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TheNewGlobalTerroristThreat:ACaseofPakistani
IdentityandGlobalJihad
A Master’s Thesis
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and
Sciences Brandeis University
Department of Global Studies Chandler Rosenberger PhD, Advisor
In Partial Fulfillment for the Degree Master in Arts in Global Studies
By:
Rebecca Nadine Gil
August 2010
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ABSTRACTThe New Global Terrorist Threat: A Case of Pakistani Identity and Global Jihad
A thesis presented to the Department of Global Studies
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
Brandeis University Waltham, Massachusetts
By: Rebecca Nadine Gil
ThispaperdescribeswhythenumberofPakistaniterroristsandactsof
terrorismareontheriseinIndiaandintheUnitedStates.Byexaminingtheglobal
jihadismmovementinPakistanasanunintendedconsequenceoftheIndian
Partition,Pakistancanbeviewed,asanantacidabstractwithfewroots,andwithit,
soistheidentityofthePakistani.ManyPakistanisarelookingforwhatevery
humanbeingneeds:asenseofbelongingandidentity.Forsomeofthemglobal
jihadismisareligiousexpressionofthisfrustration.Byexaminingterrorismand
personalitytraitsofterrorists,thispapersuggeststhatbecauseseveralPakistanis
havefoundasenseofbelongingwithinjihadistmovements,Pakistaniterrorism
gearedtowardstheWestislikelytoincrease.
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TableofContents
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………..…..2
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………...….............3
Chapter I: Introduction……………………………………………………..…………...…4
Chapter II: Pakistani Terrorism: It is an Issue of Identity……………..…11
2.1: Defining Terrorism……………………………………………………….11
2.2: The Terrorist Mind: Psychology and Belief…………………...15
Ideology…………………………………………………………………….15
Personality Traits of a Terrorist………………………………..19
Jihadism: Why Personality Counts………………………….….23
Chapter III: Partition: The Roots of Pakistani Identity Problems…….25
3.1: Problems From the Start…………………………………………….…27
3.2: India After Partition………………………………………….……….….37
3.3: Pakistani Terror in India……………………………………………....39
3.4: Jihad and the Pakistani Identity…………………………………… 44
3.5: What’s next?.....................................................................................45
Chapter IV: Conclusion: Pakistani Identity and the West………………...47
Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………………….53
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I. Introduction
ThispastMay,FaisalShahzad,anAmericancitizenwithPakistaniroots,
coollydroveasmoking1993NissanPathfinderSUVandparkeditintotheheartof
TimesSquare.Hehadacquiredthecarjustthreeweekspriorfromacraigslist
advertisement.Thecarcontainedariflecabinetpackedwithmorethan45
kilogramsoffertilizer.Shahzadleftthecarrunningandcasuallywalkedoutofthe
vehicle.WiththousandsofpeopleconstantlymovingthroughTimesSquareitwas
notlongbeforethevehiclebegantoworryseveralpeopleandwasquicklyreported
totheproperauthorities.TheterrorplottoblowupabusypartofTimesSquare
wasfoiledjustintime.
U.S.AttorneyGeneralEricHolderannouncedthearrestmentofFaisal
ShahzadafewdaysfollowingasShahzad’splanewasclearedfortakeoff:“Faisal
ShazadwasarrestedinconnectionwiththeattemptedcarbombinginNewYorkon
Saturday.MrShahzad,anAmericancitizen,wastakenintocustodyatJFKAirportin
NewYorkasheattemptedtoboardaflighttoDubai,”saidHolderinapress
conference.Shahzadhadreturnedfromathree‐weekvisittoPakistan,wherehe
reportedlyvisitedhiswifeandhadreportedlybeentakingpartforfivemonthsin
PakistanJihadcamps(Weiser,1).
ThoughwemayneverknowthetruereasonsbehindShahzad’splanned
attack,therehavebeenseveralspeculations.Firstly,Shahzad’sfamily,likemany
otherAmericanfamilies,hadfallenvictimtotheeconomiccrisistohittheUnited
Statesandtheworld.Hewasforcedtosellhisfamily’shomeandbegantorenta
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newhome.Thefinancialwoesofhisfamilymayhavecontributedtohisterrorist
actions.Shahzadwasunabletoobtainthe“AmericanDream”offinancialstability
andprosperity.WereShahzad’sactionsaresultofhislackofsuccesslivinginthe
UnitedStates?Theanswerisprobablynotduetothefactthathewasabletoafford
severallongtripstoPakistan.
AnotherlikelycontributormayhavebeenonlineradicalMuslimlecturers
thatShahzadhadtakenaninterestin.Knownforhisextremeviewsandcriticismof
theUnitedStatesandthewest,Anwaral‐Awlaki,aYemeni‐Americancleric,may
havehadalotofinfluenceonShahzad’sbeliefs.DidShahzad’sdissatisfactionwith
hisfinancialpositionultimatelypushShahzadintoapathofMuslimextremism?
HisinabilitytosuccessfullyassimilateintheUnitedStatesandradical
MuslimteachingsprobablydidfuelShahzad’sdissatisfactionwithhisownliving
situation.HoweverthefactorthatseemedtohavepushedShahzadovertheedge,
werehisvisitstohisnativehomelandofPakistan.Infact,withinaseven‐year
period,Shahzadhadvisitedthecountryontendifferentoccasions.Evidenceshows
that“ShahzadwasoutragedbythecampaignwhichthePakistaniarmy‐‐under
intenseAmericanpressure‐‐hasbeenwagingagainstmilitantgroupsinthetribal
areasofnorthwestPakistan,flankingAfghanistan…America'sdroneattacksagainst
Talibantargetsinthetribalareashavearousedparticularfury,aswellasfierceanti‐
Americanfeeling,becauseoftheciviliancasualtiestheyhavecausedandbecause
theyareseenasintolerableinfringementsofPakistan'ssovereignty”(Seale,1).
ShahzadwasrecruitedintoTehrik‐i‐Taliban,oneofthemanygroupsoperating
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undertheTaliban.Inhistimeintraininghelearnedhowtobuildabomb,whichhe
thentriedtorecreateinTimesSquare(Wesier,1).Shahzadtriedtoseekrevenge
againsttheUnitedStates,byhisplannedactofterror(Seale,1).
SincetheinitialarrestofFaisalShahzad,afewothershavebeenarrestedin
relationtothefailedterroristplot.Shahzadisbelievedtohavetieswiththe
PakistaniTaliban.Thoughitisstillunclearwhoisresponsibleforthisfailedattack,
onethingissure:Terrorism,andspecificallyterrorismwithPakistaniorigins,isstill
averyrealthreattotheUnitedStatesandisunlikelytogoawayanytimesoon.
AsintheUnitedStates,Islamicmotivatedterrorismwithlinkstojihadist
groupsinPakistanhashitIndiaandothercountriesacrosstheglobeoverthepast
severalyears.InNovember2008,aseriesofterroristattackswerecarriedoutin
Mumbai.“Jihadigroups,believedtohavebeentrainedandarmedbyshadowy
elementsinPakistan,havemountednumerousattacksagainstIndiainthelast
decade,ofwhichthemostspectacularwastheNovember2008terroristattackon
Mumbaithatkilledmorethan160people.Arrivingbyboat,thecommandogroup
attackedatrainstation,twohotels,aJewishcenterandabar(Seale,1)”.In
response,theUnitedStateshasbeenpressuringPakistantocontroltheir
homegrownterroristcellswithintheircountry.Shahzadmayhavebeenfighting
againsttheUnitedStatesdemand.
Pakistaniterroristshavegrownquicklyfromthelocaltotheglobalscale.
Therearethreecategoriesofsubnationalandtransnationalnon‐stateentities,
whichcanbebrokendownintothecategoriesof:ethnic,religiousandideological.
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Thesenon‐stateentities“[pursue]interestsdetrimentaltothenationalinterestsof
thestates”theyarefightingagainst(Dekmejan,1).Inthebook:Spectrum of Terror,
theauthor,R.HrairDekmejiandividespoliticalviolenceintoseparatecategories.
Movingfrommicrotomacropoliticalviolencethereis:Individual terrorismsuchas
assassinsandbombers.Next,thereisSubnational terrorism, whichisclassifiedby
ethnicnationalists,religiousmilitants,ideologicalradicalsandhybridorganizations.
Movingon,transnational terrorism isdefinedbyterroristgroupsthatcross
boundariesofsovereignstates.Pakistaniterroristsarequicklymovingacrossthe
spectrumfromtheindividualtotransnational.
Angryandfrustratedpeoplehavefoundrefugeinthejihadtrainingcampsin
Pakistan.AccordingtoDekmejan,Subnationalistgroup’ssuccessesareoften
dependenton:“(1)thepopularityoftheircause,(2)theeffectivenessofleadership
andorganization,(3)changesintheirobjectives,(4)thestrategicrationalefor
violentactions,(5)thenatureofstateresponsesrangingfromnegotiatedsettlement
torepression,masskillingandgenocide,and(6)theroleofexternalpowersand
worldconclusions”(Dekmrejan,12).Pakistanisarestilloutragedbydisputedlands
apartofIndia,andnow,bytheUnitedState’slatestcampaigns.
Thereareoftenseveralcontributingfactorsthatmotivateindividualsor
organizationstocommitactsofterrorism.Anindividualororganization’s
motivationsforterrorismareofteninfluencedbytheorganizationorperson’s
history.Furthermore,“thetimeandplaceinwhichterrorismoccursarerelevantto
themotivationsbehindterrorismformanyreasons.Thesocializationofmembersof
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asocietyorsubgroupwithregardtoviolenceanditsjustificationmustbe
considered”(Mahan&Griset,10).Oftenthereisa“cycleofrevenge”whereone
groupretaliatesfromviolencecommittedagainstthem(Mahan&Griset,10).
Severalotherscholarsofferotherexplanationsforthemotivationsbehind
actsofterrorism.Forexample,LaurenceMiller’sdescriptionincludes:“athree‐stage
process.Stageonebeginswithunacceptableconditions:“It’snotright.”Stagetwo
followswithresentmentandasenseofinjustice:“It’snotfair.”Instagethreethe
causeoftheinjusticeispersonified:“It’syourfault.””(Mahan&Griset,10).Though
thisexplanationdoesnotalwaysreigntrueforthemotivationsbehindsterrorism,it
doesofferamodelthatworkswellforothers.OtherscholarssuchasMartha
CrenshawandJeroldM.Postapproachtheissueofmotivationsfromapsychological
perspective.Crenshawfocusesonthepsychologicalforces,whichcreatethe
motivationforterrorism,whilePostfocuseson“psycho‐logic”,which“is
constructedtorationalizeactstheyarepsychologicallycompelledtocommit.
Individualsaredrawntothepathsofterrorismtocommitviolence”(Post,25;
Mahan&Griset,10).Otherpsychologicalexplanationsfocusonfamilybackground,
upbringing,andsocialstructure(Mahan&Griset,10).
