NSCA Coach | Issue 7table of contents nsca coach 7.2 | nsca.com 3 06creating a strength and conditioning policies and procedures manual mike caro, ms, cscs,*d, rscc, usaw 14strength

NSCA COACH

VOLUME 7ISSUE 2MAY | 2020

2 NSCA COACH 7.2 | NSCA.COM

NSCA COACH

VOLUME 7ISSUE 2MAY | 2020

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ISSN 2376-0982

TABLE OF CONTENTS

NSCA COACH 7.2 | NSCA.COM 3

06 CREATING A STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING POLICIES AND PROCEDURES MANUALMIKE CARO, MS, CSCS,*D, RSCC, USAW

14 STRENGTH TRAINING PRACTICES FOR ROWING—PART 3—CONDITIONING TRAININGWILL RUTH, MA, CSCS, AND BLAKE GOURLEY, MS, FMS

22 LOWER-BODY POWER DEVELOPMENT FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE SOCCER PLAYERSISABEL CORRALES, CSCS, ALEKSANDER BELJIC, CSCS, AND ROBERT LOCKIE, PHD, TSAC-F

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MIKE CARO, MS, CSCS,*D, RSCC, USAW

CREATING A STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING POLICIES AND PROCEDURES MANUAL

Collegiate strength and conditioning programs are becoming more sophisticated with each passing year. At all levels, strength and conditioning coaches are adding more staff,

purchasing and utilizing more sophisticated equipment, and even employing dedicated data analytics software and personnel. However, as programs expand, it becomes increasingly important to document the daily routines and responsibilities within the department to ensure optimal efficiency with minimal oversight.

A department policies and procedures manual contains essential information about a strength and conditioning program in an easily accessible reference. It contains the basic workings of the department; the reporting chain of command; the processes for daily, weekly, and annual tasks; and all other information covering how the program runs. Such a manual is particularly invaluable for coaches of small college programs who commonly serve in several capacities, such as a fitness center manager, strength and conditioing coach, sport coach, or game day manager, to name a few (1,3). Including clearly defined facility program rules and guidelines, as well as consequences for breaking them (preferably pre-approved by the administration), can save considerable time and headaches when issues occur.

Organizing a department policies and procedures manual can be quite a project due to the large amount of information that must be documented. The following is a non-exhaustive list of items that should be included in a strength and conditioning department policies and procedures manual.

PROGRAM MISSION STATEMENT, VISION, VALUES, STANDARDS, AND PRINCIPLESThe mission statement, vision, values, standards, and principles define a program. Therefore, it is important that they be included in the policies and procedures manual. If a program does not have a stated vision, values, standards, principles, or at least a mission statement, then that should be the first and main priority. These elements are the road map of the program. Like a policies and procedure manual itself, the vision, values, and standards or mission statement is a reference for how the program operates. These directives should be at the front of the policies and procedures manual and should be referenced frequently to remind athletes and employees of the foundational principles of the program.

DEPARTMENT CHAIN OF COMMAND AND POSITION DESCRIPTIONSWhen managing employees, it is important to have a copy of their position descriptions on hand in case there are any misunderstandings regarding responsibilities. The position descriptions should be as detailed as possible and should specify the role each employee plays in the organization, as well as the administrative expectations of each position. Along with those descriptions, having a chain of command mapped out is helpful. To help plan out the department’s chain of command, consider

the following questions: does the head strength and conditioning coach position report to the head athletic trainer, to an assistant athletic director, or straight to the director of athletics? Does the program have multiple levels of interns or assistants? Do lower level interns/assistants take direction from interns/assistants that are above them, or do they take direction specifically from the head strength and conditioning coach? It is not uncommon for collegiate strength and conditioning departments, and entire athletic departments, to vary in structure. Having everything mapped out can go a long way in preventing misunderstandings and streamlining the reporting process.

DAILY, WEEKLY, MONTHLY, AND ANNUAL MAINTENANCE While the section covering position descriptions summarizes what employees are expected to do in their role, this section explicitly lists the tasks that are to be completed each day, week, month, and year. Daily tasks may include routine cleaning/disinfecting equipment, dusting, cleaning mirrors/windows, etc. Each week, equipment should be checked for wear and tear, guide rods on machines should be lubricated, and floors should be mopped and disinfected (this could also be a task that is performed several times per week, depending on the flooring and the number of people who use the facility each day). Every month, cables, flooring, and walls should be inspected for damage, and then fixed if any damage is found. If there is any cardio or selectorized equipment in the facility, it is always a good idea for the annual maintenance to include a service appointment by a technician. This step is a great way to reduce liability significantly. Certified technicians will be able to find potential problems that may cause injury, as well as perform preventative maintenance. Repainting walls and replacing aging equipment should also be considered for the annual maintenance plan. Examples of facility and building maintenance checklists for facility supervisors are given in Tables 1 and 2.

To further organize maintenance lists, they can be assigned to specific positions (interns, assistants, etc.) or employees. It may also be necessary to create checklists for daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly maintenance tasks to ensure they are completed as required. A simple way to produce these checklists is to create them digitally using Microsoft Word or Excel, or using web-based Google applications. Once the digital checklist is completed, it can be downloaded as a PDF and stored digitally. Alternatively, the checklists could be printed out daily and stored in folders within a file cabinet. These forms should be archived for as long as the equipment is owned or leased. While an assistant strength and conditioning coach or assistant facility director can manage the archiving of these records, it is ultimately the responsibility of the head strength and conditioning coach or facility director to ensure that these tasks (including record archiving) are being completed. Keeping up on scheduled maintenance is a necessity for reducing liability, as well as prolonging the life of the equipment.

NSCA COACH 7.2


TABLE 1. EXAMPLES OF CARDIOVASCULAR, SELECTORIZED, AND FREE WEIGHT MAINTENANCE CHECKLISTS

CARDIOVASCULAR EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

Daily Tasks

• Disinfect all equipment using combination of disinfectant/fungicide/virucide/mildewstat/deodorant.

• Check equipment for sights of wear or damage.

• Vacuum/sweep floor.

• Wet mop floor using combination of disinfectant/fungicide/virucide/mildewstat/deodorant.

Monthly Tasks

• Open equipment, where possible, and vacuum.

• Equipment is inspected for wear or damage.

• Incline treadmills to maximum and run at maximum speed for one minute to check for proper function.

Biannual Tasks• Equipment is inspected and serviced by authorized service provider.

• Move all equipment, sweep and mop the floor underneath.

SELECTORIZED EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

Daily Tasks• Disinfect all equipment using combination of disinfectant/fungicide/virucide/mildewstat/deodorant.


Monthly Tasks• Lubricate guide rods and inspect them for wear or damage.

• Inspect cables for wear or damage.



• Equipment is moved and the floor underneath is swept and mopped.

FREE WEIGHT EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

Daily Tasks• Disinfect all equipment using combination of disinfectant/fungicide/virucide/mildewstat/deodorant.


Monthly Tasks• Brush and oil bars and dumbbell handles to remove rust.



• Move all equipment, sweep and mop the floor underneath.

TABLE 2. EXAMPLES OF FLOORING, WALL, AND WINDOW MAINTENANCE

FLOORING MAINTENANCE

Daily Tasks• Sweep/vacuum flooring.

• Check flooring for sights of wear or damage.

• Wet mop floor using combination of disinfectant/fungicide/virucide/mildewstat/deodorant.

Monthly Tasks • Flooring is inspected for wear or damage.

Biannual Tasks • Spray flooring with bacteria, virus, and mold inhibitor.

WALL AND WINDOW MAINTENANCE

Daily Tasks• Clean window interiors with window cleaner.

• Check windows and walls for sights or wear or damage.

Monthly Tasks • Walls and windows are inspected for wear or damage.

Biannual Tasks• Repaint walls where needed.

• Exterior windows are cleaned by campus maintenance staff.



FACILITY RULES/GUIDELINES AND CONSEQUENCESIt is imperative to include the facility rules and the consequences for breaking those rules in the policies and procedures manual. Depending on which rule is broken, examples of consequences could be a verbal warning or a one or several day ban from using the facility. Facility guidelines should also be clearly posted within the room. Having facility rules documented is important for reasons of liability and deniability. First, anyone who uses the facility is immediately informed of the facility rules by the posted sign. Second, by posting the facility rules in a clearly visible location, preferably the entryway, patrons are less able to deny that they were unaware of the rules. While student-athletes are most often required to sign liability and consent to participate waivers, it is also suggested to have anyone who uses the facility or its equipment to sign a written acknowledgement of the facility rules and liability waiver (4).

Within the policies and procedures manual, consequences for breaking the facility rules should be listed. Theoretically, a documented list of consequences should create consistency when dealing with rule violations. At the very least, it will give facility supervisors guidance when they are put in the position of disciplinarian. It should be noted that while it may be appropriate for a strength and conditiong coach or facility supervisor to enforce lesser punishments (sending someone to change into more appropriate clothing or footwear), as the top authority of the facility, the head strength and conditioning coach or facility director should handle more severe punishments.

INCIDENT DOCUMENTATIONIt is also a good practice to create a system of documenting and reporting incidents that occur within the facility. Not only should this system be documented in the policies and procedures manual, incident report forms should be kept on hand to be filled out if such an incident occurs. Examples of weight room incidents include complaints, suggestions, injuries, thefts or lost items, and equipment problems. These forms should contain fillable fields that documents date and time of the incident, name of person(s) involved, description of the incident, location, information from the witness(es), if/what authorities were contacted, and the actions taken. Separate forms should also be on hand to be completed in the event of an altercation with a student, staff member, employee, or other user of the facility. Altercation report forms should document the names and positions of persons involved, date, description of events, and names of witnesses. Additionally, these forms should document the actions taken by the persons involved and/or their supervisors following the incident. Both of these forms should be shared with the head strength and conditioning coach’s or facility director’s supervisor to collaborate on if or what further actions should be taken. As with maintenance task lists, incident and altercation report forms should be stored in the event that they are needed in the future for reference. Because these forms may be subject to use in a lawsuit, they should be stored indefinitely or according to the recommendation of the institution’s legal counsel. They should also be kept in a secure location (either a lockable location or a password protected digital folder/program) where the

files will not be at risk of damage due to fire, water, mold, etc. Due to the potentially sensitive nature of these forms, the head strength and conditioning coach or facility director should be the person to archive them (2,4). Figures 1 and 2 show example incident and altercation report forms.

