Notes

1 Similarly, this book does not follow a common trend in business andmanagement ethics that simply adds ‘morality’ to management (Klikauer2010:2) or, in worst cases, seeks to adjust moral philosophy to the ideo-logical demands of management and business (e.g. Altman’s ‘what Kantcannot contribute to business ethics’ (2007), i.e. Kant is framed as aphilosopher that can/cannot contribute to business ethics rather than‘can business and/or business ethics measure up to Kantian moral philo-sophy’. These may appear as rather finely tuned nuances but nonetheless,they are highly relevant for the prevailing ideology of management, busi-ness, and, above all, Managerialism (Klikauer 2013).

2 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg; Klikauer (2012:232); Carlin &Strong (1995:388); Maclagan (2007:49, 52f.); Lan et al. (2010:184);Velasquez (2012:38–40); Copoeru (2012:40); Schwind et al. (2013:28f.);Hodgson (2013:116); Vigilant et al. (2013:205); Standwick & Standwick(2014:116). This also applies to the well-rehearsed critique on Kohlberg(e.g. Gilligan 1982; cf. Kjonstad & Willmott 1995:459; see also Reed’scounterpoint to Gilligan in his book Following Kohlberg, 1997:221ff. and‘Kohlberg’s Response to Gilligan’ also published in Reed’s book,1997:246ff.). For a good overview see: Kakkori & Huttunen (2010) and agood application: Diefenbach (2013:111–119).

3 MacLagan (2007:7) notes ‘many managers (and other people) seem toassume that the regulation of employees’ moral behaviour at work is bothessential and justifiable…they are primarily concerned with mainliningcontrol’. Dale (2012:23); Bauman & Donskis (2013); Hodgson(2013:129ff.).

4 Singer (1994); Zigon (2008); Krebs (2011).5 Orwell (1945); Svallfors (2006).6 http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-

manifesto/ch02.htm; Piven (2012); Berlin (2012a & 2012b).7 Marx and Engels (1848); Sayer (2010); Weil et al. (2009:27ff.).8 MacIntyre (1983); Legge (1998); Guest (1999); Crouch (2012).9 Wood (1972:250 & 257); Klikauer (2010:88–125); Ferrarin (2011).

10 The same goes for today’s managerial regimes. ‘Despite all the rhetoricabout flat, lean, and virtual organisations and about family-based, team-based, and network-based modes of organising, most organisations stillfunction on the basis of hierarchical principles and mechanisms.Hierarchy is still the backbone and central nervous system of our organi-sations – even the post-modern ones’ (Diefenbach 2013:184).

11 Klikauer (2010:88); http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaethics/. Perhapsone possible separation between ‘morality’ and ‘ethics’ can be found in ajournal called ‘Ethical theory and Moral Practice’ (springer.com), i.e.ethics is linked to theory as presented by moral philosophy while moralityrefers to the practice of moral conduct and the moral behaviour of people.

235

12 Austrian (2008); Modgil (2012); Gibbs (2013); Snarey (2013); Standwick &Standwick (2014:116); Kramar et al. (2014:539).

13 Klikauer (2010:126–169); Klikauer (2012); Garz (2009); Lan et al.(2010:184); Modgil (2012); Lumpkin & Stoll (2013); Rowe (2013); Wren(2013); Skirstad et al. (2013) Cushman et al. (2013).

14 Wright (1994); Boxall (1996); Dickenson et al. (1996); Storey (1996);Trezise (1996); Strauss (2001); Wells & Schminke (2001); Weaver &Trevion (2001); Fisher & Shirole (2001); Barratt (2002); Fisher & Southey(2005); Kacmar (2007); Quatro et al. (2007); Gilmore & Williams (2007);Barcia et al. (2009); Verbeek (2011); Thompson (2011); Jones et al. (2013);Klikauer 2014.

15 Kacmar (2007:76); Jones et al. (2013); Wren (2013); Schwind et al.(2013:28ff).

16 Radkau (2013); Velasquez (2012:241ff.) and especially Reed’s ‘Stage 7’ as out-lined in Reed’s book Following Kohlberg (1997:84ff.); cf. Parry et al. (2013).

17 Price & D’aunno (1983); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:26); Jackson et al.(2012:297); Schwind et al. (2013:261).

18 Jackson et al. (2012:34); Kramar et al. (2011:308); Macky (2009:13f., 110 &342); Grobler et al. (2011:563 & 570); Schwind et al. (2013:11); Beardwell& Claydon (2011:12); Gunnigle et al. (2011:54, 64, 71); Nel et al.(2012:15).

19 Jackson et al. (2012:549–551); Kramar et al. (2011:258f.); Macky (2009:7);Schwind et al. (2013:132); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:43–45); Gunnigleet al. (2011:83, 211–232, 264); Nel et al. (2012:104, 169, 368); Grobler et al. (2011:15f.).

20 Jackson et al. (2012:80); Schwind et al. (2013:34); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:432); Macky (2009:231); Gunnigle et al. (2011:344); Nel et al.(2012:47); Grobler et al. (2011:515).

21 For someone conditioned in HRM’s linear thinking – good ‘perfor-mance→outcomes’ or ‘good recruitment & selection→good candidates’ or‘positive satisfaction→good performance’, dialectical (+/–) thinking is highlychallenging when the ‘safe’ world of HRM-linearity is left behind andreplaced by a thinking that contrasts positives with negatives.

22 Kohlberg (1973:636f.); Linstead et al. (2009:385–393); Jones et al. (2013).23 According to Reed (1997:81), these stages (except for Kohlberg’s illusive

7th stage) are summed up as: the naïve moral realism of stage 1, the rela-tivism of interests and claims of stage 2 (cf. Moser & Carson 2001; Levy2002), the interpersonal norms and perspectives of stage 3, the socialnorms and perspectives of stage 4, the universal principles of stage 5, andthe explicit formulation of a criterion of reversibility of stage 6. Kohlberghimself saw these stages as a universal model. They apply to every form ofmanagement, in every country, under every condition (Bauman 1993:8).

24 However, one can exclude this stage because of its irrelevance to themorality of management. It indicates an early infant stage arguing thatnewborns cannot develop moral understanding because of insufficientself-determination and self-reflection based on limited and restrictedinteractions with the outside world. In the words of Socrates ‘an unexam-ined life is not worth living’ (cf. Quinn 1953:214). Kohlberg et al.

236 Notes

(1983:17) define moral judgement as ‘(a) prescriptive: a categorical obliga-tion to act, and (b) universalisable: a point of view which any humanbeing could or should adapt in reaction to a moral dilemma’ (cf. Locke1980:104).

25 KZ stands for the German word Konzentrationslager (concentration camp).While KZ represents the worst punishment regime, punishing has a longtradition with its roots in religion (cf. Goldman 1979). According toSinger (1985), ‘those who obey the moral law will be rewarded by an eter-nality of bliss while everyone else roasts in hell’. According to Gomberg(1997:57), ‘they [Hobbes and Locke] train the young to obey and to inter-nalise norms of obedience in forming their identities’ (cf. Levi 1959; Gert2010).

26 Mead (1930 & 1934); Habermas (1997).27 Crusoe is no more than a romantic, conservative – if not racist – ideology

which in reality never existed. The author, Daniel Defoe himself hasdamaged the conservative Robinson Crusoe fantasy of a single, indepen-dent, and lone island man surviving on his own because even Mr Crusoe‘used’ someone to survive – a ‘native’ (sic!) appropriately called Friday, aworking day. Hence, even Mr Crusoe had company and experienced ‘theother’. Robinson Crusoe (1719) is no more than a romantic, conservative –if not racist – idea (cf. Solomon 2004:1028). On Hegel’s ‘The Other’, Krebs(2008:165) noted, ‘at first we judge others; we then begin to judge our-selves as we think others judge us; finally we judge ourselves as an impar-tial, disinterested third party might’ (cf. Reid & Yanarella 1977:522;Gomberg 1997:44f.; Krebs 2008). According to Fromm (1949:23), ‘man isnot a blank sheet of paper on which [HRM] can write its text’ (cf. Dalton1959:253; Sayer 2008:21).

28 Kohlberg’s stages are based on rationally created forms of organisationswhich establish patterns of thought (Dugatkin 1997:3). Krebs (2008:164)noted ‘moral judgments are viewed by most theorists as products of moralbeliefs. Dual-processing theories have shown that people may derivebeliefs in two ways: by processing information quickly, automatically, andmindlessly and by processing information in a more considered and con-trolled manner’.

29 Cf. Darwin (1871:474); Kropotkin (1902); Allee (1931 & 1938); Axelrod &Hamilton (1981); Lovejoy (1981); Singer (1985); Ridley (1996); Dugatkin(1997); Gomberg (1997:45); Sober (1998); Mysterud (2000:583); Gintis et al. (2003); Sachs et al. (2004); McCloskey (2006:439); Krebs (2008);Tomasello (2009).

30 Some have credited McGregor with launching the field of organisationalbehaviour (Kreitner 2009:43). Theory X assumes that most people must becoerced and threatened with punishment before they will work. Coercionis seen as a thing that must be used, when someone is forced by someagent, so that he is not able to do the contrary (Wertheimer 1987).Aquinas claims that ‘the notion of law contains two things: first, that it isa rule of human acts; secondly, that it has coercive power’. Coercionbecomes a legal tool that works as a hindrance to freedom; cf. Nozick’s(1969) ‘coercee’; Zimmerman (1981 & 2002); cf. McGregor (1988–1989).

Notes 237

Kreitner (2009:44); cf. Ellerman (2001); Bobic & Davis (2003); Arnold(2005:311); Arnold & Randal (2010:268–274); Aamodt (2010:443). Nearlyevery textbook on management and organisational behaviour mentionsMcGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y. In 2009 ‘Theory X and Theory Y’received 7.8 million hits on the Google internet search site.

31 Jackson et al. (2012:410f.); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:506); Schwind et al. (2013:333).

32 Gibbs (2003:46f.) called all subsequent stages after stage 4: ‘beyond peer’(cf. Kohlberg 1985:409; Dugatkin 1997:14ff.; Reed 1997:37ff.). This carriesconnotations to mutualism where cooperative acts benefit one person ormore (Dugatkin 1997:31ff.; Rawls 1980:528). Krebs (2008:154f.) outlinesfive types of cooperation: mutualism, concrete reciprocity, cooperationwith cooperators, indirect reciprocity, and long-term social investment(cf. deWaal 1996). ‘In fact we know from both Kapauku and Hawaii of thepractice of killing those, even kings, who refuse to share’ (Gomberg1997:50); ‘most humans are emotionally compelled to impose “altruisticpunishment” on others who act selfishly’ (Miller 2007:111); cf. ‘free-rider-problem’ (Bowles & Gintis 2002; Tomasello 2009:77, 82f.).

33 Connor (1995); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:669); Stone (2014:454).34 Axelrod (1984); Nowak & Highfield (2011); Klikauer (2012b).35 Jackson et al. (2012:72ff., 82, 153f., 365f.); Kramar et al. (2011:87ff.);

Macky (2009:192, 347, 388); Schwind et al. (2013:102); Beardwell &Claydon (2011:631f.); Gunnigle et al. (2011:271f.); Nel et al. (2012:52);Grobler et al. (2011:195).

36 Reed (1997:9); cf. Levitt (1958:47) emphasised in the Harvard BusinessReview ‘welfare and society are not the corporation’s business. Its businessis making money, not sweet music’. Making money means that ‘theirstarting salaries are four times the poverty threshold for four-person fam-ilies’ (Crittenden 1984). Top-managers take this without moral concerns’.

37 Kohlberg (1973:635) saw this stage – together with Rawls (cf. Nagel 1973;Gomberg 1997:59f.), Locke, Rousseau, and Kant – as ‘the highest level ofabstraction’ (cf. Clark & Gintis 1978; Punzo 1996:20; Gibbs 2003:46f.;Schaefer 2007) because well defined moral imperatives (Kant) have beenapplied universally. Kohlberg believed there are ten universal moral valuesthat ‘are common to all human societies’ (Wood 1972:246; Reimer et al.1983:84; Reed 1997:130ff; Gibbs 1977).

38 Schwind et al. (2013:174); Velasquez (2012:215).39 Sidgwick (1874 & 1889) regarded an egoist [stage 2] ‘as someone who

expresses no concern of the point of view of the universe’ (stage 6). Onemight also see economic gain (stage 2) and social acceptance (stage 3) asprime drivers for moral action. Most philosophers believe that egoism isnot acceptable, i.e. I should secure my own interest without regard for theeffect on others’ (Gomberg 1994:538); cf. Sikula (1996:6, 140); Rachels(2003:63–90); Graham (2004:17ff.); Lapsley (2006:52); McCloskey(2006:36).

40 In McMahon’s words (1981:247), ‘a firm is morally required to benefit thecommunity in which it operates – or society at large – in ways that gobeyond the provision of jobs, goods, and services as part of the firm’snormal (profit-seeking) operations’ (cf. Phillips et al. 2003:493). It also

238 Notes

means to go beyond Carr’s statement (1968:152), ‘all sensible business-men prefer to be truthful, but they seldom feel inclined to tell the“whole” truth’. This applies to businessmen previously known as ‘RobberBarons’ (Silk & Vogel 1976:11) a term successfully deleted from public dis-course by corporate mass media. Stage 5 means telling the whole truth,not a selected, modified, and manipulated version of it. But Carr(1968:153) concludes, ‘if a man has become prosperous in business, hehas sometimes departed from the strict truth’. As Hampden-Turner(1970:217) noted in his chapter on ‘Corporate Radicalism’, ‘people oftenstumble over the truth but they pick themselves up and hurry along as ifnothing had happened’ (cf. Beardwell & Claydon 2011:532–535).

41 Jackson et al. (2012:6f.); Kramar et al. (2011: 547f.); Beardwell & Claydon(2011: 596f.)

42 Guest (1990); Keenoy (1990); Peltonen & Vaara (2012); Jansses & Steyaert(2012).

43 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability; Klikauer (2008); Shearman(1990); DesJardins (2013:74ff.).

44 Kaplan & Norton (1992, 1993, 2004); Biazzo & Garengo (2011); Modell(2012); Schwind et al. (2013:319); Jackson et al. (2012:336); Kramar et al.(2011:38–39, 525–526, 642); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:70ff.); Macky(2009:421); Nel et al. (2012:108 & 417); Stone’s ‘Managing HumanResources’ (2013:20f.) even manages to reduce ethics to two pages. Onepage contains two figures and 1/2 of the other page is dedicated to whistle-blowing. Just one paragraph is on ethics containing no less than five ques-tion marks and three sentences on ethics.

45 None of the seven textbooks used to evaluate HRM’s overall moralitymentions the term ‘moral philosophy’ (Jackson et al. 2012; Kramar et al.2011; Beardwell & Claydon 2011; Macky 2009; Gunnigle et al. 2011; Nelet al.: 2012; Grobler et al. 2011).

46 Of these, standard HRM textbooks relay mostly the often rehearsed triageof (1) virtue ethics (Aristotle), (2) Kantian ethics, and (3) utilitarianismwith the occasional excursion into Rawlsian justice ethics and a fewothers.

47 Dickens (1853); Hart (1993); Armstrong (2000 & 2012); Gunderson(2001); Donkin (2010); Thornthwaite (2012); Fass (2013).

48 Hart (1993) noted ‘treating people as a resource is fundamentally exploita-tive and dehumanising’.

49 Hegel’s Phenomenology (1807); Kojève (1947); Bolton & Houlian (2008).50 Boggs (2012); Rothkopf (2012); Klikauer (2013).51 Schwind et al. (2013:15); Kramar et al. (2011:558); Beardwell & Claydon

(2011:57); Macky (2009:158).52 ASS (1998); Bunting (2004); Farmer (2003); Bauman (2005); Shipler

(2005); Ross (2009); Sheth (2010); Thompson (2010); Alexander (2011);Ehrenreich (2011); Kalleberg (2011); Fields (2012); Pittenger (2012).

53 Dickens (1853); Thompson (1963); Hobsbawm (1964); Klikauer (2013).54 Jackson et al. (2012:34–65); Kramar et al. (2011:26–45); Macky

(2009:26–28); Schwind et al. (2013:24); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:32);Gunnigle et al. (2011:46); Nel et al. (2012:472–476); Grobler et al.(2011:657).

Notes 239

55 Jackson et al. (2012:489–499); Kramar et al. (2011:108ff.); Macky(2009:380f.); Nel et al. (2012:81); Grobler et al. (2011:468–471).

56 Jackson et al. (2012:520); Kramar et al. (2011:152); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:431); Macky (2009:121); Gunnigle et al. (2011:267–270, 327f.); Nelet al. (2012:56); Grobler et al. (2011:497–500 & 508–521); cf. Reed’s ‘col-lectivism vs. individualism’ (1997:191ff.).

57 Castro (2002); Ampuja (2012); Phillipson (2013); Klikauer (2013).58 Pereboom (2004); O’Connor (2010); Goh (2012); Lemos (2013).59 Kramar et al. (2011:197,414); Schwind et al. (2013:243); Jackson et al.

(2012:299 & 333–335); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:467,505); Macky(2009:319); Gunnigle et al. (2011:4f.); Nel et al. (2012:287); Grobler et al.(2011:308–312); Herzberg (1966 & 2011); Leslie et al. (2012); Nel et al.(2012:11).

60 Kramar et al. (2011: 414); Macky (2009:340f.); Grobler et al. (2011:361);on organisational misbehaviour: Ackroyd & Thompson (1999); Barnes &Taksa (2012); Karlsson (2012); Kirchhoff & Karlsson (2013); Stone(2014:370f.).

61 The Servants of Power (Baritz 1960); Skinner’s reference is quoted fromKohn (1999:19); cf. Kohn (1999:24–6); Lemov (2006); Klikauer(2007:76–96). One of the early ‘Servants of Power’ knew this already:Harvard Business School’s Fritz Roethlinsberger noted in his book‘Management and Morale’ (1943:180), ‘modern psychopathology has con-tributed a great deal to the subject of control’ (cf. Karlins & Andrews 1972)and Karlins & Andrews (1972:6) noted ‘…most forms of scientific behav-iour control are intrinsically evil because they deprive man of his“freedom”’.

62 Ewen et al. (1966); Macky (2009:343f.); Kramar et al. (2011:197);Beardwell & Claydon (2011:505); Nel et al. (2012:293ff.).

63 Jackson et al. (2012:127f., 299); Kramar et al. (2011:352–357); Schwind etal. (2013:302); Macky (2009:325); Gunnigle et al. (2011:200); Nel et al.(2012:380f.); Grobler et al. (2011:361).

64 Macky (2009:262, 265, 271); Parmenter (2010); Jackson et al. (2012:21);Schwind et al. (2013:35).

65 Schwind et al. (2013:307ff.); Jackson et al. (2012:257–259, 341f.); Kramaret al. (2011:167ff., 220–227, 341f.); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:464f.);Macky (2009:261f.); Gunnigle et al. (2011:192); Nel et al. (2012:405f.);Grobler et al. (2011:292).

66 Taylor (1911); Fayol (1916); Marglin (1974); Magretta (2012); Klikauer(2007:143–159; 2010; 2012:22f.); McGregor (1960 & 2006); Sydow et al.(2009).

67 Marcuse (1966); Legge (1998:15 & 22).68 Schrijvers (2004); Gabriel (2012); Croker (2012).69 Wright (1994:228–232); Strauss (2001).70 Perlmutter (1997); Harding (2003); Graham et al. (2008); Stambaugh

(2010); Jobrack (2011).71 Jackall (1988 & 2006); Schwartz (1990); Harding (2003); Schrijvers (2004);

Watson (2010); Legge (2005); Thompson (2007); Collings & Wood (2009);Keenoy (2009); Samuel (2010); Rowley & Jackson (2011); Boxall & Purcell(2011); Mello (2011); Klikauer (2011a); Fones-Wolf (2013).

240 Notes

72 Jackson et al. (2012:86–88); Kramar et al. (2011:56); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:21–23); Gunnigle et al. (2011:49); Nel et al. (2012:51).

73 Dessler (2011); Swailes (2013).74 See also the 5th edition (Kramar, R., Bartram, T. & DeCieri, H. (eds) 2014.

Human Resource Management in Australia – Strategy, People, Performance (5th ed.), Sydney: McGrath-Hill) that includes changes in page numbersand cases but remains [overall] the same but an updated book.

75 In the incident of South Africa, a second textbook was also used: Nel, P. S.,Werner, A., Poisat, P., Sono, T., du Plessis, A. & Ngalo O. 2012. HumanResources Management (in South Africa, 8th ed.), Cape Town: OxfordUniversity Press of South Africa.

76 Storey (2007); Anthony et al. (2006); De Cieri & Kramer (2005);Torrington et al. (2005); Linstead et al. (2010); Kramar et al. (2011);Hatcher (2002); Johnson (2007); Pinnington (2007).

77 Winstanley & Woodall (2000); Jack et al. (2012); Islam (2012).78 Klikauer (2010 & 2012); Griseri (2013).79 Trezise (1996:87); Wells & Schminke (2001:136); Weaver & Trevino

(2001:124); O’Leary-Kelly & Bowes-Sperry (2001:77); Quatro et al.(2007:433); Verbeek (2011:1945); Moyer (2012:213); Klikauer (2012).

80 However ‘Human Resource Management can never be ethical’ and ‘ethicalHuman Resource Management is an oxymoron’ (Wilcox 2012:88).

81 Kjonstad & Willmott (1995:452f.); Kakkori & Huttunen (2010:18–20);Wong (2013).

82 Kohlberg (1987:22); Brunsson (1985); Werhane (2013).83 This is not to be understood in Plato’s sense who advocated that the

highest pleasure, in fact, comes from intellectual speculation. A somewhatopposite view is presented by Sade’s pursuit of pleasure even when thiswas evil and criminal (1787).

84 Taylor (1911); cf. Klikauer (2007:153); Klikauer (2013); Polák (2013).85 Reducing humans to numbers on a balance sheet (balanced scorecard)

dehumanises humans. This is not dissimilar to the use of people and theirdehumanisation by tattooing a number on their forearm in order to beused in a Nazi SS-Industry programme called Menschenmaterial (humanmaterial/resource). Stage 1 might not represent the physicality of such apunishment regime and employees are surely allowed to leave – at certaintimes – but HRM still relies on rudiments of punishing systems – fear –and the creation of distance between itself and employees (Chamberlain1973:4; Kaplan & Norton 1992 & 1993; Weiss & Finn 2005; McCloskey2006:2; Thompson 2007; Bolton & Houlihan 2008; Klikauer 2008:53, 163,211; Sayer 2008:22; Muhr et al. 2010; Kothari 2010).

86 Jackson et al. (2012:419–421); Kramar et al. (2011:510; 2014:532).87 Cf. Schwartz (1990); in short, selfish managers routinely violate moral

requirements when it is to their advantage to do so (McMahon 1981:251).One example is the banker’s paradox – the tendency for banks to be leastlikely to lend people money who need it most (Krebs 2008:155).

88 Cf. Singer (1985); even Darwin (1871) suggested that animals feel good orsatisfied when they behave in ways that are consistent with their socialinstincts and that they feel bad when they do not (Krebs 2008:158; Nowak& Highfield 2011). McMahon (1981:252) emphasised that while

Notes 241

self-interest is to a certain extent at odds with morality, it appears to con-tradict the foundations of business [and] Adam Smith claims that indi-viduals who follow only their own gain are led by an invisible hand topromote the good of society. In other words, capitalist societies had tocome up with an ideology to close the non-closable gap between indi-vidual selfishness as the sole motor of economic action (Adam Smith 1759)on the one hand and the pretence that this favours the common good.The mysterious conversion of selfishness into a moral good is hiddenbehind the myth of an invisible hand (Smith 1776; Henriques 2007:21).Its invention provided an ideal ideological cover for the unsustainablecontradiction between individual wealth and public welfare under capital-ism (Smith 1776; Evensky 2005). On this, the godfather of liberal capital-ism published two books separating morality from business (Sen 2001;Young 2003).

89 Jackson et al. (2012:56); Kramar et al. (2011:309); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:107).

90 Brenner & Molander (1977); Weber (1991:298); Punch (1996); Minkes &Minkes (2008); Croal (2009); Klikauer (2010); www.transparency.org.

91 Kohlberg (1973:642) also emphasised that since Kant formalists haveargued that rational moral judgements must be reversible, consistent, anduniversalisable. The keystone of [this] logic is reversibility (1973:641; cf. 2003:16f.).

92 As the famous definition of power, according to Dahl (1957), has it.93 This assumes that, despite all propaganda by Managerialism, it is not

‘normal’ for human beings to sit eight hours a day, five days per week,and for thirty years in front of a computer on a desk or to screw the leftfront-wheel to a car (cf. Simon 1947; Dalton 1959; Whyte 1961; cf. Jones2010). Rather than being reflective of, it alienates human life (Hegel).

94 This is what in less sociological terms has been called ‘the institutionalcontext or system of constraints’ (Wilcox 2012:86); Islam (2012:37).

95 Jackson et al. (2012:207); Kramar et al. (2011:531); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:9, 11); Macky (2009:162 & 241).

96 Trivers (1985:388) suggested that a sense of fairness has evolved in thehuman species as the standard against which to measure the behaviour ofother people, so as to guard against cheating in reciprocal relationships(cf. fairness as inequity-aversion, Fehr & Schmidt 1999:819; cf. Rawls1980:532; Jennings & Kohlberg 1983:48; Heathwood et al. 2010).

97 Stage 6 (Locke 1980) contains democracy and democratic processes thatcannot be reduced to recognising obligations to society, as Sridhar &Camburn (1993:732) have claimed. One cannot delete parts of Kohlbergto make it fit to the Moral Development of Corporations (Sridhar &Camburn’s title). Deleting democracy to make Kohlberg fit into the anti-democratic orbit of corporations exposes one to the charge of being aServant of Power (Baritz 1960).

98 Klikauer (2008); Romani & Szkudlarek (2014).99 Moral philosophy distinguishes between inherent or intrinsic value and

extrinsic value. The former denotes that an intrinsic value is said to be thevalue that a thing has in-itself (Kant), or for its own sake, as such, or in itsown right. An almost complete listing of intrinsic values was outlined by

242 Notes

American moral philosopher William Frankena (1908–1994). It includes:life, consciousness, and activity; health and strength; pleasures and satis-factions of all or certain kinds; happiness, beatitude, contentment, etc.;truth; knowledge and true opinions of various kinds, understanding,wisdom; beauty, harmony, proportion in objects contemplated; aestheticexperience; morally good dispositions or virtues; mutual affection, love,friendship, cooperation; just distribution of goods and evils; harmony andproportion in one’s own life; power and experiences of achievement; self-expression; freedom; peace, security; adventure and novelty; and goodreputation, honour, esteem (Frankena 1973). Extrinsic values, on theother hand, are good not for their own sake but for the sake of somethingelse to which they are related in some way. In short, HRM is all aboutextrinsic values and not about intrinsic ones as enshrined in the externalvalue of shareholder-value i.e. profit-maximisation, performance manage-ment, competitive advantages, etc. What HRM does is – in theory – goodfor someone else (shareholder-value i.e. profit-maximisation) and not forthe self (e.g. management; cf. Djelic & Vranceanu 2009).

100 Klikauer (2007); Schecter (2010).101 Marcuse (1964); Klikauer (2007:47, 135, 143–159).102 On the irrationality of rationality, German philosopher Herbert Marcuse

(1898–1979) wrote (1968:207), in the unfolding of capitalist rationality,irrationality becomes reason: reason as frantic development of productiv-ity, conquest of nature, enlargement of the mass of good (and their access-ibility of broad strata of the population); it is irrational because higherproductivity, domination of nature, and social wealth become destructiveforces (cf. Feyerabend 1981; Bowman 1982; Brunsson 1985; Langley 1989;Nozick 1993; Habermas 1997; Heath 2003; Gilbert 2005; Cooke 2006).

103 Baritz (1960); Brief (2000); Sison (2008).104 McCloskey (2006:1–2 & Banerjee 2008:1541). Missing from McCloskey’s

list is Hugo Boss, the former maker of SS-uniforms and the brand clothesparaded today on any High Street in any city (wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_chic & Hugo Boss Acknowledges Link to Nazi Regime, in: New YorkTimes, 15th August 1997, p. B01).

105 Carr (1968:144); Lucas (2003:25). On this, Macintyre (1983:352) noted,anyone’s gain is somebody’s loss and usually somebody else’s loss;anyone’s benefit is somebody’s cost and usually somebody else’s cost. Allthis is made to appear rational from within business and HRM, but ‘whatis irrational if measured from without the system is rational within thesystem’ (MacIntyre 1970:61).