InTerrorism in the TwentyFirst Century,CindyC.Combsidentifiesgroup
dynamics,religion,age,sex,education,economicstatusandlocationtobekey
contributorstothemotivationbehindactsofterrorism.Groupdynamics“helps to
shape terrorist thought and action”(Combs,61).Usuallythesegroupsarefanatical,
believingthattheyknowtherealtruthandonlytheycanchangewhattheyperceive
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tobenottruebyviolentaction.Usuallyterroristsaremotivatedmorebyunfairness
thanaparticularpoliticalevent(Combs,61).Groupdynamicsalsocontributestothe
group’sextremity:“Ifitistruethattheaterrorist’ssenseofrealityis
distorted…thenthegreatertheassociationtheterroristenjoyswithhisorhergroup
offellowterrorists,thegreaterthedistortionwillbe” (Combs,61). Inotherwords,
anindividual’sthoughtsandideasaregreatlyinfluencedbythatofagroup,even
moresointhecaseofaterrorist.
Whenreligionisanaddedcomponenttothegroupdynamic,ideascan
becomeevenmoreextreme.WhenusingGodasjustification,therealityofa
situationisslanted.Insteadoftrulydealingwiththepresent,religionusesthefuture
todealwiththepresent:“Religiouszealotscommittingactsofterrorismareassured
bytheirreligionsanditsleadersthattheiractsareacceptabletoahighermorality
thanmaycurrentlyexist”(Combs,62).Whenreligionisinvolvedasasourceof
justificationforterrorism,itismoredifficulttomoderateactionwithreason,which
greatlycontributestoaterrorist’smotivation(Combs,62).
ThereisreasontobelievethatterrorisminspiredbyextremistMuslim
rhetoricandstemmingfromPakistanisnowthegreatestthreatstoIndiaandthe
UnitedStates.However,inordertounderstandthethreatthatnowfacesthese
countries,onemustlookintothedeepercontextofwhatterrorismis,whoisa
terroristandwhyterrorismoccurs.Thispaperseekstoexplainwhythenumberof
Pakistaniterroristsandactsofterrorismareontherisebyexaminingtheglobal
jihadismmovementinPakistanasanunintendedconsequenceoftheIndian
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Partition.Pakistanisainventedconstructwithfewroots,andwithit,soisthe
identityofthePakistani.Pakistanisarelookingforwhateveryhumanbeingcraves:
asenseofbelongingandidentity.Globaljihadismisareligiousexpressionofthis
frustration.WithabuildingpressureonPakistanfromtheWest,moreandmore
Pakistanisareexpressingtheirfeelingsofisolationthroughactsofterrorism.
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II. PakistaniTerrorism:ItisanIssueofIdentity
Terrorismhasgreatlyinfluencedthedevelopmentandpoliticsofstates.Yet,
thereisaclearlackofconsensusforbothalocallyandinternationallyrecognized
definitionofterrorism.Terrorismisapolitical,legalandmilitaryissueandbecause
ofitsmanyaspects,“itsdefinitioninmoderntermshasbeenslowtoevolve.Notthat
therearenotnumerousdefinitionsavailable‐therearehundreds.Butfewofthem
areofsufficientlegalscholarshiptobeusefulininternationallaw,andmostofthose
arelegallyusefullackthenecessaryambiguityforpoliticalacceptance”(Combs,8).
WithintheUnitedStatesalone,thedefinitionvariesfromorganizationto
organization.
2.1DefiningTerrorism:
TheUnitedStatesCode,publishedbytheOfficeoftheLawRevisionCounsel
oftheU.S.HouseofRepresentatives,definitionofterrorismstates:“as
premeditated,politicallymotivatedviolenceperpetuatedagainstnoncombatant
targetsbysubnationalgroupsor“clandestineagents” (Title22,Chapter38,§2656f;
Mahan&Griset,3). TheCodeofFederalRegulations,publishedbytheexecutive
branchagenciesoftheUnitedStatesdefinesterrorismas“theunlawfuluseofforce
andviolenceagainstpersonsorpropertytointimidateorcoerceagovernment,the
civilianpopulation,oranysegmentthereof,infurtheranceofpoliticalorsocial
objectives”(28,C.F.R.Section0.85;Mahan&Griset,4).Anotherdefinitionusedby
theFederalBureauofInvestigation(FBI))describesterrorismasaggressiveactions
“thatappeartobeintendedtointimidateorcoerceacivilianpopulation;influence
12
thepolicyofagovernmentbyintimidationorcoercion;oraffecttheconductofthe
governmentbymassdestruction,assassinationorkidnappingandoccurprimarily
outsidetheterritorialjurisdictionoftheUnitedStatesortranscendnational
boundariesintermsofthemeansbywhichtheyareaccomplished,thepersonsthey
appearintendedtointimidateorcoerce,orthelocaleinwhichtheirperpetrators
operateorseekasylum”(FBI,2006;Mahan&Griset,4).Furthermore,aseparate
definitionexistswithintheFBIfordomesticterrorism(Mahan&Griset,4).Theclear
lackofaconciseandnationaldefinitionofterrorism,withintheUntiedStates,is
worrisome.LivingintheUnitedStates,terrorismisaveryrealpartofourlives.How
canweknowthethreatifwedonothaveonecleardefinitionofit?
Scholarshavealsocontributedtothediscussionofdefiningterrorism.Bruce
Hoffmandefinesterrorismas“deliberatecreationandexploitationoffearthrough
violenceorthethreatofviolenceorthethreatofviolenceinpoliticalchange”
(Hoffman,2006,41;Howard&Sawyer,2004,23;Mahan&Griset,4).JessicaStern
arguesthatterrorismis“anactorthreatofviolenceagainstnoncombatantswiththe
objectiveofexactingrevenge,intimidating,orotherwiseinfluencinganaudience”
(2003,p.xx,Mahan&Griset,4).Anotherwell‐knownscholar,WalterLaqueur
definesterrorismsimplyas“theuseofcovertviolencebyagrouptoachieve
politicalends”(2001,p.79;Mahan&Griset,4).Laquerechoestheopinionofmany
ofhispeers.
R.HrairDekmejian’sdefinitionofterrorismisused,whichstates:“The
strategicuseofforceorthethreatofforce,beyondtheboundsofinternationallaw,
13
againsthumanandmaterialtargetscarriedoutbyanyindividual,subnational
group,transnationalorganization,orstatetoachieveapoliticalobjectiveinpursuit
ofitsperceivedself‐interests”(Dekmejian,20).Politicalmotives,violenceorthe
threatofviolence,theignitionoffearininnocentbystandersandactsbeingdirected
ataparticularaudienceareallcrucialcomponentsofTerrorism (Combs,10).
SeveralIndianscholarshavealsoaddedtothedefinitionofterrorism.Inthe
bookTerrorism in India, theeditorS.C.Tiwaridescribesterrorismas“generally
recognizedasaspecialmethodofstruggletoobtainspecificpoliticalresultsand
thatthereareatleastfivemajorparticipantsintheprocessofterror:‐(a)the
perpetratorsofviolence;(b)theimmediatevictims;(c)thewidertargetgroupor
societywhichtheterroristsseektointimidate;(d)‘theneutral’bystanderswithin
thesocietyexperiencingterrorism;and(e)theinternationalpublicopinion,insofar
asitisawareoftheseevents”(Tiwari,xi).Hespecificallygoesontomentionthat
foranacttobelabeledterroristthereneedstobeaspecificthreatofviolenceand
threattoothers.Therulesofwardonotapplytotheact,andtheactmustbedone
publicallyinordertogainpublicity.Inotherwordsitmustbeapartofspecific
strategyinordertogainattentionfromagreateraudience(Tiwari,xi).Another
contributerinTiwari’sbookisP.D.Sharmawhowritesthatallterrorists“All
terroristsprimarilyaimtoarousethemassofthepeopletoarealizationthat
constitutedauthorityisnolongersafelyentrenchedorunchallenged.Theactsmay
beconceivedasanadvancenoticeofwhatmaybeexpectedfrommassaction.Death
anddestructiontothemarenot‘merethreats’,butapartofprogrammeofaction
(Sharma,50).Theybelievethateventuallyotherswilljointhemintheirobjectives.
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OnelastacademicscholarworthyofnoteisEqbalAhmed,whoisawell
knownandhighlyacclaimedanti‐colonialismscholar,notedthatthe“terroristof
yesterdayistheherooftoday,andtheheroofyesterdaybecomestheterroristof
today.Thisisaseriousmatteroftheconstantlychangingworldofimagesinwhich
wehavetokeepourheadsstraighttoknowwhatterrorismisandisnot”(Ahmend,
1889,p.20;Mahan&Griset,4).Ahmedclassifiesterrorismintofivedistinctgroups:
stateterrorism,religiousterrorism,criminalterrorismpoliticalterrorism,and
oppositionalterrorism,whichalluseterrorismmethodstoresistthegovernment
(Mahan&Griset,4).Thescholarlydefinitionof“terrorism”continuestovary
dependingonthebackgroundanddisciplineoftheacademic.
Terrorismisacrimeunderinternationallaw.Furthermore,beinglabeleda
terroristhasrealworldconsequencesforallpartiesinvolved.Ifanorganizationor
individualislabeledaterrorist,thelabelplacesnegativeattributesontotheir
politicalambitions:“Quitesimply,freedomfighterscouldbeseenasrebels,
extremistsorseparationists,andanationalliberationmovementscouldbe
describedasinsurrectionsdependingonperceptionsandwhetherthequestionis
addressedbythosewhoquestiontheregimeinpoweroraresympatheticothe
regimeinpower.Moreover,rebels,extremistsorseperationistshavebeen
convertedtopatriotsandfreedomfightersontheachievementofindependenceofa
country;hencethedefinitionalproblemhasbecomemoreacuteinthepost‐colonial
eraandinthedecadesfollowingtheSecondWorldWar”(Chari,34).Manytimesthe
labelof“freedomfighter”and“terrorist”areusedonthesameindividualor
organization,bringingevenmoreconfusiontothedebate(Mahan&Griset,3).
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2.2TheTerroristMind:PsychologyandBelief
Ideology
Terrorismisoftenexaminedthroughanarrowlens.Welookattheactof
terrorism,withoutevertrulyexaminingwhoistheterrorist.Wheredoesthe
terroristcomefrom?Whatishisorherbackground?Whydidtheterroristcommit
theact?Themindoftheterroristisvitalinunderstandingterrorism.
Therearecommontraitsfoundintheindividualswhocommitthesetypesof
violentacts.Theterroristfeelsinferiortohislargerenemy,butmorallysuperior.He
feelsasifhehasbeenwrongedandterrorismisameansthroughwhichhecan
retaliate.Theactofterrorismistheresultofthisdistasteforthelargerenemy.
Throughterroristacts,theterroristbelievesthattheycangainpowerthroughthe
useoffear.Terrorgivesafeelingofpowertothepowerless.
Thereisnorealwaytounderstandandpredicthumanbehavior.Aterrorist
actisevenhardertounderstand(Mahan&Griset,1).Thedefinitionisinaconstant
stateofchange.Itevolvesbasedonthenewpoliticalsituationsandthewaythat
nationstatesandpoliticalentitiesprocessandrespondtotheseevents(Combs,9).
