vol. 17, no. 1 (Mex-

ico: El Colegio de México, July– September 1967), 1– 36. 73. Wasson, Cowan, Cowan, and Rhodes, María Sabina, 74. 74. Henry Munn, “The Mushrooms of Language,” in Michael Harner,

Hallucinogens and Shamanism (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), 88.

75. Jerome Rothenberg, “Preface,” in Estrada, María Sabina, 8. 76. Rothenberg, “Preface,” in Estrada, María Sabina, 9. 77. Rothenberg, “Preface,” in Estrada, María Sabina, 11. 78. Wasson, “A Retrospective Essay,” in Estrada, María Sabina, 15. 79. Wasson, “A Retrospective Essay,” in Estrada, María Sabina, 16. 80. Wasson, “A Retrospective Essay,” in Estrada, María Sabina, 17. 81. A definite proof of Sabina’s syncretism, her role in the Catholic orga-

nizations apparently surprised Wasson who probably saw her as a kind of true and pure shamanic figure.

82. Halifax, Shamanic Voices, 195. 83. Estrada, María Sabina, 40. 84. Halifax, Shamanic Voices, 195.

Notes 243

85. A significant example, concerning shamanism and syncretic representa-tions, can be found in the Peyote Cult, or Native American Church, a full- blown and very self- conscious syncretism, in which the peyote button is explicitly compared with Christ as mediator. See Weston La Barre, The Peyote Cult (New York: Schocken Books, 1969).

86. Estrada, María Sabina, 71. 87. Estrada, María Sabina, 72. 88. Estrada, María Sabina, 80. 89. Estrada, María Sabina, 79. 90. Mushroom Ceremony of the Mazatec Indians, recorded by Valentina

Pavlova and R. Gordon Wasson (New York, NY: Folkways Records and Service Corporation, FR8975, 1957).

91. Estrada, María Sabina, 90. 92. Estrada, María Sabina, 91. 93. Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, Medicina y Magia (México: Instituto Nacio-

nal Indigenista, 1973), 123. (My translation.) This excerpt belongs to Beltrán’s chapter on “Indian Matter,” in which he discusses the use of several medicinal plants. In this particular passage, named “The ‘zu’ of medicine,” he is referring to Evans- Pritchard’s concept of zu among the Zande, for whom only those plants with ritual use are considered part of medicinal matter. See Edward Evan Evans- Pritchard, The Zande Trickster (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967).

94. In fact, Wasson expresses his remorse for having been somewhat responsible for revealing the secrets of the mushrooms to the “out-side” world, as he ends his essay in Estrada’s book’s foreword by com-menting on Sabina’s accusation: “Not without anguish do I read her words . . . these words make me wince; I, Gordon Wasson, am held responsible for the end of a religious practice in Mesoamerica that goes back far, for a millennia. I fear she spoke the truth, exemplifying her wisdom. A practice carried on in secret for centuries has now been aer-ated and aeration spells the end.” Wasson, “A Retrospective Essay,” in Estrada, María Sabina, 20.

95. In his book, Estrada, with the help of his sister Eloina Estrada, trans-lates in full from Mazatec to Spanish Sabina’s chants sung in the vigil Wasson recorded in 1956. There is a second session of chants also presented by Estrada, recorded in July 1970, in which no foreigners took part, that was translated by Eloina Estrada. The English versions of both sessions found in Estrada’s book, and used here, are by Henry Munn.

96. Anne Waldman, Fast Speaking Woman & Other Chants (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1975); and Camilo Jose Cela, María Sabina y El Carro de Heno o el Inventor de la Guillotina (Madrid, Alfaguara, 1970). Both these books will be analyzed later when I deal with Sabina’s eth-nopoetic discourse.

Notes244

97. Remi Simeon, Diccionario Nahuatl (México: Siglo Veintiuno, 1984), 304.

98. Jacinto de la Serna, “Manual de Ministros de Indios,” 263. (My translation.)

99. Estrada, María Sabina, 105. 100. Estrada, María Sabina, 106. 101. Estrada, María Sabina, 107. 102. Estrada, María Sabina, 108. 103. Estrada, María Sabina, 109. 104. Estrada, María Sabina, 110. 105. Estrada, María Sabina, 112. 106. Estrada, María Sabina, 116. 107. Estrada, María Sabina, 117. 108. Henry Munn, “Notes and Commentaries,” in Estrada, María Sabina,

224. Munn also points out that “the ancient Meso- american calen-dar consisted of twenty day signs— the Mazatecs still think in terms of a twenty day month— which were combined with the numbers one through thirteen.” For more information on Mesoamerican calendrics, see the following: Gabrielle Vail and Anthony Aveni (eds.), The Madrid Codex (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2004); and John Major Jenkins, Maya Cosmogenesis 2012 (Rochester: Bear, 1998).

109. Estrada, María Sabina, 118. 110. Estrada, María Sabina, 122. 111. Estrada, María Sabina, 125. 112. Waldman, Fast Speaking Woman. 113. Waldman, Fast Speaking Woman, 1. 114. Rothenberg, “Preface,” in Estrada, María Sabina, 8. 115. For a more comprehensive study of Waldman and Sabina and the

appropriation of shamanic tradition by contemporary artists, see Dan-iel C. Noel, “Shamanic Ritual as Poetic Model: The Case of María Sabina and Anne Waldman,” in Journal of Ritual Studies [1: 1987] 57– 71.

116. Waldman, Fast Speaking Woman, 3– 5. 117. Waldman, Fast Speaking Woman, 11, 12. 118. Cela’s notorious foul- mouthed interviews are legendary, not to men-

tion his alleged tyrannical personal relationships, as well as posthumous accusations of financial fraud.

119. Camilo Jose Cela, María Sabina y El Carro de Heno o el Inventor de la Guillotina (Madrid: Alfaguara, 1970). (My translation.) In his epi-graph, Cela quotes Shakespeare, “Though this be madness, yet there is method in it,” in a clear allusion to the previously analyzed order of magical thought. Cela’s book was published before Estrada’s, and the Spanish poet was inspired by Wasson’s transcriptions instead.

120. Cela, María Sabina, 12. 121. Cela, María Sabina, 27.

Notes 245

122. Cela, María Sabina, 28. 123. Artaud, who was defender of altered states of consciousness, had his

own shamanic experiences among the Tarahumara in Mexico, which he described in D’un Voyage au Pays des Tarahumaras (Paris: Fontaine, 1945); see also his I Demand Extinction of Laws Prohibiting Narcotic Drugs! (San Francisco: Auerhahn Press, 1959).

124. Cela, María Sabina, 33. 125. Cela, María Sabina, 34. 126. Cela, María Sabina, 37. 127. Kartunnen, Between Worlds, 236. 128. Accordingly, as if discoursing on the shamanic features of poetic cre-

ation, Shelley defines the poets as those who are “the mirrors of the gigantic shadows which futurity casts upon the present” and whose words “express what they understand not,” in “A Defence of Poetry,” M. H. Abrams (ed.), The Norton Anthology of English Literature (New York: Norton, 1993), 765.

Chapter 5

1. After his death in April 1998, two more books were posthumously published, and now Castaneda’s work amounts to 12 books: The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge (Los Angeles: Cali-fornia University Press, 1968); A Separate Reality: Further Conversa-tions with Don Juan (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970); Journey to Ixtlan: The Lessons of Don Juan (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972); Tales of Power (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974); The Sec-ond Ring of Power (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977); The Eagle’s Gift (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981); The Fire from Within (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); The Power of Silence (New York: WSP, 1987); The Art of Dreaming (New York: Harper Collins, 1993); Magical Passes (New York: Harper Collins, 1998); The Wheel of Time (London: Allen Lane, 1999); and The Active Side of Infinity (London: Thorsons, 1999).