106 Smith (1776); cf. Fromm (1949:141).107 Inkson (2008:277) noted that HRM encourages a ‘depersonalised and

dehumanised view of employment relationship’.108 Habermas (1997); Klikauer (2008); Dahlberg (2014).109 Jackson et al. (2012:61); Kramar et al. (2011:115); Beardwell & Claydon

(2011:43); Gunnigle et al. (2011:42); Nel et al. (2012:210); Grobler et al.(2011:143).

110 In the philosophy of ethics, there are two basic versions of moral orienta-tions: one version does not examine moral motives when an HR action istaken. Instead it only examines outcomes and consequences of HRM’s

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actions. If the outcome of HRM’s action – disregarding its motives, inten-tions, and purpose – produces an ethically good result, then such anaction is deemed morally good. This is the philosophical idea of conse-quentialism. The opposite of consequentialism is, for example, Kantianmorality. Kant focuses our attention on moral motives. For Kant an actcan only be considered morally good if the intentions are good. InKantian ethics, HRM cannot claim to have acted morally when its inten-tions are not directed towards something morally good. In short, onefavours outcomes while the other favours intentions and motives (cf. Brennan & Lo 2010).

111 Taylor (1911); Klikauer (2007:143–159); Fayol (1916); Kreitner (2009:13f.);cf. stage model in: Kohlberg (1985:491ff.).

112 Kohlberg (1985:421) noted, because the ‘authoritarian’ is insecure aboutthe effectiveness of his own internal moral control, he exaggerates thevalue and power of external authority and projects his own uncontrolledor ‘immoral’ impulses upon ‘evil’ members of various out-groups. Thisincludes a strong belief in social and religious authorities, adherence toconventional rules, punitive attitudes towards criminals, and deviants,belief in the prevalence of evil in the world, and the denial of unconven-tional inner feelings. It is quite likely that the chief opponent of author-itarianism is an internalised superego which is integrated with the ego.

113 Kohlberg (1985:491) uses the term heteronomous to describe a subordina-tion or subjection to law; political subjection of a community or state asopposed to autonomy (Metaph.); and as a term applied by Kant to thoselaws which are imposed on us from without, or the violence done to us byour passions, wants, or desires.

114 Simultaneously, HRM’s ‘justification for discipline’ (Selekman 1959:68)also changes.

115 Kohlberg (1985:392f. & 492; Nunner-Winkler 1984). Erdynast (1990:251)defines justice based on Rawls. Rawls (1980) defines the sense of justice as‘the capacity to understand, to apply and normally to be moved by aneffective desire to act from (and not merely in accordance with) the prin-ciples of justice as the fair terms of social cooperation’ (cf. Wood 1972;Nagel 1973).

116 Kohlberg (1985:417) noted, ‘not ratting’ on a friend tended to be justifiedin the same external terms (retaliation, being ridiculed, and so on) as con-formity to more conventional norms (cf. Bowles & Gintis’ ‘homo recipro-cans’ undertaking peer punishment, 2002); Jennings & Kohlberg(1983:35).

117 Ten (2013); Macky (2009:387).118 Rawls (1972). According to Locke (1980:104), utilitarians…adopt the good

of the whole as the ultimate moral arbiter, taking precedence over justiceand respect for persons (cf. Macintyre 1983:355f.).

119 For consequentialism hypothetical ‘if-then’ constructions are the basics ofethics. For instance, ‘if’ an outcome of a managerial act is moral, ‘then’such an act is moral.

120 A good example is Kant’s categorical imperative: act in such a way thatyou treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person ofanother, always at the same time as an end and never simply as a means.

244 Notes

Immorality is the treatment of others as a means. Morality is the treat-ment of others as an end in-itself. This is what Kant meant by hisKingdom of Ends (Fromm 1949:27; cf. Korsgaard 1996) as the final anduniversal destination of every human being. Kantian ethics differs funda-mentally from consequentialism. In Kantian ethics it is the intentions andmotives that make HRM moral, not an accidental outcome. In Kantianethics, HRM acts morally when it had the moral intention (cf. Callinicos’chapter on ‘Justice & Universality’ in his book ‘Resources of Critique’(2006:217–242).

121 One might outline four forms of justice: distributive, commutative, cor-rective, and procedural. On Contract Theory or contractualism, Gomberg(1997:49) noted the difference between Hobbesian Contractualism andRawls’ Contractualism; cf. Rawls on Kantian Constructivism (1980).

122 According to Singer (1985), social life, even for animals, requires con-straints on behaviour. This is achieved through an inter-group moralitydeveloped by a group for a group. For evolutionary biologists it becameclear that cheaters do worse than cooperators and that lions, for example,have two choices: hunt cooperatively or do not hunt at all (cf. Kohlberg1964:386; Kohlberg et al. 1983:42; Simon 1990; Dugatkin 1997:31f.;Tomasello 2009).

123 Gibbs (2003:37f.) describes this as tit-for-tat morality, vengeance in all itsbrutality; pragmatic or instrumental, crude, short-term, and sometimesbrutal morality; destructive revenge and blood revenge (p.45); cf. Chagnon (1988); Mysterud (2000:585); Sachs et al. (2004:139).

124 Hobbes (1651); Nietzsche (1886); Deleuze (1983); Clark (2010); Metzger(2011).

125 Cf. Beardwell & Claydon (2011:621); Nel et al. (2012:556); Grobler et al.(2011:580).

126 According to Singer (1985), like humans, social animals may behave in waysthat benefit other members of the group at some cost or risk to themselves.In other words, morality starts with cooperation and inner-group relations,not competition (cf. Dugatkin 1997:viii; Kropotkin 1902). When HRMestablishes a moral code that benefits others – non-managerial staff – evenat a risk to HRM itself, it establishes morality. If it does the reverse –benefiting HRM while offloading risks onto others – it fails morally. Gibbs(2003:49) calls stage 1+2 the immature stages.

127 Under virtue ethics (Greek arête and Roman virtus), morality is notregarded as a matter of conformity to a law but an ethical inner desire tobe morally good. Such individuals carry a bag of virtues (Sichel 1976:61)including: personal honour, being loved, temperance, piety, courage,justice, wisdom, and self-aggrandisement (Socrates), honesty, rectitude,charity, faithfulness, non-violence, modesty, courage, temperance, liberal-ity, magnificence, high-mindedness, gentleness, truthfulness, wittiness,shared friendship, and justice (Aristotle, cf. Kohlberg et al. 1983:18;Derrida 1997); simplicity and sincerity (Lao-Tzu); prudence, justice,restraint or temperance, courage or fortitude (Aquinas 1265–1274); love,charity, harmony, and generosity (Descartes), benevolence, generosity,sympathy, and gratitude (Shaftesbury) and purity of heart, patriotism,fidelity, obedience, courage, and sympathy. Darwin (1871) thought that

Notes 245

sympathy is integral to evolution (in: Krebs 2008:156–158; Tomasello2009:53), humanity, justice, generosity, and public spirit (Adam Smith,according to Sen 2001:200), nobleness, dignity, decency, and courtesy(Hume), while falsehood, egoism, cruelty, adultery, theft, rank, luxury,and glamour (Lao-Tzu), hedonism & individual greed (Brenner &Molander 1977:63), nepotism, favouritism, and arbitrariness (Henry2001:267), narrow-mindedness, greed, avarice, selfishness, myopia, andegoism (Sikula 1996:18; cf. Rand 1965; Solomon 2004:1025), hypocrisyand inconsistencies (Brunsson 2002; cf. Heller 1989:39), conformity,vengefulness, a desire for status ranks with the desire for wealth andpower, aggressiveness, domineering, narcissism, and lack in empathy areconsidered vices (Miller 2002:106) to be avoided; morality prohibitsactions such as killing, causing pain, deceiving, and breaking promises butrequires charitable actions, promoting people living together in peace andharmony, not causing harm to others, and helping them; generosity,kindness, honesty, courage, social sensitivity, political idealism, intellec-tual integrity, empathy to children, respectfulness to parents, and loyaltyto friends (Miller 2002:104) and emotional responsiveness to the needs ofothers, lovingness, affection, fondness, commitment, forgivingness, trust,and perspective-taking, niceness, agreeableness, non-violence, honesty,and heroism (Miller 2002:109); truthfulness, justice, honesty, benevo-lence, purity, and gratitude (Price & Reid); honesty, responsibility, loyalty,courage, and friendliness (Kohlberg 1964:390); cooperation, altruism, gen-erosity, sympathy, kindness, and selflessness (Ridley 1996:38), fidelity,reparation, gratitude, and self-improvement (Ross); loyalty, fairness,integrity, and courtesy, knowledge, aesthetic experience, friendship, prac-tical reasonableness, and religion (Finnis) in line with EuropeanChristendom of faith, hope, charity, love, kindness, equality, humility,and conscience (quoted from Miller 2002:104); injury of living things is tobe avoided; while wrongdoing harms the soul (Socrates, in: Arrington1998:7; cf. Lovejoy 1981:345; Erdynast 1990:252; Gomberg 1997:45).

128 Today, evolutionary science, anthropology, and evolutionary ethics haveproven that the survival of the fittest is pure nonsense (cf. Krebs’‘Morality: An Evolutionary Account’, 2008); Tomasello 2009).Nevertheless, it is an important ideology for economists and business(Murphy 1993:149ff.). Hence The Servants of Power (Baritz 1960) and cor-porate mass media keep the myth alive. Quinn (1953:99) who often sat inAlfred Sloan’s GM office where he educated them, wrote survival of thefittest was Mr Sloan’s law.

129 According to Solomon (2004:1021), Aristotle is famous largely as anenemy of business. He declared trading for profit as wholly devoid ofvirtue. Aristotle despised the financial community…he called those whoengaged in commerce ‘parasites’.

130 The opposite of moral rules and their adherence occurs when HRM adoptswhat Brunsson (2002) called the Organisation of Hypocrisy becausehypocrisy is the assumption or postulation of moral standards to whichone’s behaviour does not conform (2002:xiii). When hypocrisy reigns,there is still a causal relation between talk, decisions, and actions, but thecausality is the reverse. Talk or decisions pointing in one direction reduce

246 Notes

the likelihood of the corresponding action actually occurring, whileactions in the particular direction reduce the likelihood of any cor-responding talk or decisions taking place. Talk and decisions pointing inone direction do not encourage actions in the same direction; rather, theycompensate for actions in the opposite direction, just as action in onedirection compensates for talk and decisions in a different one (Brunsson2002:xiv). Hypocrisy makes it possible for people to talk and make deci-sions about high values, even if they do not act in accordance with suchvalues themselves (Brunsson 2002:xvii).

131 Virtue ethics continued during feudalism with Catholic ethics such asSaint Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), Blaise Pascal’s ‘Wager’ (1623–1662),Baruch Benedict de Spinoza (1632–1677), and Claude Adrien Helvétius(1715–1771). This tradition was followed by Shaftesbury, Leibniz, Butler,and even Marquis de Sade’s ‘Misfortunes of Virtue’ (1787) and can be seenas an expression of virtue ethics. While Kant also wrote on humandignity, his ethics is generally not associated with virtue ethics.

132 Hegel (1803/4, 1807, 1821, 1830); cf. Marx (1843); Sterrett (1892); Watson(1894); Marcuse (1940 & 1941); Kojève (1947); Taylor (1975); Gross(1976); Gadamer (1976); Rockmore (1981 & 1992); Ritter (1982); Singer(1983); Cook (1984); Min (1986); Smith (1987); Honneth & Gaines (1988);Wood (1990); Luhmann (1991); Adorno (1993); Z

∨iz

∨ek (1993); Kedourie

(1995); Althusser (1997); Gomberg (1997:46); Pinkard (2000); Baynes(2002); Belmonte (2002); Deranty (2005); Fox (2005); Grumley (2005);James (2007); Schaefer (2007); Speight (2008); Klikauer (2010:88–125).

133 This also happens when the social role of a conception of justice is toenable all members of society to make mutually acceptable to one anothertheir shared institutions and basic arrangements, by citing what is pub-licly recognised as sufficient reason, as identified by that conception(Rawls 1980:517). Rawls’ concept of justice is part of a shared arrangementthat is publicly recognised. Both go beyond the acceptance of justice as agiven that defines stage 4. Rawls’ (1980:536) well-ordered society is aclosed system; there are no significant relations to other societies (cf. Jackson et al. 2012:77f.; Kramar et al. 2011:553; and Beardwell &Claydon’s 2011:204–205), ‘justice and business sense’.

134 Some of David Hume’s writings (1711–1776), Jeremy Bentham(1748–1832), John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900),G. E. Moore (1873–1958), Richard Mervyn Hare (1919–2002), and morerecently Peter Singer.

135 Locke (1980:105) noted, stage 6’s moral reasoning is universal only in thesense that it involves treating all men alike, according everyone the samerespect and value, regardless of status or situation.

136 Cf. Kant’s ‘we have no duties to animals’ (1785), in: Shafer-Landau(2007:395–396). In The Moral Status of Animals, Gruen (2003), noted:‘Though Kant believed that animals were mere things, it appears he didnot genuinely believe we could dispose of them any way we wanted. Inthe Lectures on Ethics he makes it clear that we have indirect duties toanimals, duties that are not toward them, but in regard to them insofar asour treatment of them can affect our duties to persons. If a man shoots hisdog because the animal is no longer capable of service, he does not fail in

Notes 247

his duty to the dog, for the dog cannot judge, but his act is inhuman anddamages in himself that humanity which it is his duty to show towardsmankind. If he is not to stifle his human feelings, he must practice kind-ness towards animals, for he who is cruel to animals becomes hard also inhis dealings with men’ (Kant 1780).

137 Praxis is the process by which a theory, lesson, or skill is enacted, prac-ticed, embodied, or realised. ‘Praxis’ may also refer to the act of engaging,applying, exercising, realising, or practicing ideas. This has been a recur-rent topic in the field of philosophy, discussed in the writings of Plato,Aristotle, St. Augustine, Immanuel Kant, Søren Kierkegaard, Karl Marx,Martin Heidegger, Hannah Arendt, Paulo Freire, and many others. It hasmeaning in the political, educational, and spiritual realms (Bernstein1983).

138 See also: Hobbes’ ‘Leviathan’ (1651) and his ‘egoistic violent person-owner’ (Kakkori & Huttunen 2010:5); Conrad’s ‘Heart of Darkness’ (1899);Kafka’s ‘In the Penal Colony’ (1919) and ‘The Trial’ (1925); Huxley’s‘Brave New World’ (1932); Koestler’s ‘Darkness at Noon’ (1940); Orwell’s‘Animal Farm’ (1945) & ‘Nineteen Eighty-four’ (1948).

139 Nadelhoffer (2013); Elias (2013).140 Wiltermuth & Flynn (2013); Werhane (2013); DeCenzo et al.

(2013:105–112); Heavey et al. (2013:146); Nankervis et al. (2014:384–390).141 Being treated by HRM as a mere human resource and as an underling can

lead to psychological illnesses such as ‘“depression”…typified by sadness,gloominess, despondency and a sense of helplessness associated with inac-tivity, lack of initiative and decreased interest in work’ (Stone 2013:547).These are the outcomes of HRM’s job designs and performance manage-ment as well as its fostering of hierarchies. Often employees remain inac-tive until being told by a supervisor or manager. HRM systematicallysmothers workers’ initiatives while its regimes foster a ‘decreased interestin work’ as the classical Taylorist and hierarchical approach divides man-agement from non-managerial staff (Marchington & Wilkinson 2012;Wilkinson et al. 2013).

142 McGregor (1960 & 2006); Stone (2014:441). One of the worst examples ofpunishment under capitalist-managerial regimes has been the use of slavelabour by companies such as IG Farben and others during the GermanNazi-regime. After a long and profitable existence ‘even in post-NaziGermany’ (www.ariva.de/quote/profile.m?secu=1044), IG Farben eventu-ally deregistered from the German stock exchange [Der letzte Vorhangfällt für die IG Farben – Nun scheint sich auch das letzte Kapitel des ehe-maligen Chemieriesen IG Farben zu schließen. Die Insolvenzverwalterinmöchte das Unternehmen mit dunkler Vergangenheit von der Börsenehmen, German Newspaper ‘Handelsblatt’ 17th August 2011]. IG Farbenbecame a symbol of corporate inhumanity as described by Wiesen(2011:67); ‘behind the scene the IG management debated different ideasabout how much punishment would be effective and profitable and howto replenish the supply of prisoners who had lied while at work or hadbeen killed in the gas chambers’.

143 The link between poverty, punishment, and prison is not an issue of pastcenturies (Reiman & Leighton 2013).

248 Notes

144 Dickens (1853); Engels (1892); Thompson (1963 & 1967); Hobsbawm(1968); Simon (1993); Keenoy (1999); Dubofsky & Culles (2010); Aubenas(2011); Vallas (2011).

145 As quoted by Neimark & Tinker (1987:671) ‘a system of social discipline,control and appropriation [is the] fundamental organising principle ofmanagement science’.

146 ‘From Nietzsche came a belief in will, strength, and power’ (Glover2012:317 & 343) later idealised in Triumph of the Will:wikipedia.org/wiki/Triumph_of_the_Will (Sontag 1975). HRM’s immoralbehaviour carries connotations of ‘displacement of responsibility’.According to Bandura et al. (1996:365) ‘under displacement of responsibil-ity’, HRM views its action as springing from organisational pressures ordictates of management rather than as something for which an HR-manager is personally responsible. Hence, HRM is willing to behave in away it normally repudiates in the event that a legitimate authority such asmanagement accepts responsibility for the effects of HRM’s actions.

147 Butler (1997). This is a highly Nietzschean notion because ‘men of prey[are] still in possession of an unbroken strength of will and lust for power’(quote in: Glover 2012:12; cf. Altemeyer 1981).

148 As Glover (2012:2) noted ‘no animal could ever be so cruel as a man, soartfully, so artistically cruel’. The ‘strike-back’ impulse has been explainedby Waller (2013:68f).

149 It is interesting to observe that virtually all HRM textbooks discuss, forexample, ‘discrimination’ but ‘never’ as a self-reflective issue on how HRMitself engages in discriminatory behaviour given its power over employees(Hunter 2006). Perhaps the fact of a substantial body of anti-discrimina-tion legislation signifies the hidden problem of HRM (Nankervis et al.2014:74). Cf. Sievers & Mersky (2006); Caponecchia & Wyatt (2011);Cushen & Thompson (2012); Velasquez (2012:345); Gilbert(2012:159–188); Stone (2013:134, 151, 592); Bastian et al. (2013).

150 Nietzsche ‘rejected sympathy for the weak in favour of willingness totrample on them’ (Glover 2012:11). On Machiavelli see: James (2013).

151 Thomas Hobbes’ philosophy, for example, denotes ‘continual fear, anddanger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish,and short. His solution was that everyone should submit to an absoluteruler, who would have the power to set penalties sufficiently severe toenforce social rules’ (Glover 2012:20).

152 Nietzsche saw this as a ‘constant struggle for survival, in which the strongwould win and the weak would go under’ (Glover 2012:15).

153 Clegg et al. (2006:143); Glover (2012:337). As Marcuse (1966a:134) noted‘as a matter of fact we know it to be the fact – that people who were themaster torturers in the Hitler concentration camps were often quite happydoing their job’ (cf. Lifton 1986; Staub 1989; Kelman & Hamilton 1989;Darley 1992:204; Goldhagen 1996; Baumeister 1997; Waller 2007).

154 Zimbardo (2008) emphasises that ‘humans cannot be defined as “good” or“evil” because we have the ability to act as both especially at the hand ofthe situation. According to Zimbardo, good people can be induced,seduced, and initiated into behaving in evil ways. They can also be led toact in irrational, stupid, self-destructive, antisocial, and mindless ways

Notes 249

when they are immersed in “total situations” that impact human naturein ways that challenge our sense of the stability and consistency of indi-vidual personality, of character, and of morality’ (wikipedia.org).

155 Chomsky (1959); Trusty (1971); Latour & Woolgar (1979); Lemov (2006);Crosthwaite (2013:95).

156 Skinner (1983); quoted from Kohn (1999:19); Kelman (1965); Scott(1997:12); Lemov (2006); Roethlinsberger (1943:6). Karlins & Andrews(1972:5); Bauman’s (2006:3). The key idea is that obedience to HRM’shierarchies ‘is in people’s heads (or their hearts and minds) and that theytherefore behave in ways that conform to hierarchical notions – evenwhen they deviate from social expectations of dominance and obedience’(Diefenbach 2013:6).

157 Kramar et al. (2011:467f.); Kramar et al. (2014:337ff); Macky (2009: 340f.);Calhoon (1969:211).

158 Cf. Chomsky (1959, 1971); Beder (2000:93ff.); Baum (2005); Marin & Pear(2007). On this, Skinner (1983) noted, what a fascinating thing! Totalcontrol of a living organism (quoted from Kohn 1999:19). The underlyingassumption [of behaviourism], according to one critic, seems to be that‘the semi-starved rat in the box, with virtually nothing to do but press ona lever for food, captures the essence of virtually all human behaviour(Kohn 1999:24 & 26).

159 Herzberg et al. (1959); Herzberg (1966 & 2011); Ewen et al. (1966); Kramaret al. (2011:187); Kramar et al. (2014:491); Schwind et al. (2013:552);Beardwell & Claydon (2011:505); Nel et al. (2012:293ff.).

160 For this sort of punishment, HRM has invented a range of ways of firingemployees (Nel et al. 2012:224); Gilbert (2012:134ff.). These range from‘constructive dismissal’ (Stone 2013:143; Beardwell & Claydon 2011:398,413, 414, 421, 422) when HRM deems them unfit to perform; ‘unfair’ dis-missal (Kramar et al. 2011:101 & 152; Beardwell & Claydon 2011:414); to‘fair’ dismissal (Beardwell & Claydon 2011:411) when HRM considersfiring a worker as fair; ‘wrongful’ dismissal (Beardwell & Claydon2011:411); and summary dismissals (Macky 2008:293; Stone 2013:143).On ‘organisational privilege’, see: Gantman (2005).

161 As Selekman (1959:76) noted ‘a boss governs from any length of time bytreats of punishment’.

162 Cf. Hart (1968). But HRM denies such radical freedom for employees byasphyxiating them inside structural constrains such as employment con-tracts, performance management, corporate policies, the managerial pre-rogative, and the like. Hence, individuals who are forced to be wholly theagents of others [managers for example] cannot be viewed as, or heldresponsible for their actions…responsibility is not possible (logically) fornon-autonomous creatures’ (Lippke 1995:34). In the hands of HRMhuman beings become human resources and perhaps even non-autonomous creatures – at least to some extent.

163 As Diefenbach (2013:77) noted, ‘incentives and punishment systems aremeant to steer people’s behaviour. Moreover, they are meant to signal topeople that they can influence the situation they are in to their favour withtheir own behaviour; if people adapt and behave properly, they can reduce(some of) the disadvantages and increase (some of) the advantages’.

250 Notes

164 Wahba & Bridwell (1976). ‘But the much rehearsed hierarchy of needsalso relies on false needs’. ‘False needs are those which are superimposedupon the individual by particular social interest’ (MacIntyre, A. 1970:71)such as a raft of HRM invented and/or fostered but largely external andfictitious needs for career, status symbols, monetary rewards, etc. Essers(2012:345) noted ‘do we not often see in dominant Maslow-based HR-ideology that the “right” to self-actualisation and learning is surrepti-tiously turned into a “duty”, a “forced choice of freedom” that reasonablybe refused and thus renders employees collectively vulnerable to theRobespierian extortion tactics of performance appraisals and culture man-agement models’.

165 Berger & Luckmann (1967); Searle (1996).166 Cf. Arnold (2005:313ff.; Arnold & Randal 2010:312ff.); Aamodt (2010:334

& 337). While Maslow’s hierarchical theory was regarded as an improve-ment over previous theories of personality and motivation (punishment),it had its detractors (Wahba & Bridgewell 1976).

167 To quote Poole’s Unspeak (2006:66): ‘The template of ‘natural resources’must, further, be to blame for the modern barbarism of the corporate term‘human resources’. To call human beings ‘resources’, firstly, is to denytheir existence as individuals, since any one person will not spring upagain once worn out; people are ‘resources’ only insofar as they arethought of as a breeding population, like rabbits or chickens. ‘Humanresources’, first recorded in 1961, eventually succeeded the term ‘man-power’ in business parlance; the effect was merely to replace a crudesexism with a more generalised rhetorical violence. People considered as‘human resources’ are mere instruments of a higher will. Compare theNazi vocabulary of ‘human material’ [Menschenmaterial] and ‘liquidation’[liquidieren], recasting murder as the realisation of profit; if ‘naturalresources’ evinces merely as blithe disregard for the environment, ‘humanresources’ contains an echo of totalitarian Unspeak’.

168 According to Bandura et al. (1996:365), ‘people behave much more aggressive when assaulting a person is given a sanitised label than when itis called aggression’. In other words, HRM behaves much more aggressivewhen it is given a sanitised label such as ‘letting you go’ for firing, ‘dis-ciplinary action’ for punishment, etc.

169 ‘From the outside, business can look like “a seemingly mindless game ofchance at which any donkey could win provided only that he be ruth-less”’ (Peter Drucker quoted in: Magretta 2012:1). The ruthlessness of themanagerial orbit in which HR-‘Management’ takes part is, not only inSchrijvers (2004) but even more so in Nietzsche’s words, defined by ‘strug-gle, egoism, dominance…and the majority [of employees] have no rightto existence, people that are failures, hardness, the festival of cruelty, thereplacement of compassion for the weak by destruction…Nietzsche’s self-creation pushes aside people who get in the way…egoism and ruthlessness[are] admired by Nietzsche’ (Glover 2012:17) and by HRM.

170 Kramar et al. (2011:558); Gunnigle et al. (2011:12–14). Some elements of‘hard’ HRM carry connotations to Nietzsche’s toughness and hardness inwhat he called ‘self-creation’. In other words, the self-creation of HRMdemands hardness: ‘self-creation requires hardness: in man there is

Notes 251

matter, fragment, excess…hardness of a hammer…a certain self-possessedcruelty which knows how to wield a knife with certainty and deftnesseven when the heart bleeds. They will be harder (and perhaps not alwaysonly against themselves) than humane men might wish…it requires rejec-tion of pity as something unmanly…a rejection of unmanly compassion,supports the domination, even the cruel domination, of others…so seesomeone suffer does one good, to make others suffer even more’(Nietzsche quoted in: Glover 2012:16).

171 Wiesen (2011); Gilroy (1993); Velasquez (2012:64).172 Goldman (1906); Marcuse (1941 & 1966); Fromm (1960); Adorno et al.

(1964); Bauman (1989); Bowles & Gintis (1976, 1981, 2001); Freire (1970& 2000).

173 Adorno et al. (1964); Kohn (1999); Macky (2009:344).174 Connellan (1978); Lemov (2006); Chriss (2012). Corporate or HRM set-

tings exercise ‘situational pressures: orders from the higher authority, con-formity to pressure, foot-in-the-door processes, pluralistic ignorance, anddiffusion of responsibility’ (Batson et al. 1999:525). In other words, HRMregimes operative inside companies are not settings in which ‘moral indi-viduals are motivated to act in accord with moral principles as an ultimategoal, displaying moral integrity’ (Batson et al. 1999:525).

175 It is HRM’s ‘disciplining of subjectivity into a to-be-controlled object’(Johnsen & Gudmand-Høyer 2010:333).

176 This reflects an HRM sustained ‘division between those who commandand those who are compelled to obey’ (Mueller 2012). Furthermore, asRist (2012:52) noted, HRM ‘creates deviants by making the rules [HR-policies] who in fraction constitute deviance, and by applying those rulesto particular groups [human resources] and labelling them [who violateHR-policies] as outsiders’.

177 Jackson et al. (2012:404–411); Kramar et al. (2011:173f.); Beardwell &Claydon (2011:90); Macky (2009:199); Gunnigle et al. (2011:148–165);Nel et al. (2012:130 & 150); Grobler et al. (2011:140).

178 DeCenzo et al. (2013:105–107) hides the fact that HRM’s totalitarianismfound its being in the exclusiveness of being a self-appointed legislator,accuser, and executioner, in their ‘factors to consider when punishing’ (cf. Marcuse 1969:126; Heller 1989:15; Cheliotis 2006).