Terrorismisalsoviewedasaformofpoliticalviolenceandatypeofwarfare.
Terroristsoftenusethemediatodelivertheirmessagesandlooktoitasa
measureoftheirsuccess:“Theactofterror…[is]designedtoconveyamessageto
individualtargetgroupsandthegeneralpopulation.Politicalterrorism,therefore,
containsanelementoftheatre.Inthismanner,theworldhasbeenconvertedinto
thestageforterrorism’sdrama.Theprincipalactorsonthatstagearetheterrorists
16
andtheagenciesoftheState,withtheaudiencecomprisingthetargetgroups,the
generalpopulationandtheinternationalcommunity.Theaudienceisequally,ifnot
moreimportantthantheactualvictimsofterrorism”(Chari,34‐35).Theever‐
increasingamountsofcommunicationtechnologieswidenthestageforterrorist
organizations.Television,radio,printmediaandtheInternetbringlivecoverageof
eventstoviewersacrosstheglobe.
Fortheterrorist,thereisusuallyanongoingpersonalstruggle.Thismay
includeeventsofembarrassment,repression,orharassment.Secondly,theterrorist
isexpectedtohaveextremeviewsandbeliefs.Hisorherbeliefsaremoreextreme
thanothersinhisorhersituation.Thirdly,fortheterroristthereisverylittleroom
forflexibility.Eventsanddecisionsareseenintermsofblackandwhite.Thereisa
needforresponsibility,blameandretaliation.Lastly,aterroristusuallyholds“a
capacitytosuppressallmoralconstraintsagainstharminginnocentswhetherdueto
instinctoracquiredfactors,individuals,orgroupforces”(Maham&Griset,11).
Beliefsofmoralityarediscardedinordertoachievetheactofviolence.
Manyterroristsexperienceviolencegrowingup.Theyoftencomefrom
marginalizedcommunities,wheretheyfeelneglected.Oftentheseareasexperience
violence,deathanddestructionasapartofeverydaylife.Theyknowfromfirsthand
experiencethatviolencehurtsthoseinvolved.Terroristsbelievethatiftheyuse
violenceagainsttheirmightyenemy,itwillhurtthemaswell(Ardila,12).Actsof
terrorallowindividualswhofeelwrongedtofeelpowerfulthroughtheuseoffear
(Ardila,10).
17
Aterrorist’scommitmenttohisideologyisunbending.Thereisnoroomfor
negotiationorcompromise:“Inmanywaysterroristsdonotgrow,theyarestuckin
therutoftheirunbendingideology.Amalignancyofthemindwhichistheprincipal
comorbidofpsychopathologyofterror”(Navarro,25).Aterroristholdsontoan
unbreakableideaorpassion.Thisindestructiblepassioniswhatdrivesthe
individualintoviolence:“Toterrorize,aterroristmusthaveanidea,athought,a
passion,ahatred,anideologysofixedandrigid,thathecancarryoutaviolentact
withoutreflection,remorse,orhesitation”(Navarro,26).Theideaissetinstone
andtheterrorist’smindinunchanging:evenhardevidencewillfailtoimpacthis
corebeliefs(Navarro,26).
Manyterroristsalsosufferfrom“MagicalThinking”.Theyareconvincedthat
“somehowthedestructionofthatwhich[they]despiseorhatewillsomehowcure
theillsoftheworld”(Navarro,34).Theirbeliefsaresetonachievingunrealistic
goalsand“theyseethemselvesassacrificesfortheirdeities,andtheycountonthe
approvalandthebackingoftheirculture.Thesebeliefsgivesensetotheirlives,
symbolicformstoachieveimmortalitythroughtheirowndeaths”(Ardila,12).
Hijackingsofplaneshavenotstoppedpeoplefromflying.Terroristattacksonbuses,
havenotstoppedpeoplefromtakingpublictransportation.Peoplecontinuetogoto
workinlowerManhattandespitethedestructionoftheWorldTradeTowers.
AmericanscontinuetohavepresenceintheMiddleEastdespitetheattemptstoget
ridofthemandIndiacontinuestothrivedespiteterroristactivitiesinandaround
itsborders.
18
Therigidityoftheterrorist’sideologyultimatelyforcestheterroristinto
seclusion.Family,friendsandhobbiesareeventuallypushedoutoftheindividual’s
lifebecauseoftheirgreatercommitmenttotheirideology.Thisleavestheindividual
furtherisolatedandlongingforagroupthatsharessimilarinterestsandbeliefs.A
groupprovides“itsmemberstheemotionofinvulnerability, whichensuresthem
somedegreeofencouragementforobviousrisksofdangers.Additionally,[the
group]helpstorationalizethewrongdoingandgivesmoralitytoitsmembersto
justifytheirselves…[stereotypingallows]membersofthegroup[to]dehumanize
theirenemiesandjustifytokilltheothersinmind”(Navarro,74). Theterrorist’s
dissatisfactionwiththeworldaroundhimisadvancedbyhisstubbornnessandin
hisunwillingnessandinabilitytoadapttotheconditionsthatsurroundhim.His
unbreakableideologymakestheworldanditsprocessesintoblackandwhiteterms.
Thegroupreaffirmstheterrorist’sbeliefs,isolatingtheindividualfurtherfrom
reality(Navarro,27).
Takeforexample,RamziYousef,aconspiratorinthe1993WorldTrade
Centerbombings.Yousef’sideology,stubbornandunchangingandhis
dissatisfactionfortheworldaroundhim,madeiteasytojustifytheterroristattack.
Yousef’sbeliefs“becameunbendingroadmapsortemplatestoactionwhich[he]
pursuedwithoutremorse…supremelycommittedtotheirrespectiveideologies,[he]
remainsdefiantlyunrepentant”(Navarro,27).Yousefisclearexampleofhow
ideologypushesindividualsintoextremistmeasuressuchasterrorism(Navarro,
28).
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Personality Traits of a Terrorist
InEricHoffer’s“TrueBelievers”massmovementparadigm,heidentifiesthe
keymembersthatmakeupmassmovements.Firstly,therearetheleaders.The
leadersareselectinnumberandarethemembersofthegroupwhoareusuallythe
mosteducated.Theseleadershavecharisma,agrandvisionandaplanofaction
(Navarro,28).
Theseleadersarewelcomingtothenextcategory,thefollower.Thefollowers
seektofillamissinggapintheirlives:“Thosewhoseetheirlivesaswastedand
spoiledtendtocraveequality,fraternity,andorderthatcomesfrommass
movements.Terroristorganizationsremarkablyfillthisvoid”(Navarro,28).Inthe
study:Theories of Prism: Individual Capital and Frustration,theauthorsfindthat
individualswhoturntoterrorism,insteadofothermethodsofconfrontation,
traditionallycomefrombackgroundsofpovertyandlackofeducation:“violence,
terrorisminparticularispredominantlyanoptionforthepeoplewhohavelower
social,culturaloreconomiccapital.Peoplewhohavehigherlevelsofcapitalwould
bemorelikelytofollowadifferentpathotherthanviolence”(Gunes&Ozeren,31).
Manyscholarshavefoundthatterroristsdonotdowellinschool,andhavelittle
successesintheircareerslateroninlife.Theyareusuallyloners,andoutsiders
(Navarro,55).Terroristsfeellostandareonasearchforpower.Theyhaveadeep
faithintheirideologiesanditspotentialtoleadthemtobetterlives.However,these
individualshardlycommitterroristactsonatransnationallevel.Mostcommitacts
20
ofterrorlocally.Theirfameislimitedtotheirimmediateareaandtheyarequickly
forgottenabout.
Whileanunbendingideologyiscriticalinunderstandingterrorism,itis
importanttolookatotherpersonalitytraitsofterroristsandterroristgroups.One
traitofaterrorististheabilitytoviewtheworldintwodistinctways:
“Psychologicalsplittingisa“primitivewaytolookattheworld,muchasapredator
does,dividingtheworldbetweenthatwhichisusefulandsuddenlyuseless,withno
middleground”(Navarro,37).Theworldisseparatedintoblackandwhiteand
thereisnoroomformovementinbetween.PsychologicalSplittingisdangerous
becauseitdismissestheimportanceofhistory.Therefore,thereisnolearningfrom
pastmistakes.Psychologicalsplittingalsohasaseriousimpactontheterrorist’s
relationshipwithotherpeople.Iftheterroristfeelsbetrayedbyanindividual,the
terroristcantransformfromfriendtofoeinamatterofseconds(Navarro37).
DuringtheeventsofSeptember11th,Flight11’sflightattendants,Madeleine
AmySweenyandBettyOng,describedahorrificsceneofhowordinarypassengers
transformedintomurderoushijackers.Theyweresittingintheirseatsinone
momentandfollowingtheflightattendant’sorders.Thenextmomentthese
individualstookovertheplaneinabloodyfight:“Thedocileterroristsittinginthe
aircraftsuddenly[became]massmurders.Achillingexampleof“splitting”atwork”
(Navarro,38).Inphysiologicalsplittingthereisnomiddlegrounds.Theworldisput
intosimpleterms:“Itsisarhetoricof“us”against“them”,kindnessagainstevil,with
21
idealizationof“us”andprojectiononthem”,ofallthatisbad”(Kiknadze,55).
Deeperangerwithsocietystartsfromwithin(Kiknadze,55).
Anothercharactertraitfoundinterroristsandespeciallytheleadersof
terroristorganizationsisnarcissism.Narcissisticindividualsseethemselvesas
specialandunique.Theyseethemselvesastheonlyoneswiththecapabilityof
beingright.Theyaretheonlyonescapableoffullyunderstandinganissueandthe
onlyoneswiththerightsolutionstotheirproblems.Takeforexample,Osamabin
Laden,whoisatextbookexampleofanarcissist.BinLadenseeshimselfasaself‐
righteousstrugglerfortheholyland,SaudiArabia,andtheonlywaytofightforthe
holylandisthroughjihad.Narcissistsareuncompromisingandmostoftenlack
compassionorempathyforothers.Duetothelackoffeelings,“narcissistshave
primitiveobjectiverelationships,whicharefunctionalratherthanmeaningful.They
seethemselvesasimportantevenwithoutachievementandmayfeelentitledto
unlimitedsuccess,fame,fortune,orsex,usuallybytakingshortcuts.”(Navarro;39).
Narcissisticindividualsarestronglygroundedintheirbeliefsandholdlittle
patienceforthosewhoareopposedtotheirviews(Hare,75‐89).
Narcissisticcharacteristicscombinedwithfeelingsofneglectandinferiority
leadmanyterroriststosufferfromfeelingsofbeingincomplete.Manyatime,these
individualsfeelforgottenordisregardedbysociety.“Consequentlytheyattemptto
amelioratewhatismissingfromtheirlivesbysubscribingtopowerfulideologies
whichgivethempurpose,comfort,andmeaning(Hoffer,147;Navarro,41).These
individualsfeelpowerlessandasaresultturntogroupswhoofferthemmight.This
22
longingforpowerandfeelingofhavingbeenforgottenexplainsthecontinued
successofal‐QaedainAfghanistan.Terroristgroups,suchasal‐Qaeda,promisea
betterlifeandaricherfuture.Moreover,religioncontributesanevendeeper
context.Jihadinthecontextofreligionpromisesaholyandmeaningfulexperience,
inthepursuitforpower(Navarro,41)
Anotherpersonalitytraitfoundinterrorists,howeveroftenforgotten,isfear.