2. Only on July 17 did John Mitchell give news of his death in The Inde-pendent’s review section. Here is part of the newspaper’s account:

It was two months after his death before his literary executor announced that Carlos Castaneda had died . . . His body had been immediately cremated and the ashes disposed in Mexico. A few of Castaneda’s close friends knew about this, but they kept silence and there was no public ceremony. The cause of his death is said to have been cancer of the liver, but there is no certainty about this or any other aspect of his life. His age, parentage, place of birth, nationality, early career, even his original name, are all mysterious, and that is how he wanted it to be.

Notes246

3. In 1973, Castaneda received a PhD at UCLA for his Sorcery: A Descrip-tion of the World as well as a good deal of subsequent criticism for never producing the field notes required for such a degree in anthropology. Michael Harner, who has been one of the few anthropologists never to disbelieve Castaneda’s accounts as purely ethnographic, was not sur-prisingly one of the members of Castaneda’s defense board. In fact, Castaneda’s work, which is virtually identical to his third book Journey to Ixtlan, was based on interviews with an old Yaqui Indian called Juan Matus (the very Don Juan from the books), which were “documented at great length in three volumes of field reports, the third of which was accepted as his dissertation at the University of California.” In Richard de Mille, The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies (New York: Ross Erikson, 1980), 2.

4. Nagual is the word chosen by Castaneda— that is, the one he learns from Don Juan— to refer to the leader of the group of sorcerers. He also uses the word as a conceptual reference to the indescribable, the second attention, the separate reality, or the spirit. The word nagual comes from the Aztec language, also known as Mexicano or Nahuatl, used in the documents collected or redacted in the sixteenth century by the Spanish conquistadors. Deriving from the Nahuatl term nau-alli, it means sorcerer, witch, or wizard, according to Rémi Siméon, Diccionario de la Lengua Nahuatl (México: Siglo Veintiuno, 1994), 304. It is still used today by many groups in Mexico and Central Amer-ica, and its current meaning is mostly that of nagualismo— that is, the metamorphosis of the shaman into animal. See Chapter 1’s discussion of “nagualismo” based on Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, Medicina y Magia (México: Instituto Nacional Indigenista, 1973), 104. For more on the Nahuatl language, see the following: Angel María Garibay K., Llave del Nahuatl (México: Ed. Porrúa, 1994); and Marcos Matías Alonso, Vocabulario Nahuatl- Español (México: Plaza y Valdes, 1996).

5. Castaneda, Journey to Ixtlan, xii. This theme— that is, the use of psy-chotropic plants in shamanism— is analyzed in the second part of my chapter, which deals with the articulation of Castaneda and the emergence of ethnobotany. Among many references to the power of psychotropic substances, the following would be typical: “The devil’s weed [Datura] is for those who bid for power” (The Teachings of Don Juan, 69); “there are no hallucinations, if you see something that was not there before is because your second attention is at work . . . or maybe it’s the nagual’s smoking mixture” (The Second Ring of Power, 324); “he contended that the dog was not really a dog but the incarna-tion of Mescalito, the power of deity contained in peyote” (Journey to Ixtlan, 89).

6. Castaneda, Journey to Ixtlan, ix.

Notes 247

7. Castaneda, Tales of Power, 122. For more references about the tonal, see Tales of Power, 96, 119– 26, 142, 145, 191– 93 and The Second Ring of Power, 269, 286.

8. Castaneda, Tales of Power, 125. 9. Castaneda, Power of Silence, 11. For other textual evidence of the

nagual, see Tales of Power, 124– 27, 130– 32, 145, 156– 59; The Eagle’s Gift, 164, 165, 245; and The Fire from Within, 110, 118, 122, 145.

10. Castaneda, Tales of Power, 126. 11. Castaneda, Tales of Power, 126. 12. Castaneda, Tales of Power, 127. 13. Castaneda, Tales of Power, 128. 14. See my discussion of “tonalismo” and “nagualismo” as part of sha-

manic practices, among others, in Chapter 1. 15. See, for instance, the connection between Castaneda’s concept of

nagual, present at the time of birth, and Michael Harner’s guardian spirit, as a feature of shamanic belief, in Chapter 1.

16. Castaneda, Power of Silence, 264. 17. Castaneda, Journey to Ixtlan, 231. 18. For more textual references about Don Genaro’s allegorical prodigies,

see the following: A Separate Reality, 95, 98, 99– 108, 252, 254; Tales of Power, 36, 38, 58, 59, 40– 45; The Second Ring of Power, 192, 194; The Eagle’s Gift, 145, 205, 207; and The Fire from Within, 177, 179, 216, 272.

19. Two of Castaneda’s women companions have published their own books about their experiences. See Taisha Abelar, The Sorcerers’ Cross-ing (New York: Arkana, 1992); and Florinda Donner, Being- in- Dreaming: An Initiation into the Sorcerers’ World (New York: Harper Collins, 1991). Despite their alleged connection to Castaneda, who in fact wrote a preface to Abelar’s book, these writings do not seem to possess the literary quality of their master.

20. Castaneda, Journey to Ixtlan, xiii. For other references to “stopping the world,” see the following: Journey to Ixtlan, 104, 136, 253, 254; Tales of Power, 13, 92, 236; and The Second Ring of Power, 58, 82, 89– 92, 109.

21. Castaneda, Journey to Ixtlan, 194. 22. Castaneda, Journey to Ixtlan, 196. 23. Castaneda, The Art of Dreaming, 7. For more textual evidence on the

assemblage point, see the following: The Fire from Within, 108, 110, 199, 258, 283; Power of Silence, xvi, 219, 264, 265; The Art of Dream-ing, 6– 8, 11, 18, 21, 143, 175.

24. Castaneda, Power of Silence, xv. 25. Castaneda, Power of Silence, 66. 26. Castaneda, The Art of Dreaming, 3. For other textual references con-

cerning “seeing,” see the following: The Teachings of Don Juan, 69, 106; A Separate Reality, 10, 11, 36, 38, 84, 95, 112, 138, 148; Tales

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of Power, 96, 136, 153; The Fire from Within, x, xi, 4, 5, 35, 125, 233; Power of Silence, xi, xvi, 101, 102; The Art of Dreaming, 15, 31, 32, 37, 50.

27. Castaneda, The Art of Dreaming, viii. For other references to “dream-ing,” see the following: Journey to Ixtlan, 90, 93, 98, 99; The Second Ring of Power, 2, 224, 276– 79, 291; The Eagle’s Gift, 4, 17, 23, 135, 138; The Fire from Within, 66, 172– 75, 181; and The Art of Dream-ing, 18, 19, 28, 46, 49, 73, 79, 108, 161, 164, 173, 221, 260.

28. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture (Cambridge: Harvard Uni-versity Press, 1988), 25.

29. Clifford, The Predicament of Culture, 27. Clifford points to one of the first participant observers to actually take part in the life of his object of study, Frank Hamilton Cushing (a proto- Castanedian fig-ure), to the point of his quasi absorption into the Other’s way of life. Cushing’s firsthand study was dismissed, as suggested by Curtis Hin-sley, as not scientific enough in that it “raised problems of verification and accountability . . . a community of scientific anthropology on the model of other sciences required a common language of discourse, channels of regular communication, and at least minimum consensus on judging method.” In Clifford, The Predicament of Culture, 28.

30. Clifford, The Predicament of Culture, 28. 31. Clifford, The Predicament of Culture, 30. 32. Clifford, The Predicament of Culture, 34. 33. See Robert Hughes, Sandra Burton, Tomás Loayza, et al., “Don Juan

and the Sorcerer’s Apprentice,” in Time Magazine [5 March 1973] 36– 45; Max Allen, “Review: 32 Castanedas,” in Journal of Altered States of Consciousness [1 (1): 1973] 109– 22; Daniel C. Noel, Seeing Castaneda: Reactions to the ‘Don Juan’ Writings of Carlos Castaneda (New York: Putnam, 1976).