EMERGENCY PROCEDURESOne of the most important inclusions for a strength and conditioning department policies and procedures manual is a section containing all of the department emergency procedures. This section should have a list of all important phone numbers and personnel to contact in case of an emergency, such as campus police, the director of athletics, the facilities/maintenance department, and others. Phone numbers for these contacts should also be posted next to the main phone in the facility.

Next, an emergency action plan should be included in the policies and procedures manual, as well as posted in a visible spot in the facility. The emergency action plan should contain detailed information on what to do in cases of inclement weather (e.g., flood, tornado, earthquake, etc.), fire, a violent individual or crime on campus, power outage, and other dangerous situations. Administration should be consulted when creating this plan to ensure it is comprehensive and thorough.

Plans should also be documented within the policies and procedures manual that detail how employees should handle medical emergencies. Although employees should be trained in first aid, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and how to use an automated external defibrillator (AED), these procedures should be explained in the manual. Procedures for employees to follow in the case of broken bones, bleeding, unconsciousness, and similar situations should be carefully detailed in the manual. These procedures should include instructions on how to properly dispose of biohazardous materials and potential blood-borne pathogens. The emergency action plan should be included in new employee orientation and should be reviewed and rehearsed annually with all employees who work in the facility (5). Detailed emergency procedures will help to keep employees and those who use the facility safe while reducing legal liability.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONCreating a policies and procedures manual for a strength and conditioning department from scratch can be a daunting task. A good deal of forethought is required to be sure to encompass as many facility guidelines and procedural methods are included as possible. Creation of this document is likely best undertaken by a small committee, if possible, so that several different views and opinions are taken into consideration when collecting and creating data. It is also advised that the document be reviewed, edited, and updated each year to keep it current. A good manual will provide numerous benefits to employees, the institution, and the patrons of the facility. Creating a department policies and procedures manual is not only a best practice, but is also a legally sensible and responsible course of action (3).

NSCA COACH 7.2


Weight Room Incident Report Form

Information below is one person's account of an incident that happened in or around the Weight Room at Emory and Henry College. What is contained here does not ensure accuracy or completeness of all that occurred. It is merely the impression, recollection, witness of, or report taken by the individual identified below and subsequently reviewed by the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach. If warranted, contact with any/all party(ies) will be made following the review of this document. To help ensure the safety of each user of the weight room, please report all happenings. Date: ____/____/____ Time: ___:___ AM/PM

Name(s) of person(s) involved: ____________________________________________

Relationship to E&H (circle one): Guest Student Faculty/Staff

Nature of Incident:

Complaint Suggestion Item Lost Other Injury Equipment Problem Theft _____________________ (list)

Witness Information:

Name: _____________________________________ Phone: ______-______-______

Address: ____________________________________________________________

City: ____________________________ State: ______ Zip Code: __________

Description of incident by witness and action taken:

Location: __________________________________ Conditions: _________________________________

Weather: __________________________________ Injury: _____________________________________

Action(s) taken: __________________________________________________________________________

Supervisor Information: Who was notified of the incident?

Police Fire Paramedics College Official(s)

Name of supervisor/person completing this report? _____________________________________________________

Name of outside responder (if applicable): _____________________________________________________________

Signature of Head Strength and Conditioning Coach/Fitness Center Director __________________________________

Date: ____/____/____

If needed, provide a more detailed account of the situation on the back of this form.

Return this form to Mike Caro, Head Strength and Conditioning Coach/Fitness Center Director

FIGURE 1. WEIGHT ROOM INCIDENT REPORT FORM



ALTERCATION REPORT FORM (Attach witness statements to the back of this form)

Report submitted by: Date: Date of altercation:

General description:

Individuals involved in altercation

Name: Position: Name: Position: Name: Position: Name: Position:

Nature of altercation:

Initial response:

Follow-up actions:

List of witnesses

Name: Name: Name: Name:

Signature: Date: Person receiving witness statements: Date:

FIGURE 2. ALTERCATION REPORT FORM

NSCA COACH 7.2


REFERENCES1. Haggerty, L. A profile of strength and conditioning coaches at National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II and III member institutions. Electronic theses and dissertations, 2005.

2. Herbert, DL. A good reason for keeping records. Strength and Conditioning Journal 16(3): 64, 1994.

3. Massey, C, Schwind, J, Andrews, D, and Maneval, M. An analysis of the job of strength and conditioning coach for football at the Division II level. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 23(9): 2493-2499, 2009.

4. National Strength and Conditioning Association. NSCA strength and conditioning professional standards and guidelines. 2017. Retrieved 2020 from https://www.nsca.com/education/articles/nsca-strength-and-conditioning-professional-standards-and-guidelines/.

5. Parsons, JT, Anderson, SA, Casa, DJ, and Hainline, B. Preventing catastrophic injury and death in collegiate athletes: Interassociation recommendations endorsed by 13 medical and sports medicine organisations. Journal of Athletic Training 54(8): 843-851, 2019.

ABOUT THE AUTHORMike Caro is the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach, Campus Fitness Center Director, and Track and Field Throws Coach at Emory and Henry College in Emory, VA. Previously, he was the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach at Transylvania University in Lexington, KY, where he started the strength and conditioning program and was the only strength coach for 26 teams and 400 athletes in an 800-square foot weight room. Caro is a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® with Distinction (CSCS,*D®) and has been recognized as a Registered Strength and Conditioning Coach (RSCC®) through the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA). He also holds the Level 1 United States of America Weightlifting (USAW) certification and National Academy of Sports Medicine’s Performance Enhancement Specialist (NASM-PES) credential. Caro earned his Master’s degree in Exercise Science from California University of Pennsylvania and currently serves as the chair of the NSCA’s College Coaches Special Interest Group (SIG).

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WILL RUTH, MA, CSCS, AND BLAKE GOURLEY, MS, FMS

STRENGTH TRAINING PRACTICES FOR ROWING—PART 3—CONDITIONING TRAINING

INTRODUCTION

This is the third and final installment in the series of articles on strength and conditioning training for rowing. The first article presented risk factors for low back pain and rib stress

injuries in rowers, and recommended strength training methods to reduce the risk of injury. Strength and conditioning coaches can help rowers improve motor coordination and strength of both stroke motion muscles and non-stroke muscles. Rowers with better movement quality and greater strength will distribute stroke force across many strong muscles, rather than skeletal structures. This reduces excess stress and strain on the spine and rib cage in particular, decreasing risk of injury. Building muscles neglected by the rowing stroke also reduces risk of muscular imbalances. There is also a performance-enhancing effect to reducing injuries; fewer injuries means more rowers available to practice and more practice opportunities per rower.

The second article covered exercise selection specifically for rowing performance, and periodization strategies to improve strength, power, and muscle hypertrophy. The goal of strength training for rowing performance is to improve general force potential in the major stroke motion muscles. A stronger rower can impart more force on the handle of an oar or rowing machine and maintain submaximal force for longer durations. The most important muscle groups for rowing performance are the leg, hip, trunk, and shoulder extensors, as well as the elbow and forearm flexors. Bilateral power in rowing is sport-specific, and strength and conditioning coaches of rowers should use both bilateral and unilateral squat, deadlift, and horizontal pulling exercises in their training program. A periodized plan provides the organizational framework for the goal of making gradual improvement on multiple beneficial athletic factors over the course of a training year. Strength and conditioning coaches should consider the needs of rowing training, the competitive schedule, the available training time in-season and off-season, and the training experience of the athletes.

This installment will focus on energy system development. It starts with a needs analysis of energy system elements in rowing performance, and then address three key issues in conditioning training of rowers. First, the quantity and mode of training must align with the abilities of the athletes and the major goals of training. Second, strength and conditioning coaches should have a system of periodization to account for changing needs and priorities over a year of rowing training. Third, strength and conditioning coaches should be familiar with best practices for concurrent strength and conditioning training to maximize adaptation to training with minimal risk of interference or injury. This article will conclude with an analysis of opportunities and challenges for strength and conditioning coaches who work with rowers and who may act as advisors to rowing coaches on physical and physiological development.

ENERGY SYSTEM NEEDS ANALYSIS FOR ROWINGEnergy system use is mainly determined physiologically by intensity and duration of activity. Because there are several different competitive race distances, duration of activity needs to be carefully defined for individual rowers or teams. This affects energy system profiles, and is important to consider in a needs analysis for an individual rower or team. Masters rowers, adults over age 21, race the one-kilometer distance as their championship competitive event. A one-kilometer race lasts between 3.5 – 5 min, depending on the age category and boat classification. Junior, collegiate, Paralympic, and Olympic rowers focus their training on the two-kilometer race distance. Junior and collegiate crews may achieve this in 6 – 8 min, top collegiate and Olympic crews between 5.5 – 7 min, and para-rowers’ times vary between 6.5 – 11 min, based on classification and adaptive equipment used (30). All rowers may also race in distance events of 3.5 km and greater, lasting at least 15 min in duration. It is common for junior, collegiate, and high-performance programs to do occasional distance races as a lower competitive priority.

We will frame our recommendations around the two-kilometer distance, assuming a competitive junior, collegiate, or high-performance program. Researchers indicate that the energy system used in a two-kilometer race is approximately 77 – 88% aerobic and 12 – 23% anaerobic (3,19,23). The variance in these findings exists primarily due to different study populations. Martin and Tomescu studied 16 elite male rowers and found that their energy system use in a two-kilometer ergometer race was 77% aerobic and 23% anaerobic, with an average duration of 6.1 min (19). Pripstein et al. studied 16 competitive female rowers and found that their two-kilometer average time of 7.5 min resulted in energy system use of 88% aerobic and 12% anaerobic (23). De Campos Mello et al. studied eight male competitive rowers in two-kilometer tests on static ergometers, dynamic ergometers, and on-water single sculling (3). They found aerobic values of 84% in both ergometer conditions, lasting 6.6 min in duration and 87% in the single scull condition, which lasted 8.5 min in duration. Therefore, it is resonable to expect one-kilometer races to have a greater anaerobic profile and races over two kilometers to have a greater aerobic profile, although no research on this currently exists (20).

Maximal aerobic power, power output at VO2max, and anaerobic power are significantly correlated with two-kilometer ergometer performance (2,13,24). These correlations illustrate how both aerobic and anaerobic systems contribute significantly to rowing performance. Strength and conditioning coaches should consider that rowers perform a great amount of aerobic training during routine rowing training. A typical two-hour rowing practice involves a warm-up, a phase of low-intensity technical drills, a phase of continuous effort or interval training, and a cool-down phase. Rowers will also commonly perform more anaerobic training closer to short distance racing, usually consisting of practicing start sequences and short sprints with longer rest

NSCA COACH 7.2


periods. The start of the race and the final sprint phase are the phases in the race when anaerobic system contribution is highest (20).

QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF CONDITIONING TRAININGThe first article of this series detailed injury risks resulting from excessive training volume and load on stationary rowing machines, known as ergometers. Researchers indicate that high training volume on ergometers, especially via prolonged continuous use of 30 or more min on static ergometers, is one of the biggest predictors of low back pain in rowers and a significant risk factor in rib stress injury (4,21,29).

There seems to be a tradeoff of performance-enhancing specificity and increased risk of overuse injury from ergometer use and high-volume rowing training. Researchers of rowing training practices tend to focus on elite rowers’ training 12 – 21 hr per week (5,12,26). Such research is typically concerned with quantifying training methods and comparing models of intensity distribution. There is a research gap of sub-elite rowers and those performing fewer total training hours. Injury data is often not included in training intensity distribution studies and it remains a question if such high-volume training methods are appropriate and effective for sub-elite athletes.

High volumes of low-intensity ergometer and rowing training may be appropriate and effective for elite athletes, but may also result in increased injuries from prolonged ergometer use, too high volume or load, or too rapid a progression in volume or load. Athletes who move from one competitive level to the next, such as high school to college, or college to national team, may experience rapid increases without adequate preparation, resulting in injury (20). In “Rowing Faster,” rowing strength and conditioning coach Ed McNeely recommends that annual training volume as measured by total training hours should not increase by more than 10% per year and proposes a five-year progressive loading pattern for a junior rower becoming a national team rower (20). Rowing coaches and strength and conditioning coaches should carefully consider the biological age, training age, and competitive level of the athlete to determine appropriate training methods.

PERIODIZED CONDITIONING TRAININGThe second article in this series discussed an annual periodization approach for rowing and strength training. Rowing training typically progresses from off-season higher volume, lower intensity, lower specificity to in-season lower volume, higher intensity, and higher specificity. This model also applies to strength and conditioning training. We suggest that off-season conditioning training for rowers consists of higher volume, lower intensity cross-training, with specific, limited-intensity work on ergometers. This develops general aerobic system fitness while mitigating overuse from year-round rowing training and prioritizes energy and recovery for valuable off-season strength training. Weekly off-season training for a competitive rower might include

1 – 2 short-duration sessions, 3 – 5 longer-duration general aerobic development sessions, and 2 – 4 strength training sessions, depending on the needs of the individual athletes. For example, a rower seeking greater gains in strength and muscle mass might use four weekly strength training sessions, three aerobic development sessions, and one short duration session. A rower seeking greater gains in fitness might use two weekly strength training sessions, four aerobic development sessions, and two short-duration sessions.

We recommend that strength and conditioning coaches avoid additional in-season conditioning training, including any work on ergometers, running, stationary bikes, or other forms of cross-training, unless specifically directed or approved by the rowing coach. Strength and conditioning coaches may have an opportunity for conditioning training with rowers who are injured during racing season. Injured rowers may be unable to row or use ergometers, but may be able to do other productive and pain-free forms of conditioning training to maintain fitness while rehabilitating the injury. Remember that rowers typically do a great amount of aerobic training through sport practice. Anaerobic adaptations are more specific to mode of performance, so in-season rowers should do the majority of their high-intensity work on ergometers or in the boat for best carryover to race performance. The limited in-season strength and conditioning contact time is best spent on developing strength, hypertrophy, power, mobility, and energy management or recovery practices. Strength and conditioning coaches may then advise or oversee conditioning training during the non-rowing seasons, using a variety of modalities to improve general aerobic fitness in the absence of rigorous rowing-specific training.

CONCURRENT TRAINING INTERFERENCE IN ROWINGDue to the high demands of aerobic endurance, power, and strength in rowing, rowers must train concurrently for both aerobic endurance and strength. “The interference effect” describes the phenomenon by which concurrent aerobic and strength training may result in diminished adaptation compared to single-mode training (1). Researchers have identified multiple possible mechanisms, and it is likely that a combination of factors and mechanisms produce the interference effect, rather than one single mechanism (1). Researchers have also studied rowers to better understand the specific interactions between concurrent rowing training and strength training (6,7,28,31). Table 1 summarizes the major findings and proposed strategies from rowing-specific interference effect research.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE ROWING STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHTHE ROLE OF THE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHThe primary role of the strength and conditioning coach is to help rowers improve performance and reduce risk of injury. Strength and conditioning coaches may also have opportunities to inform rowers and coaches on other physical training topics. For example, educating rowers on effective strength, mobility, recovery, and



TABLE 1. ROWING RESEARCH INTERFERENCE EFFECT FINDINGS AND STRATEGIES

CITATION SUBJECT POPULATION MAJOR FINDINGS PROPOSED STRATEGIES

7Eight competitive

male rowers

Two-kilometer erg is sufficiently aerobic to avoid negative

interference from a single strength training session 24 hr prior.

Schedule aerobic training, not anaerobic training, in the 24 hr following a

strength training session.

628 competitive

male rowers

Three low-volume strength training sessions in a single week of training

does not negatively affect two-kilometer erg performance.

Rowers should continue strength training during racing season. Use lower volume strength training to reduce risk of interference from

muscular endurance training.

2819 competitive male and female rowers

For eight weeks, rowers strength trained twice per week, did continuous aerobic training three times per week,

and aerobic interval training once per week, and significantly improved

max force, max power, VO2max, two-kilometer erg performance, and

biomechanical technical factors.

Concurrent strength and rowing training can improve physiological factors and biomechanical factors to improve rowing performance.

31

11 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division 1 heavyweight male and female rowers

Rowers strength trained one or two times per week and rowed five times per week. Rowers decreased

body fat percentage, increased muscle mass, and improved two-kilometer erg performance over

nine months of training.

Athletes may experience significant improvements from concurrent training in body composition and two-kilometer rowing performance, even if diminished

compared to single-mode training.

breathing strategies. Strength and conditioning coaches should strive to collaborate with rowing coaches to develop a cohesive training program for physical, physiological, technical, and mental development.

Strength training circuits consisting of high-repetition (20 or more), low-load, or bodyweight exercises are often used in rowing training for muscular endurance or general conditioning training (8). In our experience, this type of training does not develop aerobic or anaerobic fitness as effectively as ergometer training, nor does it develop strength or muscle mass as effectively as traditional strength training. While low-load training may be appropriate for novice trainees or specific phases of a training program, a long-term reliance on low-load, high-repetition training may expose athletes to increased risk of overuse injury and neglect development of greater force capacity. We recommend that strength and conditioning coaches generally limit high-repetition circuit-style training, and advise rowers and rowing coaches on the benefits of higher-load, lower-repetition, more strength- and power-oriented strength training.

ROWING TRAINING CULTUREGrueling workouts are common in rowing training and experienced rowers tend to have high tolerance to pain and fatigue associated with physical training. Ergometers display performance metrics for every stroke, and rowers are adept at maintaining high force output despite high fatigue. Research on novice and experienced

rowers indicates that both groups will sacrifice technique when erging in order to achieve a target output (29). Rowers may carry this mindset over to strength training and struggle to dial down their intensity and drive for very fatiguing workloads. Strength and conditioning coaches have an opportunity to educate rowers on effective strength and movement training, rather than simply encouraging maximal force output or maximal fatigue at all times.

COLLABORATIONCollaboration among coaches is especially important in rowing due to the highly fatiguing nature of training. We encourage collaboration in training program design to identify specific workouts and general training schedules where fatigue is likely to be very high, or when performance is key. We recommend that strength and conditioning coaches seek to minimize areas of high fatigue overlap. For example, schedule any maximal strength training away from very intensive rowing sessions. Based on the available research on concurrent training practices, we recommend scheduling strength training at least 24 hr before intense rowing training (7). Strength training may be scheduled within 24 hr of rowing training when the rowing training is lower in intensity and more aerobic. Be aware that rowers often undergo “seat selection” trials in the weeks before major races, when their practice performance is important to their competitive future. This presents a challenge to strength and conditioning coaches who may want to schedule more intense strength training during this time, before a pre-race taper. It is important to communicate

NSCA COACH 7.2


with the rowing coach to establish dates of important ergometer tests, seat selection, and other major rowing events, and develop a collaborative plan to navigate these events. We also recommend that strength and conditioning coaches make occasional visits to rowing practice, if possible. Rowing coaches typically use motor boats for coaching staff, spare rowers, and other observers, and this is an opportunity to watch, listen, and learn about the specific sport training. Observing practice and watching rowers move may also inform strength and conditioning coaches as to the most important “gaps” to fill with a strength training program.

RECOVERYResearch indicates that the intense nature of rowing increases susceptibility to overtraining (17). Strength and conditioning coaches can play a pivotal role by assisting with energy management and recovery practices. For example, educating the team on pre-recovery measures such as sleep, nutrition, and hydration. Research shows that educating athletes on measures, such as sleep, can improve their sleep quality and quantity (22). Strength and conditioning coaches should teach or assist athletes in monitoring their readiness. Two separate studies concluded that monitoring training readiness may be the best way to help rowers avoid overtraining (15,25). They note that the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes measures both stress and recovery and may be a helpful, noninvasive strategy to reduce risk of overtraining. In a training session, strength and conditioning coaches can also offer recovery modalities such as breathing, stretching, light movement, compression boots, and cold water immersion. Gill et al. found that recovery methods can be more effective than passive recovery (9). Helping athletes recover during critical phases of training may even have a greater impact on performance than adhering to the training session as planned (16).

HEART RATE AS FEEDBACKRowing coaches sometimes do not have the opportunity to teach sports transferable skills beyond specific rowing training. Two main skills that can be taught in a weight room are heart rate awareness and breathing strategies. The majority of the time rowers train based on prescribed intensities. Although these intensities are related to a specific heart rate zone, a large majority of rowers do not use heart rate technology. Teaching rowers what each zone feels like can help them understand appropriate intensities in their training. Studies show that rowers and coaches have trouble sticking to prescribed intensities without proper feedback (18). Projecting heart rate on a display screen may help the rower manage intensities based on heart rate feedback. This can be used to maintain the correct target heart rate, as well as educate athletes on the best individual breathing strategies.