179 Fromm (1949:11); Chomsky (1971:33); Apel (1980:180ff.).180 Foucault’s ‘Discipline and Punish’, 1995; cf. Klikauer (2007:102).181 Reich (1946); Arendt (1951, 1958 & 1994); Israel (1971); Bauman (1989);

Todorov (1996); Chiaburu et al. (2013).182 ABC (2005); Babiak & Hare (2006); James (2013); Pardue et al. (2013); Park

(2013).183 Concurrent with turning humans into objects of power goes the fostering

of mechanisms that disallow these objects of power to ever realise whatthey are made into. Adorno (1944:22) has commented on this. He wrote,part of the mechanism of domination is that one is forbidden to recognisethe suffering that domination produces, and there is a straight line con-necting the evangelical lecture on the joy of life to the construction ofslaughter-houses for human beings so far off in Poland, that everyone in

252 Notes

one’s own ethnic group can convince themselves they don’t hear thescreams of pain (cf. Marcuse 1969:107; Baillargeon 2007; Callinicos 2006).

184 As Max Weber (1924) noted in his ‘Economy and Society’: HRM, at leastat an organisational level, may well be ‘the most rationally known meansof exercising authority over human beings’ (quoted from Cheliotis2006:398).

185 ‘The most obvious source of crimes of obedience are military, paramil-itary, and social-control hierarchies, in which soldiers, security agents,and police take on role obligations that explicitly include the use of force.These hierarchies are the classic ones from which the term “chain ofcommand” is borrowed’ (Darley 1992:121). In other words, ‘the mostobvious source of crimes of obedience are corporate control hierarchies, inwhich managers and workers are forced to take on role obligations thatcan include the use of force and coercion. These organisational hierarchiesare the classic form of “chain of command”’.

186 The HR structure of every company depicts an Egyptian pyramid. Thepyramidal structure is designed to generate and secure authority.Ideologically, HRM’s idea of promotions as a pathway to the top engineersno more than an illusion for the vast majority of those who make things(Aristotle). Numerically, the pyramidal structure of corporations actsagainst HRM’s ideology of promotions. The idea of promotions is no morethan a false hope. It is part of the arsenal of HR weapons. A careerist ori-entation is very helpful because it makes people want to appear ‘pro-motable’, cooperative, helpful, showing upward appeal, and signalcompetitiveness. Senior HRM only needs to foster the illusion of success,promotion, loyalty, compliance, and coalition-building and collusion isvirtually guaranteed.

187 Ingham (2013:97); Copeland & Labuski (2013).188 Sievers & Mersky (2006); Velasquez (2012:63); Robbins (2012);

MacKinnon (2013:163ff.). In an almost classical form of ideology, HRMcalls managerial mobbing and bullying ‘workplace bullying’ (Nankervis et al. 2014:528). The term ‘workplace’ is introduced to shift connotationstowards work and workers and away from management and HRM itself.Hence HRM does not talk about HR-bullying and management bullying toprotect management and its ‘petty-tyrants’ (James 2013).

189 Arendt’s ‘The Banality of Evil’ (1994; cf. Fromm 1949:8f., Todorov 1996;McCalley 2002:5 & 12; Zimbardo 2004; Klikauer 2008:164; Klikauer2007:144; Jurkiewicz 2012; Elias 2013). According to Zimbardo (2004:22)evil can be seen as ‘intentionally behaving, or causing others to act, inways that demean, dehumanise, harm, destroy, or kill innocent people’:firstly, HRM operates intentionally; secondly, while HRM surely does notintentionally kill people [apart from being part of a management teamthat causes the death of thousands in, for example, the asbestos andtobacco industries (Benson & Kirsch 2010; Benson 2012), the outsourcingof production to sweatshops (Australian retailers Rivers, Coles, Target,Kmart linked to Bangladesh factory worker abuse (ABC 24th June 2013),Joshi & Pande 2014, etc.], HRM nevertheless demeans and dehumanisesothers simply through reducing human beings to mere human resources

Notes 253

and forcing them into ‘doing things they otherwise would not do’ evenwhen this includes ‘harm to others’ through HRM’s performance manage-ment system while simultaneously creating MADD.

190 Kramar et al. (2011:446); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:580); Macky(2009:12); Schwind et al. (2013:78).

191 Macky (2009:330); Gunnigle et al. (2011:85); Schwind et al. (2013:73).192 McMahon (1989); Fritzsche & Becker (1984:166). Already the Godfather of

management’s organisation theory Chester Barnard (1938:149) noted theapplication of ‘coercion, as a way to generate behavioural changes bymeans of fear to a sanction’ (as quoted by Gantman 2005:70).

193 Paauwe et al. (2013a:68); Schwind et al. (2013:33); Werhane (2013).194 Clegg et al. (2006:149); Maclagan (2007:54); Bastian et al. (2013).195 As the focus on Milgram’s work is on the moral implications of his obedi-

ence studies, research details on laboratory experimentations can begained from his original work (1963, 1973, 1974, 1992) and from workssuch as Adorno et al. (1964); Hampden-Turner (1970:132–134); Damico(1982); Alfonso (1982); Kelman & Hamilton (1989); Blass (1991, 1992,1999, 2002); Tumanov (2007); Massey (2009).

196 Blass (1991:398); Milgram’s experiments have been popularised in ‘We doas we are told – Milgram’s 37’ by rock musician Peter Gabriel on his 1986album, the British play ‘The Dogs of Pavlov’, and featured in the Frenchfilm ‘I...comme Icare’ (1979) starring Yves Montand (cf. Badhwar 2009).

197 Overall, punishment and obedience to authority are associated with whatZimbardo (2004:21) calls ‘the situationist perspective’ that ‘propels externaldeterminations of behaviour to the foreground, well beyond the status asmere extenuating background circumstance’. Since HRM is determined toinvent, create, and maintain such ‘determinations’ (e.g. HR policies on dis-ciplinary action), it seeks to place emphasis on the opposite (e.g. the indi-vidual) in order to ideologically divert attention away from itself, namelyHRM. Bandura et al. (1996:371) noted ‘psychological theorising and researchtend to emphasise how easy it is to bring out the worst in people throughdehumanisation and other self-exonerative means’. See also: Jackson et al.(2012:404–411); Kramar et al. (2011:173f.); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:90);Macky (2009:199); Gunnigle et al. (2011:148–165); Nel et al. (2012:130 &150); Grobler et al. (2011:140). The same ideology can be found – just morestrongly – in business ethics (DeCremer & Tenbrunsel 2012).

198 Perhaps even more problematic is that next to a generally low standing ofHRM inside managerial hierarchies combined with the fact that ‘manage-ment scholars have questioned the legitimacy of HRM’ (Johnsen &Gudmand-Høyer 2010:333), HRM’s own insecurity might lead to over-playing its disciplinary powers in order to give the appearance of being ‘incontrol’ and thereby stabilising HRM’s insecure existence.

199 Clegg et al. (2006:143ff.) calls these institutions ‘total institutions’. 200 According to Dahl (1957), power has four properties attached to it:

(a) base as the base of power expressed in resources, opportunities, acts,objects, etc. that can be exploited in order to affect the behaviour ofothers; (b) means or instruments such as threats or promises; (c) amountof an actor’s power expressed in probability statements such as ‘9 out of10’; and (d) scope that consists of responses that an actor receives during

254 Notes

the application of power. Power can be seen as machinery in which every-one is caught, those who exercise power just as much as those over whomit is exercised. Power resides not simply in relations of cause and effect (asDahl suggests), but in structured relations of autonomy and dependencethat are an endemic feature of working life. Power’s communicative aspectemphasises: power is defined in terms of the ability of individuals orgroups to control and shape dominant interpretation at work.

201 In On Violence (1970), Arendt quoted Sartre’s Jouvenel: a man feelshimself more of a man when he is imposing himself and making othersthe instrument of his will…and Clausewitz: war is an act of violence tocompel the opponent to do as we wish. The source of power is the powerof man over man…to command and to be obeyed: without that, there isno power… (Arendt 1970:37; Jay 1967:13; Badhwar 2009:261; Robbins2012; MacKinnon 2013:217).

202 Beardwell & Claydon (2011:432); Nel et al. (2012:47).203 Weber (1924); Jay (1967:177).204 Milgram noted, ‘it has been reliably established that from 1933–1945 mil-

lions of innocent persons were systematically slaughtered on command.Gas chambers were built, death camps were guarded, and daily quotas ofcorpses were produced with the same efficiency as the manufacture ofappliances’ (quoted from Blass 1992:288; cf. Glover 1977). On this,McCally’s (2002:21) notes, ‘…the use of strong position power is appropri-ate and productive’.

205 Stone (2013:25). This is what Foucault calls the ‘new power/knowledgeregime…to discipline character or the soul’ (Fraser 1985:174).

206 Jackson et al. (2012:186); Kramar et al. (2011:261f.); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:169); Macky (2009:190f.); Gunnigle et al. (2011:119); Nel et al.(2012:160); Grobler et al. (2011:178).

207 ‘Browning (1992) makes it clear that there was no special selection of theSS men, only that they were as “ordinary” as could be imagined – untilthey were put into a situation in which they had “official” permission,even encouragement, to act sadistically and brutishly against those arbi-trarily labelled as “the enemy”’ (Zimbrado 2004:35). In other words, forthe assistants of ‘Organisational Evil’ (Jurkiewicz 2012), HRM does not runa recruitment and selection process that selects monsters. It needs ordi-nary people that, as Milgram has shown, can be made into monstersthrough all the trimmings HRM can muster (cf. Baumeister 1997).

208 McGregor (1960 & 2006); Kaplan & Norton (1992, 1993, 2004); Klikauer(2007:183ff.).

209 Habermas (1997); Schwind et al. (2013:348–406).210 Haworth (2012); Jurkiewicz (2012).211 This carries connotations to Adorno et al.’s (1964) ‘authoritarian personal-

ity’, typified by rigidity of thought and behaviour, an emphasis on powerand will rather than imagination and gentleness, superstitious thinking,rigid adherence to conventional values and aggression towards those whoviolate them. A central feature is a submissive, uncritical attitude towardsauthority…punishment for breaking rules played a big role. Neither emo-tional warmth nor reasoning about moral principles figured much in theaccounts’ (Glover 2012:330).

Notes 255

212 Arnold (2005); Arnold & Randal (2010); Aamodt (2010:307f.; 2013).213 Blass (2002:70 & 72); Blass (1991:406) reports that Milgram’s subjects were

volunteers (just as in the SS) and that a binding factor is needed. It estab-lishes an authoritarian relationship between subject and experimenter,between the Jews and the SS-men, and between HRM and subordinates.

214 Milgram found ‘there were no male-female differences in obedience’ (Blass1991:406). According to Badhwar (2009:281), ‘Milgram himself focuses onthe lack of autonomy as the central problem, calling the all-too-commonpropensity to surrender our autonomy when we become part of an organ-isation a “fatal flaw nature has designed into us” – “flaw”’, because ‘in thelong run [it] gives our species only a modest chance of survival’.

215 A hierarchical ‘division of labour made evasion of personal responsibilityeasier’ (Glover 2012:350).

216 Glover (2012:333); Klikauer (2012:72–80).217 Blass (1999:958); Marcuse (1964).218 Blass (1999:959); Werhane (2013:86).219 Arendt (1994); Adorno et al. (1964); Milgram (1974); Bauman (1989).220 In the words of Lippke (1995:34), ‘individuals who are forced to be wholly

the agents of others cannot be viewed as, or held responsible for theiractions…responsibility is not possible (logically) for non-autonomouscreatures’ while ‘autonomous cruelty or injustice is worse than hetero-gonous cruelty or injustice’ (Lippke 1995:35; cf. Goldhagen 1996).

221 Bauman (2000:25); cf. Bernstein (2006:36).222 Thompson & Smith (2010); Donado & Wa¨lde (2012).223 Hence, HRM has an ideological need for the ‘justification of discipline’

(Selekman 1959:68ff.).224 Jackson et al. (2012:446); Kramar et al. (2011:480); Beardwell & Claydon

(2011:187); Nel et al. (2012:348); Grobler et al. (2011:16–18).225 Group-pressure also works well when HRM functions as a team where HR

managers ‘behave more cruelly’ under HRM’s ‘group responsibility thanwhen they hold themselves personally accountable for their actions’(Bandura et al. 1996:365).

226 This is not to say that HRM operates like the SS. It does not and has neverdone so. But the common element between both is the way in whichmorality is placed away from the individual.

227 Blass (1992:305). It is also not uncommon for HRM that ‘victims getblamed for bringing suffering on themselves’. HRM’s ‘self-exoneration isalso achievable by viewing [HRM’s] harmful conduct as forced by com-pelling circumstances [e.g. market forces, general management, etc.]rather than as a [HR-manager’s] personal decision’ (Bandura et al.1996:366).

228 Milgram noted on ‘the inverse ratio of readiness to cruelty and proximityto its victims. It is difficult to harm a person we touch. It is somewhateasier to inflict pain upon a person we only see at a distance. It is stilleasier in the case of a person we only hear. It is quite easy to be crueltowards a person we neither see nor hear’ (Hampden-Turner 1970:126;Bauman 1989:155; 2000:27; Blass 1991:400 & 407; Katz 2006). And suchmanagerial techniques enable distancing (Clegg et al.’s 2006:163).

256 Notes

229 ‘The most extreme forms of distancing: the suggestion that some peopleare not even human [e.g. human resources]…the milder, implicit versionof this is to withdraw from them the normal distinguishing marks ofrespect for other humans. It strips away the protection of human status’(Glover 2012:338 & 408f.).

230 Moral disengagement operates with four mechanisms: (a) re-construingpossible reprehensible conduct (by means of moral justification, palliativecomparison, and euphemistic labelling); (b) displacing and diffusingresponsibility; (c) minimising, ignoring, and misconstruing detrimentalconsequences; and (d) dehumanising and blaming victims (Batson et al.1999:536): a) HRM justifies its conduct for the greater good of thecompany calling ‘firing people’ ‘let go’; b) HRM operates a hierarchy dif-fusing responsibility between, for example, HRM and line management; c) by calling mass-dismissal corporate restructuring; and d) by labellinghuman beings ‘human resources’.

231 Moral exclusion is when certain people – employees – are excluded frommoral treatment (Batson et al. 1999:525).

232 Lafferty (2013:180); Klikauer (2012:2); Welby (2012). In addition there isalso a straight forward call for corporate leaders including HRM-leaders tobe Machiavellian business leaders. They ‘must accept the heavy duty offorgetting his own personal feelings, his habitual kindness, in order toenter into another sphere of action’. This is a reflection of what Banduraet al. call ‘moral disengagement’ (Bandura et al. 1996).

233 The list is, of course, an incomplete list of examples used by HRM to allowitself to be morally disengaged. The list has been adopted from Bandura et al. (1996:374).

234 In some cases these are used as ‘retrospective rationalisation whenjustification is fitted to previous unethical acts by HRM. But in“justification of what [HRM] has done, [HRM] is led to do more and to doworse”’ (Darley 1992:208).

235 According to the French philosopher Rousseau, it is the inability of ‘aninnate repugnance to see his fellow suffer’ (Kakkori & Huttunen 2010:6).

236 These are only a few key elements of an HR-hierarchy ranging from thetop level of an HR-director down to sectional HR functions that includethose HRM elements directed downwards to section leaders, supervisors,and line managers.

237 HRM uses a range of instruments to deflect ‘blame’ away such as ‘vilifyingthe recipients of HRM’s maltreatment’; ill-treatment of employees ‘isjustified in the name of protecting honour and reputation’ of a company;HRM’s use of ‘sanitised labels’ for those assaulted; HRM ‘obscures personalagencies by defusing moral responsibility through hierarchy for example;and “victims are blamed for bringing suffering on themselves”’ (Bandura et al. 1996:364–366).

238 ‘A familiar…figure is the quiet, boring, dutiful official’ (Glover 2012:349;Browning (1992).

239 Jackson et al. (2012:56); Kramar et al. (2011:309); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:107); Macky (2009:35, 66, 330); Gunnigle et al. (2011:71); Nel et al.(2012:215 & 306); Grobler et al. (2011:637f.).

Notes 257

240 Jackson et al. (2012:56); Kramar et al. (2011:72); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:338 & 351–353); Macky (2009:312); Gunnigle et al. (2011:50ff.); Nelet al. (2012:312; Grobler et al. (2011:620 & 633f.); Werhane (2013:164);Calhoon’s (1969:205) Machiavellian leader who ‘controls subordinates[and is] conniving, manipulative, and cold-blooded’.

241 Tyler & Boeckmann (1997); DeCenzo et al. (2013:109); Stone (2013:143).242 Bauman (1989:151ff.); cf. Baillargeon (2007:210ff.); Levi (1959); Haas

(1988:385); Reed (1997:7); Levy & Szander (2004:145); Bernstein (2006).243 Bauman’s thesis that the Holocaust was an application of modern HR

techniques indicates that it was not the work of evil and insane monsters.This is not designed to relieve Germans and German Nazis from their col-lective guilt. Bauman explains – he does not excuse (cf. Bauman 1990; cf. Katz 2006).

244 Weizenbaum (1976:251ff.); Rahim (2010).245 Bauman (1989:9); Agamben (2000); Katz (2006); Glover (2012:398) notes

‘how the technology of killing, combined with the robotic obedience ofhuman functionaries, could be put to ends of unparalleled inhumanity’;cf. Schweppenhäuser (1993); Clegg et al. (2006:156) ‘Auschwitz was anextension of the value rationality of the modern factory system’…[thatincluded]…‘the manager’s production charts’ just like HRM head count,resource planning, and resource allocation charts.

246 Levi (1959 & 1988); Glover (2012:406) notes ‘the thought at Auschwitzand other places, “never again”, is more compelling than any abstractethical principle’.

247 Bauman (1989:122); Bernstein (2006:35); Katz (2006); Clegg et al.(2006:164); Clegg et al. (2012).

248 This has been skilfully linked to – not Darwin’s – but Spencer’s ‘survival ofthe fittest’ ideology (Miesing & Preble 1985:466; Klikauer 2012:265).

249 Bauman (1989:142–144); cf. Rummel (1994).250 As horrific as these have been in the overall development of humanity

since the last 2.4 million years, these can be seen as anomalies of modern-ity because ‘before the emergence of state societies, the probability thatone could die at the hand of another human being was 15%. With theadvent of state societies, however, the rate of violent death has beendeclining significantly. Accordingly, violent deaths of state societiesamount to “only” 3 percent’ (Park 2013:4; cf. en.wikipedia.org’sIntentional Homicide Rate).

251 Schwind et al. (2013:94); Jackson et al. (2012:61); Nel et al. (2012:50–53).252 For any SS man who ran a concentration camp failure to comply with

authority often meant no more than being moved to another division orbeing placed at the Eastern Front. In most cases, failure to carry out ordersfor mass-killing did not mean facing the firing squad.

253 www.google.com/images + ‘Abu Ghraib photos’ show hundreds of photos.Most are too horrible to be depicted here (cf. Clegg et al. 2006:175; Waller2007; Wright 2007; Doris & Murphy 2007; Rodin 2010; Carlson & Weber2012; Errachidi & Slovo 2013).

254 An example which he uses is that of Adolf Eichmann, the Nazi officialwho conducted the logistics behind the Holocaust. Mumford collectivelyrefers to people willing to carry out placidly the extreme goals of these

258 Notes

mega-machines as ‘Eichmanns’. Cf. Levi (1959); Milgram (1973:75);Arendt (1994); Todorov (1996); Levy & Szander (2004:151f.); Bernstein(2006).

255 Badhwar (2009:286); Clegg et al. (2006:159); Katz (2006); Doris (2002);Milgram (1974:88); McGregor (1960 & 2006); Goldhagen (1996).

256 Beardwell & Claydon (2011:145); Meer & Ringdal (2009); Tangian (2011).257 Neither Milgram (1974) nor MacIntyre (1983) nor Bauman (1989), nor

this chapter is saying that HRM equals the SS or that HRM’s actionsequate to the Holocaust. But the fundamental principles that underlieobedience to authority and punishment regimes are to be found in bothinstitutions.

258 Kramar et al. (2011:153); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:388); Macky(2009:120); Gunnigle et al. (2011:356f.); Nel et al. (2012:41–43).

259 See the movie ‘Avatar’ (produced in 2009), wikipedia.org/Avatar);Brockovich (2011); Brueckner & Ross (2011).

260 MacKinnon (2013:23ff.). One of the masterminds of egoism has beenNietzsche who ‘believed that egoism is essential to the noble soul, and hedefines “egoism” as the faith that other beings have to be subordinated to’(Glover 2012:15). HRM terms human beings as subordinates.

261 As depicted by Gordon Gekko in Oliver Stone’s movie ‘Wall Street’(Kakkori & Huttunen 2010:3).

262 One of the core names associated with personal benefits, rewards, andselfishness is Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (1469–1527) who was anItalian political writer and is considered to be one of the main founders ofmodern political science. He was a diplomat, political philosopher, musi-cian, playwright and a civil servant of the Florentine Republic. He is con-sidered a political theorist rather than a moral philosopher (cf. Jay 1967).But even Machiavelli thought that ‘a prince must learn how not to be good’(Tomasello 2009:3) assuming that humans are good by nature and hencemust learn to be evil. One of the great debates in Western philosophy iswhether humans are born cooperative and helpful and society later cor-rupts them (e.g. Rousseau; cf. Hodgson 2013:45), or whether they are bornselfish and unhelpful and society teaches them to be better (e.g. Hobbes;Dawkins 1989). Most of moral philosophy agrees that the first rather thanthe latter is the case (even Machiavelli); cf. Axelrod (1984 & 1984a).

263 Gauthier (2012); Ansell-Pearson (2012). For HR-managers this means that‘many superiors do not care (so much) about the system but more abouttheir positions and opportunities within the system – with good reason: ifthey had not put their personal and career interest first and everythingelse second, (including the organisation they work for), most [HR-] man-agers would not have reached their positions (and will not make futureprogress)’ (Diefenbach 2013:150).

264 ‘Thrasymachus’ idea of what is just or right reflects the interest of thestrong who impose their will onto others. Callicles, in the “Gorgias”,argues the “Nietzschean” case: the strong are naturally dominant likelions, but the rest of us try to tame them with the charms and spells ofmoral dogma’ (Glover 2012:18).

265 Already Selekman (1959:77) noted to the cynic version of HRM ‘man isbasically and always selfish, self-aggrandising, and exploitative of his

Notes 259

fellow man’. This might constitute what psychoanalysis calls ‘projection’(Heimann & Klein 2013).

266 On this, Rousseau noted ‘egocentrism is merely a sentiment that is rela-tive, artificial and born in society, which moves each individual to valuehimself more than anyone else, which inspires in men [sic!] all the evilsthey cause one another’ (Kakkori & Huttunen 2010:6).

267 Hodgson (2013:11) emphasises that the champion of neo-liberalism andindividualism, Adam Smith, writes ‘self-love’, this ‘self-deceit, this fatalweakness of mankind, is the source of half the disorder of human life’;Stein (2013).

268 Schwind et al. (2013:345–406); Jackson et al. (2012:405–407); Kramar et al. (2011:463); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:491–502 & 525–527); Macky(2009:341); Gunnigle et al. (2011:166–188); Nel et al. (2012:237); Grobleret al. (2011:16, 242f., 401f. & 434); DeCenzo et al. (2013:278–282);Nankervis et al. (2014:429); cf. chapter V on ‘compensation’ in: Mondy(2014) & chapter IV on ‘compensation and total rewards’ in Dressler(2014).

269 Schwind et al. (2013:383); Jackson et al. (2012:18, 438, 480); Kramar et al.(2011:607f.); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:498–500); Macky (2009:345); Nel et al. (2012:166).

270 A near perfect example of how the moral philosophy of selfishness trans-lates into HRM realities has been delivered by American educationalexpert Alfie Kohn who noted in his book ‘Punished by Rewards – TheTrouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A’s, Praises, and other Bribes(Kohn 1999:120): If pop behaviourism were a religion, American man-agers would have to be described as fundamentalists. It is difficult to over-state the extent to which they, and the people who advise them, believein the redemptive power of rewards (Maier 2005; Schultz & Schultz2010:139).

271 Schwind et al. (2013:407–517); Jackson et al. (2012:527); Kramar et al.(2011:185–201); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:555); Macky (2009:291–294);Nel et al. (2012:129); Grobler et al. (2011:523–525); Paauwe et al.(2013:1ff.); Stone (2013:306).

272 Aamodt (2010:331–337); Ewen et al. (1966); Herzberg (1966 & 2011);Herzberg et al. (1959); Latham (2011); Skidelsky & Skidelsky (2012);Kanfer et al. (2012); Paauwe et al. (2013); Stone (2013:434 & 453); ‘indi-vidual performance-related reward plans’ (Nankervis et al. 2014:458ff.).

273 Dawkins (1989); Nowak & Highfield (2011); Klikauer (2012b); Tudge(2013).

274 Hodgson (2013:4–5) notes ‘morality is a profoundly social phenom-enon…morality helps make us human…by focusing on self-interestedagents, economics [and management studies] has become largely anamoral science’. Fleming & Cederström (2012:5) noted ‘the reason wework is to spend money [in a] repetitive loop of work and consumption[that] takes us nowhere’.

275 This negates Greek virtue ethics, Kant, Hegel, Rawls, and utilitarianism. Inits severest version, selfishness and extreme individualism is the veryexpression of what has been called ‘the free rider problem’. Free riders arethose who consume more than their fair share of a public resource, or

260 Notes

shoulder less than a fair share of the costs of its production. The name‘free rider’ comes from a common textbook example: someone usingpublic transport without paying the fare (cf. Cornes & Sandler 1986).Tomasello (2009: XIII & 52f.).

276 Silk and Vogle (1976:222) quoted a manager who said, ‘we all use thejackal technique of HRM selection – hold the red meat over the pack andsee who can jump the highest’ (cf. Skidelsky & Skidelsky 2012).

277 ‘Deals based on self-interested calculation are at the heart of the contrac-tarian theory’ (Glover 2012:28; plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractualism;Miesing & Preble 1985:466).

278 Klikauer (2007 & 2008); Moynihan & Pandey (2010); Elbashir et al.(2011); Dulipovici & Robey (2013).

279 E.g. virtue ethics, utilitarianism, Kant, Hegel, and Rawls’ ethics of justice.280 It is the extreme opposite of ‘the free individual [who] is determined by

nothing but himself’ (MacIntyre 1970:17; cf. Kearns 2013).281 Jackson et al. (2012:56); Kramar et al. (2011:72); Beardwell & Claydon

(2011:352); Macky (2009:313); Nel et al. (2012:343); Grobler et al.(2011:620); Calhoon (1969); Clarke (2013). The Machiavellian HR-manager is often an ‘egoistic leader or a modern careerist defined byhypocrisy’ (Diefenbach 2013:159); cf. Cunha et al. (2013).

282 Almost perfectly expressed by the ‘one who employs aggressive, manipu-lative, exploiting, and devious moves in order to achieve personal andorganisational objectives’ (Miesing & Preble 1985:467).

283 Holland et al. (2012); Jackson et al. (2012:200, 520, 548–553); Stanger(2009); Kramar et al. (2011:155); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:450);Gunnigle et al. (2011:270–289); Nel et al. (2012:55); Grobler et al.(2011:481–491).

284 The ability to bargain for oneself reflects Gare’s concept of ‘The Triumphof the Airheads and the Retreat from Commonsense’ (2006). One does notneed technical expertise but a Machiavellian character.

285 McGregor’s Theory Y (1960 & 2006; Hart 1988). This would be a return toKohlberg’s stage 1 which is always a more preferable option for HRM thanmoving upwards on the scale of morality (cf. McGregor’s Theory-X;Bramel & Friend 1981:869 & 870).

286 Paauwe et al. (2013); Kordela (2013:13ff.).287 Hart (1993:32) noted that ‘HRM is firmly aligned with the classical eco-

nomic view that people are not different from any other factor of produc-tion and should be managed to maximise their utility’.

288 Jackson et al. (2012:478); Kramar et al. (2011:283); Schwind et al.(2013:68).

289 Skidelsky & Skidelsky (2012); Hodgson (2013:17) notes ‘the first principleof economics [and management studies] is that every agent is actuatedonly by self-interest’. In other words, Managerialism’s assumption of a‘homo economicus of maximising individual profits [suggests that] stealingmaximises the profit and minimises the cost’ (Sørensen 2002:164;Crosthwaite 2013:95). Economics calls its homo economicus also ‘method-ological individualism’ (Hodgson 2013:29ff.) claiming ‘there is no substra-tum of society other than the actions of individuals’ (Hodgson 2013:33;cf. Schumpeter’s ‘Der methodologische Individualismus’, 1908). ‘Homo

Notes 261

Economicus is really a robot’ (Crosthwaite 2013:95). This is underpinnedby behaviourism (Hodgson 2013:35) and the myth of Robinson Crusoe(Hodgson 2013:37) despite Managerialism’s own prime ideology that‘price mechanisms involve social interaction and structures, and socialphenomena that cannot be reduced entirely to individuals alone’(Hodgson 2013:37; cf. Friedman 1970; Miesing & Preble 1985:467).