34. Among those academics who praised Castaneda’s writings as ethno-graphic accounts are the following: Edward H. Spicer, “Early Praise from an Authority on Yaqui Culture,” in Noel, Seeing Castaneda, 30– 33; Barbara Meyerhoff, “Conversations with Yoawima,” in Richard de Mille, The Don Juan Papers, 346; Ralph L. Beals, “Sonoran Fantasy or Coming of Age?” in American Anthropologist [80 (2): 1978] 355– 62; Clement Meighan, Time Magazine [5 March 1973] 45; and John Kennedy, in David E. Young and Jean- Guy Goulet, Being Changed by Cross- Cultural Encounters: The Anthropology of Extraordinary Experi-ence (Peterborough, Canada: Broadview Press, 1994), 284. For dis-trust of Castaneda’s ethnography, see the following: Ward Churchill, “Castaneda,” in Fantasies of the Master Race: Literature, Cinema and the Colonization of American Indians (Monroe, ME: Common Cour-age, 1992), 43– 64, 291; Wendy Rose, “The Great Pretenders,” in M. Anette Jaimes (ed.), The State of Native America (Boston: South End, 1992), 403– 21; and Weston La Barre, “Stinging Criticism from

Notes 249

the Author of The Peyote Cult,” in Noel, Seeing Castaneda, 40– 42, even though it is worth mentioning that La Barre seems to have changed his mind as I show in the second part of my chapter.

35. Richard DeMille, son of the movie mogul Cecil B. DeMille was the first author to present a serious study of Castaneda as a hoax: Cas-taneda’s Journey: The Power and the Allegory (Santa Barbara: Capra Press, 1976). Nevertheless, he does not discard Castaneda’s value as a writer. On the contrary, de Mille actually praises Don Juan’s apprentice to such a high degree that sometimes one is left wondering whether his idea was in fact to debunk him. He also published one more book on the subject, which is a more in- depth work about Castaneda’s writ-ing and could be seen as the definitive blow to Castaneda- as- true- ethnography defenders: The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies (New York: Ross Erikson, 1980).

36. De Mille, The Don Juan Papers, 390. 37. De Mille defines his “alleglossary” as thus:

Castaneda turns ethnomethodological glossing into a perceptual metaphor; to him, a gloss is a language- sustained perception, a way of seeing or hearing the physical world . . . an allegory is a description of one thing under the guise of another, particularly a description in story . . . this alleglossary is therefore an explana-tory list of Castaneda’s allegoric terms: words and ideas from his books that say one thing while meaning another, each term explained by showing that it undoubtedly or very likely came from an earlier work by another writer, where it meant something rather different.

In The Don Juan Papers, 390. 38. De Mille, The Don Juan Papers, 392. 39. For the discussion of Castaneda’s relevance to the social sciences, see

the following: David Silverman, Reading Castaneda: A Prologue to the Social Sciences (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975); to mythol-ogy, see Nevill Drury, Don Juan, Mescalito and Modern Magic: The Mythology of Inner Space (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978); to psychology, see Donald Lee Williams, Border Crossings: A Psycho-logical Perspective on Carlos Castaneda’s Path of Knowledge (Toronto: Inner City Books, 1981); to Western philosophy, see Dennis Timm, Reality and the Man of Knowledge: An Essay on Carlos Castaneda (Bot-trop, Germany: Literarisches, 1978); to Hindu philosophy, see Mark MacDowell, A Comparative Study of Don Juan and Madhyamaka Bud-dhism: Knowledge and Transformation (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986); to ethnography, see Jay Courtney Fikes, Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties (Victoria, Canada: Millenia Press, 1993); to New Age, see Tomas (a pseudonym), The Promise of Power: Reflections on the Toltec Warriors’ Dialogue from the

Notes250

Collected Works of Carlos Castaneda (Charlottesville: Hampton Roads, 1995).

40. Spicer’s article appeared in American Anthropologist [April 1969], but I am here using the reference from “Early Praise from an Authority on Yaqui Culture,” in Noel, Seeing Castaneda, 30– 33.

41. Spicer, “Early Praise,” 32. 42. Spicer, “Early Praise,” 31. 43. Spicer, “Early Praise,” 32. 44. Spicer, “Early Praise,” 31. 45. Spicer, “Early Praise,” 33. 46. Carlos Castaneda, Las Enseñanzas de Don Juan (México: FCE, 1974).

The original text here— that is, the preface by Paz, titled “La Mirada Anterior”— is written in Spanish, and the translation is my own.

47. At the time of the Mexican edition, for which Paz writes his preface, Castaneda had published only three books.

48. Paz, “La Mirada Anterior,” in Carlos Castaneda, Las Enseñanzas de Don Juan (México: FCE, 1974), 11.

49. The concept of “otherness” is elaborated and discussed by Octavio Paz in El Arco y la Lira (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1956).

50. Paz, “La Mirada Anterior,” 12. 51. Perhaps this is only to say that both Castaneda and Paz have a common

literary and intellectual heritage of Romanticism. 52. Paz, “La Mirada Anterior,” 12. 53. Or, if one takes a negative view, a rather old knowledge, a fusion

of nineteenth- century Romanticism and mysticism, in the manner of Herman Hesse.

54. Paz, “La Mirada Anterior,” 12. 55. Paul Stoller, The Taste of Ethnographic Things: The Senses in Anthropol-

ogy (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1989), 39. 56. Young and Goulet, Being Changed, 7. 57. Young and Goulet, Being Changed, 9. 58. Young and Goulet, Being Changed, 8. 59. Young and Goulet, Being Changed, 305. 60. Young and Goulet, Being Changed, 10. 61. Young and Goulet, Being Changed, 305. 62. Young and Goulet, Being Changed, 11. 63. Young and Goulet, Being Changed, 315. 64. Yves Marton, “The Experiential Approach to Anthropology & Cas-

taneda’s Ambiguous Legacy,” in David E. Young and Jean- Guy Gou-let, Being Changed by Cross- Cultural Encounters: The Anthropology of Extraordinary Experience, 273.

65. Marton, “The Experiential Approach,” 273. 66. Larry Peters, Ecstasy and Healing in Nepal (Malibu: Undena,

1981), 37. For an epistemological outline of the concept of experi-ential approach, see the following authors: Robin Ridington, “The

Notes 251

Anthropology of Experience” (unpublished paper, American Anthro-pological Association, 1969); Charles T. Tart, “States of Conscious-ness and State- Specific Sciences,” in Science [176: 1972] 1203– 10; Jacques Maquet, “Meditation in Contemporary Sri Lanka,” in Jour-nal of Transpersonal Psychology [7:1975] 181– 85; Frits Staal, Exploring Mysticism: A Methodological Essay (Los Angeles: California University Press, 1975); Paul Riesman, Freedom in Fulani Social Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); Benetta Jules- Rosette, “The Veil of Objectivity: Prophecy, Divination, and Social Inquiry,” in American Anthropologist [80: 1978] 549– 70.

67. Marton, “The Experiential Approach,” 274. 68. As Marton indicates, some of the evidence of these other anthropolo-

gists who had undergone similar experiences in their field work but chose not to report them can be found in Sir Edward B. Tylor, in George W. Stocking Jr., “Animism in Theory and in Practice: E. B. Tylor’s Unpublished Notes on ‘Spiritualism,’” in Man [6 (1): 1971] 88– 104; Ralph Linton, “The Witches of Andilamena,” in The Atlan-tic Monthly [89: 1927] 191– 96; Robert Lowie, “Supernormal Experi-ences of American Indians,” in Tomorrow [4 (3): 1955] 9– 16; Alfred Irving Hallowell, The Role of Conjuring in Salteaux Society (Philadel-phia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1942); E. Evans- Pritchard, “A Séance among the Azande,” in Tomorrow [5 (4): 1957] 11– 26; Ioan M. Lewis, “The Anthropologist’s Encounter with the Supernatural,” in A. Angoff and D. Barth (eds.), Parapsychology and Anthropology (New York: Parapsychology Foundation, 1974), 22– 31.