BREATHING STRATEGIESProviding opportunities for rowers to use deep, controlled, and sequenced breathing can help them maintain pressure under challenging scenarios (27). Webster et al. compared three breathing strategies: no breathing strategy, a 1:1, or a 2:1 strategy

(28). They found that using a breathing strategy improved performance and other physiological measures when compared to the group that used no breathing strategy. This same study found that utilizing a 1:1 (inhale on the recovery, exhale on the drive) breathing strategy during submaximal training improved the tidal volume for the first half of a two-kilometer race. It increased the volume of air the rowers were able to inhale with each breath. Teaching rowers to use a 1:1 breathing strategy during submaximal work, and a 2:1+ breathing strategy during more intense efforts may benefit their performance. Teaching them deep recovery breaths may also help them relax before performance, easing anxiety, and potentially improving performance (10,14).

CONCLUSIONRowing coaches are often highly informed on physiological principles and their rowing-specific applications. Strength and conditioning coaches are highly informed on physical training principles, but may lack familiarity with rowing training, technique, and competitive details. Strength and conditioning coaches and rowing coaches have an opportunity to be great allies in the pursuit of rowing performance if their knowledge can be combined. Consistent communication and a genuine interest in collaboration are keys to making this relationship work. We hope that this series of articles helps to inform strength and conditioning coaches on rowing training practices, as well as specific opportunities where strength and conditioning coaches can have a great impact on the health and performance of rowers.

REFERENCES1. Coffey, V, and Hawley, J. Concurrent exercise training: Do opposites attract? The Journal of Physiology 595(9): 2883-2896, 2017.

2. Cosgrove, M, Wilson, J, Watt, D, and Grant, S. The relationship between selected physiological variables of rowers and rowing performance as determined by a 2000 m ergometer test. Journal of Sports Sciences 17: 845-852, 1999.

3. De Campos Mello, F, de Moraes Bertuzzi, R, Grangeiro, P, and Franchini, E. Energy systems contributions in 2,000 m race simulation: A comparison among rowing ergometers and water. European Journal of Applied Physiology 107: 615-619, 2009.

4. Evans, G, and Redgrave, A. Great Britain rowing team guideline for diagnosis and management of rib stress injury: Part 1. British Journal of Sports Medicine 50: 266-269, 2016.

5. Fiskerstrand, A, and Seiler, S. Training and performance characteristics among Norwegian international rowers 1970-2001. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports 14: 303-310, 2004.

6. Gee, T, Caplan, N, Gibbon, C, Howatson, G, and Thompson, K. Investigating the effects of typical rowing strength training practices on strength and power development and 2,000 m rowing performance. Journal of Human Kinetics 50: 167-177, 2016.



7. Gee, T, French, D, Howatson, G, Payton, S, Berger, N, and Thompson, K. Does a bout of strength training affect 2,000 m rowing ergometer performance and rowing-specific maximal power 24 h later? European Journal of Applied Physiology 111(11): 2653-2662, 2011.

8. Gee, T, Olsen, P, Berger, N, Golby, J, and Thompson, K. Strength and conditioning practices in rowing. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25(3): 668-682, 2011.

9. Gill, N, Beaven, C, and Cook, C. Effectiveness of post-match recovery strategies in rugby players. British Journal of Sports Medicine 40(3): 260-263, 2006.

10. Gray, T, Pritchett, R, Pritchett, K, and Burnham, T. Pre-race deep-breathing improves 50 & 100-yard swim performance in female NCAA swimmers. Journal of Swimming Research 26(1): 32-41, 2018.

11. Greene, A, Sinclair, P, Dickson, M, Colloud, F, and Smith, R. The effect of ergometer design on rowing stroke mechanics. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports 23: 468-477, 2013.

12. Guellich, A, Seiler, S, and Emrich, E. Training methods and intensity distribution of young world-class rowers. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 4: 448-460, 2009.

13. Ingham, S, Whyte, G, Jones, K, and Nevill, A. Determinants of 2,000 m rowing ergometer performance in elite rowers. European Journal of Applied Physiology 88: 243-246, 2002.

14. Jerath, R, Edry, J, Barnes, V, and Jerath, V. Physiology of long pranayamic breathing: Neural respiratory elements may provide a mechanism that explains how slow deep breathing shifts the autonomic nervous system. Medical Hypotheses 67 (3): 566-571, 2006.

15. Jürimäe, J, Purge, P, Mäestu, J, and Toivo, J. Heavy training stress in male rowers: Effects on circulatory responses and mood state profiles. Kinesiology 36(2): 213-219, 2004.

16. Kellmann, M. Enhancing Recovery: Preventing Underperformance in Athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 4, 2002

17. Kellmann, M. Preventing overtraining in athletes in high-intensity sports and stress/recovery monitoring. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports 20(2): 95-102, 2010.

18. Lintmeijer, L, Soest, A, Robbers, F, Hofmijster, M, and Beek, P. Real-time feedback on mechanical power output: Facilitating crew rowers’ compliance with prescribed training intensity. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 14(3): 303-309, 2019.

19. Martin, S, and Tomescu, V. Energy systems efficiency influences the results of 2,000m race simulation among elite rowers. Clujul Medical 90(1): 60-65, 2017.

20. McNeely, E. Rowing Physiology. In: Nolte, V (Ed.), Rowing Faster. (2nd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2011.

21. Newlands, C, Reid, D, and Parmar, P. The prevalence, incidence and severity of low back pain among international-level rowers. British Journal of Sports Medicine 49: 951-956, 2015.

22. O’Donnell, S, and Driller, M. Sleep-hygiene education improves sleep indices in elite female athletes. International Journal of Exercise Science 10(4): 522-530, 2017.

23. Pripstein, L, Rhodes, E, McKenzie, D, and Coutts, K. Aerobic and anaerobic energy during a 2-km race simulation in female rowers. European Journal of Applied Physiology 79: 491-494, 1999.

24. Reichman, S, and Zoeller, R. Prediction of 2000m indoor rowing performance using a 30s sprint and maximal oxygen uptake. Journal of Sports Sciences 20: 681-687, 2002.

25. Tran, J, Rice, A, Main, L, and Gastin, P. Profiling the training practices and performance of elite rowers. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 10(5): 572-580, 2015.

26. Treff, G, Winkert, K, Sareban, M, Steinacker, J, Becker, M, and Sperlich, B. Eleven-week preparation involving polarized intensity distribution is not superior to pyramidal distribution in national elite rowers. Frontiers in Physiology 8(515): 1-11, 2017.

27. Webster, A, Penkman, M, Syrotuik, D, Gerbais, P, Cruz, L, and Bell, G. Effect of training combined with different breathing entrainment patterns on physiological adaptations during rowing exercise. Advances in Exercise and Sports Physiology 16(1): 15-23, 2010.

28. Webster, T, Gervais, P, and Syrotuik, D. The combined effects of 8-weeks aerobic and resistance training on simulated 2000-meter rowing performance and the related biomechanical and physiological determinants in men and women. Advances in Exercise and Sports Physiology 12(4): 135-143, 2006.

29. Wilson, F, Gissane, C, and McGregor, A. Ergometer training volume and previous injury predict back pain in rowing; Strategies for injury prevention and rehabilitation. British Journal of Sports Medicine 48: 1534-1537, 2014.

30. World Rowing. World best times. Retrieved January 2020 from http://www.worldrowing.com/events/statistics/.

31. Young, K, Kendall, K, Patterson, K, Pandya, P, Fairman, C, and Smith, S. Rowing performance, body composition, and bone mineral density outcomes in college-level rowers after a season of concurrent training. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 9: 966-972, 2014.

NSCA COACH 7.2


ABOUT THE AUTHORSWill Ruth is a former high school rower who returned to the sport with the Western Washington University men’s rowing team, coaching there for several years as Strength Coach and Assistant Coach. Ruth moved to Vermont in 2019, and is now a guest coach at the Craftsbury Sculling Center. He is the author of the website RowingStronger.com and the book “Rowing Stronger: Strength Training to Maximize Rowing Performance,” a strength training resource for rowers and rowing coaches of all levels.

Blake Gourley is a former collegiate rower who experienced a back injury that ended his rowing career and began his coaching career. He has spent over a decade since coaching rowing and strength training for rowers at numerous levels, drawing on his personal experience, education, and internships to help rowers improve performance and reduce risk of injury. Gourley is currently the owner of Movement Evolution Performance Training and RowingStrength.com. He is also the Injury and Performance Management Consultant for the Los Gatos Rowing Club and a board member for the Sports Medicine Certificate at West Valley College.

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ISABEL CORRALES, CSCS, ALEKSANDER BELJIC, CSCS, AND ROBERT LOCKIE, PHD, TSAC-F

LOWER-BODY POWER DEVELOPMENT FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE SOCCER PLAYERS

INTRODUCTION

Muscular power is a desired attribute and a determinant of success in many sports. Activities such as jumping, sprinting, and change-of-direction (COD) are highly

dependent on an athlete’s ability to produce force and velocity. An improvement in either component could increase an athlete’s power and explosiveness, as power is a function of force developed over time. Explosive actions have different contraction times which influence the amount of force and velocity produced. Movements are categorized by their contraction time and defined as fast or slow. Fast movements (e.g., sprinting) have a contraction time <250 milliseconds, whereas slow movements (e.g., a countermovement jump) have a contraction time >250 milliseconds (6).

Soccer is characterized as an intermittent sport with a mix of low- and high-intensity activities (26,41). Explosive actions are suggested to have the greatest influence on match-play in soccer, as they can determine rate of play (9). Soccer players perform both high-force and high-velocity actions within a game; therefore, lower-body power development should be considered across the continuum. The modalities used for training can influence the resulting movement force and velocity capabilities for the soccer player (28). Heavy resistance training improves high-force production, essential for the acceleration phase during a change of direction (COD) (40), whereas light resistance training moved with high velocity could improve the section of the power continuum often associated with maximum speed (36). Thus, increasing high-force and high-velocity via resistance training may impart a substantial performance advantage over athletes who neglect power training.

In this article, the influence of lower-body power on soccer performance in collegiate female players is examined. Methods for testing muscular power qualities are discussed, as well as training modalities for muscular power development across force-velocity continuum for collegiate female soccer players. Finally, sample training programs that could be used for female collegiate soccer players (and players from other levels of play) are presented. The design and applicability to collegiate female soccer players has been drawn from established training guidelines from the NSCA (33,39), as well as previously published research.