290 Canepari-Labib (2005:105) on Robinson Crusoe (cf. Solomon, R. C.2004:1028); on homo economicus, Shermer (2007:xviii) noted ‘I amwriting against homo economicus, which holds that “Economic Man” hasunbounded rationality, self-interest, and free will, and that we are selfish,self-maximising, and efficient in our decisions and choice’ (cf. Klikauer2012b).

291 Wiltermuth & Flynn (2013); Werhane (2013); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:621); Macky (2009:291–294); Schwind et al. (2013:128).

292 Barnes & Taksa (2012); DeCenzo et al. (2013:261f.).293 Ackroyd & Thompson (1999); Karlsson (2012); Diefenbach

(2013a:174–185).294 Rowntree (1921); Aiely (2009); McGregor (1960 & 2006).295 Nowak & Highfield (2011); Klikauer (2012b); Glover (2012:19); Hodgson

(2013:57).296 Hicks (2013); Gupta & Shaw (2014).297 Skinner (1953); Styron (1979); Zimmerman (1981); Kramar et al.

(2011:39).298 Inkson (2008); cf. Kearns (2013).299 It is not uncommon to find business ethicists affirming to capitalism and

corporations. An example is ‘Werhane declaring her allegiance to a...freeenterprise system…pre-empting discussions on such a system’ (Lippke1995:12). Business ethics writer deGeorge delivers ‘defenses of Americancapitalism’ (Lippke 1995:20). Alone for the year 2013 Google.scholar listswell above 5,000 articles on the ‘prisoner dilemma’.

300 Stone (2013:8); Kramar et al. (2011:630). Hart (1993:33) noted ‘even from aneconomic perspective, it is questionable whether HRM is either desirable orwhether it is producing any substantive contribution to business profitabil-ity’. A study ‘found that there was no significant correlation between thosecompanies displaying strong HRM techniques and those with successfulfinancial performance. The failure to link HRM and profitability must surelyrepresent a fairly damning indictment of a movement whose claim to fameis that it delivers improvement in bottom-line performance’.

301 DeCenzo et al. (2013:370); plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractualism.302 A common function that HRM tends to outsource, for example, is that of

recruitment and selection. It is outsourced to external HR agencies so thatcorporate HRM does not appear to be too close to all the usual trimmingsof favouritism, nepotism, and ‘corruption including fraud, bribery, graftand the payment of secret commissions and kickbacks’ (Stone 2013:632;cf. Haigh 2012; Butler & Callahan 2014). While HRM textbooks generallydo not mention the ‘CEO-to-Worker’ wage gap, they are however eager tocamouflage this fact under, for example, ‘executive incentives’ (Nankerviset al. 2014:474). An Australian HRM textbook like Nankervis et al. (2014)does not mention that ‘the average total remuneration of a chief exec-

262 Notes

utive of a top 50 company listed on the Australian Securities Exchange in2010 is $6.4 million – or almost 100 times that of the average worker’(http://www.actu.org.au/Issues/ExecutivePayWatch/default.aspx).

303 This is in almost complete contradiction to everything we know fromevolutionary science and evolutionary ethics (Kropotkin 1902; Axelrod1984, 1984a, 1997; Axelrod & Hamilton 1981; Trivers 1985; Skyrms 1996;Sober 1998; Mysterud 2000; Gintis et al. 2003; Sachs et al. 2004; Baum2005; Krebs 2008; Krebs & Denton 2005 & 2006; Hodgson 2013:103ff.;McGovern 2013; Joshi & Pande 2014).

304 Dale (2012:13); Offe & Wiesenthal (1980); Zimmerman (1981 & 2002);Cazes & Verick (2013); Stone (2013:79 & 212).

305 Cohen (1983); Reiman (1987); Gini & Sullivan (1987); Grand & Tåhlin(2013); Wolff & Zacharias (2013).

306 Islam (2012:41) notes ‘as routinised measurements become dislocatedfrom the living human experience from where they are drawn, recogni-tion theory suggests they have harmful consequences for personaldignity’. Performance management is such a ‘routine measurement’ whilethe moral philosophy of utilitarianism strongly advocates the ‘no harm’principle which HRM violates.

307 Jackson et al. (2012:408); cf. Paauwe (2009).308 Whitfield et al. (2012); Schwind et al. (2013:33); Beardwell & Claydon

(2011:555); Gunnigle et al. (2011:58–63); Stone (2013:685).309 Jackson et al. (2012:11–13, 190, 271); Kramar et al. (2011:26–44, 78–80,

239–248, 308); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:20, 48f., 122, 582f., 666f.);Macky (2009:13f. 27, 31–34); Gunnigle et al. (2011:36, 46, 50–53, 68–69,73–77); Nel et al. (2012:546).

310 Campbell et al. (2012); Jackson et al. (2012:11); Kramar et al. (2011:308);Beardwell & Claydon (2011:12f.); Macky (2009:13f.); Gunnigle et al.(2011:68f., 73–77); Dutta (2012:1); Nel et al. (2012:546).

311 Schwind et al. (2013:523); Jackson et al. (2012:26); Kramar et al.(2011:368); Palacios-Marqués & Devece-Carañana (2013).

312 Eckl (2013:387) calls these beati possidents, ‘the lucky owners and winnerson the marketplace’ (cf. www.catholicculture.org).

313 Berger & Luckmann (1967); Searle (1996); Kivisto (2013).314 Guest & King (2004); Thompson (2011).315 Drucker (1967); Ulrich & Smallwood (2007); Holbeche (2012); Kramar

et al. (2014:218).316 Dahl (1957); Blau (1964); Lukes (2005); Buchanan & Badham (2008);

Alexander (2011); Weiskopf & Munro (2012). Meanwhile in HRM text-books the term ‘power’ features as HRM’s ‘Lack of Power’ (Jackson et al.2012:532); or as the power of HRM’s enemies (‘The Power of Public SectorUnions’, Jackson et al. 2012:554); or neutral ‘powering the careers of thenext generation’ (Kramar et al. 2011); or as ‘empowerment progress’ (Nelet al. 2012:108).

317 DeWinne & Sels (2013:174, 183, 189ff.). This results in the fact ‘that ahuman agency is treated in an “instrumental” fashion’ (Islam 2012:38).

318 Jackson et al. (2012:246); Kramar et al. (2011:287); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:276f.); Gunnigle et al. (2011:126); DeCenzo et al. (2013:168); seealso: cf. Lippke (1995:58–68).

Notes 263

319 Schwind et al. (2013:230); Dries & Pepermans (2012).320 Stone (2013:5 & 365; cf. Fulmer & Ployhart 2014); Wilcox (2012:85) notes

‘except when the CEO turns up and says, “We’re gonna sack you in amonth. Then people become important”’. Islam (2012:40) notes onhuman capital ‘there is nothing particular about human capital: it is just acapital asset like any other asset that is to be used more or less specialisedto specific uses and/or users’. Inkson (2008:272) wrote in the ‘hard HRM(soft-HRM in disguise) model, “there is no pretence that labour has any-thing other than commodity status”’.

321 DeCenzo et al. (2013:15); Ehnert et al. (2014). The idea of ‘downsizing-rightsizing-suicising’ indicates that an overemphasis on downsizing – alsolabelled rightsizing – can lead to organisational suicide (cf. Godard 2014).

322 Jobrack (2011). When HRM mentions its own history, it is highly ideolo-gical, glossing over the worst excesses of early factory overseers: ‘Thehistory of personnel management begins around the end of the 19th century, when welfare officers (sometimes called “welfare secretaries”)came into being. They were women and concerned only with the protec-tion of women and girls. Their creation was a reaction to the harshness ofindustrial conditions, coupled with pressures arising from the extensionof the franchise, the influence of trade unions and the labour movement,and the campaigning of enlightened employers, often Quakers, for what was called “industrial betterment”’ (http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/factsheets/history-hr-cipd.aspx#link_0).

323 Newell & Shackleton (1993); Macky (2009:236–240); Gunnigle et al.(2011:125, 129, 255).

324 Meshoulam & Baird (1987); Schwind et al. (2013:14).325 Rosenfeld (1995); DeCenzo et al. (2013:171).326 Jackson et al. (2012:303); Gunnigle et al. (2011:314); Schwind et al.

(2013:19).327 Kramar et al. (2011:558); Gunnigle et al. (2011:12–14).328 Jackson et al. (2012:537–548); Schwind et al. (2013:97); Kramar et al.

(2011:256–271); Macky (2009:413f.).329 Horkheimer & Adorno (1947:12) emphasised: ‘as immovably, they insist

on the very ideology that enslaves them’. This is the ideology ofManagerialism which includes the idea that to ‘manipulate workers withincentives is to treat them like children’ (Kohn 1999:25), only exchangingBrownie Points and starting with wages, bonuses, rewards, and benefits.Kohn (1993:46; cf. Aamodt 2010:458; Hicks 2013) also noted that ‘rewardsusually improve performance only at extremely simple – indeed, mindless– tasks, and even then they improve only quantitative performance’.

330 Park (2013:3); cf. Hodgson (2013:29); Despite HRM’s ideology of indi-vidualism, HRM has no concept of the ‘Moral Personhood’ (Kittay 2005)but converts human beings into human resources. HRM remains func-tional to management without an engagement of moral philosophy. InHRM there is no ‘membership of a moral community of individualsdeserving equal respect and dignity’ (Kittay 2005:100) nor is there a moralsense of ‘given care and responding appropriately to care, empathy, andfellow feeling; a sense of what is harmonious and loving; and a capacityfor kindness and appreciation of those who are kind’ (Kittay 2005:122).

264 Notes

From HRM’s perspective a human resource represents ‘the other [who] isviewed as less important or worthy, dehumanised, if not despised as infe-rior [and] regarded as inferior’ (Kittay 2005:117).

331 ‘In any organisation, there are “vertical” pressures from superiors such assupervisors, line-managers, management, and HR-managers to obeyorganisational orders enshrined in HR policies but there are also “horizon-tal” pressures to conform with members of an organisational group’. Thereal quote read: ‘in Nazi Germany, there were “vertical” pressures fromsuperiors to obey terrible orders. There were also “horizontal” pressures toconform to members of the group’ (Glover 2012:333).

332 See some of Immanuel Kant’s (1724–1804) writings and John Stuart Mill(1806–1873), Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund, Adorno (1903–1969),Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995), and Alasdair MacIntyre.

333 Sisson (1993); Martell & Carroll (1995); Nel et al. (2012:470); Schwind et al. (2013:4, 41, 58, 128, 162, 175f.).

334 Durie (2013:34) notes ‘in many big companies the HR department isknown as human remains, the place you are sent to when your job hasbeen scrapped and the boss doesn’t want to tell you directly’; cf. Smith &Tomikoski (2012).

335 Stone (2013:384); Gilbert (2012:112ff.).336 Gunnigle et al. (2011:58–63 & 157–165); cf. Boxall’s (2013:47ff.) ‘Building

Highly-Performing Work Systems’; Fusch & Gillespie (2013).337 Aristotle would see the endless pursuit of profits as: they ‘live on an

endless treadmill of desire that never reaches a final goal and they remainever empty’ (Arrington 1998:66; Murphy 1993:149ff.; Slote 2010).

338 The contemporary virtue theorist Alasdair MacIntyre (1983) has arguedthat ‘the figure of the manager, as a contemporary character, is incapableof virtues in a genuinely Aristotelian sense’ (Jones et al. 2005:66; cf. Murphy 1993; Doris 2002). For philosopher Descartes (1596–1650),virtue is a supreme good because ‘it is the only good, among all those wecan possess, which depends entirely on our free will’. For HRM, thesupreme good is not virtue but the allocation of human resources. HRM issubmerged in general management operating on market forces while the‘free will’ of subordinates is entirely unwarranted and comprehensivelysuppressed. For Descartes, ‘virtue is the target at which we ought to aim’.HRM’s aim (called organisational goals) deliberately excludes virtues(Beadle & Moore 2006).

339 Stone (2013:252); Jackson et al. (2012:564 & 569); Kramar et al.(2011:323); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:183 & 543); Gunnigle et al.(2011:101).

340 HRM meanwhile does not seem to ‘cultivate curiosity and humanstrength [but] a quest for economic payoff’ (Bix & Edis 2013:172).

341 Arnsperger (2008); Palan (2013).342 In the words of Horkheimer and Adorno’s seminal book ‘Dialectic of

Enlightenment’ (1947), modern mass consumption is based on the ideo-logy that ‘something is provided for all so that none may escape…con-sumers appear as statistics on research organisation charts, and are dividedby income groups into red, green and blue areas; the technique that isused for any type of propaganda’ (cf. Walsh & Lynch 2008).

Notes 265

343 In ‘The Laws’, Plato argued ‘citizens shouldn’t have anything to do withmoney’ (Walsh & Lynch 2008).

344 Gunnigle et al. (2011:47–49); Nel et al. (2012:347).345 Jackson et al. (2012: 16–171 & 27); Kramar et al. (2011:479f. &

2014:325f.). On ‘behavioural cause-and-effect models’ (Jackson et al.2012:127) favoured by HRM, Crosthwaite (2013:95) noted that such anHRM ‘view of the person, as it now stands, is that the person is a purestimulus-response machine. The preferences are given; the relative pricesare given. The person is completely reactive. We might say that theperson’s behaviour is perfectly predetermined or predestined…homo eco-nomicus is really a robot’.

346 Schwind et al. (2013:17); Jackson et al. (2012:384); Kramar et al.(2011:348); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:137–140); Nel et al. (2012:459);Grobler et al. (2011:39).

347 Harding (2011). The dehumanising re-labelling of human beings ashuman resources also avoids the following: ‘it is difficult to hurt otherswho are humanised…[and HR-mangers would] refuse to behave cruelly,even under high instigation to do so, if [HR-managers were to] act underpersonalised responsibilities and recipients were humanised’ (Bandura et al. 1996:371).

348 This is so even though HRM seeks to frame employees as amoral becausethey ‘permit their behaviour to be guided by a decision reached byanother, irrespective of his own judgment as to the merits of that deci-sion’ (Islam 2012:37).

349 Aristotle (often described as the quintessential Greek philosopher thoughhe was Macedonian) believed that slaves and women are defective reason-ers and could not possess full virtues. In ancient Greece it was permissibleto own slaves and women should be sequestered; (cf. Marcuse 1941). ‘TheGreek philosophers never really raised the problem of slavery’ (Midgley1994:378).

350 Perlmutter (1997); Harding (2003); Jobrack (2011).351 Macky (2009:270); Schwind et al. (2013:19); Nel et al. (2012:370).352 Schwind et al. (2013:173); Kramar et al. (2011:413); Beardwell & Claydon

(2011:224–226); Nel et al. (2012:31, 119–121 & 152–155); Grobler et al.(2011:358).

353 Ethics’ core question of ‘what shall I do?’ leads to the wrong path becausethe ‘I’ indicates individuality whereas ethics is a social project (fromAristotle to Adorno), not a project of the individual (ethical egoism, etc.).Without Hegel’s ‘Other’ ethics would not exist. Historically, not the indi-vidual but the community (tribes, groups, collectives, etc.) created humanhistory and ethics. Marcuse (1941) noted that ‘the community comesfirst’. Ethics has always been an issue for human communities who ini-tially developed codes of conduct on how to live together. History is notindividual but universal consciousness. Perhaps, this is best represented inthe consciousness of a primitive group with all individuality submerged inthe community. Feelings, sensations, and concepts are not properties ofindividuals but are shared among all. The common – not the particular –defines consciousness and ethics.

266 Notes

354 On ideology, French philosopher Althusser (1918–1990) noted ‘ideology isas such an organic part of every social totality’. The ideology of HRM hasbeen made an organic part of organisational totality (Fromm1949:164–167; Kohn 1993:26).

355 Meanwhile for HRM, the character trait of being good is less irrelevantthan, for example, a character trait that makes a human resource employ-able, i.e. ‘its’(!) employability as in ‘having marketable skills – skills thatare attractive to an employer’ (Stone 2013:403; Jackson et al. 2012:10;Beardwell & Claydon 2011:248).

356 Meanwhile HRM and Managerialism (2013) have other ideas about socialrelationships. As Fleming & Cederström (2012:7) note, ‘what makes capi-talism different today is that its influence reaches far beyond theoffice…Today, however, capital seeks to exploit our very sociality in allspheres of life. When we all become “human capital” we not only have ajob, or perform a job. We are the job’. In other words, while virtue ethicsrelies on social relationships for moral conduct, capitalism, HRM, andManagerialism pervert and exploit these social relationships for its ends.Islam (2012:40) notes on human capital ‘there is nothing particular abouthuman capital: it is just a capital asset like any other which is to be moreor less specialised to specific uses and/or users’ (cf. dePablos & Tennyson2014; Bhattacharya et al. 2014).

357 Hodgson (2013:107) notes, ‘let us try to teach generosity andaltruism…we, alone on earth, can rebel against the tyranny of the selfishreplicators’. The very opposite has been shown by Ward (2010).

358 Jackson et al. (2012:139); Kramar et al. (2011:576); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:162–180); Groysberg (2012); Savitz (2013).

359 Jackson et al. (2012:204); Macky (2009:69); Nel et al. (2012:163).360 Ward (2010); Clarke (2013); on the professionalism of HRM, see: Alvesson

(2013:153ff.); see: Stone (2014:397) on ‘career planning and development’.361 They are the very opposites of Kant’s imperative – ‘act in such a way that

you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of anyother, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time asan end’. It sees everyone as a ‘means’ – nobody as an end in-themselves(Kant).

362 Paternalistically, HRM frames ‘its’ human resources often as ‘my people’because it can never accept individuals as res nullius, people ‘that belongto no one’ (Eckl 2013:394) because individuals have to belong to HRM (cf. Fritzsche & Becker 1984:166).

363 Schwind et al. (2013:81); Kramar et al. (2011:498f.); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:185); Nel et al. (2012:255).

364 It is Plato who analysed the virtue of ‘pure pleasure’ (Levinas 1961).365 Even though HRM has no use for friendships based on pleasure and

virtues, this is not to say that individual HR managers do not havefriends. They do. But what is at stake here is the essence of HRM and notthe behaviour of an individual manager.

366 Kothari (2010); DeCenzo et al. (2013:291ff.). Overall however, ‘in assum-ing that top-layer staff produces much more value than everyone else, cor-porations now focus on recruiting, retaining, and disproportionately

Notes 267

rewarding that elite, while all others wind up in “a reverse bidding war ascompanies try to reduce the cost of knowledge”’ (Bix & Edis 2013:172; cf. Lippke 1995:58–68).

367 Schwind et al. (2013:23); Jackson et al. (2012:246); Kramar et al.(2011:297, 324–326, 330f.); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:91, 148, 149–154);Macky (2009:91, 97–99, 208); Gunnigle et al. (2011:89f.); Paauwe et al.(2013); Boxall (2013:47f.).

368 A list of Aristotelian virtues is presented in: Arrington (1998:76). 369 Aristotle lived in a society based on the surplus value of slaves. Today’s

society lives on the surplus value of labour. Those who govern theprocess of surplus-extraction were called slave-owners. Today, theseoverseers are called HR Managers (for employees, see Schumann2006:119ff.). They are still strictly segregated from HRM as a managerialgroup perhaps because ‘the presence of others diffuses the sense of per-sonal responsibility of any individual’ (Zimbardo 2004:42). Hence, HR-managers seek to remain undisturbed by ‘others’, such as, for example,trade unions.

370 Offe & Wiesenthal (1980); cf. Zimmerman (1981).371 Perhaps not all too surprising is the fact that among all organisational behav-

iour, organisational change, organisational culture, organisational members,organisational practice, organisational action, organisational strategy, organ-isational knowledge, organisational learning, organisational commitment,organisational performance, organisational development, organisationalstructure, and on and on and on, a term called ‘organisational happiness’ istotally absent from HRM’s vocabulary and thinking.

372 There is OB-organisational behaviour, OS-organisational studies, OT-organisational theory, OD-organisational development and so on but noOH (organisational happiness).

373 Marsden & Townley (1996); Klikauer (2007:138).374 HRM contradicts even utilitarian virtues. Mill (1861) noted ‘the multiplica-

tion of happiness is, according to the utilitarian ethics, the object of virtue’.HRM’s project is not ‘the multiplication of happiness’ but ‘the multiplicationof organisational performance’. For the foremost philosopher on justice,John Rawls (1921–2002), ‘justice is the first virtue of social institutions’(Heller 1989:65 & 79). On that basis, the ‘social institution’ of HRM wouldneed to produce justice, including wage justice. There is still no wagejustice, for example, between men’s and women’s earnings while under aMarxian understanding ‘wage justice’ remains a tautology.

375 Aristotle’s ‘Nicomachean Ethics’ www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/aristotle/ethics.pdf

376 Axelrod & Hamilton (1981); Krebs (2011); Hodgson (2013:111) notes‘Michael Tomasello (2009) provides evidence that children as young astwo years have dispositions to cooperate and help others’.

377 Much to the discomfort (wikipedia.org/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest) of‘the survival of the fittest’ ideologists, Charles Darwin himself noted onthe evolution of morality ‘there can be no doubt that a tribe includingmany members who, from possessing in a high degree the spirit of patrio-tism, obedience, courage, and sympathy, were always ready to give aid toeach other and to sacrifice themselves for the common good, would be

268 Notes

victorious over most other tribes; and this would be natural selection,Charles Darwin (1871)’ (Hodgson 2013:99).

378 Harris (1982); Hart (1993); Selekman (1959:ix) noted ‘General ElectricVice-President, Lemuel R. Boulware’s principle [was] “management knowsbest what should be done for its employees”’.

379 Chriss (2012); Glover (2012:362) noted that ‘people have a disposition tobelieve what they are told, especially when they are told by someone inauthority’.

380 Interestingly, DeCenzo et al. (2013, 11th edition of ‘Fundamentals ofHRM’) does not even mention KPIs any longer. Perhaps the ‘brand-name“KPI”’ has been damaged beyond repair.

381 Kramar et al. (2011:200 & 512); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:135 & 245);Macky (2009:425f.); Nel et al. (2012:518).

382 Greek philosophy saw only men as relevant. But even in antiquity somesuspected that there is no difference between men and women.

383 Jackson et al. (2012:60, 129, 438); Kramar et al. (2011:12); Beardwell &Claydon (2011:32, 62f., 338f.); Macky (2009:350 & 354); Gunnigle et al.(2011:46); Nel et al. (2012:371f.); Grobler et al. (2011:141).

384 Through what HRM calls ‘fitting in’ and management calls organisationalculture, a culture of mindless compliance is fostered through the deliber-ate elimination of any ‘unwarranted’ influence. ‘Milgram found thatobedience was maximised when subjects first observed peers behavingobediently; it was dramatically reduced when peers rebelled’ (Zimbardo2004:27). Almost all ‘rebellious’ elements – trade unions – have been elim-inated. This fosters mindless and unethical obedience to HRM’s manager-ial regimes.

385 Jackson et al. (2012:329 & 423); Kramar et al. (2011:368f. & 375–378);Beardwell & Claydon (2011:467); Macky (2009:258, 263, 282–286);Gunnigle et al. (2011:189–210); Nel et al. (2012:396, 411, 459); Grobler et al. (2011:326).

386 Hidden behind HRM’s ideology of promotion and promote-ability lurksthe hard mathematical fact that the pyramid-structure of any companyworks steeply against promotion. In addition, there are class ceilings, old-boys networks, organisational culture, etc. (Stone 2013:230; cf. Gilbert2012:102).

387 Jackson et al. (2012:24–27, 59f., 87, 411, 489, 492); Kramar et al.(2011:108ff.); Macky (2009:380–402); Nel et al. (2012:42, 45, 81, 225, 265,277, 280ff.); Grobler et al. (2011:468–471); Almond (2013); Stone(2013:532).

388 Gare (2006); Samuel (2010); Winston et al. (2013).389 Schwind et al. (2013:20, 30, 39, 62); Jackson et al. (2012:181); Kramar et

al. (2011:188); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:168, 290); Macky (2009:171);Gunnigle et al. (2011:113f.); Nel et al. (2012:140); Grobler et al.(2011:165–169); Stone (2013:186) cf. ‘merit pay’ (DeCenzo et al. 2013:287;Stone 2013:453).

390 In addition, ‘systems of group-based social hierarchy are not maintainedsimply by the oppressive activities of dominants or the passive compli-ance of subordinates, but rather by the coordinated and collaborativeactivities of both dominants and subordinates’ (Diefenbach 2013:78).

Notes 269

391 For example chapter VI on HRD in Mondy (2014) & chapter III on train-ing and HRM in Dressler (2014).

392 Schwind et al. (2013:1); Jackson et al. (2012:190); Kramar et al.(2011:411–415); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:310–325); Macky (2009:311);Nankervis et al. (2014:287); cf. Sambrook & Willmott (2014); Ford (2014);McGraw (2014).

393 Buchanan (2008); Bastian et al. (2013); James (2013).394 Beardwell & Claydon (2011:238–240); Macky (2009:10); Gunnigle et al.

(2011:260ff.).395 ‘Hume’s recognition that self-esteem must be tempered by benevolence is

reflected in Aristotle’s argument that the development and preservation ofproper self-love requires friendships in which persons come to care forothers for others’ own sakes’ (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/).

396 Herzog (2012:598); Stone (2013:437); Fleming & Cederström (2012:13)note ‘most of us still have a boss above us giving orders. But we have alsopartially internalised this “boss function”’ (cf. Diefenbach & Sillince 2012)when one or all three of Darley’s (1992:208) three modes of socialinfluences are set to work on employees by HRM: ‘compliance’ with HRpolicies; ‘identification’ with corporate mission statements and corporateculture; and ‘internalisation’ leading to mutations such as the‘Organisation Men’ (Whyte 1961).

397 Arendt (1951 & 1994); Glover (2012:357) noted, ‘Eduard Wirths, one ofthe leading Nazi doctors in Auschwitz, wrote to his wife in 1945, “I cansay that I have always done my duty and have never done anything con-trary to what was expected of me”’.

398 Kelman (1965); Kramar et al. (2011:414, 467f.); Macky (2009:340f.); Schwindet al. (2013:296); Grobler et al. (2011:361); Stone’s ‘modelling’ (2013:370)carries connotations to human beings as clay or some kind of ‘play dough’,i.e. a raw mass of humans to be modelled into any shape HRM wants.

399 Entering work meanwhile has been described by Fleming & Cederström(2012:4) as ‘entering the workforce is like entering the grave…from thenon, nothing happens and you have to pretend to be interested in yourwork’.

400 Whyte (1961); Argyris (1964); Kramar et al. (2011:420f.); Macky(2009:316f.); Nel et al. (2012:208f.); Jackson et al. (2012:228); Kramar et al. (2011:420ff.); Macky (2009:317); Grobler et al. (2011:227); Stone(2013:380); Nankervis et al. (2014:291).

401 Performance management, reward management, extrinsic rewards, andcompensation are key features and the measure of all things in HRM. Onthis, the Catholic philosopher Aquinas’ bible has been very clear: JesusChrist threw the moneylenders out of the temple. Similarly, taking inter-est (usury) is prohibited in Islam. Buddhism warns that if you harmanother person when doing business you will inevitably bring harm toyourself. Many commandments issued by religions such as Christianity,Islam, and Buddhism are negated by HRM. The money-code is the corepart of HRM’s operation in the form of reward management. In short,HRM’s focus on reward management negates Christian, Islamic, andBuddhist value ethics. Hence HRM cannot be virtuous in a Christian,Islamic, or Buddhist understanding of ethics.

270 Notes

402 Peperzak (2013); Wilcox (2012:86); Sitton (1987:87); Stone (2014:764).403 HRM assists general management in portraying ‘others’ – competitive cor-

porations, trade unions (in almost all HRM textbooks), environmentalgroups, state regulators, etc. – as enemies (Keen 1986).