69. See Bruce T. Grindal, “Into the Heart of Sisala Experience: Witness-ing Death Divination,” in Journal of Anthropological Research [39 (1): 1983] 60– 80, and “In Defense of Animism,” in Dreamworks [5 (1): 1986] 37– 45; and Paul Stoller, “Eye, Mind, and Word in Anthropol-ogy,” in L’Homme [24 (3– 4): 1984] 91– 114, and Fusion of Worlds: An Ethnography of Possession among the Songhay of Niger (Chicago: Chi-cago University Press, 1987).

70. Marton, “The Experiential Approach,” 289. 71. Marton, “The Experiential Approach,” 277. 72. Marton, “The Experiential Approach,” 286. 73. The references on Amy Smith are from her lecture “A Castaneda Way

of Knowledge: Implications of an Anthropological Legacy” (Society for the Anthropology of Consciousness Conference, Berkeley, CA, 1999). I will be using the page reference as it appears in the transcrip-tion of her lecture: 2.

74. Smith “A Castaneda Way of Knowledge,” 3. 75. Young and Goulet, Being Changed, 30. 76. James M. Edie, “Notes on the Philosophical Anthropology of Wil-

liam James,” in James Edie (ed.), An Invitation to Phenomenology:

Notes252

Studies in the Philosophy of Experience (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1965), 116.

77. Michael Jackson, Paths toward a Clearing: Radical Empiricism and Eth-nographic Inquiry (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989), 4.

78. Paul Stoller, The Taste of Ethnographic Things: The Senses in Anthropol-ogy (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1989), 68.

79. Charles Laughlin, “Psychic Energy & Transpersonal Experience: A Biogenetic Structural Account of the Tibetan Dumo Yoga Practice,” in Young and Goulet (eds.), Being Changed, 102. For some of the meth-odological issues involved in transpersonal approach, see also Laughlin, “Transpersonal Anthropology: Some Methodological Issues,” in West-ern Canadian Anthropology [5: 1988] 29– 60.

80. Smith, “A Castaneda Way of Knowledge,” 8. 81. Gilles Deleuze, “On the Superiority of Anglo- American Literature,” in

Gilles Deleuze and Claire Parnet, Dialogues (London: Athlone Press, 1987), 48.

82. Edmund Leach, “High School,” in Noel, Seeing Castaneda, 33. 83. Leach, “High School,” 34. 84. Leach, “High School,” 35. 85. Leach, “High School,” 37. 86. Daniel Noel, “Taking Castaneda Seriously,” in Noel, Seeing Cas-

taneda, 16. 87. Noel, “Taking Castaneda Seriously,” 17. 88. Noel, “Taking Castaneda Seriously,” 18. 89. Noel, “Taking Castaneda Seriously,” 19. 90. Noel, “Taking Castaneda Seriously,” 14. 91. Daniel C. Noel, The Soul of Shamanism: Western Fantasies, Imaginal

Realities (New York: Continuum, 1999). 92. Noel, The Soul of Shamanism, 58. 93. Noel, The Soul of Shamanism, 60. 94. Noel, The Soul of Shamanism, 59. 95. Noel, The Soul of Shamanism, 20. 96. Noel, “Professor Eliade Imagines an Ism,” in Noel, The Soul of Sha-

manism, 28– 30. 97. Noel, The Soul of Shamanism, 38. 98. Noel, The Soul of Shamanism, 21. 99. Noel, The Soul of Shamanism, 36, 63– 82, 83– 105. 100. Rodney Needham, “An Ally for Castaneda,” in Exemplars (Berkeley:

California University Press, 1985), 209. 101. Needham uses the following publications on Zen Buddhism to sup-

port his argument: Eugen Herrigel, Zen in the Art of Archery (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1953), and The Method of Zen (New York: Pantheon Books, 1960); and Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, What Is Zen? (New York: Harper & Row, 1972).

102. Needham, “An Ally for Castaneda,” 210.

Notes 253

103. Needham, “An Ally for Castaneda,” 218. 104. See Joyce Carol Oates, “Don Juan’s Last Laugh,” in Noel, Seeing Cas-

taneda, 122– 28; and Jerome Klinkowitz, “The Persuasive Account: Working It Out with Ronald Sukenick and Carlos Castaneda,” in Noel, Seeing Castaneda, 132– 39.

105. Ronald Sukenick, “Upward and Juanward,” in Daniel C. Noel, See-ing Castaneda, 110, 112. Sukenick’s first meeting with Castaneda was arranged by their mutual friend Anaïs Nin, who had in fact helped Castaneda publish his first book.

106. Sukenick, “Upward and Juanward,” 111. 107. Sukenick, “Upward and Juanward,” 112. 108. Sukenick, “Upward and Juanward,” 115. 109. Sukenick, “Upward and Juanward,” 112. 110. Sukenick, “Upward and Juanward,” 116. 111. David Murray, “Anthropology, Fiction, and the Occult: The Case of

Carlos Castaneda,” in Peter Messent (ed.), The Occult: A Collection of Critical Essays (New York: Prentice Hall, 1981), 182. As examples of writing based on master- pupil relationships that became best sellers in the same period Murray uses, see the following: Doug Boyd, Rolling Thunder (New York: Dell, 1974); John G. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks (Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 1988); and John Lame Deer, Lame Deer: Seeker of Visions (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972).

112. Murray, “Anthropology, Fiction, and the Occult,” 173. Murray is here referring to the connection between the traditional presence of hunting magic in American literature (as with whales, bears, or deer) and the power of the warrior in Castaneda, which, apart from exclud-ing women, “must be protected from being dissipated in the social or commonplace,” 174.

113. Murray, “Anthropology, Fiction, and the Occult,” 176. By the time of Murray’s article, Castaneda had published only four books, and hence it analyzes this shift of narrative structure based only in Tales of Power. Notwithstanding, as time went on and Castaneda published his other sequels, the amount of gaps and misinformation kept grow-ing along with other traces of collage and sometimes sheer plagiarism. An example of the latter can be found in the title of Castaneda’s sixth book, The Eagle’s Gift, which “incidentally” coincides with an early twentieth- century account of Eskimo shamanism by Knud Rasmussen: The Eagle’s Gift, Alaska Eskimo Tales (New York: Doubleday, 1932)! This borrowing was surprisingly absent from De Mille’s books’ impres-sive attempts to depict the many unacknowledged borrowings in Cas-taneda’s narratives.

114. Murray, “Anthropology, Fiction, and the Occult,” 177. 115. It is interesting to notice how Castaneda’s books are catalogued both

in library records and on bookshop shelves. One can find them in such

Notes254

areas as anthropology, sociology, psychology, fiction, New Age, and esoteric.

116. Murray, “Anthropology, Fiction, and the Occult,” 179. 117. Murray is quoting from Tzvetan Todorov, The Fantastic (Cleveland:

Case Western Reserve University Press, 1973), 82. 118. Murray, “Anthropology, Fiction, and the Occult,” 179. 119. Ronald Sukenick, “Upward and Juanward,” 116. 120. Deleuze and Parnet, Dialogues, 49. 121. For a similar analysis, see Elsa First, “Don Juan Is to Carlos as Carlos

Is to Us,” in Noel, Seeing Castaneda, 57– 64. 122. Robert Hughes et al., “Don Juan and the Sorcerer’s Apprentice,” 44. 123. Overall, in the end, all we are left are stories. Accordingly, an ancient

Nahuatl poem titled “Ephemeral Life,” reads as follows: “Alas, I shall leave the fairest of flowers, I shall go down in search for the far beyond! Alas, for a moment it felt weary: we can borrow but the beautiful songs!” in Angel María Garibay K., Llave del Nahuatl (México: Edito-rial Porrúa, 1994), 182. (My translation.)

124. Sukenick, “Upward and Juanward,” 116. 125. In the case of Castaneda’s apprenticeship, Don Juan makes use of a

“smoking mixture,” in which there is allegedly mushrooms, datura, and other special and unnamed herbs, as well as mushrooms alone and peyote. The use of such plants is not a sine qua non of the apprentice-ship, and with Castaneda, as well as with traditional shamanic initia-tions, it appears only in the first stage of the spiritual tutelage. Don Juan’s “smoking mixture” has provoked many critiques of Castaneda’s account’s truthfulness in that not only did he never reveal its whole content but it has never been observed in any other Yaqui shamanic context (or any other in general). The fact that its use has not been seen in any Indian community alone does not invalidate, in my opin-ion, its possible existence, since, as Castaneda constantly remarks, his tutelage is part of a secret tradition never before revealed to Western science. Its constituents would likewise never be completely unfolded, and it is probably too presumptuous to assume that a certain shamanic mixture does not exist just because science does not know about it.