LOWER-BODY POWER AND ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE IN SOCCERThe demands of soccer are multifaceted. Players rely heavily on anaerobic metabolism and need to possess high levels of speed, power and repeated-sprint ability (26,41). Research has shown that muscular power is correlated with linear sprinting (29), jumping (35), COD speed (29), and repeated-sprint ability (RSA) (23). The ability to perform these anaerobic activities could have great influence on a player’s involvement during match-play (26,41). Accordingly, training should be directed at improving lower-body power to enhance these athletic qualities.

International female soccer players with greater lower-body power will generally be more involved in match-play and could have a great influence on match outcome (26). This should also be true for collegiate female soccer players. An athlete’s ability to produce greater lower-body power can improve their ability to accelerate. Faster acceleration abilities could result in a greater ability to react and gain possession of the ball or beat a defender on a breakaway. A faster early acceleration phase, measured by a 10-meter (m) sprint test, has shown to positively influence speed up to 30 m, in addition to COD speed (29). The average sprint distance covered during a soccer game is less than 10 m (41), which would suggest acceleration ability to be an important quality to match performance and is one of the key differentiators between elite and sub-elite female soccer players (13).

In a soccer match, players may need to perform repeated sprints to create distance to receive a pass from a teammate, contest the ball, and defend counter-attacks. A time-motion analysis by Gabbett and Mulvey reported female soccer players perform approximately 6 repeated sprints in a bout, with a mean sprint duration of 2.1 seconds (s) and mean recovery time of 5.8 s (10). Therefore, the ability to repeatedly sprint is an important task for female players and their involvement in match play. Previous research suggests greater sprinting speed could positively influence RSA (24). Lockie et al. found linear speed over 0 – 10 m and 0 – 30 m sprint distances related to RSA in collegiate female soccer players (24). This is important considering the reliance on acceleration ability and the sprint distances typically covered by female soccer players. Match analysis by Gabbett et al. found the repeated-sprint demands differ between levels of competition and elite female soccer players tend to display superior RSA (11).

Soccer players with greater lower-body power can be more efficient at soccer-specific tasks such as shuffling, kicking, and heading (34). While the value of kicking and heading is clearly important for soccer players, the shuffling pattern is important as it can assist with transitions between different movements. Furthermore, McFarland et al. found collegiate soccer players with better lower-body power as measured by the squat and countermovement vertical jump demonstrated better COD speed as measured by the pro-agility shuttle and T-test (29). For soccer players, this is important considering the number of direction changes they make during a match (2). Collectively, these data support the need for collegiate female soccer players to possess greater lower-body power.

MEASURING LOWER-BODY POWERA valuable index of muscular power is maximal jump testing, and measurement of lower-body power in multiple directions is essential as power can be directionally-specific (31). The focus for this review is on more practical measures that could be used by the coach, with relatively minimal equipment. For example, the vertical jump (3), standing broad jump (16,21,31), and lateral jump (16,31) have been demonstrated as valid measures of lower-body power.

NSCA COACH 7.2


The vertical jump commonly infers power via jump height (15,16), but power can also be derived using formulas such as the Sayers equation (29). Two common vertical jump tests include the squat jump, where the player will jump from a semi-squatting position without a countermovement (concentric power), or the typical countermovement jump test which will utilize the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) (27). Vertical jump measurement devices such as the portable force plate and belt mat provide valid measures of vertical jump height (3), although contact mats and Vertec-type devices are popular alternative vertical jump testing devices (21). The use of arm swing adds kinetic energy to the jump, leading to a greater jump height compared to a jump with no arm swing (14). Conducting a jump test with arm swing may be more practical from a soccer perspective because the arms would generally always be used when jumping during a match (22), and are necessary when using a Vertec-type device to measure jump performance (21). However, if the coach wants to isolate jump performance to actions of the lower-body by limiting upper-body contributions, the hands can be positioned on the hips for the entirety of the jump (15).

The standing broad jump (SBJ) can provide a measure of lower-body power in the horizontal plane. Horizontal jump distance, as a measure of horizontal power (16,21), has been related to performance in linear and COD speed tasks (16). Linear sprints are the most frequent action for in-goal situations and soccer players with greater horizontal power should be more efficient at this task (9). To test the standing broad jump, players are instructed to start with both feet, or the tested limb only (unilateral jump), behind the start line. They then jump forward as far as possible, and land on both feet. Distance is typically measured via tape measure from start line to the rearmost heel.

Over the course of a match, approximately 700 direction changes occur (2), requiring frequent lateral projection. The lateral jump test provides a measure of lower-body power and can be predictive of other sport-specific tasks such as lateral COD and agility (16,31). To perform the lateral jump test, players begin by placing the medial border of their foot being tested on the start line. Players are instructed to use a self-selected depth and jump laterally as far as they can and land on both feet. Distance is measured via tape measure from the start line to the outside border of the foot closest to the start line.

TRAINING MODALITIES TO IMPROVE LOWER-BODY POWERRESISTANCE TRAININGStrength serves as a foundation for power (1,20). The ability to express a high rate of force development is often related to an individual’s strength or their ability to express a high magnitude of force (12). The development of maximal strength typically requires the use of heavy loads above 85% of an athlete’s one-repetition maximum (1RM) for a given exercise (39). Haff and Nimphius recommend a high base of strength for an individual to best achieve benefits from power training (12).

Optimal loading parameters for muscular power development aim to maximize power output during the execution of the lift; however, exact loading parameters are dependent on the athlete and the nature of the movement. Different loads can be used to target different sections of the force-velocity continuum (43). Cormie et al. (5) found great variation in optimal load across exercises with different velocity characteristics as measured by the squat (56% of 1RM), jump squat (0% of 1RM), and power clean (80% of 1RM). These findings by Cormie et al. (5) provide insight into the specificity of power training and sport performance. Force and velocity characteristics of the modality should be considered when using resistance exercises to develop power in soccer players.

PLYOMETRICSPlyometric exercises typically consist of a rapid lengthening (eccentric action) followed by an immediate shortening (concentric action) of the muscle (33). This sequence of muscle actions, commonly referred to as the SSC, produces greater power during the concentric action because of the storage and utilization of elastic energy. Improvements in the SSC have been attributed to an increase in neuromuscular function (i.e., rate of force development [RFD]) (8), which should enhance a soccer player’s ability to jump, sprint, and change directions (23,29,35). Furthermore, research has shown increased performance in sport-specific tasks such as kicking speed (37) and distance (35) in soccer players following a plyometric training program. In addition, plyometric training interventions have been shown to improve jump-landing techniques and could potentially reduce non-contact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury rates in female athletes by improving neuromuscular control (32). This is notable, given the propensity for collegiate female soccer players to experience ACL injuries (44).

It is important to note that different plyometric movements can have different magnitudes, rates, and direction of force application (30). The direction of the movement should be considered during plyometric training for optimal transfer to competition. Furthermore, range of motion should mimic sport actions in match-play. This means soccer players should complete plyometric activities that relate to positions that are attained during a soccer match (e.g., vertical jumping to contest the ball in the air, horizontally focused jumps that mirror acceleration requirements). Plyometric training for female athletes should be progressive, in which landing techniques are established before manipulating training variables. Low training volume (i.e., <100 foot contacts) has demonstrated similar improvements in jump and sprint ability compared to higher volume training (100 – 120 contacts per session) (7,37). Collegiate female soccer players may not always need to complete a high volume of plyometric exercises to improve landing technique and lower-body power.



COMPLEX TRAININGAnother approach to enhance power in collegiate soccer players is through complex training. Complex training refers to the use of a high-force resistance training exercise (e.g., back squat) followed by a biomechanically similar high-velocity plyometric exercise (e.g., vertical countermovement jump) (4). This can increase power expression through postactivation potentiation (PAP), which is when there is an acute increase in power due to a muscle’s contractile history (4). To induce PAP, the conditioning exercise is typically loaded to greater than 80% 1RM of the given exercise, while the plyometric exercise should allow for a high-velocity movement (i.e., a body weight or light load exercise) (4). The different loading parameters have been suggested to improve power across the continuum (6). The conditioning exercise could induce greater force production, whereas the plyometric exercise could improve the high-velocity portions of the power continuum.

To provide an example specific to soccer, Maio Alves et al. (25) demonstrated that complex training allowed for greater power development shown through improvements in tasks such as faster 0-5 m and 0 – 15 m intervals in a 15-m sprint, and a superior squat jump, in comparison to traditional training modalities in male players. Notably, Maio Alves et al. (25) indicated these performance changes occurred within a 6-week training program. This is important, considering the time constraints during the season for collegiate soccer players (18). It should be noted that complex training is most appropriate for athletes with an advanced training history. Indeed, several studies have demonstrated that stronger athletes will potentiate more and potentiate sooner following a conditioning activity (38,42). Table 1 provides some examples of complex pairs that could be used by the coach. The strength and plyometric exercises have been paired in such a way that they are biomechanically-similar and specific to soccer players in that they provide bilateral and unilateral exercise options that emphasize vertical, horizontal, or lateral force production (4). Although the optimal recovery time between the strength-based conditioning activity and plyometric exercise is highly individual, Carter and Greenwood recommend basing recovery times for complex training exercise pairs on the time allotted in the weight room, as well as the athlete’s goals and the current research (4).

TABLE 1. EXAMPLE STRENGTH AND PLYOMETRIC EXERCISE PAIRS THAT COULD BE USED FOR COMPLEX TRAINING

STRENGTH EXERCISE PLYOMETRIC EXERCISE

Barbell Back or Front Squat Vertical Jump

Barbell or Dumbbell Step-Up Lateral Bound

Hip Thrust Standing Broad Jump

Barbell Reverse Lunge Split Jumps

EXAMPLE TRAINING SESSIONSTables 2 and 3 detail example weight room-based training sessions that could be utilized to develop power for the collegiate female soccer player during the competitive season. Both sessions were designed specifically for collegiate female soccer players in that they are full-body programs involving compound movements (e.g., front squat, squat jump), incorporate exercises that could challenge lumbo-pelvic stability (e.g., single-leg Swiss ball hamstring curl, inverted row), while also utilizing exercises that could assist with the prevention of injury through improvements in gluteus medius strength (e.g., banded monster walk) and dynamic stability (e.g., lateral hop-and-stick). It should be noted that different programs with a variety of other exercises could be used to enhance lower-body power in collegiate female soccer players. Further to this, it is beyond the scope of this article to detail a long-term periodized training plan for collegiate players. Rather, the goal of this section was to provide example programs that could be easily adopted by coaches or adapted to include preferred exercises for the individual coach or athlete.