Itisfearthatdriveshatredandideology.“Irreconcilablefearisdeepwithinits
subconscious,itgivesformtotheirunbendingideology,itliesnestledwithinthe
pathologicalpsycheoftheterrorist”(Navarro,43).Thesefearscanrangefrom
peopletochangethatsparkthehatredandmotivatetheterrorist’scorebeliefs.
Furthermore,therearecorefearsthatcomewiththeunbendingideologiesof
terrorists.Therearefearsofbeingcaught,whiletryingtopursueanactofterrorism.
Therearefearsoffailure,theinabilitytofollowthrough.Thesepersonalfearsare
principal,butmostimportantlythereisthefearofloosingone’sleaders:“Somuchis
usuallyatstake;somuchhasbeenentrustedtothesemalevolentcharismatic
leadersthatoftenthemissionbecomesoneofprotectingtheleaderattheexpense
ofcommittingfurtherterroristacts”(Navarro,46).Theleaderoftheterrorist
organizationprovidesguidanceandpowerfortheindividual.Withouttheleaders,
thefollowerswouldgobacktothefeelingsofbeingincompleteandforgotten.
Narcissism,incompletenessandfeararesignificantpersonalitytraitsof
terrorists.Thesecharacteristicsleadtostrongandinflexibleideologies.Fearpushes
theterroristsintopassionatehatredandcoursesofviolence.BothIndiaandthe
23
UnitedStatessufferfromterrorism.Theseterroristsuseviolenceandfeartacticsto
createfearintheirenemies.Terrorismallowstheseindividualsandgroupstofeel
powerfulagainsttheirmuchlargeradversaries.
Jihadism: Why Personality Counts
Jihad,orHolywar,isnotanewconceptinIslam.Itoccurswhennon‐Muslims
threatenaMuslimterritory(Mendelsohn,40).Infact,theconceptofJihadhasbeen
aroundsincethefoundingofthereligion.Inrecentyears,thepopularityofJihadhas
grownatarapidspeed.Traditionallyreservedforleaders,itisnowacceptablefor
ordinarymemberstokillandhurtothersinthenameoftheirGod.Inthe21st
centuryJihadrevitalizedandfoundanewfollowing.BeforeJihadwasfoundinonly
certainpopulations.NowitisanacceptedformoffightingformanyMuslimsacross
theglobe.Jihadhasgrownfromlocaltoglobalandisgainingpopularitywith
Muslimsallovertheworld.Jihadhasbecomeasourceofmobilizationand
unification.Jihadisnolongerlimitedtojustafewstates;itisaworldwideissue
affirmingradicalideologicalbeliefs(Mendelsohn,38).Holywarscarriedoutby
terroristattacksarenowattheforefrontoftheUnitedStatesandIndianpolitical
agendas.
Inhisbook:Combating Jihadism: American Hegemony and Interstate
cooperation in the War on Terrorism, BarakMendelsohn,identifiesthreemajor
eventswhichledtothetransformationofJihadfromthelocaltoglobalscale.Jihads
reemergencefirstoccurredduringthewarinAfghanistanduringthe1980s.The
UnitedStates,Pakistan,andSaudiArabiaencouragedyoungMuslimsfromacross
24
theMiddleEasttocometoAfghanistantohelpfightofftheSovietarmy.Afterall,a
non‐MuslimentityoutragedMuslimsfromallovertheworld:“Thiswarledtothe
revivalofthenotionofJihadasacollectiveduty;formanyofthevolunteerswho
cametocentralAsiatowageorsupportthemilitaryeffort,itinstalledthebeliefthat
jihadwasthesolutiontotheummah’sweaknessesandthekeytoreturningittoits
earlydays”(Mendelsohn,38).Notlongafter,jihadismgrewoutofcontrolandwas
soonexportedtoothercountries.ThecalltojihadinAfghanistanunifiedindividuals
fromallovertheworld,particularlytheMiddleEast,intheirstrongbeliefsandgave
thempracticalbattlegroundexperience.ThewithdrawalofSoviettroopsgavethe
Muslimmilitantsafeelingofvictory,andthatjihadwasasuccessfulmethodof
fightingforonesgoals(Mendelsohn,38).
Duringthe1990s,“OsamabinLadenandhisalQaedanetworkprovidedan
organizationalandideologicalbaseforajihadimovementcomprisingmembers
fromdifferentnations,aglobalreach,andideologywithglobalscope”(Mendelsohn,
38).TheeventsofSeptember11thmadeJihadinthelocalapartofagreater
movementagainsttheinfidel(Menelsohn,38).WithintheJihadmovement,the
PakistanibecameapartofthismuchlargermovementandgavemanyPakistanis
theirfirstrealfeelingsofbelonging.
25
III. Partition:TheRootsofPakistaniIdentityProblems
In1757,theBritishEastIndiaCompanyconqueredthelandthatisnowknown
asIndiaandPakistanfromtheMughalDynasty.TheBritishoccupiedthelanduntil
1947.Basedonthetwo‐nationtheory,“HindusandMuslimswholivedinIndiawere
twodistinct,different,andattimesantagonisticculturalentities….Thesetwo
culturalentitiesinIndiahadahistoricalandcivilizationalbackdrop,anidentity,and
aself‐imageoftheirown,havingdifferentsetsofcharacteristics,yet,inthecontext
ofIndianpolitics,eachone’sidentityandunitywasparasiticontheother”(Ahmed,
56).Ignoringthedifferentculturesandethnicitiesthatfellunderneath“Hindu”and
“Muslim”,theBritishpartitionedthelargelandmassintoIndia,astateforHindus,
andPakistan,astateforMuslims.TheregionknownasKashmirremaineda
disputedterritory.In1965,thetensionsoverKashmirleadtofull‐scalewar.The
disputeoverKashmirstillremainsineffecttoday,andoftenleadstocyclesof
reoccurringviolence(Ahmed,58).
TheBritishfirstbegantheirruleoverIndiain1857.ThediversityofIndia’s
populationhascreatedtensionsandpoliticalproblemsforIndiabeforeits
independencefromtheBritishontheAugust15,1947.Terrorismcommittedby
radicalHindufactionswasprominentinIndiapriorto1939.Theviolenceforthe
mostpart,targetedtheirBritishoccupiers.However,aftertheyears1939and
particularly1945,Muslims,SikhsandafewradicalHindugroupspredominantly
begantouseterrorismasameanstoreachtheirpoliticalobjectives(Laqueur,150).
26
AtthetimeoftheendoftheBritishEmpire’sruleoverIndia,Indiawas
partitionedintotwoseparatestates.OnelandmasswasIndia,whichwouldserve
theHindupopulation.TheothercountrycreatedwascalledPakistan,astateforthe
Muslimpopulation.PakistanwastobethecountrycreatedfortheMuslimsofIndia.
Pakistanwouldbeacountrythatwouldpreservetheirrights,religionandculture.
ThehopewastobringpeaceandcreateanendtoHinduandMuslimclashesinthe
landregion(India).
Afterthe1947partition,itwashopedthatthenewlyformedcountryof
PakistanwouldbecomeapowerfulstrongstatefortheMuslimsintheregion.The
countrywouldnotonlypreserveMuslimrightsandinterests,butitwouldgrow
hopefullytobesomethingmuchmorepowerful.Infact,manyenvisionedPakistan
wouldbecomeaMuslimhomeland‐aplaceforallMuslims.
TheleadupandaftermathoftheBritishpartitionhadanimportantimpact
ontheveryidentityofthePakistani.Fromtheverybeginning,Pakistanhashadthe
dauntingtaskoftryingtocreateitsowncharacter.ThePakistaniidentityhadtobe
differentfromtheIndianidentityandthischaracterwouldhavetoberealizedand
acceptedacrosstheglobe.ItwasimaginedthatastrongPakistaniidentitywould
emergeafterthepartition.Insteadofestablishingaunifiednationalidentity,
PakistanwasbuiltuponthecommondisliketowardsIndia,andseparated
ethnicities.FeelingsofabhorrencetowardsIndiafromthepartitionandthe
resultingconflictoverKashmirstillplaguethePakistaniidentitytoday.Pakistanis
27
inabilitytoestablishastrongnationalidentityhasleadmanyindividualstoturnto
jihadandotherterroristmethodsintheirsearchforidentity(Jaffrelot,7).
3.1ProblemsFromtheStart
ItisobviousthatthereareclearreasonsforwhyPakistanishavechosen
terrorism,opposedtootherwaysinwhichtoaddressissuesofPakistaniidentity
withinthecontextofPakistaniandIndianconfrontation.Firstly,manyPakistanis
stillblameIndiaforinternalproblemsandlackofbelongingbasedonthelinesof
IslamandHinduism.Thereisarealsenseoflongingforpower.Pakistanisfeels
powerlessagainsttheIndianstate,whichisbigandstrongandnoteasilymoved.W.
HowardWriggensdescribedtherelationshipbetweenIndiaandPakistanas:“the
simplefactofsizeandstrategicandeconomicasymmetry…Howeverunjustified
Indianleadersmayhavethought,Pakistan’sover‐ridingconcernvis‐à‐visIndiawas
fear,fearofIndia’ssize,thesizeofitsarmy…andfearcompoundedoutofinfrequent
publicstatementsbyprominentIndiansregrettingthetragedyofpartitionand
reiteratingtheinherentunityofthesubcontinent”(Hussain,267).Inmanywaysthe
tensionbetweenthetwocountriesisnecessaryinorderforPakistantofunctionasa
country.Bycreatingaformofcoldwar,Pakistanishavefoundacommonthreatin
India.
PartoftheproblemhastodowithPakistan’sconfusionoverthenationand
nationalism.“Nationalismisanideology,beitbasedonterritorialorethnicnotions”
(Jaffrelot,7).TheFrenchSociologistMarcelMauss,describedthenationas:“a
societymateriallyandmortallyintegrated,withstableandpermanentcentralized
28
power,wellestablishedborders,arelativemoral,mentalandculturalunityofits
inhabitantswhoconsciouslyadheretothestateanditslaws”.Underthenation,sub‐
nationalidentitiesaredismissed.Pakistanontheotherhand,hasreliedheavilyon
ethnicityasasourceofderivedidentity.Therefore,“Pakistanappearstobean
unachievednationpreciselybecauseofthepersistenceofethnicidentities,which
mayevenbedescribedas‘nationalities’.The‘two‐nationtheory’gavethecountrya
nationalist ideology‐ithasevenbeendescribedasan‘ideologicalstate‐whichhas
beenformulatedagainst India,the‘othernation’.ButitdidnotendowPakistanwith
thesociologicalqualitiesofanation”(Jaffrelot,7‐8).Eventhecommonalityof
religion,hascreatedtensionanderuptionsoffightingbetweenSunniandShias
Muslims(Jaffrelot,8).Nationalismagainsttheothernation,India,seemstohave
hobbledtheformulationofanationalidentityinsteadofcreatingthenation,which
theyhaddreamedof.