126. Relevant publications from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which could be seen as the first representations of what would eventually be called ethnobotany, can be found in the writings of authors whose works leave little doubt of their practical knowledge on the subject. Perhaps the earliest of all is The Seven Sisters of Sleep (1860), by the famous English mycologist Mordecai Cooke. This book, to which Cooke strangely enough never referred in his later mycological studies, deals with the discussion of seven varieties (at the time, probably the only ones known to science) of psychoactive sub-stances; another book, by John Uri Lloyd— a nineteenth- century sage, pharmacist, occultist, and author— worth mentioning is Etidorhpa

Notes 255

(Cincinnati: Author’s limited edition, 1895), in which Lloyd describes an encounter with mother- goddess Etidorhpa (Aphrodite spelled backward) in a time clearly beyond any chronological pattern— that is, a clearly mushroom- induced hallucination. Other accounts bearing a similar approach are the following: A. E. Merrill, “The Narrative of Mr. W,” in Science [40 (1029): 1914]; and H. M. Pim, “Monsieur among the Mushrooms,” in Unknown Immortals— In the Northern City of Success (Dublin: Talbot Press, 1917).

127. It is also significant to point out another emergent discipline of the time whose aims are indeed very similar to those of ethnobotany: eth-nopoetics. For the relevance of ethnopoetics in relation to shamanism, refer to my discussion in Chapter 2. See also Jerome Rothenberg, Tech-nicians of the Sacred (New York: Doubleday, 1968); and Pre- Faces and Other Writings (New York: New Directions, 1981).

128. These lectures would eventually be edited by Peter Furst and published as Flesh of the Gods, the Ritual Use of Hallucinogens (Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, 1990), which is the edition used here. The other con-tributors are William Emboden, a Los Angeles botanist, who discussed the cultural history of Cannabis Sativa; James W. Fernandez, then at Dartmouth, who discussed the social and symbolic world of a psycho-active shrub, Tabernanthe Iboga; and Marlene Dobkin de Rios, who discussed psychedelic healing with ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis Caapi).

129. Thomas J. Riedlinger (ed.), The Mushroom Seeker (Rochester: Park Street Press, 1997), 78.

130. Furst, Flesh of the Gods, 153. 131. Despite Furst’s insistence on its being a basic shamanic performance,

this incident has generated much controversy not only for the lack of evidence to support such an assertion but also for its comparison to what, as Furst himself later acknowledged, was not ethnographic data at all. This incident receives direct criticism in Fikes, Carlos Castaneda, Academic Opportunism, 59, 70.

132. Don Genaro is actually part of Don Juan’s own group of sorcerers (naguales as Castaneda refers to them) and not his teacher— who would be revealed but quite a few years later in one of Castaneda’s lat-est books— as nagual Julian.

133. Furst, Flesh of the Gods, xxiv. 134. Carlos Castaneda, The Active Side of Infinity (London: Thorsons,

1999), 188. 135. According to Furst, “No anthropologist observed an actual peyote hunt

until December, 1966, when the author [himself] and Barbara Myer-hoff of the University of Southern California, accompanied Ramón Medina Silva, a traditional Huichol artist then aspiring to become a mara’akame (shaman), on his fourth peyote trek, and in 1968, when the author and his wife were allowed to participate in, and record on

Notes256

film and tape, Ramón’s fifth peyote pilgrimage, on which he became a full- fledged mara’akame,” 144.

136. Furst, Flesh of the Gods, 137. 137. Accordingly, each participant of the hunt would make a ritual recita-

tion of his or her past love affairs in front of all the others around a fire in order to cleanse himself or herself of bad thoughts in his or her heart. This prior event, which, according to Furst, is of utmost importance for the overall success of the pilgrimage, with its Freudian allusions and all, is actually used by Castaneda in his last book, as he is told by Don Juan to do very much the same thing. This corroborates Castaneda’s Huichol and not Yaqui background in the making of his allegory.

138. Furst, Flesh of the Gods, 155. 139. Furst, Flesh of the Gods, viii. 140. Furst, Flesh of the Gods, x. 141. Furst, Flesh of the Gods, xi. 142. Furst, Flesh of the Gods, xiii. 143. Furst, Flesh of the Gods, xx. 144. Ronald K. Siegel Jr., Intoxication: Life in Pursuit of Artificial Paradise

(New York: Dutton, 1989), 10. (This book was published after Furst’s use of Siegel described here.)

145. Richard Evans Schultes, “An Overview of Hallucinogens in the West-ern Hemisphere,” in Furst, Flesh of the Gods, 3.

146. Schultes, “Hallucinogens in the Western Hemisphere,” 5. 147. Here Schultes refers to John Harshberger (coiner of the term ethnobot-

any) who stated that “it is of importance . . . to seek out these primitive races and ascertain the plants which they have found available in their economic life, in order that perchance the valuable properties they have utilized in their wild life may fill some vacant niche in our own (5n).”

148. Schultes’s fieldwork had indeed begun even earlier when he accompa-nied Weston La Barre to Oklahoma to live among the Kiowa in 1936, an event discussed later in this chapter.

149. Wade Davis, One River: Science, Adventure and Hallucinogenics in the Amazon Basin (London: Touchstone, 1998), ix.

150. Davis, One River, 8. 151. These are his most important works according to Davis: Vine of the Soul

(1992); The Healing Forest: Medicinal and Toxic Plants of the North-west Amazon (1990); Where the Gods Reign (1988); The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogenics (1980); and Plants of the Gods (1979).

152. Davis, One River, 8. 153. As told by Davis, Schultes had in fact helped to release many students

who had been imprisoned for the use of marijuana, by means of an obscure taxonomic argument about the different species of the plant. As this could not be clearly identified by forensic material alone, the students could not be convicted (10, 11).

Notes 257

154. Davis, One River, 9. 155. Davis, One River, 67. 156. La Barre, The Peyote Cult. 157. Davis, One River, 81. 158. Davis, One River, 211. 159. Schultes, “Hallucinogens in the Western Hemisphere,” 6. 160. Schultes, “Hallucinogens in the Western Hemisphere,” 13. 161. Castaneda, The Art of Dreaming, 59. 162. R. Gordon Wasson, “The Divine Mushroom of Immortality,” in Peter

Furst, Flesh of the Gods, 193. Wasson’s ideas, which I have already dis-cussed in the previous chapter, are part of an essay in which he writes on his favorite subject: the mushrooms. There is one passage that deserves to be mentioned, as he outlines the inefficacy of European languages in general to describe the visionary state:

Here let me say a word parenthetically about the nature of the psy-chic disturbance that the eating of the mushrooms causes. This dis-turbance is wholly different from the effects of alcohol, as different as night from day. We are entering upon a discussion in which the vocabulary of the English language, of any European language, is seriously deficient. There are no apt words in it to character-ize one’s state when one is, shall we say, “bemushroomed.” For hundreds, even thousands of years, we have thought about these things in terms of alcohol, and we now have to break the bonds imposed on us by our alcoholic obsession. We are all, willy- nilly, confined within the prison walls of our everyday vocabulary. (190)

163. La Barre, “Hallucinogens and the Shamanic Origins of Religions,” 261. 164. La Barre, “Hallucinogens and the Shamanic Origins of Religions,” 261. 165. La Barre, “Hallucinogens and the Shamanic Origins of Religions,” 262. 166. La Barre, “Hallucinogens and the Shamanic Origins of Religions,” 278. 167. Paz, “La Mirada Anterior,” 20.