Both example weight room sessions follow established training guidelines set by the NSCA (33,39). The program in Table 2 has a strength focus and includes bilateral and unilateral lower-body strength exercises, upper-body exercises, and repetition ranges and loads that follow recommendations from Sheppard and Triplett (39). The program in Table 3 includes a plyometric exercise that could develop landing technique and dynamic balance (i.e., lateral hop-and-stick), which may assist with the prevention of ACL injuries for female soccer players (32), an Olympic lifting movement (i.e., the clean pull) to develop full-body power (43), and other power-based exercises (i.e., repeated lateral hop, overhead medicine ball throw). At the collegiate level, training experience varies between freshmen and senior athletes (19). The exercises within the program, and the sets, repetitions, and load used, can be scaled up or down depending on the training level of the athlete. Loading can also be varied across the exercises if the coach wishes to target different sections of the force-velocity continuum (5,43). Depending on the training history of the athlete (i.e., the athlete is more advanced; most likely juniors and seniors), the coach could also include training complexes such as those shown in Table 1.

Table 4 displays an example plyometric training session that could be used by female collegiate soccer players and is reflected in this training program. The session adheres to guidelines established by Potach and Chu (33), and was adapted from a program designed by Lockie et al. (17) to develop sprint acceleration for team sport athletes. The training exercises were selected or adapted to account for the development of landing technique (i.e., box jumps) (17,32), and the direction (horizontal, vertical, lateral) and type of projection (bilateral and unilateral) needed for collegiate female soccer players (2). Again, given that a collegiate female soccer team will have athletes of different experience and training history (19), the exercises can be modified relative to the individual athlete’s abilities. Although the practitioner can use a multitude of

NSCA COACH 7.2


different programs to develop lower-body power for the collegiate female soccer player, the programs presented here provide some examples that could be applied to this population.

REFERENCES1. Baker, DG, and Newton, RU. Comparison of lower body strength, power, acceleration, speed, agility, and sprint momentum to describe and compare playing rank among professional rugby league players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 22(1): 153-158. 2008.

2. Bloomfield, J, Polman, R, and O’Donoghue, P. Physical demands of different positions in FA Premier League soccer. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine 6(1): 63-70, 2007.

3. Buckthorpe, M, Morris, J, and Folland, JP. Validity of vertical jump measurement devices. Journal of Sports Sciences 30(1): 63-69, 2011.

4. Carter, J, and Greenwood, M. Complex training reexamined: Review and recommendations to improve strength and power. Strength and Conditioning Journal 36(2): 11-19, 2014.

5. Cormie, P, McCaulley, GO, Triplett, NT, and McBride, JM. Optimal loading for maximal power output during lower-body resistance exercises. Medicine Science in Sports Exercise 39(2): 340-349, 2007.

6. Cormie, P, McGuigan, MR, and Newton, RU. Developing maximal neuromuscular power: Part 2 - Training considerations for improving maximal power production. Sports Medicine 41(2): 125-146, 2011.

7. de Villarreal, ES, Gonzalez-Badillo, JJ, and Izquierdo, M. Low and moderate plyometric training frequency produces greater jumping and sprinting gains compared with high frequency. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 22(3): 715-725, 2008.

8. de Villarreal, ES, Kellis, E, Kraemer, WJ, and Izquierdo, M. Determining variables of plyometric training for improving vertical jump height performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 23(2): 495-506, 2009.

9. Faude, O, Koch, T, and Meyer, T. Straight sprinting is the most frequent action in goal situations in professional football. Journal of Sports Sciences 30(7): 625-631, 2012.

TABLE 2. EXAMPLE TRAINING SESSION FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE SOCCER PLAYERS WITH A GREATER FOCUS ON STRENGTH

EXERCISE SETS X REPETITIONS X LOAD (IF APPLICABLE)

Front Squat 5 x 2-3 @ 80-85% 1RM

Squat Jump 5 x 4-6

Dumbbell Bench Press 3 x 4-6 @ 80-85% 1RM

Dumbbell Row 3 x 4-6 @ 80-85% 1RM

Reverse Lunge 2-3 x 6-8 @ 70-75% 1RM

Single-Leg Swiss Ball Hamstring Curl 2-3 x 8-12

TABLE 3. EXAMPLE TRAINING SESSION FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE SOCCER PLAYERS WITH A GREATER FOCUS ON POWER

EXERCISE SETS X REPETITIONS X LOAD (IF APPLICABLE)

Lateral Hop-and-Stick 3 x 4-6

Repeated Lateral Hop 3 x 4-6

Clean Pull 4 x 2-4 @ 80-85% 1RM

Overhead Medicine Ball Throw 3 x 6

Inverted Row 3 x 6-8 @ bodyweight

Banded Monster Walk 2-3 x 10

TABLE 4. EXAMPLE PLYOMETRIC TRAINING SESSION FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE SOCCER PLAYERS

EXERCISE SETS X REPETITIONS CONTACTS

Box Jump 3 x 8 24

Bounding 4 x 6 24

Forward Hop 4 x 6 24

Lateral Hurdle Jump 4 x 5 20

Drop Jump 4 x 6 24

116 Contacts Total



10. Gabbett, T, and Mulvey, M. Time-motion analysis of small-sided training games and competition in elite women soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 22(2): 543-552, 2008.

11. Gabbett, TJ. The development of a test of repeated-sprint ability for elite women’s soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 24(5): 1191-1194, 2010.

12. Haff, GG, and Nimphius, S. Training principles for power. Strength and Conditioning Journal 34(6): 2-12, 2012.

13. Haugen, TA, Tonnessen, E, and Seiler, S. Speed and countermovement-jump characteristics of elite female soccer players, 1995-2010. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 7(4): 340-349, 2012.

14. Lees, A, Vanrenterghem, J, and De Clercq, D. The energetics and benefit of an arm swing in submaximal and maximal vertical jump performance. Journal of Sports Sciences 24(1): 51-57, 2006.

15. Lockie, RG, Murphy, AJ, Knight, TJ, and Janse de Jonge, XAK. Factors that differentiate acceleration ability in field sport athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25(10): 2704-2714, 2011.

16. Lockie, RG, Callaghan, SJ, Berry, SP, Cooke, ER, Jordan, CA, Luczo, TM, and Jeffriess, MD. Relationship between unilateral jumping ability and asymmetry on multidirectional speed in team-sport athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28(12): 3557-3566, 2014.

17. Lockie, RG, Murphy, AJ, Callaghan, SJ, and Jeffriess, MD. Effects of sprint and plyometrics training on field sport acceleration technique. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28(7): 1790-1801, 2014.

18. Lockie, RG, Davis, DL, Birmingham-Babauta, SA, Beiley, MD, Hurley, JM, Stage, AA, et al. Physiological characteristics of incoming freshmen field players in a men’s Division I collegiate soccer team. Sports 4(2): 2016.

19. Lockie, RG, Stecyk, SD, Mock, SA, Crelling, JB, Lockwood, JR, and Jalilvand, F. A cross-sectional analysis of the characteristics of Division I collegiate female soccer field players across year of eligibility. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning 24(4): 6-15, 2016.

20. Lockie, RG. A 6-week base strength training program for sprint acceleration development and foundation for future progression in amateur athletes. Strength and Conditioning Journal 40(1): 2-12, 2018.

21. Lockie, RG, Moreno, MR, Bloodgood, AM, and Cesario, KA. Practical assessments of power for law enforcement populations. TSAC Report (49): 6-12, 2018.

22. Lockie, RG, Moreno, MR, Lazar, A, Orjalo, AJ, Giuliano, DV, Risso, FG, et al. The physical and athletic performance characteristics of Division I collegiate female soccer players by position. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 32(2): 334-343, 2018.

23. Lockie, RG, Moreno, MR, Orjalo, AJ, Stage, AA, Liu, TM, Birmingham-Babauta, et al. Repeated-sprint ability in Division I collegiate male soccer players: Positional differences and relationships with performance tests. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 33(5): 1362-1370, 2019.

24. Lockie, RG, Liu, TM, Stage, AA, Lazar, A, Giuliano, DV, Hurley, JM, et al. Assessing repeated-sprint ability in Division I collegiate women soccer players. Publsihed ahead of print. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2018.

25. Maio Alves, JM, Rebelo, AN, Abrantes, C, and Sampaio, J. Short-term effects of complex and contrast training in soccer players’ vertical jump, sprint, and agility abilities. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 24(4): 936-941, 2010.

26. Manson, SA, Brughelli, M, and Harris, NK. Physiological characteristics of international female soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28(2): 308-318, 2014.

27. Markovic, G, Dizdar, D, Jukic, I, and Cardinale, M. Reliability and factorial validity of squat and countermovement jump tests. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Reseach 18(3): 551-555, 2004.

28. McBride, JM, Triplett-McBride, T, Davie, A, and Newton, RU. The effect of heavy- vs. light-load jump squats on the development of strength, power, and speed. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 16(1): 75-82, 2002.

29. McFarland, I, Dawes, JJ, Elder, CL, and Lockie, RG. Relationship of two vertical jumping tests to sprint and change of direction speed among male and female collegiate soccer players. Sport 4(1): 2016.

30. Mero, A, and Komi, PV. EMG, force, and power analysis of sprint-specific strength exercises. Journal of Applied Biomechanics 10(1): 1-13, 1994.

31. Meylan, C, McMaster, T, Cronin, J, Mohammad, NI, Rogers, C, and Deklerk, M. Single-leg lateral, horizontal, and vertical jump assessment: Reliability, interrelationships, and ability to predict sprint and change-of-direction performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 23(4): 1140-1147, 2009.

32. Myer, GD, Ford, KR, Brent, JL, and Hewett, TE. The effects of plyometric vs. dynamic stabilization and balance training on power, balance, and landing force in female athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 20(2): 345-353, 2006.

33. Potach, DH, and Chu, DA. Program design and technique for plyometric training. In Haff, GG, and Triplett, NT (eds.) Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL; 471-520, 2016.

34. Rodríguez Lorenzo, L, Fernández-Del-Olmo, M, and Acero, R. Strength and kicking performance in soccer: A review. Strength and Conditioning Journal 38(3): 106-116, 2016.

35. Rubley, MD, Haase, AC, Holcomb, WR, Girouard, TJ, and Tandy, RD. The effect of plyometric training on power and kicking distance in female adolescent soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25(1): 129-134, 2011.