MuhammedAliJinnah,thecreatoroftheideaofPakistanontheIndian
Subcontinentanditsfirstleader,“wantedtobuildastrongstaterelyingonthe
threefoldprinciple‘onenation,oneculture,onelanguage’”(Jaffrelot,8).Hebelieved
thatPakistanwastheonlywaytokeepsafeMuslimwelfareandinterests.He
believedthatMusliminterestscouldnotcompetewiththenewlyemergingIndian
state.Histhreefoldprinciplewashisideal,comingfromtheMuslimprovincesofRaj,
wherehefacedsocialdeclineandwasaminoritywithintheregion.Infact,the
UnitedProvinces’MuslimleadershadbeenpreparingforthePakistanistateafter
theBritishpoliciesimplementedfollowingthe1857‘Revolt’.Propertieswere
confiscatedandtheMuslimelitewerediscriminatedagainstbygovernmental
29
proceedings,aswellastheintroductionofdemocracytotheregion.Asminoritiesin
theseregions,theMuslimshadmoretoloseandthereforealotmoretogainfrom
theirownstate(Jaffrelot,9).Itwasthisfearofdeclineandmarginalizationthatled
tothefoundationofastateforMuslims.Infact,“thefirstMuslimseparatist
movementsresultedfromthereactionoftheMuslimelitefromNorthernIndia,
whoseprivilegedpositioncametobechallengedbytheriseofHinduintelligentsia,a
groupwhichbenefitedfromitsmorerapidassimilationintotheEnglish‐medium
educationalsystemandtheanti‐MuslimbiasoftheBritishtillthelate19thcentury”
(Jaffrelot,10).AsadirectresultoftheseBritishpolicies,politicalpartiesand
organizationsliketheMuslimleaguewereformed,withthegoaloffosteringMuslim
unityandpreservingthelanguageofUrdu,whichwaspromotedasthelanguageof
theMuslims.
WhereMuslimsweretheminority,theideaofPakistanandpreserving
Muslimrightsbegantospread.Onthecontrary,inplaceswheretheMuslim
populationswerethemajority,suchasPunjaborBengal,Muslimsweremore
contentbecausetheyruledoverthemselves(Jaffrelot,11).FortheMuslimswhofelt
marginalizedbytheBritish,theyremainedhopefulthatIslamandUrducouldunite
andpromotemobilizationamongMuslimsacrossthesubcontinent.
AftertheemergenceofthestateofPakistan,theriftsinPakistaniidentity
begantoemerge.Oneoftheseriftswasbasedonthecompetingvisionsofthe
Pakistanistate.TheMohajirssoughtastatebasedonthedoctrineofIslam.The
Punjabs,ontheotherhand,hadseenPakistanasthedirectresultofHindus
30
threateningIslamandtheirsocialrights.TheMohajirsimmediatelygainedalotof
influenceinthenewlyestablishedstate;boththepresidentandtheprimeminister
wereMohajirs.Withintenyears,whiletheMohajir’sMuslimdoctrineremainedin
tact,theinfluencetransferredtothePunjabiswhohadalreadybeguntoidentify
withthesameideology.TheyhadalreadyadoptedUrduasanofficiallanguage
(Jaffrelot,18).
Whilethesetwogroupsremainedinfluential,theBengalis,ontheotherhand,
wereignoredanddiscriminatedagainst,despitethefactthattheyformedamajority
ofthepopulation.OneexampleofdiscriminationagainstBengalisoccurredinMarch
1949,when“theConstituentAssemblyappointedaBasicPrinciplesCommittee
whichsubmitteditsreportinSeptember1950.Itrecommendedtheestablishment
ofafederaldemocracy.ThePunjabirepresentativesimmediatelyobjectedthatEast
PakistanshouldnotbeallowedtobeinapositiontodominateWestPakistansimply
becausetheBengaliswereinalargernumber”(Jaffrelot,18).Furthermore,by
makingUrduthenationallanguage,Bengaliswereleftangryandmobilizedto
preservetheirownlanguage,literatureandculture.ThefightbetweentheBengalis
andthecentralgovernmentdidnotendwithoutviolenceandspurredaBengalis
nationalistmovement.
TheBengalisarejustonegroupwhoturnedtoseparatistmovementsin
Pakistanbecauseofunfairpoliciesofitsleaders.TheSindhis,theBaluchis,andother
groupshavehadorstilldohaveseparatistmovementsinPakistan.Thefailureof
31
PakistanileaderstounifythedifferentpeopleswhomakeupPakistanhas
contributedgreatlytoitsfailuretoestablishaPakistaniidentity(Jaffrelot,30‐34).
Sectarianism,asasubstituteidentity,hasbecomeaserioussourceofconflict
intermsofnationalidentity.Theauthor,MiriamAbuZahab,describesPakistan
havingbeenlostinitsnationalidentity:“Pakistanhasneverbeenanation‐state;
highlyfragmented,ithasfailedinintegratingthepeopleintoanationbymaking
theirPakistaniidentitytheirmosttreasuredpossession”(Zahab,77).Insteadofthe
nation,individualswereforcedtoidentifywithotherfragmentedidentities.This
included:caste,ethnicgroup,languageorsectofIslam.
Forthosewhofoundasourceofethnicidentityinthe1970s,itwasalmost
immediatelyoutlawedandviewedasdisloyalty.Duringthe1980sandtheAfghan
war,identitywaslinkedtoreligiousIslam(Zahab,77).“ZiaulHaq’sIslamization
policy…meantstatemonopolyonreligionanddominanceofaparticularsect,and
brought…theologicaldifferencestothefore”(Zahab,79).GeneralZia’sIslamization
campaignwaspredominantlySunniinscopeandinfuriatedShia.Thecampaignwas
alsoadirectthreattoShiasocialstatusinPaksitan.AsaresultoftheAfghanistan
andwarandtheIranianRevolution,Shiaswerefurthermobilizedandempowered
(Nasr,87).OutsideShiainfluenceswereusingPakistantofurthertheirownpolitical
ambitions.
SunniandShiaviolencehaseruptedfrequentlyinPakistan’sshorthistory.
Sincethe1980sbothSunniandShiapartieshaveemergedresponsiblefor
promotingviolence.Thesepartiesinclude:“SunniSipah‐e‐SahabaPakistan
32
(Pakistan’s‘ArmyoftheProphet’sCompanions’orSSP,establishedin1984)andits
allies,theSunniTahrik(‘Sunnimovement’,establishedin1993),TehrikNifaz
Shariat‐IMuhammadi(‘MovementforProtectionofMuhammad’sReligiousLaw’,
establishedin1994),Lashkar‐e‐Jhangvi(JhangviArmy’,establishedin1990),
Lashkar‐e‐Taiba(‘TheArmyofthePure’,formedin1997‐8),andTehrik‐IJafaria
Pakistan(‘Pakistan’sShiaMovement‘orTJP,formedin1979)anditsmilitant
offshoot,Sipnah‐e‐Muhammad(‘ArmyofMuhammadorSM,formedin1991)”
(Nasr,85).Ithasnothelpedthesituationthatmanyofthesegroupsreceivefunds
fromoutsideofPakistan.SaudiArabiahasbeenknowntosendfinancialsupportto
SunnigroupsinPakistan,whileIranhasalsohelpedsupportandmobilizeShia
groupsintheregion(Nasr,32).Thesegroupspromoteasenseofbelongingand
placesforindividualswhofeeldisconnectedtothegovernmentinPakistan.Clashes
amongSunniandShiagroupshavefurthergivenrisetothePakistaniTaliban(Nasr,
85).ThePakistaniidentityhasbecomefragmented:“Ithasmetamorphosedfrom
religiousschismintopoliticalconflictaroundmobilizationofcommunalidentity”
(Nasr,86).Nowsectofreligionhasgivenwayasaformofpoliticalidentityand
violencehaseruptedbecauseofit.
OnecaseofsectarianismoccurredinCentralandSouthPunjab,where
politicalschismsduringthe1970s,ledtoalotofresentmentamongthelocal
populations.Sincepartition,thePakistanigovernmenthadignoredSouthPunjab.In
bothCentralandSouthPunjab,theareasarepovertystrickenwiththeexceptionof
afewwealthylandownerswhohavemaintainedtheirwealthovertheyearsby
turningtheirlandintoorchidsandthenusingmachinesinsteadofsomeofthe
33
experiencedlaborersinthearea.Withothermediumlandownersmovingin,much
oftheruralpopulationhasbeenturnedawayfromtheirtraditionaljobsandhaveno
landtogoto.Fastmovingsocialandeconomicchanges,rapidpacedurbanization,
theadditionofnewclasses,andapowerfulunchangingrulingeliteleadtoextreme
povertyandsocialinequalitiesintheregion.“Sectarianmilitancyinthiscontextcan
bedescribedasareactiontoagrowingsenseofinsecurityandhopelessness
resultingfromunevendistributionofresources,asarevoltofuprootedand
marginalizedperipherydeprivedofaccesstothepoliticalarena”(Zahab,79‐80).
Withthelackofindustrializationandeducation,andthemalfunctionoftraditional
structure,sectbecameasourceofidentity.Sectarianismservesasaplatformof
sharedangerandfrustrationandachanceatpowerinaregionthathaspushed
themintopoverty(Zahab,80).
InPunjab,educationwashardlyevermadeavailabletochildrenbecauseit
wasbelievedthatwitheducation,thechildrenwouldleavefortheurbanareasand
wouldthereforeneglecttheirsocialendeconomicroleaslaborers.Sincetherewasa
reallackofpropereducationinPunjab,madrasas,begantoincreaseinnumber
duringthesecondhalfofthe1990s.Themadrasas cameintobeingbecauseof
“religiouspartiesradicalizedforeigninfluencesstartedreceivingforeignfunds
whichtheythenusedtolaunchcampaignsinfavoroftheirprograms”(Zahab,115).
Thesemadrasas,havebecomesuccessful:“Notallmadrasas aresectarianbutthe
sectarianhavemultiplied.Inafeudalenvironmentwhereviolenceispartofthe
socio‐politicalcultureandisevenvalued,thesectarianmadrasasidentifywiththe
partieswhichprotectthem,preachviolenceforenforcementoftheirkindofIslam
34
andtheeliminationofothersects”(Zahab,83).Religiouspoliticalpartiesalign
themselvesandoperatemanyofthemadrasas. TheMadrasas areknownfor
teachingviolenceandhatredtowardsothersectsofIslam.JihadorHolyWarisnot
onlyforthenon‐Muslims,forthemadrasas,theinfidelhasbecomemembersof
othersectsofIslam.Povertyandnorealaccesstoeducationforcestheseyoung
childrenofruralpeasantstowardsextremismandviolence.