Conclusion 1. Lévi- Strauss, The Savage Mind, 9. 2. Lévi- Strauss, The Savage Mind, 13. 3. Eliade, Shamanism, 96. 4. Eliade, Shamanism, xviii. 5. Jerome Rothenberg, Prefaces and Other Writings (New York: New

Directions, 1981), 189. 6. Eliade, Shamanism, 27. 7. Aureolus Philippus Paracelso, Obras Completas (Barcelona: Edicomu-

nicacion, 1989), 66. (My translation.) 8. Rothenberg, Prefaces, 70.

Index

Abaris, 6, 47, 213Abelar, Taisha, 169, 247aborigines, 5, 10, 217Abrams, M. H., 68, 69, 71, 75, 80,

227– 30, 245Alarcón, Hernando Ruiz de, 43,

145– 47, 217, 223alchemy, 81Alcheringa, 54Alighieri, Dante, 58allegory, 163, 168, 176, 207, 248,

249, 255Amazon, 200, 201, 256Anderson, Arthur J. O., 218, 238animism, 69, 251anthropology, 2, 7, 12, 13, 16, 19,

28, 54, 98, 103, 132, 162, 163, 175– 84, 187, 192, 216, 218, 245, 248, 250– 53

Apollo, 6, 59– 61, 63, 65, 71, 85, 86, 148, 213

Arapaho, 115, 116archetype, 56, 129Aristeas, 6, 47Artaud, Antonin, 158, 244Atkinson, Jane, 12, 216, 240ayahuasca, 44, 255Aztec, 10, 14, 21– 32, 36, 135, 167,

217– 20, 223, 238, 246

Barea, Arturo, 83, 230Barthes, Roland, 47Beltrán, Gonzalo Aguirre, 14, 151,

216, 243, 246Bergson, Henri, 88Beuys, Joseph, 47

Bible, 18, 70, 104, 113, 148Bill, Buffalo, 98, 119, 120Black Elk, 2, 29, 57, 97– 123Blake, William, 66– 71, 87, 88, 90,

134, 227, 228, 230, 240Boas, Franz, 54, 104, 234Bogoraz, Waldemar, 213Book of Language, 139, 141, 147Book of Wisdom, 139, 142, 148,

156, 157Boon, Marcus, 228Boone, Elizabeth Hill, 218– 20Brown, Joseph Epes, 101, 110, 232Buddhism, 17, 93, 189, 249, 252Burkhart, Louise M., 32, 34, 219– 22Burroughs, William, 216Byron, Lord Gordon, 74, 228

Campbell, Joseph, 214cannibalism, 29, 40, 44Castaneda, Carlos, 2, 13, 57, 123,

147, 161– 208Catholic, 18, 19, 21, 24, 25, 27, 28,

31, 32, 39, 40, 84, 98, 101, 103, 110– 15, 119, 120, 148, 161, 197

Cela, Camilo Jose, 151, 158, 243, 244

Cervantes, Miguel de, 190, 193Chaucer, Geoffrey, 131Christian, 14, 20, 22, 24– 43, 110,

111, 113, 117, 125, 128, 148, 53– 55, 218, 221, 231, 236, 237

Christianity, 17, 33– 43, 49, 100, 105, 112, 154, 155, 219– 21

Christianization, 36, 49

Index260

clairvoyance, 7, 14Clifford, James, 12, 101, 174, 175,

216, 232, 247, 248Cocteau, Jean, 158Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 73, 75,

77, 78, 186, 228, 229Collins, Wilkie, 76– 78, 229Cooke, Mordecai, 254Cortés, Hernán, 28, 29, 135, 219Curtius, Ernst Robert, 142, 241

datura, 164, 246, 254Davis, Wade, 200– 202, 256Deer, John Lame, 236, 253Deleuze, Gilles, 176, 184, 185, 193,

252, 253Deloria, Ella, 120, 234, 237Demallie, Raymond, 103, 119,

232– 37De Mille, Richard, 175, 176, 195,

246, 248, 249, 253demon, 8, 9, 30, 42, 70, 84, 85,

221, 223demonic, 8, 26, 30, 33, 35, 42,

43, 49, 83, 219, 221De Quincey, Thomas, 73, 186, 228,

229Derrida, Jacques, 47, 144dialectic, 34, 35, 65, 122, 162, 169,

187, 207, 210Diamond, Stanley, 55Dibble, Charles, 24, 27, 30– 32,

218– 20, 238Dionysus, 59– 67, 71, 83, 84, 86,

226Don Genaro, 168, 169, 195, 206,

247, 255Don Juan, 2, 147, 162– 207Donner, Florinda, 169, 247Don Quixote, 4, 190, 191dream, 9, 14, 27, 36, 42– 44, 54–

68, 71– 76, 91, 95, 107, 109, 110, 112, 130, 139, 154, 164, 171, 173, 174, 180, 181, 190, 192, 204, 207, 228, 229, 241, 245, 247, 257, 256

drum, 8, 11, 106, 114, 189, 215Dryden, John, 67duende, 83– 86, 145, 230, 242Duncan, Robert, 55, 225

Duran, Fray Diego, 217Durkheim, Émile, 16

Eastman, Charles, 120, 135, 237ecological, 5, 54, 63, 82, 93, 95, 231ecstasy, 7, 11, 13, 41, 52, 58– 60,

66, 93, 129, 136, 160, 194, 203, 213, 215, 224– 26, 239, 250

Edmonson, Munro, 23, 31, 218– 20Eleusis, 132, 134, 238– 40Eliade, Mircea, 6– 10, 13, 14, 17,

47, 56, 58, 72, 90, 129, 136, 146, 158, 188, 192, 210– 15, 223, 225, 226, 228, 240, 252, 257

Elk, Wallace Black, 236Ellis, Havelock, 177Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 104, 105Empedocles, 6, 214Enlightenment, 17, 46, 47, 67, 91,

98Eskimo, 10, 213, 253Estrada, Álvaro, 125, 126, 136– 38,

141, 146, 147, 150– 52, 237, 240– 44

ethnobotany, 19, 132, 145, 162, 194, 198, 201, 212, 223, 246, 254, 256

ethnology, 214, 236, 238ethnopoetic, 1, 2, 4, 19, 51, 53– 58,

82, 93, 94, 96, 125, 136, 141, 156, 157, 209, 211, 212, 224, 230, 243, 254

Evans- Pritchard, Edward Evan, 16, 243, 251

Flaherty, Gloria, 46– 48, 223, 224, 227

Frazer, Sir James George, 16, 51, 98, 99, 224, 231

Freud, Sigmund, 73, 255Furst, Richard, 195– 99, 217, 240,

255, 256

Garibay, Angel María K., 32, 220, 246, 254

Geertz, Clifford, 12, 216Ghost Dance, 98, 116– 18, 217,

231, 234, 236

Index 261

Ginsberg, Allen, 216Ginzburg, Carlo, 15, 16, 216Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 68,

91, 92, 227Graves, Robert, 82, 83, 158, 230Gruzinski, Serge, 36, 37, 140, 150,

222, 224

Hades, 133Halifax, Joan, 9– 11, 52, 148, 215,

224, 240, 242hallucinogen, 38, 40– 44, 68, 72,

74, 75, 127, 128, 137, 142, 143, 150, 163, 164, 177, 185, 187, 192, 194, 195, 198– 203, 206, 217, 222, 228, 239, 240, 242, 255– 57

Harner, Michael, 9, 123, 215, 228, 242, 245, 247

Hayter, Alethea, 73– 76, 228, 229healer, 2, 5, 9– 12, 15, 40, 42, 43,

47, 51, 52, 75, 86, 100, 103, 106, 125, 128, 135, 136, 138, 140, 150, 154, 211, 215, 224

Heim, Roger, 149, 158, 239Heinze, Ruth- Inge, 52, 224hermaphroditic, 213hermeneutic, 23, 24, 107, 108, 178,

218, 219Hernandez, Francisco, 41, 42, 58,

217, 223, 239Herodotus, 6, 16, 47, 213Hippocrates, 18history, 3, 11, 16, 17, 19, 21, 23,