404 See also: Socrates (469–399BC) and German philosopher Adorno(1903–1969).

405 Watson (2010); Jackson et al. (2012:242, 246–249, 284f., 508); Kramar et al. (2011:301–393, 435–441); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:154, 176f.,179); Macky (2009:24 & 318); Gunnigle et al. (2011:126 & 201f.); Nel et al. (2012:372); Grobler et al. (2011:319); Gilbert (2012:89); cf. Smith &Tomikoski (2012); see also: Cohen (1983 & 1985).

406 In ‘A Moral Philosophy of Management’, Selekman (1959:77) notes ‘to thecynic, man is basically and always selfish, self-aggrandised, and exploita-tive of his fellow man’.

407 Kant’s ‘Critique of Moral Judgement’ (Kant 1790); Heavey et al. (2013).408 Bolton & Houlian (2008); Gama et al. (2012:97) note, ‘the term human

resources may result in encouraging a depersonalised and dehumanisedview of the employment relationship’. The problem here is twofold: it isnot a ‘may’ but a certainty as HRM is designed to be a depersonalising anddehumanising affair; and it is not only geared towards the employmentrelationship but towards human beings in general.

409 Jackson et al. (2012:550, 531f. & 545–546); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:437); Gunnigle et al. (2011:5, 270, 274, 341–344); Nel et al.(2012:60); Grobler et al. (2011:496, 516); Dundon et al. (2010); Brown &Warren (2011); Vernon & Brewster (2013).

410 Cf. Nietzsche’s ‘herd mentality’ (Banerjee 1992; Klikauer 2012:62);Selekman’s (1959:28) ‘will to power’.

411 Quoted from Campbell, J. et al. (2005:78); Jackson et al. (2012:22–24,100f.); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:421f.); Nel et al. (2012:108–110 & 519);Munter (2013:175) noted on ethics codes, ‘that their purpose is to ensureobedience and conformity…the codes are written in hierarchical languagethat indicates tight control…the codes [have] authoritarian tone…[andthey are] instruments of domination’.

412 Macky (2009:162); cf. Paauwe et al. (2013a); Mostafa & Gould-Williams(2014).

413 Klikauer (2012:87 & 180). What is equally unnatural but purely ideolo-gical is the fostering of a corporate esprit de corps (Davies 2006:47). Thisenhances the likelihood of the following: HRM ‘has little reason to betroubled by guilt or to feel any need to make amends for inhumanconduct if [HRM] re-construes itself as serving worthy [company] pur-poses’ (Bandura et al. 1966:366).

414 Schwind et al. (2013:307ff.); Jackson et al. (2012: 257–259, 341f.); Kramaret al. (2011:167ff., 220–227, 341f.); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:464f.);Macky (2009:261f.); Gunnigle et al. (2011:192); Nel et al. (2012:405f.);Grobler et al. (2011:292).

415 Schwind et al. (2013:453); Jackson et al. (2012:545); Kramar et al.(2011:555f.); Macky (2009:112–116); Gunnigle et al. (2011:338–344); Nelet al. (2012:274–276 & 349).

416 Jackson et al. (2012:56); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:107); Macky(2009:65, 193, 330); Gunnigle et al. (2011:71); Nel et al. (2012:215);

Notes 271

Grobler et al. (2011:637); DeCenzo et al. (2013:198f.); Stone (2013:39).Fleming & Cederström (2012:6) note ‘in a new culture of work thatdemands every fibre of your organism to always be switched on, theenemy of production is what human resources managers like to call pre-senteeism: being present only in body with every other part of you beingfar, far away (on a beach, making love, setting a building on fire, etc.)’.

417 The unconscious revolt against HRM’s systemic and ‘structural violence’(Farmer 1996 & 2004; Sklair 2013) that often finds its expression in bully-ing, mopping, etc. is suppressed through a raft of HRM instruments asoutlined in almost every HRM textbook that takes an – albeit hidden –‘blame the victim’ approach (Lee & Brotheridge 2013). Those who rebelagainst HRM’s system of structural violence are blamed for their inabilityto suffer in silence.

418 While ideologically everything that points into the direction of theworker-vs.-management contradictions is eliminated, at shopfloors thosewho HRM perceives as not fitting in – the misfits– are also eliminated.This can, for example, occur through witch-hunts when HRM ‘focuses onmarginalised people who look or act differently from ordinary people’(Zimbardo 2004:23; cf. Barstow 1994). This carries connotations to MalleusMaleficarum, the handbook of the German Inquisitors from the RomanCatholic Church (Bandura et al. 1996).

419 Kelman (1965); Ackroyd & Thompson (1999).420 For Adorno Mündigkeit also entails the ability of ‘not co-operating with a

bad life even though this might lead to frustration, isolation, alienation,and despair’ because cooperation with a bad life will not create a ‘good lifeof fulfilment and happiness’ (cf. Bastian et al. 2013).

421 ‘The morality of people (human resources) is overwhelmed by an organ-isational culture making people to believe, to obey, and to conform to HR-policies. In addition, the organisational belief system was effective inmaking people internalise them. Not only were people afraid of HRM’ssanctioning regime (disciplinary action): many also thought disobedienceof managerial orders would be wrong…people were to be transformedfrom job applicants to human resources and organisational members.There was to be a new organisational identity, rooted in an outlookactively hostile to the responses which constitute non-performance’. Thereal quote reads: ‘the moral resources were overwhelmed by pressure tobelieve, to obey and to conform. In addition, the Nazi belief system waseffective in making people internalise them. Not only were people afraid:many also thought disobedience would be wrong…people were to betransformed. There was to be a new Nazi identity, rooted in an outlookactively hostile to the responses which constitute our humanity’ (Glover2012:327; cf. human resource effectiveness index – HREI, Nankervis et al.2014:557).

422 As Hampden-Turner (1970:127) noted, the axiom of Albert Camus ‘I rebel,therefore we exist’.

423 Whyte (1961); Argyris (1964); Jackson et al. (2012:207); Schwind et al.(2013:189); Kramar et al. (2011:531); Macky (2009:162 & 241); Gunnigleet al. (2011:54f.); Gilbert (2012:134ff.); Peccei et al. (2013:37–45); Bastianet al. (2013). HRM is so obsessed with fitting in that it even has invented a

272 Notes

‘fit between the fits’ (Paauwe et al. 2013a:72–77; Nankervis et al.2014:229).

424 Jackson et al. (2012:19, 76 & 160); Schwind et al. (2013:39); Kramar et al.(2011:187f.); Gunnigle et al. (2011:26); Grobler et al. (2011:589).

425 Schrijvers (2004:11).426 According to Wrong (1994:5), ‘order consists of predictability, of human

conduct on the basis of common and stable expectations’. This is crucialfor HRM because it depends on the ‘predictability’ of human resources’organisational behaviour and an ability to operate with a ‘stable expecta-tion’ of subordinates’ conduct. HRM also depends on an organisational‘order, regularity, and predictability’ of human resources.

427 On law and order, German philosopher Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979)noted, ‘law and order are always and everywhere the law and order whichprotect the established hierarchy; it is nonsensical to invoke the absoluteauthority of this law and this order against those who suffer from it andstruggle against it – not for personal advantage and revenge, but for theirshare of humanity’ (Marcuse 1969:130); McMahon (1989); Peter & Hull(1969 & 2009); Baillargeon (2013).

428 Schwind et al. (2013:17); Jackson et al. (2012:78, 90, 549); Kramar et al.(2011:553 & 593); Kramar et al. (2014:71 & 126); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:432); Macky (2009:117, 121, 123f., 291–294); Gunnigle et al.(2011:30 & 328); Nel et al. (2012:129 & 233); Grobler et al. (2011:18);Stone (2014:121ff.).

429 Rawls (2001:99f.); cf. Rawls (2009); MacKinnon (2013:150f.).430 The suggestion of a legal philosophy called ‘legal positivism’ that ‘law and

order’ have an intrinsic value apart from moral ends is a fallacy. Positivelaw is man-made by a given political community, society, or nation-state.‘Natural law’ (lex naturalis) posits that laws are set by nature and thattherefore have validity everywhere (cf. Rothbard 1982:1–26); Latour(2009); Dworkin’s ‘Constitutionalism’ (1978, 1985, 1986, 1996, 2002); cf. Howard Zinn’s Disobedience and Democracy – Nine Fallacies on Law andOrder (1968); on legal positivism see: Kelsen (1928, 1945, 1967); Fromm(1949:9); Marcuse (1969:95); Raz (1979 & 2003); Waldron (1993); Wrong(1994:1); Latour (2009); Gardner (2010); Rawls’ concept of a ‘Social andMoral Order’ as outlined in his ‘Justice as Fairness’ (2001:8ff.).

431 Much in line with that is the fact that ‘protecting the “kings” peace was oneof the earliest building blocks of the common law’ (Douzinas 2013:131).Following that, the domineering role of HRM and reason for HR-policies isthe protection of HRM, the company, and general management.

432 For Wrong (1994:11) ‘the problem of order is the problem of how indi-vidual units…are arranged in non-random social patterns’. Wrong hasdescribed the precise problems for HRM which are: firstly, to convertpeople into individual human resources; secondly, the need to arrangethose resources and treat them as objects of power (Bauman 1989); andthirdly, these resources need to be made to follow an organisationalpattern to achieve organisational outcomes. This, almost inevitablycreates ‘the entrenched viciousness of organisational life’ (Storey 2007:2).

433 Cf. Drucker (1951); Habermas (1985, 1996, 1997); Deetz (1992) Klikauer(2008 & 2010).

Notes 273

434 Blumberg (1968); Scott (1997:21ff.); Casey (2012).435 Kant’s self-determination and self-legislation (cf. Reath 2013; Moyar

2013:592).436 On authority, legal positivist writer Raz (1979:34) noted, ‘it is in the

nature of authority that it requires submission even when one thinks thatwhat is required is against reason. Therefore, submission to authority isirrational. Since authority sometimes requires action against one’s ownjudgement, it requires abandoning one’s moral autonomy’.Organisational authority is a near perfect example of this (cf. Gellner1987:310; Fromm 1949:8f.). On authority, Hampden-Turner (1970:124)emphasised, ‘those of us who needlessly accept the commands of author-ity cannot yet claim to be civilised men’.

437 Jackson et al. (2012:57); Schwind et al. (2013:29); Gunnigle et al.(2011:314); DeCenzo et al. (2013:120).

438 Beardwell & Claydon (2011:432); Schwind et al. (2013:65); Nel et al.(2012:47–50).

439 This is, of course, considering the difference between legal theory andlegal reality as well as the rejection of the naïve idea that people shapelaws as outlined, for example, in legal positivism (Reiman & Leighton2013; Raz 1979).

440 Heavey et al. (2013:147). Thomas Hobbes’ philosophy, for example,denotes, ‘continuation of fear, and danger of violent death; and the life ofman, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. His solution was that every-one should submit to an absolute ruler, who would have the power to setpenalties sufficiently severe to enforce social rules’ (Glover 2012:20). Thisappears like an ideal for HRM (Klikauer 2010:180–192). It also carries con-notations to Adorno et al.’s (1964) ‘authoritarian personality [where] pun-ishment for breaking rules played a big role. Neither emotional warmthnor reasoning about moral principles figured much in the accounts’(Glover 2012:330).

441 Giddens (1984:22) noted, ‘most rules imply…the production and repro-duction of social practices’. There is a ‘structuring quality of rules’(Giddens 1984:23).

442 Hegel (1807); Honneth (1995); Williams (1998); Anderson (2009); Hoy(2009).

443 HRM calls this ‘behaviour modification’ (Arnold 2005; Arnold & Randal2010:240f.; Aamodt 2010:307f.).

444 Beardwell & Claydon (2011:543 & 545); Grobler et al. (2011:18); Schwindet al. (2013:209 & 243); Jackson et al. (2012:296); Nel et al. (2012:382);Gunnigle et al. (2011:121).

445 For that HRM ‘strives to maintain a certain level of deviance within [anorganisation] as deviance is functional to clarifying…boundaries, provid-ing scapegoats, clearing out-groups [e.g. trade union members]…to furtherin-groups’ and the managerial esprit de corps.

446 Schmidtke (2007); Schwind et al. (2013:227, 239, 245); Sørensen (2002).447 Giddens (1984:20) noted, ‘after all, the word “regulative” already implies

rule: its dictionary definition is controlled by rules’. Fromm (1949:155)noted that ‘the authority as lawgiver [i.e. HRM] makes its subjects [.i.e. subordinates] feel guilty for their many and unavoidable trans-

274 Notes

gressions…the dependence of irrational authority results in a weakeningof will in the dependent person and, at the same time, whatever tends toparalyse the will makes for an increase in dependence. Thus a viciouscircle is formed’.

448 Anseel et al. (2009); Spencer (2012); Nel et al. (2012:69–71 & 222–224);Schwind et al. (2013:156); Kramar et al. (2011:101); Kramar et al.(2014:103); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:398, 413f., 421f., 414); Macky(2009:239f.); Gunnigle et al. (2011:369–371); Grobler et al. (2011:480); cf. Selekman’s ‘demotion’ (1959:68).

449 HRM’s term ‘will be deducted’ is always formulated in the passive to makethe active part – HRM – disappear (Klikauer 2007 & 2008).

450 In the relationship of crime and business things are different. Nader(1967:7–8) noted, the report quotes Professor Sanford Kadish: ‘It is poss-ible to reason convincingly that the harm done by violations ofmany…regulatory laws [on business] is of a magnitude that dwarfs insignificance the lower class property offences. The hard mode to humanhealth and safety by business crime should dispel the distinguishing char-acteristic of “white-collar crime”’ (cf. Pardue et al. 2013).

451 Such as Plato, Aristotle, Claude Henri de Rouvroy comte de Saint-Simon,Rousseau, Burke, Hume, Mill, Popper, Hegel, Rawls, Adorno, Marcuse,Bauman, Habermas, and Z

∨iz

∨ek to name a few.

452 Dalton (1959:244); Schrijvers (2004); Storey (2007:2); Croker (2012).453 Macintyre (1983:354f.); Sen (2009); Heller (1989:5 & 68); Velasquez

(2012:105); Peccei et al. (2013:26f. & 32–37). Even the much acclaimedchampion of neo-liberal deregulation, Adam ‘Smith also insists on thevital importance of a system of justice based on moral principles’(Hodgson 2013:12) – not based on what is good for HRM or the company.This contrasts HRM’s ideological quest to deregulate as found, forexample, in: ‘Australian Working Conditions Are Too Strict’ (Stone2014:763).

454 Burkemper et al. (2013); Pereira (2013); Taylor (2013); Burke (2012);Aulino et al. (2013); Bowles (2012); Williams & Arrigo (2004); Fogel(2000); Rothbard (1974).

455 The issue of justice is perhaps almost as old as philosophy. ‘Socrates hasmeant in saying that virtue is the mark to which one should look inliving, all actions, one’s own…directed to the end that justice…shall bepresent in one who is the blessed’ (Vlastos 1991:13). But HRM appears torepresent the exact opposite of Socrates’ moral philosophy.

456 Free Will is a term used by moral philosophy for a particular sort of capacityof rational agents to choose a course of action from among various alterna-tives. There is (a) freedom of action and (b) freedom of will (cf. Zimmerman1981). David Hume described it as ‘the power of acting or of not acting,according to the determination of the will’, while Wolf (1990) noted that‘an agent acts freely only if he had the ability to choose the true and thegood’. The philosophy of a ‘free will’ also relates to the ‘external manipula-tion problem’ (Mele 1995) while Fischer (1994 & 1998) distinguished twosorts of controls over one’s actions: guidance and regulative control.

457 Constitutionality has been associated with Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baronde La Brède et de Montesquieu (1689–1755) or simply Montesquieu (1752),

Notes 275

John Locke (1632–1704), and John Austin (1832); for ‘legal positivism’,see: Kelsen (1928, 1945, 1967); Hart (1958 & 1961); Campbell (1996).Interestingly, many constitutions include a bill of rights but none anEconomic Bill of Rights (cf. Quinn 1953:2).

458 As Selekman (1959:75) put it, ‘authority gives management the sanctionsto direct men’…‘a boss governs for any length of time by threats of pun-ishment’ (Selekman 1959:76).

459 In ordinary society, policemen cannot make the law, arrest someone, andbe the judge, even if in each case it was a different policeman; it wouldstill violate the separation of power.

460 Cf. Locke, J. 1690. Two Treatises of Government (10th ed.), Project Gutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/trgov10h.htm.

461 This is ‘the free individual [who] is determined by nothing but himself’(MacIntyre 1970:17); cf. Allison et al. (2010); Geiger (2007); Beiner &William (1993); Fleischacker (1999); Flikschuh (2000).

462 This right is very much in line with the general philosophical concept ofright, namely that ‘right is the demand not to be treated as an object or asa nobody’ (Douzinas 2013:85). But it is exactly what HRM violates whenconverting human beings into human resources/objects and when peopleare treated as ‘nobodies’ with ID-numbers, barcodes exposed to head-counts, downsizing, and outsourcing (cf. Muñoz-Bullón & Sánchez-Bueno2014).

463 Kant uses Rousseau’s terms when discussing free will: ‘will of all, publicwill, and general will’. Rousseau’s theory of freedom denotes that indi-vidual freedom is achieved through participation in the process wherebyone’s community exercises collective control over its own affairs in accor-dance with the ‘general will’. MacCallum (1967) defined the basic conceptof freedom as a subject, or agent, free from certain constraints or prevent-ing conditions to do or become certain things. Freedom is therefore atriadic relation – that is, a relation between three things: an agent, certainpreventing conditions, and certain doings or becoming an agent (cf. Marglin 1974; Rothbard 1982:215; Heller 1989:84f.; Zimmermann1981); see also Kant’s ‘Rechtslehre’ (Pogge 1997).

464 Berlin (1969); Eckl (2013:397). HRM tends to view this as ‘that which isnot forbidden is permissible’ (Carlin & Strong (1995:388), e.g. only theseforms of discrimination are non-permissible that are explicitly madeillegal.

465 For Raz (1979:212) the rule of law means literally what it says: the rule of thelaw. Taken in its broadest sense, it means that people should obey the lawand be ruled by it. In the realm of HRM, it means that subordinates shouldbe ruled by HR policies, should obey them, and should be ruled by them.Hence, ‘if the law is to be obeyed it must be capable of guiding the behaviourof its subjects’ (Raz 1979:214). This is exactly why HRM has invented HRpolicies, rules, and procedures. They guide the behaviour of subordinates intotal absence of what Kant called self-determination and Hegel termed self-actualisation (cf. Heller 1989:107; Sayer 2008:35; Hoy 2009).

466 Cf. Hegel (1803/4, 1807, 1821, 1830); Durkheim (1983:33); Klikauer(2010:105–127).

276 Notes

467 In companies and in HRM regimes, there is no legislature, no executive,and no judiciary (plato.stanford.edu/entries/montesquieu/#4). Structuresthat do not include these provisions are commonly called dictatorships.

468 Dworkin (1978, 1985, 1986, 1996).469 Israeli philosopher Ido Geiger (2007) noted, the state seeks to justify itself

through the order it has imposed on nature, but that nature, as non-rational, cannot actually be the source of this authority. In other words,HRM cannot legitimise its authority by imposing it onto subordinates.Not because these are non-rational agents but because they are not in aposition of self-determination (cf. Schumann 2006:122).

470 This is important not only for internal but also external reasons because‘corporate business had to develop a position of responsibility whichwould win its acceptance as a legitimate institution’ (Selekman 1959:7).

471 Hence, HRM and HR policies represent what Plato has noted as (quotedin: Heller 1989:67), ‘bad constitutions breed unjust citizens, and thatunjust people enact unjust laws’. For Plato, this is evil and ‘evil is themisuse of reason’ (Heller 1989:67). HRM uses reason to create HR policiesthat are unjust and thereby violate Plato’s demand for just laws and theapplication of reason for that.

472 Scott (1990); Biswas & Cassell (1996); Diefenbach & Sillince (2012).473 Beardwell & Claydon (2011:669); Gunnigle et al. (2011:185).474 For Kant, this is expressed in recognition of an original contract. It is

Kant’s reason that forces the sovereign to ‘give his laws in such a way thatthey could have arisen from the united will of a whole people and toregard each subject, insofar as he wants to be a citizen, as if he has joinedin voting for such a will’. When HRM creates HR policies, it almost neverhas this in mind.

475 Sovereignty can be seen as the right to command and correlatively theright to be obeyed. Hobbes conceived the sovereign as being above the law.Jean Bodin (1530–1596) was the first European philosopher to treat theconcept extensively. His souveraineté featured as a central concept in hiswork De la république (1576) with its English edition published as ‘OnSovereignty’. For him, only a supreme authority within a territory couldstrengthen a fractured community. Bertrand de Jouvenel and Jacques andJacques Maritain also acknowledge that sovereignty is an importantattribute of modern political authority; it is needed to quell disputeswithin the state and to muster cooperation in defence against outsiders.They noted that ‘authority carries with it the obligation to command thething that should be commanded’ (stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/; cf. Heller 1989:79).

476 Meanwhile for corporate CEOs, for example, things are different when ‘aCEO admitted that: “we would not knowingly break the rules anywhere.We always employ one set of experts to tell us what they are and anotherset to tell us how to get around them…it is the job of the government tomake the rules, and ours to find the loopholes”’ (Holzer 2010:13).

477 Dworkin (2002); Kumar (2000 & 2001); Miller (2002); Norcross (2002);O’Neill (2003); Pettit (2006); Raz (2003); Reibetanz (1998); Scanlon (1982,1998, 2000, 2003); Timmons (2003); Watson (2002).

Notes 277

478 Laufer & Robertson (1997); Jackson et al. (2012:534); Kramar et al.(2011:158); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:388 & 394); Macky (2009:120);Gunnigle et al. (2011:356f.); Nel et al. (2012:41–43).

479 On this, Heller (1989:11) noted, ‘every teacher who ever failed a student,every parent who ever punished a child, every person who ever ranked,graded, distributed and judged (and we all have), has felt the coldness andeven the cruelty of justice’ (cf. Fromm 1949:143ff.).

480 Instead of creating Kant’s Kingdom of Ends and Hegel’s Sittlichkeit, ‘thestrong executive’, says Dalton (1959), ‘is one for whom rules are a means,not an end…strong executives are [also] most likely to bypass rules’(Klikauer 2012a).

481 Based on Managerialism’s prime ideology of deregulation, individuals aremade to believe that only HRM can underpin a crypto-legal frameworkinside companies. ‘But in practice, even pro-market governments overridethe individual (and HRM’s policies]. Governments never fully follow theadvice of economists [and Managerialism] that [HRM and] individuals arethe best judges of their own welfare. Instead, many possible choices aredeclared illegal, even when there is mutual consent by those directly con-cerned. Hence there are commonplace restrictions or prohibitions onincest and sex with children’ for example (Hodgson 2013:22; Ambec et al.2013).

482 Schwartz (2000); Jackson et al. (2012:22–24); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:421); Nel et al. (2012:516); Schwind et al. (2013:28).

483 Any Google search on ‘company car policy’ delivers more than one billionhits.

484 According to Macintyre (1983:356), ‘every action HRM takes and everypolicy it implements alters the options that are available to subordinatesas well as their heirs and successors’. Fromm (1949:10) emphasised,‘authoritarian ethics denies man’s capacity to know what is good or bad;the norm giver is always an authority transcending the individual’.

485 DeCenzo et al. (2013:58); Stone (2013:129); Smith et al. (2013).486 Subramony (2009); Tuytens & Devos (2012).487 Jackson et al. (2012:90 & 549–551); Macky (2009:117 & 123); Gunnigle

et al. (2011:345–347); Nel et al. (2012:74).488 Milgram (1974); Blass (1991, 1992, 1999, 2002); Singer’s legal, moral, and

political obligation (1973:1–6).489 Karl Marx’s The German Ideology (1846), part I: Feuerbach – Opposition of

the Materialist and Idealist Outlook, A. Idealism and Materialism, TheIllusions of German Ideology, www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm; Wrong (1994:218) noted, ‘Marx mayhave been “the master sociologist of disorder” and Durkheim the mastersociologist of order’.

490 ‘Rigid exclusion of considerations of the individual case made thingseasier for those carrying out the policy’ (Glover 2012:347).

491 Grobler et al. (2011:536); DeCenzo et al. (2013:110ff.).492 Offe & Wiesenthal (1980); Paauwe et al. (2013).493 Kramar et al. (2011:414, 467f.); Macky (2009:340f.); Schwind et al.

(2013:296); Grobler et al. (2011:361).

278 Notes

494 It is the panoptical version of surveillance as expressed in Foucault’s‘Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison’ (1995); Thompson (2003);Klikauer (2007:171f.). On this, Kohn (1999:33) noted, ‘control breeds theneed for more control, which then is used to justify the use of control’.

495 Patel & Hamlin (2012); Ardichvilia et al. (2012).496 Gall (2009); Heery & Simms (2010); DeCenzo et al. (2013:368) has ‘tips for

success [against] the union drive [because management can] defend them-selves against the union campaign’.

497 ‘Cascading down’ is a buzzword for transmitting information downwardand for issuing orders. It is part of directing downward and reportingupward. Workers view ‘cascading down’ rather crudely as ‘they piss on us’(cf. Klikauer 2007:171).

498 The Greek philosopher Thrasymachus (459–400BCE) thought that thegreater the injustice, the greater the payoff, the more power and strength it brings(cf. Machiavelli, Hobbes, Nietzsche).

499 This is in complete contradiction to the Universal Declaration of HumanRights, everything Kant has ever written [www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/], and evolutionary ethics: ‘the universality of social norms, andtheir critical role in human evolution, is apparent’ (Tomasello 2009:42).

500 Beardwell & Claydon (2011:419); Gunnigle et al. (2011:271f.); Nel et al.(2012:346).

501 In short, one is seated in business class while others travel in economy.One drives a Mercedes-Benz with an assigned car park at the office whilethe other drives a Honda-Civic searching for a car space every morning orsimply takes a bus.

502 Gentry et al. (2012); Kramar et al. (2011:446); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:580); Macky (2009:12); Schwind et al. (2013:120); Nel et al.(2012:169 & 278); Jackson et al. (2012:159).

503 Cf. American philosopher Brian Skyrms’ Evolution of the Social Contract(1996).

504 Nelson (2012); Jackson et al. (2012:284 & 329); Schwind et al. (2013:329);Kramar et al. (2011:54f.); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:471); Nel et al.(2012:441f.).

505 This might be in line with what HRM calls ‘upper echelon theory’ that is‘a firm is a reflection of its top managers’ (DeWinne & Sels 2013:182). Butit is not in line with self-respect that ‘has three components: (1) a respect-ful attitude towards oneself; (2) conduct that expresses respect towardsoneself; and (3) an “object” of self-respect that provides the individualwith a standard of conduct against which to form a cumulative assess-ment of her worth’ (Lippke 1995:36).

506 Weber (1904–1905); Beder (2000); Maier (2005).507 Gladwell (2002); Gibney (2006); Elkind & McLean (2013).508 Blau (1964); Offe & Wiesenthal (1980); Fleming & Sturdy (2009); Costas

(2012); Dale (2012); Chriss (2012).509 http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1249728/Cadbury-sacks-400-

workers-Kraft-breaks-promise-shut-factory.html510 Hechter & Horne (2009); Roche & Teague (2012).511 Bowles & Gintis (1972, 1975, 1976 & 2001); Hechter & Horne (2009).

Notes 279

512 Bowles & Gintis (1976); Klikauer (2007:183–204); Spagnoli & Caetano(2012).

513 ‘Tolerance and acceptance of [HR policies] is…administered to manipulateand indoctrinate individuals and subordinates who parrot, as their own,the opinion and [HR policies] of their masters’ (Marcuse 1969:104).

514 Walzer (1981); MacIntyre (1989); Habermas (1996a); Freeman (2000);Jackson (2014); MacGilvray (2014).

515 Gunnigle et al. (2011:129f.); Nel et al. (2012:207); Grobler et al.(2011:644).

516 Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746) and Lytton Strachey (1880–1932) werealso utilitarian philosophers (Legge 1998:23; cf. plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/; www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11224); Vlastos(1991:200ff); Velasquez (2012:76–80); cf. Nussbaum & Sen (1993);Robinson et al. (2012).

517 Yet ‘the law provides all means necessary to guarantee and protect thepower and wealth of the ruling elites and their supporters’ (Diefenbach2013:64).

518 It appears as if HRM’s instruments such as, for example, performancemanagement, are designed to ‘unfairly impede individuals in their effortsto attain happiness, autonomy, and self-development’ (Lippke 1995:4).