Inmadrasas,studentsaregivenaneducation,food,lodging,andmost
importantlyaplacetobelong.ClassesaretaughtinArabic,whicheventheteachers
donotfullyunderstand.Studentsaretaughtgoodbehaviorandobediencethrough
physicalabuse.Thestudentsofthemadrasas arecutofffromtherestofthesociety
andfindapurposeinlifebyservingtheirreligion. Themadrasasgivetheirstudents’
familiesarespectfulplaceinsociety:“Theparentsgainrespectofthelocalmullah
forsendingtheirchildrentotheseschools,ahadithsaysthattheparentsofahafize
Quran willbeblessedwithaluminouscrownontheDayofJudgment”(Zahab,83).
Themadrasas givestheirstudentsaplacetobelongandafuture.Duetofactthat
thereisareallackofPakistaninationalidentity,individualswhohavebeenaffected
negativelybychangehaveturnedtoorinthecaseofmadrasas beentaughttoseek
anidentitywithinreligionthatputsemphasisonhatetowardsthePakistaniother
withavaryingbeliefsystem(Zahab,84).
ManywhohavefailedordroppedoutoftheUrdusystemofeducationlacka
realeducation,andthereforejobqualifications.Theirlackofeducationhasleftthem
feelingisolatedfromtherestofsociety.Theirfamiliesaretoopoortosupportthem,
35
andtheycannotrelyonthegovernmenttohelpthem.Theyareleftstranded,
searchingforasenseofbelongingandalongingforacharismaticleadertotake
themtoabetterlife.InSouthPunjab,whereShiastraditionallyheldalotoflandand
power,“religionhasbecomeatoolandasocialdemarcationratherthanafaith,the
membersoftheothersectareviewedasrivalsandasathreattothematerialstatus
ofone’scommunity.Sectarianismhasbeenusedasanumbrellaforthestruggleof
theemergingclassesagainstmoreentrenchedinterests”(Zahab,86).Thenew
challengetotheShialandownersaretheSunnimiddleclass.ManyoftheSunnis
comefromananti‐Shiaideologicalbackgroundandasaresulttensionandviolence
thathasescalatedoverthepastdecade(Zahab,85).
InsteadofunifyingtheMuslimpeopleinPakistan,religionhasbecomea
sourceofconflictandasourcefornationalidentity.Extremistgroupsnowrivalthe
traditionalreligiousparties,whohavefailedtoportraythetruevisionofIslam.
SunniversusShiatensionshaveturnedintoendlessroundsofviolence:“Therivalry
hasdegeneratedintoachainreactionofvengeanceandtit‐for‐tatkillinginasociety
whererevengeisviewedbymostasanaturalsentimentlinkedtoonesidentityand
oneshonor”(Zahab,87).Thisreligiousfrustrationhastakenarealtollonthe
Pakistaniidentity.Manypeoplefeellikethegovernmenthasfailedthem.Many
comefrompovertyandlittleeducation.Withnorealfeelingofbelongingin
Pakistan,itiseasytoseehowreligionwouldserveasafoundationforasourceof
identity.However,thedifferentsectsofIslam,havecreatedfurtherdividesamong
thepeople:“Thereisnodearthofunemployedyoungpeoplewhoarelookingfora
solutiontotheireconomicproblemsandwhothinkthatanIslamicrevolutionis
36
longoverdueinPakistan”(Zahab,124),TheactofJihadisappliedtothegeneral
Pakistanisociety.Hatredtowardstheotherisareligiousmissionandcanbeeasily
spreadtoplacesacrosstheworld.Pakistanishavefallenvictimtohelplessnessand
despairandareturningtoothermeansofidentity.
Unfairgovernmentalpoliciesandidentityconfrontationshaveleadtoa
changingviewofJihadamongmanyofPakistan’scitizens.Jihadbecameanaccepted
toolofcombatagainsttheSoviet’stakeoverofAfghanistan.Withthesuccessof
JihadagainsttheSoviets,manyPakistanisandMuslimsacrosstheworldseeJihadas
asuitablewayofachievingagoal.ThelackofaPakistaninationalidentityhas
pushedPakistanisintofindingalternativeidentitiesandintothecomfortinghands
ofJihadistmovements.
Jihadimovementscanbeseenasearly1800sintheIndiansubcontinent.But
itwasnotuntil1927,whenAbulKalamAzadMuhammadIlyasKandhalawideclared
thatJihadshouldbeusedupontheHindus,whoarethetrueenemiesofIslam.Jihad
hasremainedanimportantpartofPakistaniidentity‐orlackthereof.Duringthe
1990s,PakistanisbecameevenmorereliantuponJihadimovementstofostera
senseofnationalidentity:“Theendofeconomicprosperity,addedtoahuge
demographicgrowth,drovemanylowandmiddleclasspeopleintounemployment.
Thepoliticalinstabilityaswellascorruptionoftherulingclass,helpedtoreactivate
theundergroundmythofanidealIslamicparadigm.Last,butnotleast,theseizure
ofpowerbysomeveryprivilegedgroupsconvincedthedestituteclassesthatthey
didnothaveafutureintheirowncountry”(Boivin,107).Additionally,withtheend
37
oftheAfghanwar,Pakistani‐sponsoredTalibangainedafootholdinAfghanistan.
InsteadoftheJihadimovementcomingtoaclose,theJihadimovementswere
exportedtotheKashmirandgainedinpopularity(Boivin,107).Withnorealplace
tocallhome,povertyandanunclearnationalidentitytorelatetoleadtoalotof
frustration,whichhasplayedalargerolewithinJihadinPakistanandacrossthe
globe.
3.2IndiaAfterPartition
SinceIndia’sindependencefromtheBritishEmpire,ithashadanongoing
struggleagainstterrorism.Indiahasworkedhardatbuildingastrongstate:“The
problemhastobeseeninthecontextofthefactthattheIndianstatealonehasthe
monopolyoftheuseofforceandthestatederivesitslegitimacybystrivingto
realizethevalueswhichtheIndianpeoplehavereposedintheconstitution…Ifthe
Indianpeoplelosefaithindemocratic, peaceful andlegal methodsofbringingabout
changesinoursocietythenthecultofviolencewouldprogressivelybecomea
growingandmenacingrealityinIndiawhichwillultimatelydestroythetenuous
civicorderthatexiststoday(Tiwari,viii).Theimportanceofdemocracyisapparent
inIndianSociety.However,therehasbeena“widespreadfeeling[that]hasgrownin
Indiathatourdemocraticprocessesoftenremainopaqueeventothedeeplyfeltand
justgrievancesofoneortheothersectionsofourpeople”(Tiwari,vii).This“deeply
feltandjusticegrievances”havecreatedalotofproblemsinmodernIndiansociety
(Tiwari,vii).
38
India’sfightforindependencewasmetbytwodistinctcoursesofaction.One
pushedforterroristactstargetingtheBritish.BhagwatiCharan,anactivemember
oftheHindustanSocialistRepublicanAssociation(HSRA),supportedterrorismasa
meanstoendBritishrule:“Deliberatemisrulehasreducedustopaupers,hasbled
uswhite.Asaraceandasapeoplewestanddishonoredandoutraged…weshall
haveourrevenge,apeople’srighteousrevengeonthetyrant”(Charan,1930,
excerptedinManan&Griset,42).CharanandtheHSRAcommitteddeliberateactsof
terrorism.Forexample,theythroughbombsoffpublicgalleryintheLegislative
Assemblyandattemptedtoblowupatrainstation.Theyalsoshotapoliceofficer.
Charandiedwhenabombblewupinhishands(Manan&Griset,42).Terrorism
createdpowerfortheCharanandtheHSRA,afterfeelingoppressedbytheirmore
powerfulBritishoccupiers.
Theothermovement,headedbyMohandasKaramchandGandhi,urgedfora
non‐violentresistance:civildisobedienceandnonviolenttactics.Gandhiwashighly
educatedanditwashismovementthatultimatelysucceeded.Therearehowever,
manyscholarswhobelievethattheterroristactivitiescontributedgreatlyin
liberatingIndiafromthehandsoftheBritish:Individualinnature,theterrorists
heldthebeliefthatIndianindependencecanbeboughtaboutbyaseriesof
revolutionaryoutragescalculatedtoinstillfearintotheBritishofficialsanddrive
themoutofIndia”(Sharma,59).TheWahhabis,apuritanicalIslamistsect,createda
lotofviolenceinIndia,workinghardagainsttheBritishcolonialists.Theseterrorist
methodsoccurredthroughoutIndiabutespeciallyinBengelandtheupperpartof
39
India.ThismethodofactionlaterspreadtothePunjabarea,UntiedProvinces,Delhi,
Madras,BiharandOrissa(Sharma,59).
TheRepublicofIndia,today,istheseventhlargestcountryintheworld,
covering1,222,559squaremilesoflandandholdsthesecondlargestpopulationof
1,198,003,000peopleasof2009.India’spopulationismadeupofavarietyof
peoples:Indigenous,invadersandotherswhohavemigratedtothelandovertime.
Indiaisadiversecountry.ThoughtheofficiallanguagesofIndiaareHinduand
English,severalotherlanguagesarespokenacrossIndia’sgreatlandmass.Mostof
theIndianpopulationpracticesHinduism,butthereareseveralotherswhopractice
Islam,Sikhism,Christianity,alongwithseveralotherreligions(India).Most
importantlyitissuccessfulandIndia’scitizenshaveanIndianIdentity.
3.3PakistaniTerrorinIndia
Whencreatinganewstate,nation‐buildingexercisesrequiresomeindividuals
involvedtogiveupsomeoftheirowninterestsfortheinterestofthestate.This
however,hasthepotentialtoupsetminoritypublics:“Theminoritypoliticswhen
vulgarizedtomanipulatecruderpoweratthehustingsactivitizesthesesub‐groups
intofanaticismandfundamentalism.Theterroristtacticsrepresentanarticulate
attempttocreatemissionaries,Messiahsandmartyrsforasocalledcausewhich
canelectrifytheinsecureandblindentheignoranttofightundertheleadershipof
self‐appointedfascists”(Sharma,49‐50).Thereareseveraltypesofterrorist
movementsoperatinginandaroundIndia.Thesegroupsholdavarietyofviewsand
40
goalsspecifictowhereitislocatedandreligiousandethnicbackgroundofthose
involved(Tiwari,x).