32, 42, 53, 55, 61, 77, 82, 93, 94, 98, 103, 120, 122, 128, 129, 155, 175, 194, 199, 205, 210, 213, 214, 217, 218, 221, 222, 224, 228, 235, 238, 239, 242, 255

Hofmann, Albert, 222, 238, 239, 240

Holler, Clyde, 102, 111– 13, 114, 116, 117, 119, 120, 232– 37

Homer, 61, 63, 64, 226Hughes, Robert, 248, 253Huichol, 195, 197, 204, 255Hultkrantz, Ake, 214, 228Huxley, Aldous, 13, 87– 92, 134,

158, 177, 216, 228, 230, 231

identity, 3, 9, 12, 13, 22, 37, 50, 102, 108, 112, 219, 220, 237

idolatry, 18, 25, 27, 29, 30, 34– 37, 39– 41, 218

Iliad, 147Inca, 214, 218initiation, 10, 14, 40, 72, 93, 106,

198, 204, 206, 207, 247, 254Inquisition, 21, 23, 42

James, William, 183Jenkins, John Major, 244Jochelson, Waldemar, 213Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 67Johnson, Jean Bassett, 238Jung, Carl Gustav, 139, 140, 241

Kant, Immanuel, 104Kartunnen, Frances, 21, 134– 36,

159, 218, 240, 244Keats, John, 86, 131, 228, 230Keber, John, 23– 25, 28, 218, 219Kehoe, Alice Beck, 231King, Martin Luther, Jr., 120Kiowa, 202, 204, 256Klor de Alva, Jorge, 218

La Barre, Weston, 176, 195, 197, 198, 201, 202, 205, 206, 217, 242, 248, 256, 257

Lakota, 2, 97, 101– 3, 105– 8, 110– 13, 115, 116, 118– 21, 126, 231– 37

La Malinche, 135Langdon, E. J. Matteson, 13, 214,

216Las Casas, Fray Bartolomé de, 29,

219Lascaux, 7, 215laudanum, 74– 78Leach, Edmund, 185– 87, 252Leader, Zachary, 78, 229Leary, Timothy, 13, 132, 216Lévi- Strauss, Claude, 47, 52, 210,

224, 257Levy, Mark, 224Lewin, Louis, 198literature, 1, 2, 19, 32, 58, 66, 67,

73, 78, 107, 111, 121, 127, 132, 162, 177, 184, 186, 191,

Index262

literature (continued)192, 209, 212, 217, 218, 220, 225,

227– 31, 240, 241, 245, 248, 252, 253

Lloyd, John Uri, 254Longinus, 66, 67, 130, 227Lopez, Alfredo Austin, 220, 242Lorca, Federico García, 83– 86, 230,

242Lowes, J. Livingston, 75, 229LSD, 149, 185, 198, 199, 222Lucretius, 59

magic, 1, 2, 6– 8, 10, 11, 13– 20, 37, 39, 45, 51, 52, 57, 62, 68, 70, 75, 76, 78, 82, 85– 100, 103, 123, 126, 127, 130, 132, 133, 137, 146, 149, 151– 57, 163, 164, 166, 168– 70, 172, 174, 178, 179, 187, 189, 194, 200, 206, 208– 11, 213, 216, 217, 222, 224, 238, 239, 244, 245, 249, 253

Malcolm X, 120Malinowski, Bronislaw, 16, 174,

175María Sabina, 2, 57, 125– 61, 209,

212, 225, 237, 238, 240– 44Mauss, Marcel, 16Maya, 15, 21, 39, 146, 218, 244Mazateca, 137McKenna, Terence, 138medicine, 5, 7, 10, 18, 19, 38, 39,

41, 42, 45, 52, 98, 100, 102, 110, 111, 114, 115, 142, 147, 149, 154, 211, 212, 223, 225, 234, 241, 243

Medina, Ramón, 195, 196, 255Menchu, Rigoberta, 137, 240Mendieta, Gerónimo de, 221mescaline, 87, 90, 91, 134Mesoamerican, 21, 35, 133, 134,

148, 217, 218, 244metaphor, 31, 32, 79, 108, 111,

143, 144, 148, 152, 165, 166, 173, 174, 184, 189, 197, 210, 241, 249

Midas, 60Milton, John, 58, 80, 131Montezuma, 29

Mooney, James, 117, 118, 201, 236Morgan, Henry Lewis, 16Motolinia, 43– 45, 158, 217, 219,

223, 238Munn, Henry, 141– 44, 146, 237,

241– 44Murray, David, 122, 191– 93, 237,

253Muse, 63, 80– 86, 95mushroom, 38, 41, 44, 125– 60,

164, 177, 195, 199, 205, 238– 40, 242, 243, 254– 57

mystic, 5, 9, 14, 15, 36, 58, 68, 69, 73, 74, 85, 94, 96, 109– 11, 130, 139, 146, 150, 151, 185, 200, 201, 231, 241, 250

mythology, 1, 9, 11, 12, 18, 51, 54, 64, 81– 83, 91, 98, 99, 103, 111, 122, 133, 136, 137, 139, 140, 197, 203, 207, 214, 224, 235, 237, 241, 249

nagual, 14, 15, 82, 138, 154, 159, 163– 72, 246, 247, 255

Nahua, 30, 32– 36, 42, 46, 217, 221Nahuatl, 10, 14, 15, 22, 23, 30– 33,

35, 38, 143, 145– 47, 152, 216– 20, 243, 246, 254

Needham, Rodney, 189, 252Neihardt, Hilda, 103, 233, 235,

236Neihardt, John G., 2, 97, 98, 103–

14, 118, 119, 123, 161, 231, 236, 253

Nezahualcoyotl, 143Nietzsche, Friedrich, 58– 62, 65, 66,

83, 84, 130, 194, 226, 227Noel, Daniel C., 187– 89, 244, 248,

249, 252, 253

Odyssey, 63, 147Oglala, 97, 103, 106, 118, 120,

121, 123, 231, 234, 236, 237ololiuhqui, 38, 41, 43, 137opium, 15, 73– 78, 228, 229Orozco y Berra, Manuel, 217Osmond, Humphrey, 87

Paiute, 116Paracelso, Aureolus Philippus, 257

Index 263

Paso y Troncoso, Francisco, 217, 221, 223

Pavlovna, Valentina, 130, 158, 238Paz, Octavio, 176, 178, 179, 206,

250, 257Pendleton, Reece, 109, 110, 234peyote, 38, 41, 87, 137, 149, 164,

177, 195– 99, 202, 204, 242, 246, 248, 254– 56

Plato, 57– 66, 79, 80, 88, 130, 226, 227

poetry, 4, 52– 54, 56, 58, 60, 63– 65, 68– 71, 73, 75, 79– 85, 87, 92– 96, 109, 144, 147, 151, 156, 157, 179, 186, 210, 211, 225, 226, 229– 31, 239, 245

Pope, Alexander, 67possession, 7, 10, 44, 63, 85, 214,

251Powers, William K., 111, 115, 119,

234, 235, 237primitive, 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 13, 17–

19, 37, 47, 48, 51– 55, 57, 58, 60, 61, 64, 67– 70, 91, 93– 96, 98, 100, 121, 130, 136, 162, 163, 191, 194, 200, 205, 207, 210, 211, 214, 225, 231, 256

primitivism, 2, 6Psilocybe, 138, 149, 199psychology, 19, 187, 240, 241, 249,

250, 251, 253

Rasmussen, Knud, 213, 253rationality, 2, 6, 16, 17, 96– 98, 123,

126, 191, 209, 216Reichel- Dolmatoff, Gerardo, 215,

228Reko, B. Pablo, 198religion, 1, 2, 7, 10, 13, 16– 20, 28,

30– 32, 34– 36, 39, 41, 43– 46, 48, 51, 52, 55, 62, 64, 70, 71, 80, 90, 91, 93, 94, 96– 102, 111, 112, 115– 20, 123, 126, 131, 132, 135, 147, 148, 179, 184, 195, 197, 199, 203– 6, 209, 210, 212, 214, 216– 20, 224, 232– 38, 257

representation, 1– 7, 12, 14– 16, 20, 22, 23, 32, 35– 39, 46, 48, 52, 53, 55– 57, 64, 73, 74, 79, 82,