519 Two of HRM’s ideologies underpinning its hyper-individualism are, forexample, ‘social contract theory and general equilibrium theory [which]both presume structured relations between individuals rather than indi-viduals in isolation. They also presume social institutions. For example,property rights require some systems of enforcement’ (Hodgson 2013:38).

520 Selekman (1959:54) notes ‘recognition of unions did not come as a volun-tary act, but rather as something imposed on a company by economic andpolitical power’ (cf. Stone 2014:552).

521 plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/ Arrington (1998:379ff.);Railton (2012a).

522 This is in sharp contrast to Kant who demands that ethics be based onone’s intentions. HRM does have moral intentions. Its exclusive inten-tion is however not ‘saving a fellow creature’ but organisational perfor-mance (cf. Williams 2006; Heller 1989:94; Heathwood 2010; Schumann2006:122f.).

523 What has been essential to HRM meanwhile is an uncritical subscriptionto the authoritarian and non-democratic system of managerial controlover people as enshrined in Taylorism’s ‘Manufacturing Ideology:Scientific Management’ (Tsutsui 2001). By implication, HRM also acceptsthe core ideology of Taylorism found in ‘scientific management and thenature of man as expressed in “man in his natural state is lazy and plea-sure-seeking [and] man achieves happiness through material consump-tion”’ (Merkle 1980:291).

524 ROA = return on assets (Nankervis et al. 2014:474; Fulmer & Ployhart2014).

525 Islam (2012:41) notes ‘as routinised measurements become dislocatedfrom the living human experience from which they are drawn, recogni-tion theory suggests they have harmful consequences for personaldignity’. Performance management is such a ‘routine measurement’ while

280 Notes

the moral philosophy of utilitarianism strongly advocates the ‘no harm’principle which HRM violates.

526 Stone (2013:416). HRM’s term ‘downshifter’ (Kramar et al. 2011:542)implies a double-negativity as in down i.e. the negativity of ‘going down’and downwards combined with ‘shift’, i.e. being shifty, suspicious,dubious, and untrustworthy (cf. Wood & de Menezes 2010; Hobson2013).

527 Happiness and wellbeing carry connotations of hedonism (Epicurus341–270 BC) that Mill developed into a hedonistic theory of value. Thishas been further modified into the ‘Swine Morality’ (cf. Nussbaum & Sen1993; Brown et al. 2009; Mackay 2013); Cañibano (2013); Giacalone &Promislo (2013).

528 HRM violates what Greek moral philosophy calls ‘Eudaemonia’. ‘Socrates’true place in the development of Greek thought: he is the first to establishthe eudaemonist foundation of ethical theory which becomes commonground for all the schools that spring up around him’ (Vlastos 1991:10).Eudaemonia is a Greek word commonly translated as happiness, welfare,and human flourishing. As such, HRM is not dedicated to human flourish-ing but to corporate flourishing.

529 Jackson et al. (2012:188, 312, 476); Kramar et al. (2011:526); Schwind et al. (2013:35); Macky (2009:263 & 421); Gunnigle et al. (2011:64f. &163); Grobler et al. (2011:152).

530 Hence, no HRM textbook ever mentions what, for example Greek moralphilosophy meant by wellbeing when Aristotle says that everyone agreesthat eudaemonia (roughly wellbeing) is the highest good for humanbeings.

531 In Utilitarianism (1861), Mill noted, ‘happiness intends pleasure and theabsence of pain’. HRM does not have the intention to create happinessand its essence is not working towards ‘the absence of pain’. Accidentally,HRM might create happiness as a by-product. If it creates pain (usually toothers) it is sometimes at pains to justify it. It is often legitimised bycatchphrases like ‘it will be hard at first, but in the long run it will payoff’. On this Macintyre (1983:353) noted, ‘they [HR managers] are neces-sarily going to be involved in situations where they cannot benefitsomeone without harming someone else’ (cf. Fromm 1949:14 & 19; Heller1989:96; Dine & Fagan 2006).

532 An even more obscene way of ‘dealing with’ the threats coming from acommunity is simply to convert a profit-driven business entity such as acorporation into a community when ‘corporations are viewed as com-munities’ (Lippke 1995:22; cf. Peffer 1990).

533 Kramar et al. (2011:75 & 221–224); Schwind et al. (2013:19, 49, 98);Beardwell & Claydon (2011:4, 58, 67); Macky (2009:150 & 166f.);Gunnigle et al. (2011:63); Nel et al. (2012:223f.); Grobler et al. (2011:24,267–270, 542f.); Fishman (2013).

534 The outsourcing and relocation of production has also other harmfuleffects. When HRM ‘peruses activities harmful to others for personalgains, or because of’ organisational ‘inducements’, HRM ‘avoids facing theharm they cause, or’ HRM ‘minimises it’ (Bandura et al. 1996:365). Inother words, mistreatment of employees can be belittled or even denied

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altogether when it occurs in distant sweatshops (HR-terminology: out-sourcing) under the well-known motto: out of sight – out of mind! It isalso easier for HRM to ‘discredit evidence of the harm they cause’(Bandura et al. 1996:366) when a company’s sweatshop is located faraway, for example, in Bangladesh (laborrights.org/sweatshop-fires-in-bangladesh; www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-22306135).

535 This might even date back to Socrates’ dictum that ‘he who wrongsanother person always damages his own happiness more than his victims’Vlastos (1991:5).

536 The anti-democratic stance of HRM occurred despite the ideological sepa-ration of corporate citizenship from democracy (Arthur et al. 2008) andthe fact that ‘citizens have a responsibility to support the democratizationof business enterprises’ (Lippke 1995:9; cf. Douzinas 2013:86).

537 HRM specifically rejects, for example, industrial relations’ (IR) ‘relation-ship’ approach. It seeks to replace IR’s horizontal with HRM’s verticalstructure and thereby creates asymmetrical power links (Guest 1987;Ghosh & Ray 2012; Procter & Rowlinson 2012).

538 For HRM, this means treating equals [i.e. HRM] equal and non-equals[non-organisational staff] unequal in relative – not– absolute terms (Heller1989:2). For HRM, Orwell’s (1945) dictum that ‘some pigs are more equalthan others’ remains. As Rousseau (1755) said, it is ‘the creation and rein-forcement of inequality’ (cf. Murphy 1993; Wolff & Zacharias 2013; Tinel2013).

539 Habermas’ Theory of Communicative Action (vol. II; 1997:267–273).540 Quoted from Driver (2007:59), cf. Layard’s ‘Happiness – Lessons from a

New Science’ (2005); Cashen (2012).541 Kaplan & Norton (1992, 1993, 2004); Jackson et al. (2012:336); Kramar

et al. (2011:38f., 525f., 642); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:70–72 & 471);Macky (2009:424); Schwind et al. (2013:319); Gunnigle et al. (2011:66);Nel et al. (2012:108 & 417).

542 http://www.rightattitudes.com/2008/02/06/jack-welch-four-types-of-managers/

543 This might even suggest the following: ‘the basic tenet of the DilbertPrinciple is that the most ineffective workers are systematically moved tothe place where they can do the least damage: management’ (Borowski1998:162); cf. Nankervis et al. (2014:557).

544 http://www.greenamerica.org/programs/responsibleshopper/company.cfm?id=306

545 According to Selekman (1959:21) ‘they regard labour as a cost to bereduced as far as rapidly possible’.

546 Aubenas (2011); Pedersen & Lewis (2012); Duncana & Pettigrew (2012);Johnstone & Wilkinson (2012); Velasquez (2012:178); Kroon & Paauwe(2014).

547 Beardwell & Claydon (2011: 391f. & 583); Gunnigle et al. (2011:16 &265f.).

548 On consciousness, Marx (1844) noted, ‘consciousness can never be any-thing else than conscious existence, and the existence of man in theiractual life-process’. According to Sidgwick, consciousness can be inher-ently good. But actual organisational processes and the ‘labour process’

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(Ackroyd & Thompson 1999) turn humans into objects of organisationalpower (Bauman 1989). The natural ‘inherently good consciousness’(Sidgwick) is deformed by an artificial process of HRM negating moral andethical consciousness with organisational performance.

549 See also: moral disengagement (Bandura et al. 1996).550 Schrijvers (2004); Gilbert (2012:159ff.); James (2013).551 Mill’s ‘Utilitarianism’ (1861); DeColle & Werhane (2008:754); Hodgson

(2013).552 Not surprisingly, HR governed workplaces are not places of happiness but

rather represent what Layard (2005:48) called the ‘Hedonistic Treadmill,where you have to keep running in order that your happiness stands still’.Instead of happiness, HRM focuses, for example, on HR planning (Jacksonet al. 2012:16; Kramar et al. 2011:220–227; Nankervis et al. 2014:133–135).

553 Happiness is also at the core of Eudemonism (Aquinas 1250 & Aristotle35BC). It states that ‘an action is good if it promotes or tends to promotethe fulfilment of goals constitutive of human nature and its happiness’(Feinberg 2012).

554 More precisely, Aristotle presents various conceptions of the best life forhuman beings. These are (1) a life of pleasure, (2) a life of political activityand (3) a philosophical life. All of them are contradicted by HRM as HRMnever advocates a life of pleasure but a life under performance manage-ment; it does not foster a life of political activity as it seeks to undermineany political activity remotely linked to, for example, trade unionism; andfinally, it has no interest in a ‘philosophical life’ either. In short and whenmeasured against Aristotle, HRM represents the very opposite of whatGreek moral philosophy advocates.

555 Smith (1987:121); Gare (2006); Klikauer (2010:88–125).556 Jackson et al. (2012:315); Kramar et al. (2011:602–608 & 611–614);

Beardwell & Claydon (2011:185); Macky (2009:340f.); Schwind et al.(2013:175); Nel et al. (2012:255); Grobler et al. (2011:256).

557 On the unmentioned employees, Graves (1924:48) noted decades ago,‘the organisation is a sort of hierarchy which chooses to ignore the littlefellow’; cf. Marsden & Townley (1996); Klikauer (2007:138).

558 In terms of moral philosophy, HRM violates a key demand of ethicsbecause ‘Kant introduces the idea of “legislating for oneself”…the conceptof legislation requires superior power in the legislator’ (Anscombe 1958:2).Selekman (1959:26); in some cases, democracy is even reduced to a non-democratic version of team-based participation ideologically framed as‘involvement’ while simultaneously excluding collective participation andrepresentative participation in which Knudsen & Lind’s (2011:385 & 390)‘D’ no longer stands for democracy; cf. Sitton’s ‘opinions are formed in aprocess of open discussion and public debate’ (1987:84; cf. Fritzsche &Becker’s ‘right to free speech’, 1984:167; Reed 1997).

559 Aronoff (1975); Perlmutter (1997); Harding (2003); Cameron et al. (2003);Jobrack (2011).

560 On this, Adorno and Horkheimer (1944) noted ‘the ways in which a girlaccepts and keeps the obligatory date, the inflection on the telephone orin the most intimate situation, the choice of words in conversations, and

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the whole inner life as classified by the now somewhat devalued depthpsychology, bear witness to man’s attempt to make himself a proficientapparatus. This is similar to the model served up by the cultural industry’.

561 HRM hardly ever employs philosophers just as business schools hardlyever employ them except in cases where a bit of ‘alibi-ethics’ is required togive the appearance of being ethical. Having a mission statement on cor-porate social responsibility is part of ‘The Myth System’ (Fleming & Jones2013). Watson (2003:29) illustrates this in the following way: ‘James andJ. S. Mill wrote books that changed the course of history while working forthe East Indian Company, a multinational. Today they wouldn’t. Todaythey would be attending countless meetings, seminars and conferences toupdate their knowledge of work-related subjects, all of them conducted inthe mind-maiming language’ of individualism. Selekman (1959:3) notedthat ‘the social responsibility of business is a favourite theme [since]industry [is] in search of an ideology’.

562 Inside the managerial orbit, HRM is often struggling for recognition bygeneral management because of a general perception that HRM does notcontribute directly to ‘The Real Bottom Line’ (Magretta 2012:129–140).This has been emphasised recently by Durie (2013:34) when noting, ‘theHR team soon found it no longer had a seat at the table when big deci-sions were made. And if you are not sitting at the table, there’s a goodchance it’s because you’re on the menu’.

563 Miller (1996); Gratton et al. (1999); Paauwe & Boselie (2003); Thompson(2007); Van Buren et al. (2011); Marler (2012); Martocchio (2013).

564 The textbooks used for this analysis show that the term ‘strategy/strategic’has been indexed well above 300 times (cf. Schwind et al. 2013:9–58;Jackson et al. 2012:1ff.; Kramar et al. 2011:53ff., Beardwell & Claydon2011:29ff.; Macky 2008:2ff.; Gunnigle et al. 2011:11–17, 27–78; Nel et al.2012:7ff.; Grobler et al. 2011:9ff.).

565 Schwind et al. (2013:63); Kramar et al. (2011:101 & 152); Beardwell &Claydon (2011:398, 413f. 421f.); Macky (2009:293f.); Gunnigle et al.(2011:369–371); Nel et al. (2012:71f. & 224); Grobler et al. (2011:480).

566 Edwards (2012); Heery et al. (2012); Festing et al. (2012); Kristensen &Rocha (2012).

567 Macklin (2007); Peccei et al. (2013:26–29); Boxall (2013:56ff.).568 ‘The important thing is to have a good memory so that you don’t contra-

dict the lies you have already told’ (Macklin 2007:266).569 Horkheimer (1937 & 1947); Horkheimer & Adorno (1947); Klikauer

(2008:62–75).570 Even worse, ‘the joys and suffering of those whom one identifies with

[other HR-managers] are more vicariously aroused than are those ofstrangers [workers dehumanised as ID-numbered tools and assets], out-group members [white-vs.-blue collar], or those who have been divested ofhuman qualities [e.g. human resources]’ (Bandura et al. 1996:366).

571 Gunnigle et al. (2011:47–49); Jackson et al. (2012:537–548); Kramar et al.(2011:480f.); Kramar et al. (2014:59); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:179f.);Nel et al. (2012:219f. & 437); Grobler et al. (2011:258); Schwind et al.(2013:63).

284 Notes

572 The motive of one of the foremost ethical philosophers, Jeremy Bentham,for writing his ‘Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation’(1789–1823) has been his resolute indignation about the fact that Englishgovernors preferred to exploit everyone and everything for their ownbenefit and advantage rather than serving the common good, and notcreating happiness but rather unhappiness. On unhappiness, Marcuse(1969) noted ‘false [needs] are those which are superimposed upon theindividual by particular social interests in his repression: the needs whichperpetuate toil, aggressiveness, misery, and injustice…the result then iseuphoria in unhappiness’ (cf. Heller 1989; Sen 2009; Heathwood 2010).

573 DeCenzo et al. (2013:281). Stone’s textbook (2013:512) makes a somewhatsimilar argument even though it might be hard to see how being poor orbeing part of the working poor (Pittenger 2012) has ‘advantages’ (Stone2013:512).

574 Cohen, G. A. 1983. The Structure of Proletarian Unfreedom, Philosophy &Public Affairs, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 3–33; Cohen, G. A. 1985. Are WorkersForced to Sell Their Labor Power?, Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 14, no.1, pp. 99–105. In addition, HRM focuses on internal-vs.-external labourmarket to ideologically remove its hidden contradictions that result fromits false human=material/resource equation that seeks to equalise non-equals: human beings are alive and cannot be sold while materials,money, assets, etc. are dead and can.

575 Taylor (1911); Klikauer (2007:143–159); Boxall (2013:53ff.).576 Crosthwaite (2013:95) has outlined ‘the economist’s view of the person,

as it now stands, is that the person is a pure stimulus-response machine.The preferences are given; the relative prices are given. The person is com-pletely reactive. We might say that the person’s behaviour is perfectly pre-determined or pre-designed…homo economicus is really a robot’.

577 Kramar et al. (2011:414, 467f.); Macky (2009:340f.); Schwind et al.(2013:296); Grobler et al. (2011:361); Nankervis et al. (2014:455).

578 Beardwell & Claydon (2011:432); Macky (2009:321); Gunnigle et al.(2011:344); Nel et al. (2012:47–50); Grobler et al. (2011:515).

579 Sun Microsystems’ CEO put an essential part of a reputation that way.‘Promises, he says, are still promises until somebody delivers the goods’.Implicitly, he separated promises from delivery. The two are totallyseparated.

580 But when utilitarianism uses the term ‘public’ it has in mind somethingdifferent from how HRM sees it. For HRM there is only an organisationalpublic and in that, the term public means, for example, ‘public obediencewith regard to the organisation’s rules and norms [that] ensure the per-sonal legitimacy of [HRM’s superiority] and the continuation of [an HR-manager’s] career…this is the very idea of the good subordinates [who] areexpected to follow orders from their superiors’ (Diefenbach 2013:102).

581 While the morality of ‘justice’ (Rawls 1972, 1985 & 2001) is part ofKohlberg’s stage 5, space limitations only allow references here. For adetailed discussion on justice and Kohlberg, see: Nagel (1973); Clark &Gintis (1978); Erdynast (1990); Maffettone (2010); Lee & McCann (2011).In short, while Rawls and others claim ‘that justice is immanent to man

Notes 285

and society and reducible to neither’ (Blackledge 2012:598), for HRMjustice is a mere add-on and something it ‘has to’ live with, commonlydivided into substantive and procedural justice with a strong emphasis onthe latter (Jackson et al. 2012:78; Kramar et al. 2011:546, 592–593) where‘justice’ is to be understood in a ‘business sense’ (Beardwell & Claydon2011:204–205); cf. Isles (2010); cf. Burkemper et al. (2013); Pereira (2013);Taylor et al. (2013); Burke (2012); Aulino et al. (2013); Bowles (2012);Williams & Arrigo (2004); Fogel (2000); Rothbard (1974).

582 Jackson et al. (2012:77f. & 559–573); Kramar et al. (2011:553); Nel et al.(2012:99 & 514); Schwind et al. (2013:164ff.)

583 Beardwell & Claydon (2011:204f.); Burkemper et al. (2013); Pereira (2013);Taylor (2013); Burke (2012); Aulino et al. (2013); Bowles (2012); Williams& Arrigo (2004); Fogel (2000); Rothbard (1974).

584 See also: Thomas Pogge’s ‘maldistribution, exclusion, and disempower-ment’ (2007; cf. Bufacchi 2012).

585 Human beings are not by nature designed to obey hierarchies and toaccept the subordinate-vs.-superior relationship. ‘For example, toddlers donot show obedient behaviour automatically. They learn to obey, tobehave, and to fear more powerful persons during the early stages of theirprimary socialisation (usually within the family). And only after countlessinterventions by various superiors (e.g. parents, nannies, or otherguardians) do toddlers and young children slowly develop socio-psychological patterns of appropriate behaviour which manifest as per-sonality traits’ (Diefenbach 2013:28). German philosopher ImmanuelKant described this process as ‘after the guardians have first made theirdomestic cattle dumb and have made sure that these placid creatures willnot dare take a single step without the harness of the cart’ (p. 28), they areready for capitalist consumption. Hence, Diefenbach (2013:28) concludes‘many contemporary employees are not much different from late-18th-century domestic cattle. Although most employees are already subor-dinates before they join a (new) organisation, they will still be subject tofurther social conditioning and professional socialisation [in the form of ]identity regulation’. HRM has developed a raft of ideological instrumentsto assure that, ranging from induction programmes to performance man-agement, and balanced scorecards as any HRM textbook shows (Jobrack2011).

586 Argyris (1964); Callero (2012); Schwartz & Harris (2013).587 This has dire consequences because ‘asymmetrical relationships such as

that of master and slave [i.e. management and worker] are unable toprovide the recognition necessary for either party to lead a full flourishinglife’ (Martineau et al. 2012:2).

588 Probably the only emotion HRM is truly capable of is ‘love oneself’(Schwartz 1990).

589 Cf. Dickens (1853); Aubenas (2011); Miller (2013).590 Enlightenment has been seen as the negation of feudalism overcoming

feudal limits set against science and philosophical worldviews.Enlightenment’s rationalism replaced the irrationalism of religion. Whenrationalism was elevated to the all-inclusive theme of Enlightenment,Kant developed his ‘three critiques’ in response to that. Cutting off the

286 Notes

critical element from Kant’s ‘Critique of Pure Reason’, capitalism, factoryadministration, management, and with it HRM favoured ‘pure’ reason.HRM needs reason and instrumental rationality to operate. It does notneed critique. Nor does it need ethics. However, without Kant’s ‘Critique’modern instrumental rationality remains handicapped and insufficient.Nevertheless, HRM’s instrumental rationality became one of the utmostdistorted versions of the original Enlightenment project. For example, ini-tially labour was told that technology and mechanisation will set workersfree from the bounds of feudalism but ‘mechanisation, the very meansthat should liberate man from toil, makes him a slave of his labour’(Marcuse 1941).

591 Moore (1922); Rachels (2003:105), MacKinnon (2012:31ff.)592 Warren Buffett emphasised, somebody once said that in looking for

people to hire, you look for three qualities: integrity, intelligence, andenergy. And if they don’t have the first, the other two will kill you.

593 Furnham (2012); Gentry et al. (2012). But ‘despite [HRM’s] rhetoric ofteamwork, networks, empowerment, and even intrapreneurship, the verylogic of hierarchical order and control continues to rule our organisations’(Diefenbach 2013:14).

594 Coats (2008). Much of HRM’s prime ideology of deregulation in favour ofself-regulation has to ‘neglect the vital role of the state in buttressingessential institutions of the market economy, including law, property, cor-porations and money’ (Hodgson 2013:22).

595 Kramar et al. (2011:580); Macky (2009:62); Nel et al. (2012:54); Schwindet al. (2013:5 & 172).

596 Douzinas (2013:200).597 Kant (1785); Rorty (1996); cf. William’s (stanford.edu/entries/kant-reason)

‘powerful attractions of Kant’s philosophising: a universalism thattranscends community boundaries’. In ‘Zizek’s Ontology’, Johnson(2008:13) noted, ‘the prior sequence of various philosophies doesn’tbecome “Philosophy” per se until the advent of the Kantian “Copernican”revolution’. Kant’s ‘Copernican revolution’ represents morality (Moralität)based on abstract formulas. His successor, Hegel, once called Kant’sphilosophy ‘Ursprungsphilosopie’, the original and first philosophy (Smith1987:103; Hill 2010; MacKinnon 2013:42ff.).

598 Douzinas (2013:146); Friedman (2013); Ruggie (2013); Fagan (2009); Reidy& Sellers (2005); Ruggie (2013). Even though there is something thatRichard Rorty has termed a ‘human rights culture’ (Buchwalter 2013:105;Rorty 1993), HRM knows no such culture, only a corporate or organisa-tional culture as in Stone’s (2014:729f.) ‘achieving a positive workculture’.

599 www.legifrance.gouv.fr/Droit-francais; Eckl’s ‘liberty, property, safety, andresistance against oppression’ (2013:386); www.un.org/en/documents;The UDHR is a declaration adopted by the United Nations GeneralAssembly on 10 December 1948.

600 Stone (2013:580). On this Douzinas (2013:145) argues that ‘nations andstates give political rights and civil rights to their citizens according totheir laws and constitution. Human rights on the other hand are given topeople who don’t have the protection of state and law’. This explains why

Notes 287

HRM has an anti-human rights agenda (e.g. HRM’s violations of thehuman right to organise trade unions and to engage in collective bargain-ing) because HRM’s agenda is directed against those who do not have theprotection of states, laws, and trade unions (Moody 2013).

601 Accreditation means the certification of professional competenciesthrough an industry body (cf. Stone 2013:421); companies and corporatelobbyist organisations can directly tell universities what should be in theircurricula and, perhaps more importantly, what not. This is highly dama-ging to what was once known as ‘academic freedom’ (Schrecker 2010).

602 Darwin follows Kant in his ‘The Origins of the Moral Sense’. Darwin saidthat ‘the difference between man and lower animals is a moral sense orconscious. This is by far the most important difference’ (Loye 1994;Borowski 1998; Glover 2012).

603 Kantian morality is based on categorical imperatives, not on hypothetical‘if-then’ constructions. However, nearly every HRM textbook containssentences that use these constructions. They contravene Kant’s moralitybecause they violate his categorical imperatives. They are unmoral in theKantian meaning of morality. Kant’s categorical imperatives render claimsthat ‘HRM should…’, ‘HRM needs to...’, and ‘HRM could…’ obsolete. InKant’s ‘categorical’ imperatives there is nothing to choose from. Eitherone follows Kantian morality or one does not.

604 Hosmer (1987); Jansses & Steyaert (2012).605 Kant (1784); Gardner (1999); MacKinnon (2013:23ff.).606 Truss (2001); Boselie et al. (2005); Singh et al. (2012).607 HRM has collective bargaining lowered down from the economic and

societal realm to a mere company-based issue. Here societal and universalwelfare is narrowed to company egoism where ‘management and theunion meet to negotiate labour agreements’ (Stone 2013:494 & 2014:629;Nankervis et al. 2014:111). Simultaneously, HRM reduces universalwelfare to mere wellbeing while ‘the notion that the ruling elites are nowable to treat welfare as an instrument of social control is at very best aquarter-truth, and a very dangerous one insofar as it distracts from con-cerns over welfare’ (MacIntyre 1970:78).

608 Jackson et al. (2012:48); Nel et al. (2012:57); Grobler et al. (2011:609);Schwind et al. (2013:35 & 243).

609 Kramar et al. (2011:552f. & 600); Kramar et al. (2014:537 & 589); Schwindet al. (2013:562); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:406); Nel et al. (2012:518);Stone (2013:20 & 127).

610 Many HRM textbooks give the impression that the most important task ofHRM is not to protect but to prevent whistle-blowing in turning whistle-blowers into victims and relying on a ‘blame-the-victim’ approach.‘Blaming victims for their plight arouses anger towards them [that mightbe the intended goal of HRM], whereas placing the blame on situationalcauses arouses pity’ (Bandura et al. 1996:372). But HRM tends not toblame whistle blowing on ‘situational causes’ because its prime goal isprotecting the company while its secondary goal is to not ‘arouse pity’ forwhat is done to whistleblowers by HRM, management in general, andeven corporate mass media that also have an interest in protecting theircorporation against whistle-blowing.

288 Notes

611 Marcuse (1941 & 1971) thought that the individual is determined not byhis particular but by his universal qualities.

612 Evolutionary science meanwhile tells us that ‘the worse the environment,the more important it is that we have true friends’ (Shermer 2007:xvi).This is where we meet the ‘Bankers Dilemma’ because HRM has neverbeen a true friend and in companies with the ‘worst environment’ it isHRM that is – at least partly – responsible for this environment (i.e. corpo-rate culture) and it is even less likely that HRM is a ‘true friend’.

613 DeCenzo et al. (2013:9); Pauuwe et al. (2013a:73). On business ethics anti-unionism, see: Gilbert (2012:56, 113, 135, 179).

614 Cooke et al. (2011); Kaufman (2011); Paik & Belcher (2011); DeCenzo et al. (2013:363–367).

615 The more problematic issue for HRM is Kant’s formula which says: act insuch a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or inthe person of another, always at the same time as an end and neversimply as a means. This is the most devastating categorical imperative forHRM. The essence of HRM is that it operates through people creating per-formance through others. This raises a number of moral dilemmas forHRM because HRM and Kantian morality are contradictions in concept(see also Sartre’s ‘Condemned to Be Free’ in his ‘Being and Nothingness’1943; Nozick’s ‘Anarchy, State and Utopia’ 1974; Jones et al. 2005:45; andfor employees, see Schumann 2006:123f.).

616 There appears to be a total lack of the term ‘humanity’ in nearly all HRMtextbooks ever published (cf. Johnsen & Gudmand-Høyer 2010). Theabsence of ‘humanity’ in HRM textbooks, scholarly research, and publica-tions testifies what is perhaps one of HRM’s more serious deficiencies,namely lack of ‘the power of humanisation to counteract human crueltyis of considerable theoretical and social significance’ (Bandura et al.1996:371). This is especially hypocritical since HRM carries an ‘h’(human) in its name (cf. Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-four, 1948).

617 When HRM’s ideology seeks to eradicate Hegel’s master-slave dialecticsand Kant’s universalism it returns to a pre-modern state of immorality. ‘St Paul’s statement, that there is no Greek or Jew, man or woman (Epistleto the Galatians 3:28) removes restrictions and introduced universalismand equality into Western civilisation’ (Douzinas 2013:203). HRM’s rejec-tion of equality, universalism, and universal human rights returns moral-ity to the pre-Christianity period.