TerrorisminIndiahaspredominantlybeenconcentratedinKashmirand
Punjab.Theseconflictsstemfromboth,ethnicandreligiousclashesthathavebeen
ongoingsinceevenbeforethetimeofIndia’sindependencefromBritain(Laquer,
151).TheIndiangovernmentchosetoignorethesensitivesituationsinKashmir
andPunjab:“Inregardtoreconcilingthesefactions,theHinduIndiangovernment
hasshownlittlepoliticalacumen.Itmighthavebeenimpossibletopacifythe
extremistsamongtheMuslimsinKashmirandtheSikhinPunjab,butthiswasa
strategytheIndiansdidnotevenreallytry”(Laquer,151).Thispromotedfurther
outragewithinPakistanandhascausedtheangerandfrustration,sooftenfound
withinaterrorist’smotives.ForPakistanis,terrorismhascreatedasensationof
powerandmuscleagainstthestatethatignoredthemandhasnotallowedKashmir
tobecomeapartofPakistan
Since1990,overtwentythousandpeoplehavebeenkilledfromterrorist
attacksinKashmir.However,theterrorisminKashmirandthroughoutIndiadidnot
makeittotheworldstageuntil1998,whenbothIndiaandPakistandetonated
nucleardevices(Laquer,150).Kashmir’spopulationislargelymadeupof
individualswhoconvertedtoIslamatsomepointearlyoninhistory.Kashmirwas
traditionallyreligiouslysecular,Gandhigoingasfartocallit:“anislandof
secularismontheIndiansubcontinent”(Laquer,151).Kashmirispartofthede
factoborderbetweenIndiaandPakistan,createdattheendoftheIndia‐Pakistan
41
Warin1949.Kashmir,alongwithanotherstate,Jammu,becameaconstitutestate,a
stateapartofIndia,withitsowngovernmentandguidinglegaldocuments.This
decisionwasheadedbythethenHinduruleofKashmir.Thelegalityofthisissuehas
beenfoughtovereversince:“Inthenexthalf‐centurytheKashmirissuewouldbea
primarytriggerofIndian‐Pakistaniwarsandarmedconfrontationsaswellas
interactiveterrorismbetweenIndiaandKashmiriseparatistsandIslamistgroups”
(Dekmejian,111).ThetensionsthathaveseemedtoalwaysexistbetweenKashmir
andtheIndiangovernmentcontinuestobeasourceofconflict.
AfterIndia’sindependence,hisgovernmenttooktheactionofarrestingone
ofKashmirshighlyacclaimedleaders,SheikhAbdullah.Thisact,increasedpolitical
tensionsandalsogavePakistanaroleintheconflict.Furthermore,Kashmir’s
populationissplitwithtwodifferentpoliticalgoals:Thefirstwantsitsown
independentstate.TheotherwantstobecomeapartofPakistan.Pakistanhasbeen
givingimportantpoliticalandmonetarysupporttotheMuslimextremistswhowant
thisdreamtobecomeareality.ByPakistansupportingtheKashmiriseparatist
movement,PakistanhashelpedtransformthisconflictintoaJihad,orholywar,and
intheprocesshasshapedtheactsofviolenceintoterroristacts:“Thegeneral
strategyoftheIslamicradicalshasbeentoattackandmurderthelocalHindus
(calledKashmiriPandits)andSikhsandsoforcethemtoleavetheregion”(Laquer,
151).Asaresult,houseshavebeendestroyedandpeoplehavebeenmurdered.
SeveralIndianaccountsstatethattheviolencetargetingthelocalHindupopulations
are“tryingtoexterminatetheHindupopulationofKashmiroratleastdrivethemto
fallsothattheregionwillbecomeapartofPakistan”(Laquer,151).Oneofthe
42
KashmiriMuslimgroupsHarakat Al Ansarcontinuedtodetonateterroristattacksin
India’smajorcities,includingNewDelhi(Laquer,151).
ProblemsinKashmirbegantogrowduringthe1980s,duetoconflictwith
thecentralgovernmentinNewDelhiandlocalpoliticswithinKashmir.In1987,the
UnitedMuslimFront,apoliticalpart,losttheelectionanditswakesparkeddebate
onwhethertheelectionhadbeentamperedwith.Asaresultviolenceeruptedthe
followingyear:“InJuly1988,theJammuandKashmirLiberationFront(JKLF)
bombedtwositesinSrinagar,followedbykidnappingsinexchangeformilitants
heldinIndianJails”(Dekmejian,114).ThisterrorismwassponsoredbyPakistan.In
the1980s,KashmirwasjustaseparatistgroupwithinIndia.Inthe1990s,the
separatistgrouptookonaradicalIslamistface(Dekmejian,108).
Pakistan,aweakerandsmallercountrythanIndia,cameupwithseveral
strategiesinordertoconfrontitsenemyinordertoannexIndian‐controlled
Kashmir.ItfirstlycreatedseveralimportantmilitaryallianceswiththeUnitedStates
andChina.ThisallowedPakistanprotectionfromtheUnitedStatesandaid.From
Chinaitwasabletogainnuclearcapabilities.Next,Pakistanadoptedaradical
Islamistideologyandidentity.Infact,“Pakistanidecision‐makers,sensinganIndian
windowofvulnerabilityinKashmir,havesoughttoexploitanotionofMuslim
confraternitytosupporttheinsurgents.Ontheotherhand,Islamhasalsobeenused
asavehicletomobilizeadisaffectedpopulationandchallengethewritoftheIndian
StateinKashmir”(Ganguly,179).ThisenabledPakistantomobilizeitscitizens
alongwiththeMuslimsinKashmirtocarryoutholywarinIndia,creatingseveral
43
terroristorganizationsdedicatedtokillingtheHinduinfidelthroughJihad.Terrorist
attackscarriedoutbytheseorganizationsinclude:Hindumassacres,carbombs,
suicidebombings,landminesandotherexplosivedevices(Dekmejian,114).
ActionstakenbyPakistanwereseenas“rationalresponsesofaweaker
powerseekingtoequalizeastrongerneighbor”(Dekmejian,113).Theactionstaken
byPakistanwereinordertocreatepoweragainstIndia(Dekmejian,113).Pakistan
isaweakerandmorevulnerablecountrythanIndiaandchosetofightagainstIndia
throughactsofterrorism,whereitenjoyedalimitedamountofsuccess.Theyfelt
strongerhelpingthesmallerextremistgroupsinIndiaandtheseactsallow
Pakistani’sthefeelingofpoweragainsttheirmassiveenemyofIndia.Thoughthere
havebeenseveralattemptstofigureoutalastingpeace,IndiaandPakistanhave
reachedanequilibriumbasedonnuclearpower(Dekmejian,118).
Terrorismisoften“expressionsof[aterrorist’s]individualpathologiessuch
asparanoia,identitycrisis,cognitivedisorders,andafeelingofinferiority,
helplessness,rejectionormarginality”(Dekmejian,25).Anactofterrorismcanbe
committedbecauseofpersonalvengeancetoarangeofpsychologicalpathologies
(Dekmejian,25).Onescholar,EricEriksonbelievesthatterrorists“areinastateof
“patienthood”thatmustberemediedthroughsome“mediumof
salvation””(Dekmejian,25).Theseindividualsareunabletohandletheirown
personalproblems,andtherefore,“projecttheirindividualpatienthoodsupon
societyand,intheirattempttouniversalizetheirpersonalpain,couldfocusonthe
destructionofaleadingfigureormonument”(Dekmejian,26).Thoughtheactsof
44
violenceareusuallypoliticalinnature,thereasonsbehindsareusuallydueto
conditionsofdeprivationandawantoffameandglory(Dekmejian,26).Thisis
clearlywhatisoccurringinIndia.Terrorismcreatesafeelingofpowerforthe
Pakistaniswhocommittheact,fillingthevoidofdeprivationbymakingothersfeel
theirpain.TerrorismandtheactofJihadgiveafalsesenseofbelongingandpurpose
inworldwheretheyfeeldiscriminated.ActsofterrorismagainstIndiabyPakistanis
createafeelingofinfluenceandpowerforthepowerless.
TheindividualsandgroupsresponsibleforterrorisminIndia,feelinferiorto
themassiveandstrongstate.Theseterroristsfeelthattheyhavebeenservedan
injusticebythestate.Terrorismallowsthemtofeelpowerful,bytakingouttheir
painandfrustrationsoninnocentpeople.Theactofterrorismisoftenmore
importantthantheoverallgoal.Inasense,theinjusticedonetotheterroristis
passedontoothers,andtheterroristfeelsalimitedsenseofpowerabovethestate
andabovetheindividualstheyseetohavedonethemwrong.
3.4JihadandthePakistaniIdentity
TheattacksofSeptember11thhavehadalastingimpactonJihadismin
PakistanandthePakistaniidentity.Jihadwasputintothespotlightandtheattacks
wereglorifiedacrosstheregion.AsaresultoftheattacksofSeptember11th,The
UnitedStatesbeganalongprocessofappliedpressureontothePakistani
government.TheUnitedStateshasdemandedthatPakistangaincontrolofitstribal
areasandJihadistmovements.ThepressurefromtheUnitedStates,sincethe1990s,
anditsactionsinIraqandAfghanistanhaveinfuriatedmanyPakistanis.Throughthe
45
courseofterrorism,PakistanishavereclaimedJihadasameansofpersonal
retribution.Pakistanishavenowimmigratedtocountriescoveringtheglobe.The
Westofferedmanyadreamofstabilityandidentity,butevenintheseWestern
countries,Pakistaniscannothidefromtheirlackofaconcisenationalidentity.This
explainswhyJihadagainstWesternstateshasbecometheultimatefrustrationof
thePakistaniidentity.
Thetwostatesolution,didnotbringanendtoMuslimandHinduclasheson
thesubcontinent.TherewerethreemorewarsbetweenIndiaandPakistanthat
occurredin1948,1965and1971(Hussain,266).In1971,anewcountry,
Bangladesh,wasformed,whichresultedfromfightingwithPakistan.Sincethelate
1990s,IndiaandPakistanhavethreatenedeachotherwithnuclearovertones:“The
Indiannucleartestexplosionsof11and13May1998,andPakistan‘srivalnuclear
teststwoweekslaterhaveunleashedanewstrategicdynamicwhichhasgave
implicationsforthecauseofpeaceandstabilityinSouthAsia”(Hussain,266).The
PakistaniandIndianconflictseemstobeimportanttotheveryfunctionofPakistan
andthepeoplelivinginPakistan.ThereasoningbehindthisfactisthatPakistani
andIndianrivalryhasbecomeasourceofidentityforthePakistanicharacter.
3.5What’sNext?
ThisaccountsfortherecentterroristattacksthatoccurredinMumbaiin
2008.Lashkar‐e‐TaibaorLeTisawell‐knownterroristorganizationthroughout
IndiaandPakistanandisnowgainingafollowinginternationally.LeThascarried
outseveralattacksinIndiaonthebehalfofthestruggleinKashmir.Theywerealso
46
behindthe2008attacksinMumbai,wherepopularhotelsforwesterners,along
withaJewishcenterwereattacked.TheLeTledattacksonMumbairepresented
morethanjustanattackonIndia.ItwasanattackontheWestandtheJews.The
onlysurvivingMumbaiterrorist,AjmalKasab,reportedtotheauthoritiesthatthe
terroristshavebeenorderedtotargetAmerican,BritishandIsraelicitizens
“becausetheyhavedoneinjusticetotheMuslims”(Kahn,1).Itbroughttheglobal
JihadistmovementintotheveryheartofIndia.