82, 86, 91, 93– 98, 104, 105, 107, 108, 110, 114, 118– 20, 122, 123, 125– 28, 133– 37, 143, 145, 151– 53, 156, 159, 161, 163, 168, 174, 175, 177– 83, 188, 193, 194, 197, 198, 204, 205, 208, 209, 211, 212, 215, 222, 236, 237, 242, 254

Rice, Julian, 111, 234Ricoeur, Paul, 233Riedel, Dirce Cortes, 215Riedlinger, Thomas J., 238, 240,

255ritual, 11, 18– 20, 27, 30, 33, 34,

36, 38– 41, 44, 50– 52, 54, 72, 74, 86, 94, 99, 101, 102, 107– 9, 111, 112, 114, 116, 119, 121, 122, 125, 126, 128, 129, 144, 147, 149, 150, 151, 156, 159, 180, 184, 194, 197, 100, 103, 204, 206, 211, 214, 215, 217, 218, 225, 228, 232– 36, 239, 240, 243, 244, 255

Rivera, Luis N., 28– 30, 219Robinson, Perdita, 76– 78, 227Romanticism, 2, 4, 7, 53, 67, 72,

104, 227, 250Rothenberg, Jerome, 47, 53– 57,

93, 141, 146, 147, 157, 211, 224– 26, 230, 231, 240– 42, 244, 255, 257

Rousseau, Jean- Jacques, 104, 186Ruiz de Alarcón, Hernando, 43,

145– 47, 217, 223

Sabini, Meredith, 139, 241sacred, 8, 9, 14, 15, 18, 28, 29, 33,

34, 36, 38– 41, 43, 49– 52, 54– 56, 59, 65, 70, 74, 90, 92, 94, 95, 97– 100, 102, 105– 14, 118, 121, 122, 125, 126, 128– 30, 132, 133, 136, 138– 43, 147– 51, 158, 161– 64, 172, 185, 187, 193, 197, 200, 203, 205, 206, 210, 211, 220, 222, 225, 231– 33, 236– 41, 255

sacrifice, 8, 14, 20, 22, 25, 26, 29, 33, 35, 38, 40, 43, 44, 52, 102, 116, 213

Index264

Sahagún, Fray Bernadino de, 20– 32, 86, 127, 158, 217– 20, 238, 239

Schneider, Elisabeth, 73, 75, 76, 228, 229

Schopenhauer, Arthur, 59Schultes, Richard Evans, 127, 131,

136, 149, 195, 198– 204, 222, 238, 240, 256

science, 5, 7, 13, 16, 18– 20, 25, 39, 46, 54, 59, 65, 68, 87, 93, 98, 99, 107, 126– 28, 162, 174, 179, 184, 186, 189, 190, 193, 194, 199, 201, 203, 204, 209, 210, 216, 240, 248– 50, 254, 256

Scott, Sir Walter, 76– 78, 229séance, 56, 81, 85, 136, 145, 152,

153, 155, 156, 159, 210, 251semiotics, 108Sevcenko, Nicolau, 11, 215Shakespeare, William, 58, 78, 131,

244shamanism

animal transformation, 6, 8, 9, 14, 15, 35, 56, 82, 91, 94, 101, 138, 152– 55, 157, 172, 185, 198, 246

death, 3, 5, 8– 11, 35, 47, 74, 81, 82, 86, 94, 95, 117, 168, 171, 172, 174, 187, 200, 211, 251

etymology, 10, 215origins, 195, 213, 215, 217, 238,

257weather, 8, 14, 103, 112

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 79– 82, 131, 228– 30, 245

Siberia, 1, 6– 8, 10, 213, 223, 233Siegel, Ronald K., Jr., 199, 256Silenus, 60, 61Simeon, Rémi, 216, 218, 243, 246Sioux, 101, 111, 113, 116– 19, 121,

122, 135, 231, 236, 237Smith, Amy, 183, 184, 251, 252Snyder, Gary, 54, 93– 95, 224, 231Socrates, 59, 62– 65, 84, 226Soma, 131, 132, 238, 239sorcerer, 8, 10, 14, 35, 38, 100, 138,

152, 163– 65, 168, 170– 73,

178, 179, 190, 195, 196, 204, 205, 215, 246– 48, 253, 255

soul, 7, 9, 14, 31, 34, 43, 45, 59, 63, 65, 70– 72, 87, 90, 130, 134, 154, 166, 213, 214, 252, 256

Spencer, R. F., 12, 216Spenser, Edmund, 131Spicer, Edward H., 176, 177, 248,

249spiritual, 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 25, 30, 33,

34, 36, 42, 50, 58, 67, 72– 74, 79, 81, 83, 85– 89, 91, 94, 97, 100, 102– 7, 109, 110, 119, 122, 126, 133, 135, 143, 144, 153, 163, 165, 179, 181, 182, 185, 188, 189, 190, 192, 194, 198, 205, 212, 223, 224, 234, 241, 251, 254

Spruce, Richard, 201Stafford, Peter, 230Standing Bear, Luther, 105, 120,

237Steltenkamp, Michael F., 110– 15,

118, 119, 234– 37Stoller, Paul, 179, 182, 184, 250,

251sublime, 51, 61, 62, 66, 67, 72, 83,

86, 129, 130, 134, 173, 190, 198, 227

Sukenick, Ronald, 190, 193, 194, 252– 54

Sun Dance, 25, 29, 102, 116, 117, 235

Sutherland, John, 76– 78, 229Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro, 252

Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja, 16– 18, 216, 217

Tarahumara, 204, 244Tarn, Nathaniel, 54, 224Taussig, Michael, 12, 216Tedlock, Dennis, 54, 141, 218, 224,

225teonanacatl, 38, 41, 44, 127, 128,

137, 158, 238Tezozomoc, Fernando de Alvarado,

38, 217, 222, 238Thomas, Keith, 18, 217Thoreau, Henry David, 104, 105,

232

Index 265

tlacatecolotl, 35Todorov, Tzvetan, 26, 192– 94, 218,

253tonal, 15, 41, 165– 68, 170, 237,

246, 247Trawick, Leonard M., 68, 227tree, 11, 71, 83, 105– 7, 123, 233Tungus, 9, 72, 215Tylor, Sir Edward, 16, 251

Upanishads, 110

Vedanta, 110Virgil, 58vision, 1, 3, 10– 12, 14, 29, 37, 38,

40, 42– 45, 54– 57, 62, 65– 70, 75, 77, 78, 80, 82, 87, 89– 93, 95– 98, 100– 17, 122, 128– 30, 133, 134, 138– 47, 150, 157, 164, 180, 181, 184, 188, 190, 192, 202, 205, 206, 210, 211, 214, 219, 229, 232– 34, 236, 239, 241, 253

Wakan Tanka, 101, 102, 113, 117, 232

Waldman, Anne, 151, 156, 167, 225, 243, 244

Walker, James R., 116, 121, 123, 135– 37

Wasson, R. Gordon, 2, 125– 37, 145– 51, 56, 57, 59, 61, 77, 95, 99, 201, 205, 238– 40, 242– 44, 256

Wasson, Valentina Pavlovna, 130, 149, 158, 238, 243

Weil, Andrew T., 132, 239Weitlaner, Robert, 127, 155, 238Wise, R. Todd, 107, 108, 233witchcraft, 37, 44, 238Wordsworth, William, 68, 104,

190Wounded Knee, 97, 116, 135Wovoka, 116– 18

X, Malcolm, 120

Yagé, 216Yakut, 10Yaqui, 2, 162– 64, 166, 176, 195,

242, 248, 249, 254, 255Young, David E., 180, 181, 183,

248, 250, 251

Zen, 189, 252Zeus, 59