618 According to Jones (2005:5), the employment contract is treated as if itwere not of concern for business morality. This is despite (or perhapsbecause of!) an existing asymmetrical relationship between HRM andworkers (Offe & Wiesenthal 1980; Klikauer 2011:33–56). It was none otherthan the great Henry Ford, who claimed ‘why is it that whenever I ask fora pair of hands a brain comes attached?’ (Hegel 1807 & 1821; Kojève1947; Honneth 1995; Sinnerbink 2007:101–122; Klikauer 2010:88–125).

619 Biazzo & Garengo (2011); Jackson et al. (2012:336); Kramar et al.(2011:38f., 525f., 642); Kramar et al. (2014:38, 506, 632); Beardwell &Claydon (2011:70–72 & 471); Macky (2009:424); Schwind et al.(2013:319); Gunnigle et al. (2011:66); Nel et al. (2012:108 & 417); Stone(2013:685).

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620 Instead of treating – not just respecting– human beings as ends in-themselves, HRM moves in the opposite direction when supportinggeneral management in converting even consumers into pure ‘means’under the concept of ‘consumptive labour’ (Koeber 2011). According toKoeber et al. (2012:8), ‘consumptive Labour includes the following typesof tasks performed by consumers: (1) selecting, producing, purchasing,or dispersing goods and services (consumer as quasi-employee); (2) mon-itoring, policing, and evaluating workers before, during and after trans-actions (consumer as quasi-supervisor); and marketing or advertisingbrand name products or services (consumer as quasi-marketers andadvertisers)’.

621 On Kant’s concept of the human subject, Johnson (2008:13f.) noted,‘Kant, instead of Descartes, is the true founder of the notion of thesubject…Kant’s transcendental idealism focuses on the category of thesubjective objective’ (cf. Negri 1970; Klikauer 2010:88–125).

622 Kant’s ‘Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals’ (1785); Altman(2007:256); cf. Velleman (2012).

623 Klikauer (2012:170); Mackay (2013).624 Kramar et al. (2011:370f.); Kramar et al. (2014:92, 130, 133–135, 535f.,

583f.); Macky (2009:150 & 158f.); Gunnigle et al. (2011:108f.); Schwind etal. (2013:15); Stone (2013:672); Nankervis et al. (2014:524ff.); ‘psycho-terror’ (Nankervis et al. 2014:528).

625 One of Kant’s German successors, the philosopher Fichte, noted in hisWissenschaftslehre (1797–1800) that a clear consciousness is linked to self-determination. For HRM, this has to be avoided because most subor-dinates should never develop self-consciousness. Nor should they engagein self-determination because this might lead to an awareness of the unde-mocratic, top-down, and hierarchical order enforced by HRM.

626 On self-determination Schrijvers’s (2004) noted, ‘nothing instils greaterfear in an organisation than people doing their own thing’.

627 If HRM grants some sort of partial self-determination inside, for example,semi-autonomous work teams, then it assures that HRM always retains thecontrolling power over these so-called ‘self-managed work teams’(Nankervis et al. 2014:205–207). Thereby it negates Kant’s morality(Barker 2005).

628 Taylor’s tradition, enhanced by Fordism and hyped up by Neo-Fordism(Aglietta 2000), is still operative under HRM regimes. A person still has tobe fitted to a job giving the domineering power to Mumford’s (1934 &1944) ‘megamachine’. Today’s HRM calls this PJ-fit or ‘person-to-job fit’(Pauuwe et al. 2013a:71).

629 Jackson et al. (2012:59 & 205); Kramar et al. (2011:34); Beardwell &Claydon (2011:538); Nel et al. (2012:238).

630 DeCenzo et al. (2013:38ff.). But it also violates ‘Socrates’ claim that the justman is always happier than his unjust oppressor’. As a consequence, manyof HRM’s actions carry connotations to being what Socrates calls an ‘oppres-sor’ and furthermore, it testifies to the fact that many HRM-departmentsand their managers tend not to be happy places – perhaps because of the‘injustice’ done by HRM to other people.

631 See also: ‘The Kantian Case against Control’ (Maclagan 2007:55f.).

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632 While ‘an increase in personal autonomy and self-control leads to greaterhappiness’ (Shermer 2007:243), HRM seeks to prevent this autonomy. Itrejects self-control while fostering managerial control and is deeplyoffended by the ethical notion of happiness as neither HR-happiness nororganisational happiness is anywhere to be found in HRM textbooks.

633 HRM systematically excludes issues such as ‘liberty, happiness, com-munity, and autonomy’ (Lippke 1995:28). This is especially the case when‘liberty [is] understood negatively as the absence of constraints’ (Lippke1995:31) because HRM’s prime objective is to create liberty-preventativeconstraints. Lippke’s ‘The Importance of Being Autonomous’ (1995:27ff.)defines ‘full autonomy as having developed skills of cognitive and prac-tical rationality that enable individuals to lead critically reflective lives’(1995:29). HRM instruments such as performance management, perfor-mance related pay, balanced scorecards (Kaplan & Norton 1992, 1993,2004), and key performance indicators are designed to prevent this fromoccurring so that individuals can never ‘stamp their [organisational] livesin their own imprimatur’ (Lippke 1995:30) but instead become appen-dixes to HRM’s organisational regime.

634 Korsgaard (2012). Douzinas (2013:202) notes that ‘universal truth existsbecause there is one cosmos, a common horizon encompassing local andpartial human worlds’.

635 In his ‘The Fear of Freedom’ (1960:215), the philosopher Erich Frommnoted that truth is one of the strongest weapons of those who have nopower. This is exactly why the essence of HRM is not related to truth butto power.

636 ‘Few [businesses] will deny that employees have the right to controlcertain types of information about them’ (Lippke 1995:12).

637 Klikauer (2007:149–154); Klikauer (2008).638 Involuntary information can be seen as information that is coerced out of

employees, for example, in job interviews where power is most asymmet-rically distributed in favour of HRM and companies. This is the famous‘take it or leave it’ approach.

639 Jackson et al. (2012:101); Kramar et al. (2011:256); Macky (2009:120, 130,132–134); Nel et al. (2012:514) and ‘short listing…through social network-ing’, Beardwell & Claydon (2011:172); Grobler et al. (2011: 29); Nel et al.(2012:175 on facebook); HRIS (human resources information system) andprivacy and security considerations’ (Schwind et al. 2013:127).

640 Kant (1785); Bauman (1989); DeColle & Werhane (2008:753).641 Truss et al. (1997); see also Armstrong’s HRM handbook (2012:10).642 Cf. Kant’s ‘Trilogy of Critiques’: Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Critique

of Judgement (1790), and Critique of Practical Reason (1788); cf. Sedgwick(2000).

643 This testifies to the fact that there is an ‘insurmountable differencebetween humanity and the interest of management in organisations’(Johnsen & Gudmand-Høyer 2010:333).

644 ‘HRM has tended to hold itself aloof from interest in business ethics’ (Dale2012:23).

645 Gottfried (2012); cf. Dine & Fagan (2006). Following the ideology ofManagerialism closely (Klikauer 2013), HRM textbooks ‘sell’ globalisation

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in a TINA fashion – there is no alternative (Nankervis et al. 2014:5, 46,55f.). At the same time HRM staunchly refuses the take issues such asglobal ethics on board (Pogge 1997, 2007, 2010; Pogge & Horton 2008;Cabrera & Pogge 2012; Moellendorf & Widdows 2013).

646 Immanuel Kant (AA IV, 429 de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kategorischer_Imperativ).

647 O’Sullivan et al. (2012).648 Bowie (1999); Maclagan (2007:51).649 Boatright (2009:66); Klikauer (2012:176).650 This has been extensively discussed in Klikauer (2012).651 Koys (1988); Bolton (2007a:9); Jackson et al. (2012:137); Schwind et al.

(2013:26).652 Schwind et al. (2013:130); Sennet (2003:101ff.).653 Instead of HRM’s use of respect, the moral concept of self-respect, for

example, has ‘three components: (1) a respectful attitude towards oneself;(2) conduct that expresses respect towards oneself; and (3) an “object” ofself-respect that provides the individual with a standard of conductagainst which to form a cumulative assessment of her worth’ (Lippke1995:36). Meanwhile HRM’s idea is that of mentally deformed, compliant,and obedient ‘Organisation Men’ (Whyte 1961).

654 On Kant’s thing in-itself Johnson (2008:17) noted: the Ding an sich [thingin itself] evidently involves a paradox, an unsustainable contradiction.

655 Kramar et al. (2011:553); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:154 & 379); Macky(2009:129); Gunnigle et al. (2011:37f. & 264–354); Nel et al. (2012:36);Stone (2013:17).

656 This, of course, also relates to Socrates’ philosophy that ‘justice pays off inhappiness for the agent’ (Vlastos 1991:6) but this is a moral philosophyviolated by HRM.

657 Marcuse (1966); Klikauer (2012:80).658 Hosmer (1987); Klikauer (2012:173ff.).659 Historically, Kant’s universalism was directly opposed by HRM in the

18th century version of factory overseers and administrators of mercantil-ism’s Satanic Mills. On this, Kant noted that it is essential not to confusethe point of moral duties with duties as such because a merchant who actsneither from duty nor from direct inclination but only for a selfishpurpose does not act inside what Kant sees as moral duty (cf. Heller1989:35).

660 Jackall (1988 & 2006); Diefenbach (2013a); Rayner (2013).661 Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason (1788: Part IX): On the Wise

Adaptation of the Human Being’s Cognitive Faculties to his PracticalVocation.

662 Perhaps all this is designed by HRM to avoid what Rousseau has outlinedas ‘how can slaves who do not even know they are slaves free themselves?’(Marcuse 1966a:137).

663 Cf. Hegel (1807 & 1821); Kojève (1947); Adorno (1993); Sinnerbrink(2007:101ff.).

664 HRM also seems to assume that machines and workers are alike in thatthey are both normally passive agents who must be stimulated by HRM inorder to go into action. In the case of the machines, one turns on electric-

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ity. In the case of workers money takes the place of electricity (cf. Ewen etal. 1966; Herzberg 1966 & 2011).

665 Work and job design excludes those who have to carry out the work andjobs designed by others ‘for’ (!) them, cf. Gunnigle et al. (2011:148–165);Kramar et al. (2011:195); Kramar et al. (2014:192); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:90).

666 Arnold (2005); Arnold & Randal (2010); Aamodt (2010 & 2013).667 Gunnigle et al. (2011:128f.); Nel et al. (2012:207).668 Macky (2009:197 & 343); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:505); Nel et al.

(2012:293–295); Schwind et al. (2013:552).669 For two successors of Kant, German philosopher Hegel and later Marx,

alienation is linked to employment and work. On this Marx (1844) noted:alienation shows itself not only in the result but also in the act of produc-tion, inside productive activity itself. Therefore, he does not confirmhimself in his work, he denies himself, feels miserable instead of happy,deploys no free physical and intellectual energy, but mortifies his bodyand ruins his mind. To prevent critical, reflective, and self-knowledgeableemployees, HRM has invented a raft of measures starting with organisa-tional behaviour to create the ‘Organisation Men’ (Whyte 1961). HRMneeds to eclipse all feelings of misery and workplace pathologies (cf. Lukes1985).

670 Bowles & Gintis’ ‘Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reformand the Contradictions of Economic Life’ (1976, 1981, 2002) delivers thereason for the fact that ‘almost all schooling is boring’ (Albert 2006).

671 Cf. Whyte (1961); Beder (2000:193–272); Klikauer (2007:183ff.).672 Mountford (2012). Inside corporations, HRM’s use of deception ranges

from faked promises of promotion to pay increases, workloads, etc.Corporate and organisational deception is truthfully depicted in MichaelMoore’s first documentary ‘Roger and Me’ (Moore, M. 1989. Roger & Me(documentary), Warner Brothers, December 20, 1989 (USA), 91 min.English).

673 Jacoby (1977 & 1997); Bauman & Donskis (2013).674 Nel et al. (2012:223); Grobler et al. (2011:24, 267–270, 542f.); Beardwell &

Claydon (2011:398, 413f. & 421f.); Macky (2009:293).675 Jean-Paul Sartre noted in his ‘Being and Nothingness’ (1992) that Kant’s

‘You ought, therefore you can’ is implicitly understood. Everything thatought to be always carries in it the seed of potentialities and of practicaltransformations.

676 Singer (1994); Farmer (2003); Shafer-Landau (2007); Shafer-Landau &Cueno (2007); Pogge & Horton (2008); Pogge (2010); Cabrera & Pogge(2012).

677 Kjonstad & Willmott (1995:455); Panza (2010:248); Fisk (2010); Gupta(2014); Sutherland et al. (2014).

678 One of the most prominent voices in advancing animal rights has beenthe philosopher Peter Singer’s ‘Animal Liberation’ (1990), ‘Practical Ethics’(1993), ‘Writings on an Ethical Life’ (2000); cf. Singer (2005); cf. ‘AnimalRights & Environmental Ethics’ (in: Olen et al. 2005:452ff.). This repre-sents the exact opposite of what Stoops (1913:462) detected, ‘it is said thatthe packing houses turn to profit every part of the pig but its squeal’

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(cf. MacIntyre 1999; Rollin 2007; Boggs 2010; Donovan 2010; Carter2010; Theodore & Theodore 2010; MacKinnon 2013:187ff.; Armstrong2013).

679 Merz-Perez & Heide (2003); Cochrane (2012).680 Hart (1993:34) noted that HRM ‘promotes Managerialism and thereby

gives succour to the myth that somehow we can manage the Earth’.681 Biocentric ethics, ecological philosophy, deep ecology, new animists, social

ecology, land ethics, the ethics of preserving and restoring nature, ecolo-gical human rights, rights of nature, ecological intergenerational justice,animal ethics, Kantian environmental ethics, anthropocentrism, themorality of biotic communities, species protection, deep ecology, bio-spheric egalitarianism, biospherical nets, new animists, bioregionalism,sentient beings, Albert Schweitzer’s Reverence for Life, teleological-centre-of-life moralities, responsive cohesion, ecosystems, the biophysical world,social ecology, mutualistic interrelations, ecological interdependence, life-centred ethics, and the ethical concept of equal consideration (cf. Olen et al. 2005; Light & Rolston 2003; Chanter 2006; Desjardins 2006;Brennan & Lo 2010; MacKinnon 2013:170ff.; Armstrong 2013:41ff.;Stanwick & Stanwick 2013; Attfield 2014).

682 Giddens (2009); Oreskes & Conway (2010); Guest & Woodrow (2012);Koch (2011); Kemper (2012); DeCenzo et al. (2013:4–6, 168, 323f.);Hoffman & Woody (2013).

683 In historical terms, philosophy’s understanding of environment is a mucholder understanding of environment (2,000 years of moral philosophyversus fifty years of HRM).

684 Kant developed a highly influential moral theory according to whichautonomy is a necessary property to be the kind of being whose interestsare to count directly in the moral assessment of actions. Since animals arenot capable of representing themselves in this way, they cannot haverights. One of the clearest and most forceful denials of animal conscious-ness is developed by Rene Descartes (1596–1650) who argues that animalsare automata that might act as if they were conscious, but really are not.This stream of moral philosophy is also represented in Rawls. If we doextend Rawls’ conception of fairness and justice to animals, then animalswill have no direct moral standing; (cf. Keller 2010:82ff. & 257ff.; Kazez2010; Mendieta 2010; Gerhardt 2010; Carter 2010).

685 Schlosberg (1999, 2007); Sandler (2013).686 American moral philosopher and Kant expert Christine Korsgaard (1996,

153–154), for example, writes ‘it is a pain to be in pain. And that is not atrivial fact. When you pity a suffering animal, it is because you are per-ceiving a reason. An animal’s cries express pain, and they mean that thereis a reason, a reason to change its conditions. And you can no more hearthe cries of an animal as mere noise than you can the words of a person.Another animal can obligate you in exactly the same way another personcan. So of course we have obligations to animals’ (cf. MacIntyre 1999).

687 Consider factory farming, the most common method used to convertanimal bodies into relatively inexpensive foodstuff in industrialised soci-eties today (cf. Jensen et al. 2011). An estimated eight billion animals inthe United States alone are born, confined, biologically manipulated,

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transported, and ultimately slaughtered each year so that humans canconsume them. The conditions in which these animals are raised and themethod of slaughter cause vast amounts of suffering (cf. Mason andSinger 1990; Kazez 2010; Carter 2010).

688 Not surprisingly, one campaign strategy of PETA (people for the ethicaltreatment of animals) is to bring the cruelty administered to animalsdirectly to managers, their wives, families, and children (http://www.peta.org/).

689 Passmore, J. 1974. ‘Man’s Responsibility for Nature’, London: Duckworth;cf. Keller (2010, part IV, p.147ff. & part V, p. 221ff.; Bell 2010).

690 Jackson et al. (2012:186, 207f.); Kramar et al. (2011:262f.); Kramar et al.(2014:258–267); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:163f., 172f. & 617); Macky(2009:194, 203–210 & 428); Gunnigle et al. (2011:101–132); Nel et al.(2012:160f. & 540); Grobler et al. (2011:178); cf. Cassio & Rush (2009).

691 Indirectly, HRM – together with general management– focuses on mone-tary outcomes, efficiency, productiveness, and shareholder-value i.e.profit-maximisation as the ultimate goals.

692 Lipietz (2013:133); Chambers et al. (2014).693 In his ‘Theory of Natural Man’ (‘Discourse on the Origins of Inequality’,

1755), French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote, ‘the first manwho, having fenced in a piece of land, said “This is mine,” and foundpeople naïve enough to believe him, that man was the true founder ofcivil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how manyhorrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind, bypulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows:Beware of listening to this impostor; you are undone if you once forgetthat the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody’(cf. Soron 2010).

694 Zimbardo (2004:22); cf. White (2013); Fuller (2013); Kolbert (2014).695 The moral values of ‘integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic com-

munity’ as expressed by Leopold (1949) are of no use (cf. Mander 1991 &2001; Goldsmith & Mander 2001); cf. Mander’s ‘In the Absence of theSacred: the Failure of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations’(San Francisco: Sierra Club Books). For Korten (1995:9) it is ‘makingmoney for the rich at the expense of the life of society and the planet’ (cf. Keller 2010:245ff.; Theodore & Theodore 2010; Benton 2010; Llorente2010; Weisberg 2010); Larson (2012); Leech (2012); Lipietz (2013). Thiong(1982) noted, ‘today money is the ruler of industry and commerce. Moneyis field marshal of all the forces of theft and robbery on earth’.

696 Dainty & Loosemore (2012:235 & 275); Callicott (2013).697 Rolston’s ‘Future of Environmental Ethics’ (Part XI) in Keller’s

‘Environmental Ethics’ (2010).698 Cf. Næss (1973 & 1989); Witoszek and Brennan (1999); Keller (2010,

chapters 25–29, pp. 211–244); Jensen et al. (2011); MacKinnon(2013:180).

699 This raises the question ‘should companies dump their waste in poorcountries?’ (Velasquez 2012:80–113).

700 Kramar et al. (2011:435–441); Kramar et al. (2014:321ff.); Beardwell &Claydon (2011:176–179); Gunnigle et al. (2011:126); Nel et al. (2012:372).

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701 http://www.information-management.com/news/4735-1.html; Truss(2001); Gospel & Sako (2010); http://www.enotes.com/human-resource-management-reference/human-resource-management-hrm

702 Jackson et al. (2012:4–11, 32); Kramar et al. (2011:547); Beardwell &Claydon (2011:596); Macky (2009:89); Schwind et al. (2013:14 & 35);Stone (2014:22); cf. Mariappanadar (2012).

703 Instead of ‘biospheric’ environmental ethics, HRM focuses on ‘biometricstechnologies’ (Jackson et al. 2012:344); the ‘biological approach to jobdesign’ (Kramar et al. 2011:199); ‘biodata questionnaires’ (Beardwell &Claydon 2011:173); ‘five factor model biodata’ (Macky 2008:233); and‘biographic information blanks’ (Schwind et al. 2013:229).

704 Wiersma (1992); Macky (2009:344); Rebitzer & Taylor (2011); Gkorezis &Petridou (2012); Schwind et al. (2013:241).

705 Kramar et al. (2011:490); Kramar et al. (2014:449–522); Macky (2009:345& 366); Nel et al. (2012:542).

706 ROI = return of investment. Regan (1985) noted, ‘…animals are treatedroutinely, systematically as if their value were reducible to their usefulnessto others, they are routinely, systematically treated with a lack of respect,and thus are their rights routinely, systematically violated. The animalrights position is an absolutist position. Any being that is a subject of alife has inherent worth and the rights that protect such worth, and allsubjects of a life have these rights equally. Thus any practice that fails torespect the rights of those animals, e.g. eating animals, hunting animals,experimenting on animals, using animals for entertainment, is wrong,irrespective of human need, context, or culture’ (cf. Rollin 2007).

707 Marx (1890); Baudrillard et al. (1976); Itoh (1988); Baudrillard (1996);Lindstrom (2005 & 2008); Klikauer (2012:191).

708 Kramar et al. (2011:446–448); Kramar et al. (2014:401); Beardwell &Claydon (2011:543); Gunnigle et al. (2011:48); Schwind et al. (2013:29 &373).

709 Boggs (2010); e.g. figure 1–15 & figure 1–16 in: Schwind et al. (2013:38).710 http://robinson.gsu.edu/management/mba-hr-management.html711 Weber (1924); Marcuse (1964); Horkheimer (1974); Schecter (2010);

Klikauer (2007:67); Klikauer (2012:50).712 Bookchin (1962, 1982, 1990, 1995, 2001); Bookchin & Foreman (1991);

McKenna et al. (2008).713 ‘Animism’ is the philosophical, religious or spiritual idea that souls or

spirits exist not only in humans but also in other animals, plants, rocks,natural phenomena such as thunder, geographic features such as moun-tains or rivers, or other entities of the natural environment. Animism mayfurther attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true names ormetaphors in mythology. It is particularly widely found in the religions ofindigenous peoples, although it is also found in Shinto, and some formsof Hinduism and Neopaganism. Throughout European history, philo-sophers such as Plato, Aristotle (Armstrong 2013:62f.), and ThomasAquinas, among others, contemplated the possibility that souls exist inanimals, plants and people, however the currently accepted definition ofanimism was only developed in the 19th century by Sir Edward Tylor.

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714 Athanasiou (1996); Tokar (1997); Lyon & Maxwell (2011); Marquis &Toffel (2012); Johnson (2012).

715 Meadows et al. (1972 & 2004); Dietz & O’Neill (2013); Starke et al. (2013);Wells (2013); Ehnert et al. (2014).

716 Ehnert (2009); Clarke (2011); Vromans et al. (2012); Thiele (2013); Lipietz(2013:133); Chambers et al. (2014).

717 Utilitarians maintain that what is really important is the promotion ofhappiness, pleasure, or the satisfaction of interests, and the avoidance ofpain, suffering, or frustration of interests. Bentham, one of the more force-ful defenders of this ‘sentientist’ view of moral consideration, famouslywrote, ‘other animals, which, on account of their interests having beenneglected by the insensibility of the ancient jurists, stand degraded intothe class of things...The day has been, I grieve it to say in many places it isnot yet past, in which the greater part of the species, under the denomina-tion of slaves, have been treated…upon the same footing as...animals arestill. The day may come, when the rest of the animal creation may acquirethose rights which never could have been withholden from them but bythe hand of tyranny. The French have already discovered that the black-ness of skin is no reason why a human being should be abandonedwithout redress to the caprice of a tormentor. It may come one day to berecognised, that the number of legs, the villosity of the skin, or the ter-mination of the “os sacrum”, are reasons equally insufficient for abandon-ing a sensitive being to the same fate. What else is it that should trace theinsuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason, or perhaps, the faculty for dis-course?...the question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but,Can they suffer?’ (Bentham 1781).

718 Meerkats in the Kalahari Desert are known to sacrifice their own safety bystaying with sick or injured family members so that the fatally ill will notdie alone. Darwin reported this in ‘The Descent of Man: “So intense is thegrief of female monkeys for the loss of their young, that it invariablycaused the death of certain kinds”’.

719 Skinner (1948, 1953, 1971, 1974); Chomsky (1959 & 1971); Cavalieri &Singer (1994); Lemov (2006); Becker & Menges (2013).

720 James (2011); Krebs (2011).721 The phrase ‘Reverence for Life’ is a translation of the German expression

‘Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben’ (more accurately translated as: ‘to be in awe ofthe mystery of life’); cf. Schweitzer (1965).

722 Thiele (2013); Dauvergne & Lister (2013).723 Katz (1997 & 2002); Katz & Light (1996).724 Moore & Gardner (2004); www.miningoilandgasjobs.com.725 Any irreversibility of a once destroyed ‘wild’ is excluded from organisa-

tional thinking that might turn wilderness into a ‘business park’ – whichis no more than a tautology using the positive term ‘park’ to cover up theugliness of such premises. A business park is a form of territorial colonisa-tion, the proliferation of spaces which escape the control of the builtrealm: voids between fragments of unconnected residential schemes, gapsbetween urbanised zones, abandoned farmland, etc. While we debate onwhether the traditional city block is a naïve solution to the problem of

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ordering immediate periphery, a new approach to spatial organisationarises with the ease that characterises any new consumer good, anapproach which questions the conventional references of urbanism: theso-called ‘commercial, industrial, business and theme park’.

726 Hundreds of orangutans killed in north Indonesian forest fires deliberatelystarted by palm oil firms (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2122544/Hundreds-orangutans-killed-north-Indonesian-forest-fires-delib-erately-started-palm-oil-firms.html); published: 00:55 GMT, 30 March2012; oilfieldextreme.com; www.saynotopalmoil.com.

727 https://www.greenpeace.org.au/secure/donate/Greenpeace_workplace_giving.pdf

728 Macky (2009:262, 265, 271); Jackson et al. (2012:132); Kramar et al.(2011:364–367); Schwind et al. (2013:319).

729 An adaptation of Karl Marx’s original quote (Das Kapital (1890), vol. 1, p. 801, reprinted by Dietz-Verlag Berlin in 1961) would read: ‘with ade-quate performance, HRM becomes bold. A certain 10 per cent will ensureenvironmental destruction; 20 per cent certain will produce eagerness; 50 per cent, positive audacity; 100 per cent will make it ready to trampleon every environmental entity; 300 per cent, and there is not one envi-ronmental crime at which people trained and performance managed byHRM will scruple, nor a risk it will not run, even to the chance of generalmanagers being hanged. If devastation of nature and environmentaldestruction will deliver efficiency and organisational outcomes for HRM,it will freely execute both’.

730 Cf. Bookchin (1962, 1982, 1990, 1995, 2001); Bookchin & Foreman(1991); Keller (2010, chapters 35–38, pp. 281–317).

731 Schrijvers (2004:17–18); Pless et al. (2012); Marens (2012); Shen & Benson(2013). In the words of Milton Friedman, ‘there is one and only one socialresponsibility of business, to use its resources and engage in activitiesdesigned to increase its profits’ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedman_doctrine); (Nankervis et al. 2014:12, 549, 577).

732 Bowles & Gintis (1975); Shaw et al. (2012); Harvey et al. (2013).733 Kropotkin (1902); Nowak & Highfield (2011); Klikauer (2012b).734 Newell (2012); Weston (2012); Martínez-Alier et al. (2013); Radkau (2013);

Rathzel & Uzzell (2013); Renwick et al. (2013).735 Coffey & Thornley (2013); Crawley et al. (2013); Thomas (2014).736 As environmental ethicist Jerry Mander (1991 & 2001) outlined, ‘the ulti-

mate goal of corporate multi-nationals was expressed in a revealing quoteby the president of Nabisco Corporation: “one world of homogeneousconsumption...[I am] looking forward to the day when Arabs andAmericans, Latinos and Scandinavians, will be munching Ritz crackers asenthusiastically as they already drink Coke or brush their teeth withColgate. Corporations not only advertise products, they promote lifestylesrooted in consumption, patterned largely after the United States.... [They]look forward to a post-national age in which [Western] social, economicand political values are transformed into universal values... a worldeconomy in which all national economies beat to the rhythm of trans-national corporate capitalism.... The Western way is the good way;national culture is inferior”’.

298 Notes

737 They ‘make’ something ‘up’ that is not real. These make-ups or setupsinclude freelancing, sub-contracting, outsourcing, supply-chain-HRM,franchising, joint-ventures, and so on. Through these business structures,corporations try to relieve themselves of their moral responsibility andseek to avoid the unavoidable by creating a spatial distance betweenthemselves and the location of immoral acts.