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36. Rumpf, MC, Lockie, RG, Cronin, JB, and Jalilvand, F. The effect of different sprint training methods on sprint performance over various distances: a brief review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 30(6): 1767-1785, 2016.

37. Sedano Campo, S, Vaeyens, R, Philippaerts, RM, Redondo, JC, de Benito, AM, and Cuadrado, G. Effects of lower-limb plyometric training on body composition, explosive strength, and kicking speed in female soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 23(6): 1714-1722, 2009.

38. Seitz, LB, de Villarreal, ES, and Haff, GG. The temporal profile of postactivation potentiation is related to strength level. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28(3): 706-715, 2014.

39. Sheppard, JM, and Triplett, NT. Program Design for Resistance Training, In: Haff, GG, and Triplett, NT, (eds.) Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL; 439-470, 2016.

40. Spiteri, T, Cochrane, JL, Hart, NH, Haff, GG, and Nimphius, S. Effect of strength on plant foot kinetics and kinematics during a change of direction task. European Journal of Sport Science 13(6): 646-652, 2013.

41. Stolen, T, Chamari, K, Castagna, C, and Wisløff, U. Physiology of soccer. Sports Medicine 35(6): 501-536, 2005.

42. Suchomel, TJ, Sato, K, DeWeese, BH, Ebben, WP, and Stone, MH. Potentiation following ballistic and non-ballistic complexes: The effect of strength level. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 30(7): 1825-1833, 2016.

43. Suchomel, TJ, Comfort, P, and Lake, JP. Enhancing the force-velocity profile of athletes using weightlifting derivatives. Strength and Conditioning Journal 39(1): 10-20, 2017.

44. Voskanian, N. ACL injury prevention in female athletes: Review of the literature and practical considerations in implementing an ACL prevention program. Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine 6(2): 158-163, 2013.

ABOUT THE AUTHORSIsabel Corrales obtained her Bachelor of Science degree in Kinesiology from California State University, Fullerton, and is currently completing her Master’s degree with an emphasis in Strength and Conditioning also at California State University, Fullerton. Corrales has conducted research into the global positioning system (GPS) technology as it relates to collegiate soccer, the movement characteristics of soccer players during matches, and the relationship between external training load metrics measured by GPS and internal load.

Aleksander Beljic is currently an Assistant Strength and Conditioning Coach at California State University, Fullerton. He obtained his Bachelor of Science degree in Kinesiology from California State University, Fullerton, and is completing his Master’s degree with an emphasis in Strength and Conditioning also at California State University, Fullerton. Beljic has conducted research into the physiological characteristics of collegiate basketball players, in addition to the effects of training on the stress of competition on aerobic capacity, strength, power, and body composition.

Robert Lockie is an Assistant Professor in Strength and Conditioning at California State University, Fullerton. He obtained his undergraduate and honors degrees in human movement from the University of Technology, Sydney. Lockie also completed his PhD at the University of Technology, Sydney, within research that analyzed the sprint technique and strength and power capacities of field sport athletes. He has previously worked at the University of Newcastle in Australia as a lecturer in biomechanics, and an Assistant Professor in biomechanics and strength and conditioning at California State University, Northridge. Lockie conducts research into linear speed, change-of-direction speed, and agility; strength and conditioning; post-activation potentiation; team sport analysis; and analysis of law enforcement, correctional, and tactical populations.

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RECOVERY METHODS FOR ENDURANCE ATHLETES

INTRODUCTION

Adequate recovery in an athlete’s strength and conditioning program is essential to effectively allow physiological adaptations from training to occur. Athletes cannot

perform at their best if they are not well-rested, are malnourished, and/or are dehydrated. In the past, coaches focused primarily on making sure athletes get sufficient rest, appropriate nutrition, and sufficient hydration. Recently, coaches have been trying new methods of enhanced recovery, including, but not limited to: supplements, cryotherapy or cold-water immersion, compression garments, and myofascial release (8,10,12,13). Inadequate recovery has been highly linked to overuse injuries of the hips, knees, and ankles in running endurance athletes, particularly if they have previous injuries, muscle weakness, or run more than 40 miles per week (8). This article will look at the use of supplements and nutrition, compression socks, cryotherapy, and myofascial release as enhanced recovery methods for endurance runners.

SUPPLEMENTS AND NUTRITIONWhile the supplement industry is continuously evolving, there are only a few supplements that have been shown to help endurance athletes recover, including protein and carbohydrate blend drinks and bars, electrolyte replacements, antioxidants, glucosamine and chondroitin, and the amino acid l-glutamine (4). Carbohydrates and protein should be consumed immediately following a workout to restore muscle glycogen and repair damaged muscle tissue. Following a prolonged aerobic endurance activity, 1.2 g of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight should be consumed regularly, every 15 – 30 min for no more than five hours and depending on caloric needs (4). Consuming protein along with carbohydrates will improve recovery by repairing damaged tissue and sparing muscle glycogen (25). The ratio of carbohydrates to protein should be 3:1 or 4:1 to repair muscle tissue and recover muscle glycogen (15). Table 1 provides several examples of meals with approximately this ratio.

Hydration is especially important to endurance athletes because dehydration of as little as 2% can negatively affect aerobic performance (20). Dehydration can occur rapidly in athletic

events; therefore, it is important for endurance athletes to take advantage of opportunities to ingest fluids during exercise. Athletes sweat at different rates based on physiological predispositions, clothing worn, environmental factors, and exercise intensity. Therefore, telling a group of athletes to drink the same amount of fluid after a workout may not be optimal for the individual athlete. A better way to gauge hydration levels is to calculate the athletes’ sweat rate by measuring weight loss before and after a practice session (accounting for amount of beverage consumed during exercise) as a guideline (4). Water is important to athletes, but ingesting a large amount of water without added sodium will dilute blood volume (20). To ensure the athlete is also replacing electrolytes post exercise, the athlete can consume bananas, melons, potatoes, citrus fruit, or milk for potassium; leafy greens for magnesium; pickles or salt tablets for sodium; or they can consume a sports drink that is fortified with electrolytes (25).

In addition to macronutrient planning and addressing hydration, several micronutrients may provide added benefits to the endurance athlete. While current research has not defined requirements for consuming antioxidants as part of recovery from endurance events, there is a study suggesting some antioxidants’ anti-inflammatory properties may be useful in healing damaged tissue by reducing the amount of free radicals in the body (19). Antioxidants include beta-carotene, vitamin E, and vitamin C, which can be found in many foods regularly consumed in a healthy diet, such as spinach, sweet potatoes, wheat germ, nuts, citrus fruits, peppers, and onions. It is also possible to consume a dietary supplement containing antioxidants for athletes who are limited in food choices (25). Tart cherry juice is useful for athletes’ recovery because of its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that can help to treat damaged muscles and reduce symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) (6,23). Another supplement an endurance athlete may consider taking is glucosamine, because it has been shown to protect cartilage by inhibiting joint collagen degradation (21). Finally, research on the amino acid l-glutamine has shown enhanced recovery after taking a supplement of l-glutamine by improving the reaction times of athletes following exhaustive aerobic events (22).

TABLE 1. POST-WORKOUT FUEL WITH EITHER A 3:1 OR A 4:1 CARBOHYDRATE:PROTEIN RATIO

POST-WORKOUT RECOVERY MEALS CARBOHYDRATES PROTEIN

1/3 cup cottage cheese and 1 large banana 33 g 9 g

Turkey sandwich and 1 apple 57 g 18 g

Chocolate milk 26 g 8 g

1 oz of salmon and 1 sweet potato 33 g 10 g

Cheese stick and 1 pear 28 g 7 g

NSCA COACH 7.2


COMPRESSION SOCKSCompression garments aid recovery in a multitude of ways following exercise. After eccentric training, such as downhill running, compression garments can improve muscle fiber recovery due to the stress response resulting from inflammation (28). Graduated compression socks apply the greatest force to the ankles, while decreasing the amount of force gradually as the sock moves up the lower leg. This mechanism promotes blood flow upward towards the heart instead of pooling in the feet or laterally into the superficial veins and may prevent venous stasis (slow blood flow of the legs) (16). Similarly, a meta-analysis on compression garments concluded that wearing compression garments post-cycling performance enhanced recovery due to reduced inflammatory response of the muscle tissue (5). Marathon runners can wear compression garments to reduce perceived muscle soreness and wearing compression socks may improve functional lower limb recovery after marathon running, allowing runners to return to training more quickly following exhaustive endurance events (12,26).

Compression socks can range from light to high compression (10 – 40 mm Hg). There can be little difference in venous stasis when compression reaches more than 20 mm Hg (16). As shown in a study by Armstrong et al., which measured marathon runners’ time to exhaustion on a graded treadmill test 14 days after the athletes ran a marathon, wearing compression socks after running a marathon can improve recovery time (1). The conditions consisted of a compression group that wore graduated compression socks with 30 – 40 mm Hg compression value at the ankle and 21 – 28 mm Hg compression at the calf (1). The compression group wore the socks for 48 hr following running a marathon (1). Compared to a placebo group, the compression group improved their graded treadmill test by 5.9% (1). This may be especially important to high school and collegiate athletes who have to run multiple exhaustive races throughout their season, sometimes with less than a week to recover.

CRYOTHERAPYVarious methods of cryotherapy have been utilized by athletes for recovery, including cold water immersion, icepacks, and sitting in cryotherapy booths or chambers. Cryotherapy is used by athletes because it can reduce DOMS by reducing superficial tissue temperature causing vasoconstriction and decreased inflammation production by cell metabolism (29). Cold can also reduce neural conductance velocity and limit the amount of pain that is sensed (29). Additionally, cryotherapy reduces subjective measures of DOMS, rate of perceived exertion, the objective measures of blood plasma markers (blood lactate, creatine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase), and blood plasma cytokines (interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein) (13). This research suggests that cryotherapy after strenuous activity may enhance recovery by reducing inflammation and perceived soreness.

Whole-body cryotherapy (WBC) can be effective in a minimal amount of time. A three-minute session at progressively cooler

temperatures (-10°C, -60°C, and -110°C) for three minutes after a training session can improve recovery by improving sleep quality, prevent increases in perceived fatigue, and help to maintain performance (24). A single session may not be sufficient to induce treatment benefits; however, as many as three treatments have been shown to be effective (27). WBC sessions that lasted three minutes at -130°C and that are performed five days per week show improved red blood cell distribution after 20 sessions; significant increases in leukocyte concentration after 10 WBC sessions; and elevated erythropoietin concentration after 10, 20, and 30 WBC sessions (27).