ItiscertainnowthatPakistanisareoftenfindingthemselvesinJihad
movementsasactsagainstthosewhodonotbelong.Nowweseealarger
phenomenon.Pakistanis,whohavemigratedtoothercountries,includingwestern
countries,arenowmakingtheirdebutasthenextPakistaniterrorists.Thelackofa
realPakistaniidentityhasnowcrossedcontinentsandtheUnitedKingdomandthe
UnitedStatesarethefirsttofeeltheglobalPakistanifrustration.
47
IV. Conclusion:PakistaniIdentityandtheWest
AfterthemassiveterroristattackofSeptember11,2001,theUnitedStates
declaredawaronterrorism.TheWaronTerrorcontinuestobefoughttoday,often
concentratedonAl‐QaedaanditsstrongholdsinAfghanistan.Yet,whatseemstobe
missedbytheUnitedStatesanditswesternalliesisPakistan’scruciallinktothe
waronterror.Pakistan’sinternalissuesremainunresolved.ThelackofaPakistani
identityandPakistanisacceptanceintotheglobaljihadistmovement,asameansof
identity,shouldgreatlyconcernwesternstates.Moreover,thefactthatAmerican
citizenswithPakistanirootsarenowjoiningthefightagainsttheUnitedStatesand
thewestshouldbeattheforefrontofUnitedStatesforeignpolicyandtheWaron
Terror.TherecentfoiledattackplannedbyFaisalShahzadexemplifiesPakistanis
emergingpositionattheforefrontofterrorism.
Today,themostnotableterroristthreatintheUnitedStatescomesfrom
radicalIslamicterrorism,specificallyPakistaniterror.Theseterroristsarenotonly
fromtheMiddleEast;severalofthemhaveUnitedStatescitizenshipandare
angeredbytheUnitedState’scontinuedpressureonPakistantocontrolterrorist
cellswithinthecountry.PakistaniterrorismintheUnitedStatesisnotanew
phenomenonandneedstobelookedatmoreclosely.
OneofthefirstincidentsofPakistaniterrorismtranspiredin1993.Three
significanteventsoccurredthatwerefueledbyMuslimfanaticism.Firstly,on
January23,1993ashootingoccurredattheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)
headquartersinLangleyVirginia:“nearlyadecadeagoontraffic‐chokedChain
48
BridgeRoadinLangley.Justbefore8a.m.,KasisteppedoutofhisIzusupickup
truck,shoulderedanAK‐47andbeganfiringmethodicallyatmotoristswaitingto
turnintoCIAheadquarters”(Davis&Glod,1).MirAimalKasi,aPakistani,wasthe
firstofmanywillingtodieforhiscause.Itwasreportedthathewasunhappywith
theUnitedStates’foreignpolicy,whichhefelthurtMuslimsacrosstheglobe.Kasi
fledtoPakistanandin2002wascaughtandextraditedtotheUnitedStates.Helater
receivedthedeathsentenceforhiscrimes,whichinjuredthreepeopleandkilled
one(Davis&Glod,1).
ThebombingoftheWorldTradeCenter’snortherntoweronFebruary26,
1993,wasasignoffarworsethingstocome.RamziYousef,who’srealnamewas
AbdulBasitMahmoundAbdulKarim,wasthesonofaPalestinianmotheranda
Pakistanifather.HehadgrownupinKuwaitcityandhadhadafamilyinPakistan.
HisactionswerereportedlymotivatedbyhisdevotiontothePalestiniancauseand
hishatredfortheJewishpeople(Wright,202):“OnFebruary26,1993,arented
FordEconolinevanenteredtheWorldTradeCenter’smassivebasementparking
garage.InsidethetruckwasRamziYousef.ItwasunclearifbinLadensenthim,but
hewastheproductofanal‐QaedacampinAfghanistan,wherehehadlearnedhis
bomb‐craft.HehadcometoAmericatooverseetheconstructionofwhattheFBI
laterdeterminedwasthelargestimprovisedexplosivedevicethebureauhadever
encountered.Youseflitfourtwenty‐foot‐longfusesandfledtoavantagepointjust
northofCanalStreet,fromwhichheexpectedtoseethebuildingfall”(Wright,201‐
202).Theattackwasmeanttoknockoutbothtowers,byhavingtheNorthern
towerfallintotheSoutherntower.Thoughtheirterroristattackdidnotgoas
49
planned,theystillmanagedtokillsixpeopleandinjuredoverathousandothers
(Wright,203).Yousef,withhisPakistaniroots,wasthefirstofhiskindto
successfullylaunchafull‐scaleterroristattackonAmericansoil.He,alongwiththe
otherterrorists,feltliketheirwantsandneeds,alongwithcountlessothers,were
beingignored.Bytakingonotherindividual’sburdens,theyvalidatedtheircause
andactions.ForYousef,therewasnoalternativeaction,andtheiractionsofterror
werecompletelyjustified.
Laterthatyear,anotherterroristattackplotmeanttotargetotherpopular
Americanlandmarkswasfoiled.OmarAbdel‐Rahman,aradicalNewYorksheikh
andrecognizedleaderofthegroup,Al‐Gama'aal‐Islamiyya,knownforits
connectionswithal‐Qaeda,mastermindedtheplannedattack.“SheikhOmarAbdal‐
Rahman,aradicalreligiousscholar…[had]courtedbinLaden,hopingtosecurehis
financialsupportfortheirpetprojects,includingtheassassinationofPresident
MuhammadZiaul‐HaqofPakistanandPresidentHosniMubarakofEgyptwho,in
theiropinion,hadbecomeapostates”(Williams,77).Targetsincluded:theGeorge
WashingtonBridge,theLincolnandHollandTunnels,theFBINewYorkCity
headquarters,andtheUnitedNationsbuilding.Otherplansconsistedofkidnapping
PresidentNixon,assassinatingtheformerEgyptianpresident,GamalAbdelNassar,
andpotentiallyhittingJewishtargets.Thereasonsbehindtheattackweremade
clearbyRahman,athisconvictiontrial:“TheUnitedStates,hesaid,wasIslam's
greatestenemy,acountryintentonwipingIslamfromthefaceoftheEarth.The
caseagainsthim,hesaid,wassimplyapartofthiscampaign,anattempttosilence
himbecauseofhisreligion”(Gladwell,1).ToRahman,theUnitedStateswasthe
50
ultimateenemy,athreattohisreligion,andhiscorebeliefs.Hefeltthatthe
Pakistanileaderatthetime,alongwiththeEgyptianPresident,wasnotdoingthe
jobssuccessfullyandinthetruepathofIslam.Thenetworksthattheseindividuals
wereanactivepartofprovidedthestructureandconfirmationoftheirbeliefsand
actions(Chaliand&Blin,322).
ThefoiledplannedattackinTimesSquarehighlightsthenewambitionsof
Pakistaniterroristorganizations.Lashkar‐e‐Taibaisincreasinglyworkingon
internationalterrorplots:“Lashkar'sfingerprintshavebeenfoundonanti‐Western
attacksandplotsfromAfghanistantoIraq,DhakatoCopenhagen…Shortlyafter
[the]Mumbai[terroristattacks],PakistaniauthoritiesarrestedallegedLeT
communicationsspecialistZararShahandreportedlydiscoveredonhislaptopalist
of320potentialtargets,mostofthemoutsideIndia‐‐includingsitesinEurope”
(Kahn,1).Furthermore,notlongaftertheMumbaiattacks,DavidColemanHeadley,
anAmerican‐PakistaniwasaccusedofgatheringsurveillanceforLeTduringthe
Mumbaiattacks.AftergatheringinformationfromHeadley,U.S.authoritiesfound
furtherevidenceofaplannedLeTterroristattacks,targetingtheDanishNewspaper
officethatpublishedthe2005cartoonofMuhammad.Notlongafterthearrest,
otherLeTmemberswerechargedwithplanningattacksontheUnitedStatesand
UnitedKingdomEmbassiesinDhaka(Kahn,1).Gatheringfromtherecentarrests,
theexecutedterroristattackinMumbaiandtheplannedterroristattacksagainst
Westerntargets,LeTandotherPakistanimilitantgroupsaregoingtoincreasingly
poseaterroristriskathome,intheUnitedStates,andabroad.
51
LeTrunsitstrainingprogramsopenlyandisestimatedtohavetrainedover
200,000peoplefromIndiatoNorthAmerica.IncreasingpressuresbytheUntied
StateshaveleftmanyPakistanisangry,becauseofthesensitivesituation.LeTiswell
knownforitscharityworkinKashmirandPunjab.Ithelpstoprovidethemostbasic
ofservicesincluding:bloodbanks,schools,clinicsandanambulanceservice.
Furthermore,“Pakistan'smilitarymayhesitatetogoafterAlQaedainthetribal
areas,butit'sevenlesseagertoconfrontLashkaratitsbaseinthecountry's
heartland...LeTandthePakistaniArmydrawmanyoftheirrecruitsfromthesame
poorPunjabiareas,oftenfromthesamefamilies,andLeT'shumanitarianwing
workedalongsidethePakistanimilitarytohelpciviliansdisplacedduringthe
Army'scampaigntoretaketheSwatValleyfromtheTaliban”(Kahn,2).Pakistan
nowfindsitselfinahardplace.LeThasprovidednotonlystructurebutalsoasense
ofidentityformanywhofeelasiftheydonotbelong.TheUnitedStatespressuring
Pakistantomonitorandgetridofthesegroupsmakesthesituationevenmore
delicate,whichiswhyPakistaniterrorismtowardsthewestshowsonlysignsof
increasing.
ThegreatestthreattoIndiaandtheUnitedStatesisPakistaniterrorism
fueledbythelackofaPakistaniidentityandextremistMuslimrhetoric.After
discussingthedeepercontextofwhatisterrorism,whoisaterroristandwhy
terrorismoccurs,itisclearwhyPakistaniterrorismispredictableandwhy
PaksitanisponsoredterrorismagainstIndiaandtheWestwillmostlikelybeonthe
riseinthefuture.Pakistaniterroristsandactsofterrorismareontheclimbing
becauseoftheveryproblemofPakistaniidentity,orthelackofone.Sincethe
52
partitionbetweenIndiaandPakistan,Pakistanhasstruggledincreatingaunified
Pakistaniidentity.PakistantriedturningtowardshatredtowardsIndiaand
separatismonlytostillisdealingwiththesameissuesaftersixty‐threeyearsof
independence.
TheglobaljihadismmovementinPakistanhasbecomeasanunintended
consequenceoftheIndianPartition.Pakistanisarelookingforwhateveryhuman
beingcraves:asenseofbelongingandidentity.Whilemanyofthemadrasas’former
studentsbecomemartyrsonthelocallevel,inareassuchasKashmirandPunjab,we
nowseeeducatedindividualswithPakistanibackgroundsattheforefrontof
terrorismintheWest.ManyPakistanishavefoundasourceofidentityintheglobal
jihadistmovements.Thesegroupshavebecomeaplaceofbelonging,alongwitha
waytoventfrustration.WithabuildingpressureonPakistanfromtheWest,more
andmorePakistanisarecommunicatingtheirfeelingsofisolationthroughactsof
terrorism.
53
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