738 Otto Adolf Eichmann (1906–1962) was a high-ranking Nazi and SS-Obersturmbannführer (Lieutenant Colonel). Due to his organisationaltalents and ideological reliability, he was tasked by ObergruppenführerReinhard Heydrich to facilitate and manage the logistics of mass deporta-tion to ghettos and extermination camps in Nazi-occupied EasternEurope. He worked under Ernst Kaltenbrunner (the highest-ranking SSleader) until the end of the war. Eichmann was captured by Israeli Mossadagents in Argentina and indicted by Israeli courts on fifteen criminalcharges, including charges of crimes against humanity and war crimes. Hewas convicted and hanged. He claimed, ‘I was never an anti-Semite. ... Ipersonally had nothing to do with this. My job was to observe and reporton it…whether they were bank directors or mental cases, the people whowere loaded on those trains meant nothing to me. It was really none ofmy business’.

739 Hence, corporate records on environmental destructions are hiddenbehind glossy corporate PR magazines (cf. Greenpeace 2010). To cover upand masquerade the truth about corporate environmental destructions,corporate PR managers build alibi-creating isolated environmental initia-tives that appeal to the public.

740 Taylor (1981); Singer (1978 & 1990).741 In life-centred morality ‘the good (well-being, welfare) of individual

organisms is considered as entity. It has inherent worth that determinesour moral relations with the Earth’s wild communities of life. From theperspective of a life-centred theory, we have prima facie moral obligationsthat are owned to wild plants and animals themselves as members of theEarth’s biotic community’ (Taylor 2004:505; cf. Olen et al. 2005:485ff.;Kazez 2010).

742 Wiersma (1992); Macky (2009:344); Rebitzer & Taylor (2011); Gkorezis &Petridou (2012); Schwind et al. (2013:241).

743 For Singer (1990), the idea of equality is a moral idea, not an assertion offact. The principle of the equality of human beings is not a description ofan alleged actual equality among humans; it is a prescription of how weshould treat human beings (cf. Davis 2010).

744 In the spirit of George Orwell’s Animal Farm ‘some pigs are more equalthan others’. In HRM, for example, the – always as ‘necessary’ announced– dismissals and retrenchments of workers are almost never done underequal considerations. It is not HRM but foremost employees who aredown-sized, right-sized, and sui-sized. Similarly, when it comes tobonuses, it is HRM who considers itself first and as the exclusive recipient.

745 Singer (1990:494–495) notes, ‘the capacity for suffering and enjoyment isa prerequisite for having interests at all, a condition that must be satisfiedbefore we can speak of interests in a meaningful way. A stone does nothave interests because it cannot suffer. A mouse, for example, does have

Notes 299

an interest in not being kicked along the road, because it will suffer if it is.If a being suffers there can be no moral justification for refusing to takethat suffering into consideration. No matter what the nature of the being,the principle of equality requires that its suffering be counted equallywith the suffering – insofar as rough comparison can be made – of anyother being’; cf. Regan (2006).

746 Singer (1990:495) emphasises that ‘racists violate the principle of equalityby giving greater weight to the interests of members of the own race whenthere is a clash between their interest and the interests of those of anotherrace. Sexists violate the principle of equality by favouring the interests oftheir own sex. Similar, speciesists allow the interests of their own speciesto override the greater interests of members of other species’.

747 This is the problem of families because there is no reason to bring up chil-dren in a world defined by competition. Children are time-consuming,unproductive, contribute nothing, hinder competition, and even competewith adults for food. If competition was the basic founding bloc of asociety of rivalling individual human beings, children would have died arather lonely and miserable death millenniums ago. Since this was clearlynot the case, mutual aid, cooperation, coordination, and solidarity carriedthe day.

748 Dickens (1853); Bond & Gillies (1981); Blewett (2006).749 The historical continuity of Figure 8.1 applies to developed (mostly

western) European countries, plus Canada, the USA, and perhaps Japan. Itis a sequential model that applies to all countries that have developed andcontinue to develop managerial structures. In all cases, HRM has or willmake the transition from punishment regimes (1) to rewarding regimesexpressed as performance HRM (2). And in all cases, it will stop there andnot develop higher forms of morality (3–7).

750 Cf. Engels (1892); Thompson (1963 & 1967); Hobsbawm (1968).751 Dickens (1853); Jackson et al. (2012:242); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:

464).752 http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/factsheets/history-hr-cipd.aspx753 Jackson et al. (2012); Schwind et al. (2013); Beardwell & Claydon (2011).754 Marketing combined with corporate mass media tells us today what to

buy, where to shop, and even how to feel during a Hollywood moviewhich is usually indicated through music (Bourdieu 1998).

755 Cf. Braverman (1974); Edwards (1979); Burawoy (1979 & 1985); Gibbons(1987); Kothari (2010).

756 Gunnigle et al. (2011:142); Nel et al. (2012:315); Beardwell & Claydon(2011:264).

757 These HR rules and policies provide for what German philosopherMarcuse once noted as ‘under capitalism men are dominated andexploited not merely by external oppressors, by those who own and thosewho rule, but by forms of consciousness which prevent them from liberat-ing themselves’ (MacIntyre 1970:46).

758 Putnam (1988); for example, Greek philosopher Socrates identifies fivevirtues (arete): temperance, piety, courage, justice, and wisdom. Apart fromcourage, none of the other four are to be found in Human ResourceManagement.

300 Notes

759 Kramar, R., Bartram, T. & De Cieri, H. 2011. Human Resource Managementin Australia – Strategy, People, Performance (4th ed.), Sydney: McGraw-Hill;Schwind, H., Das, H. & Wagar, T. 2013. Canadian HRM – A StrategicApproach (9th ed.), Whitby, ON: McGraw-Hill Ryerson; Beardwell, J. &Claydon, T. 2011. Human Resource Management: A Contemporary Approach(6th ed.), London: Financial Times Press; Gunnigle, P., Heraty N. & MorleyM. J. 2011. Human Resource Management in Ireland, Dublin: Gill &Macmillan; Macky, K. (eds) 2009. Managing Human Resources:Contemporary Perspectives in New Zealand, Sydney: McGraw Hill; Grobler, P. A. et al. 2011. Human Resource Management in South Africa (4th ed.),Andover: Cengage Learning; Jackson, S. E., Schuler, R. S. & Werner, S.2012. Managing Human Resources (11th ed.), Mason: South WesternCengage Learning.

760 In other words, it is imperative to all those that use a standard textbook inAnglo-Saxon countries to ensure that HR students have a basic knowledgeof four key areas of HRM.

761 Delbridge et al. (2011); Servais (2011:45ff); Lucio (2013).762 While textbooks contain issues such as sustainability and CSR, for

example, they do not, however, engage in a systematic discussion aboutenvironmental ethics as a moral philosophy.

763 Dunlop (1958); Upchurch et al. (2012); Casey (2012); Hyman (2012).764 Leitch (1919); Blumberg (1968); Poole (1986); Dennis (2010); Devinatz

(2012).765 http://humanresources.about.com/od/discrimination/qt/prevent-

employment-discrimination.htm; http://www.strategichrlawyer.com/weblog/new_york_law/; http://www.hcamag.com/article/the-fair-work-act-and-personal-liability-considerations-for-hr-144297.aspx

766 McGregor (1960 & 2006); Storey (1996).767 Grobler et al. (2011:536–544); Beardwell & Claydon (2011:411).768 Hunt (2014); Lacey & Groves (2014); Abrahamson (1996); Gladwell

(2002).769 http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/George_Santayana770 McCabe (2000); Deetz (2003); Herzog (2012).771 Cf. Habermas (1985); d’Entrèves & Benhabib (1997). Perhaps this comes

to the discomfort of many postmodernists, but modernity remains anunfinished project. Its completion and therefore modernity is not yetaccomplished. It is still outstanding or a work-in-progress. Hence, therecan be no post-modernism when modernism is still in the making. InHegelian philosophy, modernity is an issue of becoming.

772 Pogge (1997); Dussel & Vallega (2012).773 This is not to say that moral philosophy operates separate from the sphere

of society (3–5) and HRM (1–2). On the contrary, it has been shown thatmoral philosophy extends to all spheres of human society without anyexception. Moral philosophy has a lot to say about spheres 1 to 2 (HRM)and spheres 3 to 5 (society). However, when seen from Kant’s ‘what is’-vs.-‘what ought to be’, moral philosophy appears to focus more on ‘whatought to be’ (stages 6–7) than simply on ‘what is’ (1–5). This may be thecase because moral philosophy is primarily engaged with questions suchas: ‘how shall we live?’ and ‘what shall I do?’.

Notes 301

774 The difference between HRM morality and moral philosophy lies in thefact that the former seeks to establish rules for moral conduct and dis-cusses the morality of an actor (HRM) while the latter (moral philosophy)discusses morality from a philosophical point of view. Put simply, theformer is interested in practice, the latter in theory (Keller 2010; Shafer-Landau 2007).

775 Kaplan & Norton (1992, 1993, 2004); Biazzo & Garengo (2011); Modell(2012).

776 Klikauer (2007, 2008, 2012, 2013).777 Weber (1991:308) notes that ‘organisational values appear to be associated

with a particular stage of moral reasoning’.778 Schwind et al. (2013:361); Hayek (1944); Gunnigle et al. (2011:41);

Martínez & Stuart (2011); Tomlinson (2007); Brewster et al. (2006).779 Milgram (cf. Alfonso 1982; Blass 1991, 1992, 2002; Milgram 1963, 1972,

1973, 1974, 1992; Werhane 2013).780 Hegel’s ‘Phenomenology’ (1807); Kojève (1947); Taylor (1994); Honneth

(1995); Pinkard (2013).781 In the words of Selekman (1959:21), ‘a businessman’s statements and

actions are based on economic and political views [that] sharply contra-dict the moral philosophy they profess in speeches and articles’.

782 Marx (1844 & 1890); Karl Marx’s ‘Capital’, vol. one – chapter thirty-one:‘Genesis of the Industrial Capitalist’ in: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch31.htm.

302 Notes

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356 Bibliography

$6,000 shower curtain, 148

absenteeism, 57, 167Adam Smith, 70, 120, 242, 246, 260,

318f.administrative power, 169Adorno, 14, 17, 39, 42, 47, 48, 50, 62,

107, 111–113, 131, 180, 194, 228,247, 252, 254–256, 264–275,283f., 292, 303, 321, 326, 337,347

Age of Me-First, 33, 228agency-vs.-structure, 52agri-culture, 185Airheads, 146, 261, 321al desko, 118All-Too Human, 84Altruism, 40, 100, 313, 330, 339, 348American workplace, 77animal testing, 188animal welfare ethics, 6anthropocentrism, 22, 189, 209, 294anthropology, 3, 246anti-discrimination laws, 27ape-to-ape relationships, 1Aquinas, 91, 106f., 113, 237,

245–247, 270, 283, 296, 304, 315Aryans, 63asbestos, 140, 253Asch, 58, 305assembly line, 157, 180Auschwitz, 33, 39, 63, 258, 270, 303,

307, 324, 347Authoritarian Character, 50authoritarianism, 4, 37, 51, 55, 101,

120, 123, 131, 151, 244Avatar, 68, 259

Babylonian Law, 2balance of power, 115, 130Banality of Evil, 9, 23, 51, 253, 304,

313bankruptcies, 80, 81

base salary, 70Baudrillard, 105, 109, 179, 211, 296,

306Bauman, 25, 29, 33, 37, 39, 43–48,

58, 63–67, 72, 116, 121f., 126,158, 189, 206, 235f., 239,250–259, 273, 275, 283, 291, 293,306, 307

Bentham, 22, 39, 138, 141, 145, 151,154, 159, 208f., 247, 285, 297,307, 318, 320

Beyond Good and Evil, 85, 339Bhopal, 140, 141Biblical origins, 28Big Five, 93Biocentrism, 198bioregionalism, 22, 196f., 209, 294biospheric egalitarianism, 22, 209biospherical net, 193, 209blackmail, 112blame no one, 102Bourdieu, 52, 300, 309bribe-taking, 23, 26business administrators, 211business parks, 196business schools, 19, 92, 103, 171,

201, 284

Cain and Abel, 28Camus, 39, 272, 311career opportunities, 97Categorical Imperative, 41, 343CCTV, 80CEOs, 5, 98, 135, 147, 206, 277Charlie Chaplin, 180checks-and-balances, 62children, 50, 144, 208, 246, 264, 268,

278, 286, 295, 300Chomsky, 46, 134, 140, 250, 252,

297, 305, 312Christian, 28, 83, 85, 270citizen-to-citizen, 13citoyen, 122

357

Index

civic and legal equality, 120civil society, 115, 124, 295climate change, 186codes of conduct, 16, 109, 266codified company standards, 24cognitive ability, 7collective bargaining, 218, 232, 288command-and-control, 50, 55, 57, 61,

67, 142company car, 125, 278company newsletters, 117competitive advantage, 12, 33, 87,

97f., 112, 175complaint procedures, 127concentration camps, 45, 249conferences, 84, 103, 154, 156, 171,

202, 284consequentialism, 38, 41, 139, 148,

244f., 280continuous improvement, 12corporate culture, 26, 30, 90, 119corporate headquarter, 196corporate PR, 6, 201, 299corporate psychopath, 50corporate social responsibility, 82corporate utility, 185Cost-Benefit Rationality, 32cost-benefit thinking, 48cost-benefit trade-off, 88cost-cutting, 58, 64f., 80f., 87–89, 94,

100, 102, 109, 144, 159courage, 94, 133, 183, 245f., 268, 300cruelty towards animals, 188f.cultural identity, 205

Daimler Benz, 33Death Penalty, 39, 342death-camps, 33Déclaration des Droits, 161Declaration of Human Rights, 4, 29,

161Deep Ecology, 22, 191, 209defamation, 102Dekke Eide Næss, 191de-layering, 60, 194Descartes, 16, 31, 215, 245, 265, 290,

294, 315, 339Detroit, 63Deutsche Bank, 33

Dewey, 41, 336dignity, 48, 104, 176–178, 246f.,

263f., 280disciplinary dismissal, 129division of labour, 5, 24f., 180, 213,

256Dog-of-War, 39donkey, 146, 251downshifting, 12downsizing, 65, 86, 92, 109, 140, 159,

264, 276Drucker, 117, 146, 159, 251, 263, 273,

316drug testing, 45dummies, 180Dunlop, 15, 301, 317Durkheim, 129f., 276, 278, 317

early factories, 212ecological limits, 196f.economic processing zones, 196egalitarianism, 119, 153, 191–193,

294egocentrism, 4, 10, 25, 226, 260Egyptian ruling class, 2Ehrenreich, 151, 239, 318Eichmann, 33, 206, 258, 299, 304emotional cruelty, 112employer federation, 173English marmalade, 151Enlightenment, 14, 17f., 31, 37, 41,

122, 162, 265, 286f., 303,326–328

environmental resource, 187Epictetus, 79, 102f.equalitarianism, 100Erin Brockovich, 68, 310Ethical Respect for Nature, 207Europe, 227, 299, 313, 316f., 340,

349evolutional theorists, 7evolutionary ethics, 8, 246, 263, 279exploitation, 100, 192, 199, 233eye-for-an-eye, 2

Facebook, 169factory administration, 13, 25, 44,

156, 168, 178, 206factory overseer, 18

358 Index

Index 359

family, 9, 92, 99f., 136, 164, 204, 210,235, 286, 297

farming, 185–189, 198, 205, 294Fayol, 33, 110, 230, 240, 244, 319Fear of Freedom, 54, 291, 320feudalist-catholic rule, 91FFFF-dilemma, 190FIFO, 30, 111Ford, 63, 140, 157, 180, 213, 270,

289, 319Fordism, 123, 213f., 290French Revolution, 4, 326, 344friendship, 47, 97f., 105, 110f., 133,

157–159, 243–246Fromm, 54, 121, 237, 243f., 252f.,

267, 273–281, 291, 320

game-shows, 137gas chambers, 33, 63, 248George Orwell, 2, 60, 178, 299Germanic race, 63Global Justice, 42, 335global talent flow, 97global warming, 186globalisation, 16, 171, 186, 291God, 8, 18, 31, 162golden rule, 26Goldhagen, 15, 58, 66, 192, 249, 256,

259, 322good and bad, 23, 36, 83Greece, 3, 91, 113, 161, 266, 316greenfield sites, 196grievance procedures, 127groupism, 11Guantanamo, 39, 66, 318, 354

Habermas, 41, 95, 125, 224f., 237,243, 255, 273f., 280f., 301, 307,315, 323f., 344, 346

Hammurabi, 2Happiness Principle, 133, 138–142,

145–147, 152, 156Hare, 41, 42, 247, 252, 305Harvard Business School, 96, 240, 335heart of darkness, 17Hedonism, 40Herbert Spencer, 40Herzberg, 16, 17, 70, 240, 250, 260,

293, 318, 325

Hierarchy of Needs, 47high performance work systems, 81,

93Himmler, 33hiring-&-firing, 158history, 2f., 13–16, 53, 64, 86, 132,

157, 206, 210–213, 223, 264f.,280, 284, 296, 300

holistic morality, 11Hollywood, 54, 68, 137, 300Holocaust, 33, 39, 45, 63, 64, 258f.,

306, 322, 324, 333, 355homo economicus, 74, 261f., 266,

285honesty is the best policy, 2HR manuals, 5HR officer, 67HR-defined work tasks, 56HR-director, 48, 257HRM and Ethics, 21HRM by Fear, 25HRM scenario, 88HRM’s authority, 36, 51, 52f., 56f.,

62, 87, 121, 125, 134HRM-subordinate relationships, 126HRM-vs.-organisation, 6HRM-vs.-union, 111human capital, 86, 164, 178, 203,

227f., 264, 267Human resource development, 218human rights legislation, 11Human Side of Enterprise, 214, 222,

336human wellbeing, 139human-to-human relationships, 1f.Hume, 40, 69, 75, 91, 103–105, 113,

246f., 270, 275

illegal discrimination, 126I-manage-you, 141individual bargaining, 68, 144, 163individual competition, 79f., 101, 226individual morality, 3, 55, 121individualisation, 68, 144individualism, 5, 9, 10, 16, 25, 29f.,

39, 68, 87, 90, 97, 101, 104–112,123–125, 136, 138, 144, 150–167,210, 211, 240, 260–264, 280, 284

industrial laboratories, 185

industrial relations, 15, 121, 149, 174,218, 282

industrialism, 19inferiority complex, 51inner-group moralities, 39International Labour Organisation,

218intuitionism, 21, 69, 75–77, 87invasion of privacy, 45Isaiah Berlin, 120

Jack Welsh, 142job descriptions, 103, 200, 230job design, 218, 232, 293job satisfaction, 98, 140, 146John Austin, 127, 131, 276John Wayne, 68Justice As Fairness, 119

Kansas City policemen, 65Kaplan & Norton, 67, 139, 165, 192,

239, 241, 255, 282, 291, 302killing is wrong, 28, 29kindergartens, 154kinship, 39Korsgaard, 41, 124, 164, 170, 171,

199, 245, 291, 294, 331KPIs, 18, 30, 101–103, 169, 177, 185,

190–192, 205, 208, 230, 269, 341Kropotkin, 40, 215, 237, 245, 263,

298, 331

lab testing, 188labour laws, 11, 27, 164, 218, 221labour markets, 16, 196, 219labourer, 178leadership, 50, 62, 72, 84–87, 158,

219, 222Leopold, 190, 295, 332lesbian workers, 109Levinas, 39, 40, 107–109, 265–267, 333liberal capitalism, 212, 213, 242liberal ethics, 122, 128liberation, 26, 67f., 196, 202liberty, 81, 120–122, 141, 287, 291lion-dilemma, 9, 210live cooperatively, 9Locke, 38, 40, 88, 120–122, 128, 141,

215, 237f., 242–247, 276, 333

loyalty, 36, 61f., 159, 246, 253Luther, 123lying, 158f.

Machiavelli, 45, 123–125, 249, 259,279, 311, 314, 327, 334

Machiavellian personalities, 73Machiavellianism, 72MacIntyre, 11, 124, 235, 243, 251,

259, 261, 265, 276, 280, 288, 294,300, 307, 334

MADD, 59, 145, 182, 254managerial capitalism, 15managerial prerogative, 231, 250Managerialism, 5, 14–16, 29, 50,

85–88, 154, 180–185, 191–195,211, 223–229, 233, 235, 242,261–267, 278, 291, 294, 312–318,322, 330, 333

Marcuse, 42, 62, 115, 154, 240–256,266, 273–280, 285–289, 292, 296,300, 334, 335

Marquis de Sade, 39, 40, 247Marx, 2, 42, 118, 121, 129, 178, 180,

228, 235, 247f., 278, 282, 293,296, 298, 302, 313, 327, 329, 336,346, 352

Maslow, 47, 251, 353mass media, 53, 57, 154, 206, 211,

239, 246, 288, 300mass-consumerism, 136, 213mathematics, 210Max Weber, 32, 122, 253, 335McDonald’s, 2, 180McGregor, 1, 9, 17, 44, 47, 53, 57, 71,

77, 86, 191, 214, 222, 227, 237f.,240, 248, 255, 259–262, 301, 318,336

medicine, 62, 210memorandums, 117Me-Myself-&-I, 101merit pay, 70, 269meta-ethics, 3Michel Foucault, 4, 131, 320migrant workers, 109Milgram’s philosophy, 46Mill, 22, 104–108, 138f., 145–147,

152–159, 247, 265, 268, 275,281–284, 337

360 Index

minimum wage, 151, 228modern society, 5monetary gains, 10money and power code, 29, 53, 94,

105f., 152monitoring, 117, 150, 290Moore, 2, 22, 138, 157–159, 247, 265,

287, 293, 297, 307, 335, 338moral behaviour, 2, 5f., 9, 11, 40, 43,

49, 52, 75, 229, 235moral codes, 1, 2, 4, 10, 40, 91, 131,

210, 211moral consciousness, 7, 8, 145, 188moral duties, 22, 41, 162, 189, 292moral egoism, 39, 40, 43, 68–75, 90,

222, 224moral hypocrisy, 87Moral Maze, 46, 106, 148, 157, 159,

170, 177moral rules, 6, 27, 37–41, 119, 226,

246moral thinking, 6moral vacuum, 23morality of animals, 9, 208Morally Decent HR, 148, 163, 334motivational purpose, 71Mumford, 66f., 258–290, 338Mutual Aid, 40, 331

narcissism, 25, 50, 70, 134, 246Narcissistic Process, 103, 347Native Americans, 37Nazi death-machinery, 33Nazi Germany, 66, 265Nazi war machine, 33negative liberties, 162Nestlé, 2networks, 58, 105, 194, 269, 287new animists, 22, 195, 209, 294NGOs, 73, 86Nietzschean, 2, 249, 259nihilism, 39No Harm Principle, 37, 132, 140non-intuitionist morality, 76Nozick, 41, 237, 243, 289, 340, 346Nussbaum, 41, 94, 280f., 340

officialdom, 5, 53OHS-laws, 9

old boys network, 5open door policy, 2operations management, 1, 168, 218Organisation Men, 55, 57, 106, 270,

292, 293organisational communication, 57organisational culture, 5, 54–57, 62,

268, 269Organisational happiness, 98organisational honour, 135, 137organisational performance, 92f., 108,

139–148, 151, 156f., 166, 197,202, 268, 280, 283

organisational power, 4, 122f., 141,146, 169

organisational privilege, 125, 250organisational selfishness, 4Orwellian Newspeak, 30, 62, 110,

128, 205overseer’s whip, 49, 212overtime, 118

panoptical surveillance, 25Paris Hilton, 135Pascal, 41, 247, 341payoffs, 24, 25peasants, 3, 52, 211, 227penal systems, 25pension fund, 192perception management, 135performance assessments, 45performance related pay, 9, 47, 68,

103, 139, 214, 222, 226personnel management, 13, 19, 44,

132, 152, 156, 168, 178, 206,212–231, 264

personnel managers, 15piece-rate, 214Pinochet, 66Pinto, 140, 141Pittacus, 40Plato, 40, 91, 94, 112, 241, 248,

266–277, 296pluralism, 62, 122Pogge, 42, 276, 286, 292f., 301, 311, 342policy portfolios, 5positive reinforcement, 48positivism, 15, 21, 35, 37, 40–43, 47,

127, 131, 195, 273–276

Index 361

PR announcements, 164precarious work, 15PR-firms, 228prisoner dilemma, 32–34, 64, 75, 89,

262productivity, 12, 102, 140, 186, 213,

243promotability, 133, 158promotions, 10, 138, 144, 166, 192,

253Protagoras, 40, 42, 101f., 189psychologists, 7, 210, 214psychopathic monsters, 66

rationality of irrationality, 33, 63recruitment and selection, 1, 19, 45,

84, 107, 149, 222, 231, 255, 262Regan, 198, 296, 300, 305, 343remuneration, 1, 19, 67–72, 143–149,

178, 193, 218, 222, 232, 262Retreat from Commonsense, 146, 261retrenchment, 109, 140, 147rhetorical trickery, 173Ricardo, 120f.Right to Manage, 81, 324River Rouge, 63Robinson Crusoe, 8, 74, 211, 237,

262, 315ROI, 73, 192, 296Rolston, 190f., 294f., 344Ronald Dworkin, 122Rosenfeld, 135, 264, 345Rousseau, 37, 40, 42, 141, 238,

257–260, 275f., 282, 292, 295,345

rule-books, 117rule-creator, 116rule-obeying, 178ruler and ruled, 177

sadists, 53Salle du Manège, 44Sand County Almanac, 190Satanic Mills, 13, 44, 86, 132, 178,

211, 223, 292, 309Saussure, 12Schwarzenegger, 68Schweitzer, 22, 198, 209, 294, 297,

347

Searle, 35, 230f., 251, 263, 347secret pay check, 149self-appraisal, 133selfish cravings, 26semi-starved rat, 16f., 46, 75, 250Semler, 174, 347sentient beings, 22, 197f., 294Seven Management Moralities, 1, 330shallow ecology, 191, 192shareholder values, 73, 89, 96, 175Sidgwick, 138, 143–148, 159, 238,

247, 282f., 348Simulacra and Simulation, 105, 306Singer’s ethics, 207f.Skinner, 16, 46–49, 71, 214, 240, 250,

262, 297, 312, 332, 349slave labour, 33, 48slave-morality, 39social ecology, 22, 201–209, 294Socrates, 40, 85, 91–95, 107, 112,

145f., 236, 245f., 271, 275, 281f.,290f., 300, 353

Sophie’s Choice, 63f., 89, 351Sophist philosophers, 73sovereignty, 123f., 277SS men, 65, 255stakeholder concepts, 11status-quo, 32stewardship, 62Stoic View of Life, 79strong-vs.-weak, 87sub-humans, 33subjectivism, 21, 25, 40, 69, 75–77,

87, 90suffering, 18, 60f., 99, 188, 208, 230,

252, 256f., 284, 294–300Superman, 72sustainability meetings, 12sweatshops, 16, 99, 157, 253, 282Swine-Principle, 145system integration, 132

tabloid-TV, 137take-it-or-leave-it, 78takeovers, 80Talcott Parsons, 129talent inventory, 97Talent Myth, 135, 322Talmudic-Jewish, 28

362 Index

taxi-driver, 172Taylor, 18, 24f., 110, 151–155, 168,

180, 207, 213, 227, 240–247, 275,285–290, 296, 299, 302, 343, 351

Taylorism, 151, 213f., 280tell the truth, 169–171terror, 10, 24f., 45, 78, 167textbook view, 21The Real Bottom Line, 77, 149, 175,

181f., 284Theory X, 44, 47, 53, 57, 75, 77, 214,

222, 237f., 308theory Y, 80, 227three-strike-rule, 118TINA model, 89top-down division, 25top-management, 24, 27, 51, 98, 135,

206, 226torture, 66, 188, 189Totally Administered Society, 131Townley, 19, 268, 283, 335trade union, 157, 164, 170, 213f., 274

trade unions, 11, 15f., 24, 51, 61, 79,82, 85–89, 102–110, 138, 149,155, 158, 164, 173, 175, 214,218, 221, 227, 264, 268, 269,271, 288

training videos, 117trust nobody, 80truth-telling, 170TV-advertisements, 66

underlings, 16, 44, 48, 86, 100, 111,118f., 123, 127, 135, 178, 203,226, 232

unfair dismissal, 27Unilever, 2unionism, 73, 283United Nations, 11, 287

value for money, 100Villa Grimaldi, 66violence, 10, 45, 50, 77, 133, 167,

244–246, 251, 255, 272

Index 363