Additionally, studies comparing the skin temperature difference using cryotherapy and cold-water immersion showed skin temperature to be significantly reduced in both treatments. Immediately following WBC, skin temperatures were significantly colder compared to cold water immersion; however, skin temperature remained colder for longer following cold water immersion, suggesting that either option may be viable for use after intense workouts (7). Cold water immersion can be done by a cold modality (e.g., an ice pack) or by entering an ice bath for 15 min shortly following an intense workout. The cold water immersion showed the most marked improvements in nerve conductance, and therefore, could reduce perceived pain and soreness following an intense workout (11,18). Another study showed that the best dose for cold water therapy may be 10 min in 6°C cold water because this temperature and duration was associated with the lowest levels of soreness, compared to other values (9).

MYOFASCIAL RELEASEMuscle fascia is a type of connective tissue that covers organs and connects muscles like a web providing support, cushioning, and flexibility for the entire body. Trauma to the tissue can cause fascia to tighten as a protective response; however, this response results in tension to the body by limiting range of motion, muscle coordination, and strength power (2). The result of the pressure caused by self-myofascial release (SMR) is that the tissue becomes softer, more pliable, and lengthens (2).

While getting a sports massage remains a popular option for myofascial release, tools such as foam rollers, lacrosse balls, and massage sticks (Figures 1 – 6), are gaining popularity and make SMR easier to perform manually. A foam roller can be used with large muscle groups, such as the hamstrings, to decrease fatigue and improve performance in the upper leg and hip (10). Massage sticks can also loosen tight muscle groups including the quadriceps; however, instead of using the weight of the athlete’s body to provide pressure, the athlete can select how much pressure is applied by rolling the stick along the affected muscles using the athlete’s hands. A lacrosse ball can be used manually or with a partner, and the smaller size of the ball can allow the athlete to release tightness that is deep in their glutes, iliotibial band, back, shoulder, and chest muscles.



FIGURE 4. MYOFASCIAL RELEASE - CHEST MUSCLESFIGURE 3. MYOFASCIAL RELEASE - ILIOTIBIAL BAND

FIGURE 2. MYOFASCIAL RELEASE - MASSAGE STICK ON THE QUADRICEPS

FIGURE 1. MYOFASCIAL RELEASE - FOAM ROLL

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FIGURE 6. MYOFASCIAL RELEASE - GLUTEALSFIGURE 5. MYOFASCIAL RELEASE - RHOMBOIDS

TABLE 2. TAKE-HOME POINTS: ADDING RECOVERY METHODS TO TRAINING

1. Good nutrition should come from food but occasionally for those picky eaters, supplementing within the regulations of the athlete’s sport may be considered.

2. Carbohydrates and protein should be consumed at least every 30 min post exercise in a ratio of 3:1 or 4:1 to adequately repair muscles and replace muscle glycogen.

3. Dehydration can occur rapidly. To prevent dehydration, athletes should have a drinking strategy during workouts when possible and to replace water and electrolytes lost post exercise.

4. Compression garments can be worn post workout to improve muscle recovery and reduce muscle soreness.

5. Cryotherapy methods, including cold water immersion, icepacks, or cryotherapy booths, can be effective in reducing inflammation and improving recovery after a strenuous workout.

6. Self-massage can be an effective way to reduce soreness and improve flexibility for endurance athletes.



Studies have shown that myofascial release following exercise reduced fatigue, soreness, and perceived exertion (10). Incorporating foam rolling into training for eight weeks can lead to significant increases in hamstring flexibility and as little as one session of foam rolling can significantly improve hip and hamstring flexibility (3,13,17). Greater flexibility results in the ability to apply force over a greater range of motion. If that range of motion is inhibited by tight muscles or pain, the result may be decreased performance. Releasing the tight muscle fascia also allows the body to recover to a relaxed state, improving posture, reducing muscle strain, and restoring muscle elasticity (14).

CONCLUSIONEndurance training can be very taxing on an athlete. Coaches can influence athletes to use recovery methods to alleviate symptoms of soreness and fatigue, so that the athletes can recover between subsequent workouts and competitions. Using advanced forms of recovery can reduce the risk of injury by allowing the muscles to repair after an intense workout. There are numerous methods that athletes can use to recover, from very advanced methods of partial body cryotherapy chambers to simply drinking chocolate milk (i.e., because it contains carbohydrates and protein) and performing self-massage after a strenuous endurance training workout. Table 2 provides some guidelines for how to include recovery methods for athletes. Establishing good habits with endurance athletes’ recovery may take time, but research suggests that implementing these recovery methods may be worth the effort.

REFERENCES1. Armstrong, S, Till, E, Maloney, S, and Harris, G. Compression socks and functional recovery following marathon running: A randomized control trial. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 29(2): 528-533, 2015.

2. Barnes, M. The basic science of myofascial release: Morphologic change in connective tissue. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 1(4): 231-238, 1997.

3. Behara, B, and Jacobson, B. Acute effects of deep tissue foam rolling and dynamic stretching on muscular strength, power, and flexibility in division 1 linemen. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 31(4): 888-892, 2017.

4. Benardot, D. Advanced Sports Nutrition: Second Ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2012.

5. Brown, F, Gissane, C, Howatson, G, Someren, K, Pedlar, C, and Hill, J. Compression garments and recovery from exercise: A meta-analysis. Sports Medicine 47(11): 2245-2267, 2017.

6. Connolly, D, McHugh, M, and Padilla-Zakour, O. Efficacy of a tart cherry juice blend in preventing the symptoms of muscle damage. British Journal of Sports Medicine 40: 649-683, 2006.

7. Costello, J, Donnelly, A, Karki, A, and Selfe, J. Effects of whole-body cryotherapy and cold water immersion on knee skin temperature. International Journal of Sports Medicine 35(1): 35-40, 2014.

8. Gallo, R., Plakke, M., and Silvis, M. Common injuries of long-distance runners: Anatomical and biomechanical approach. Sports Health 4(6): 485-495, 2012.

9. Glasgow, P, Ferris, R, and Bleakley, C. Cold water immersion in the management of delayed-onset muscle soreness: Is dose important? A randomized controlled trial. Physical Therapy in Sport 15(4): 228-233, 2014.

10. Healy, K, Hatfield, D, Blanpied, P, Dorfman, L, and Ribe, D. The effects of myofascial release with foam rolling on performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28(1): 61-68, 2014.

11. Herrera, E, Sandoval, M, Camargo, D, and Salvini, T. Motor and sensory nerve conduction are affected differently by icepack, ice massage, and cold-water immersion. Physical Therapy 90(1): 581-591, 2010.

12. Hill, J, Howatson, G, Someren, K, Walshe, K, and Pedlar, C. Influence of compression garments on recovery after marathon running. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28(6): 2228-2235, 2014.

13. Hohenauer, E, Taeymans, J, Baeryens, J, Clarys, P, and Clijsen, R. The effect of post-exercise cryotherapy characteristics: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 10(9): e0139028, 2015.

14. Jeffreys, I. Warm-up and flexibility training. In Haff, G, and Triplett, T (Eds.), Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 317-351, 2016.

15. Kerksick, C, and Roberts, M. Supplements for endurance athletes. Strength and Conditioning Journal 32(1): 55-64, 2010.

16. Lim, C, and Davies, A. Graduated compression stockings. Canadian Medical Association Journal 186(10): E391-E398, 2014.

17. Madoni, S, Costa, P, Coburn, J, and Galpin, A. Effects of foam rolling on range of motion, peak torque, muscle activation, and the hamstrings-to-quadriceps strength ratios. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 32(7): 1821-1830, 2018.

18. Nardi, M, Torre, A, Barassi, A, Ricci, C, and Banfi, G. Effects of cold-water immersion and contrast-water therapy after training in young soccer players. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 51(4): 609-615, 2011.

19. Neubauer, O, Reichhold, S, Nics, L, Hoelzt, C, Valentini, J, Stadlmayr, B, et al. Antioxidant responses to an acute ultra-endurance exercise: Impact on DNA stability and indications for an increased need for nutritive antioxidants in the early recovery phase. British Journal of Nutrition 104: 1129-1138, 2010.

20. Naperalsky, M. Exercise recovery: Science vs. practice. Presentation at the NSCA Coaches Conference, Nashville, TN. January, 2017

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NSCA COACH 7.2


22. Pruna, G, Hoffman, J, McCormack, W, Jajtner, A, Townsend, J, Bohner, J, et al. Effect of acute L-Alanyl-L-Glutamine and electrolyte ingestion on cognitive function and reaction time following endurance exercise. European Journal of Sport Science 16(1): 72-79, 2014.

23. Rawson, ES, Miles, MP, and Larson-Meyer, D. Dietary supplements for health, adaptation, and recovery in athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 28(2): 188-199, 2018.

24. Schaal, K, Le Meur, Y, Louis, J, Filliard, J, Hellard, P, Casazza, G, and Hausswirth, C. Whole-body cryostimulation limits overreaching in elite synchronized swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 47(7): 1416-1425, 2015.

25. Spano, M. Basic nutrition factors in health. In Haff, G, and Triplett, T (Eds.), Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 175-200, 2016.

26. Stuart, A, Till, E, Maloney, S, and Harris, G. Compression socks and functional recovery following marathon running. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 29(2): 528-533, 2015.

27. Szygula, Z, Lubkowska, A, Giemza, C, Skrzek, A, Bryczkowska, I, and Dołęgowska, B. Hematological parameters, and hematopoietic growth factors: Epo and IL-3 in response to whole-body cryostimulation (WBC) in military academy students. PLoS ONE 9(4): e93096, 2014.

28. Trenell, M, Rooney, K, Sue, C, and Thompson, C. Compression garments and recovery from eccentric exercise: A 31P-MRS study. Journal of Sports Science Medicine 5(1): 106-114, 2006.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORAs owner and operator of Shredd Fitness, Lisa Stanley has trained individuals in a group setting and in personal training sessions since 2011. She oversees all of her client’s fitness and nutrition needs and helps a wide variety of people of all ages and fitness levels. Stanley is planning obtain her Master’s degree in Strength and Conditioning in May of 2020. She will obtain her Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) shortly after she graduates and hopes to start working as a collegiate strength and conditioning coach.

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