NTSEP Year 2000 Activities: Wildlife Movement Study & Staff Training

NTSEP Year 2000 Activities: Wildlife Movement Study & Staff Training

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARYA six-month consultancy was carried out in the 738.6 km Nam Theun Corridor, located in central Lao PDR, from May to November 2000. The Nam Theun Corridor is one of the proposed extensions to the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA, and was given a protected area status in June 2000 by the Government of Lao PDR. The Nam Theun Corridor serves as a link between the 3,532 km Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and the 1,500 km Phou Hin Poun NBCA. This consultancy is one of the three components of the Nam Theun Social and Environmental Project (Year 2000 Activities). The other two components include a study on rural access and agricultural extension. The primary objectives of this consultancy comprised the assessment of movements and seasonal migration patterns of wildlife in the lower Nam Theun, focussing on the Nam Theun Corridor; the recommendation of management guidelines for the study area; and the training of the NBCA staff and other relevant personnel in basic field conservation techniques and in developing a system for monitoring and protection of biodiversity resources. Training comprised theory and practical training based at the NBCAs headquarters; fieldbased on-the-job training, gathering actual data; and HQ-based training in data compilation, analysis, interpretation and presentation of actual data gathered. Trainees comprised three PAFO staff assigned to the NBCA, one Nakai District Army personnel, one Nakai District Police personnel, and a Khammouane-based Lao volunteer. The training of NBCA staff and other relevant personnel focussed on developing their understanding and skills in the field management of protected areas; in the use of maps and compass; in conducting surveys for wildlife and key wildlife habitats; in recording and assessing human impacts on wildlife and habitats; and in data analysis and report writing. Training met with mixed success. While skills and knowledge could be imparted to most trainees, yet it is felt that the skills and knowledge obtained would be put to little use as leadership, motivation and coordination (with relevant stakeholders) are still lacking. Furthermore, there is very little hope for the conservation and protection of biodiversity resources when the patrolling and monitoring unit is active only during donor-funded projects that include related activities. Also, patrolling and monitoring activities cannot be adequately implemented when there exists a staff of only two to three persons, and when staffing of NBCA personnel change so often - a common feature with most Lao PDRs protected areas. With the exception of the Asian elephant, surveys suggested that most wildlife species in the Nam Theun Corridor currently exist at low levels. This is primarily due to poaching (for local use, and for both local and international trade), followed by the loss and disturbance of habitat. Species of conservation significance that were recorded in the Nam Theun Corridor during this study include the Asian elephant, gaur, large-antlered muntjac, tiger, dhole, clouded leopard, douc l ngur, gibbon sp., Asiatic black bear, sun bear, and hornbills. Surveys also a recorded the presence of mineral licks that were identified as critically important habitats to herbivores. The study on wildlife movements and seasonal migration focussed on the Asian elephant. This is primarily because it is the only animal species in the Nam Theun Corridor having any significant population size, and it is difficult not to miss evidence of its presence. The study revealed that there is a resident sub-population o the Asian elephant in the Nam Theun f Corridor; that there is a seasonal shift in range of the Nakai Plateau elephants into the Phou Hin Poun NBCA during the wet season; that there is a wider distributional range during the wet season; and that different elephant groups come to gather by a certain area along the Nam Theun during the peak wet season, probably to socialize and possibly to exchange genes. Priority recommendations for wildlife conservation before and after the reservoir fills in include the need for proactive patrolling and law enforcement activities; the need for transboundary2


cooperation to clamp the further loss of irreplaceable biodiversity resources; the protection and management of the critical wildlife habitats (mineral licks); the establishment of artificial mineral licks at suitable locations in the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA above the inundation area; conducting a study on the ecological importance of mineral licks and their influence on the elephants ranging patterns; increasing the availability of fodder by reforestation of degraded areas in the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA above the inundation area; acquiring a team of experienced experts and training of the support staff for the rescue and release operation; and the need to consider the elephants distributional range and the possible movement of the displaced elephants when carrying out human resettlement. Looking at the broader picture, There is an urgent need to establish and maintain a discrete patrolling and monitoring unit. This units p rimary objectives are to address the needs of research, surveys, patrolling, and law enforcement in the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and its extensions, to arrest the rapid decline of the areas unique biodiversity resources, and to maintain its integrity as a globally significant ecoregion.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTSSeveral individuals and agencies have been instrumental in the successful outcome of this component of the project. Foremost is the Nakai District Governor and members of his administration. Others and other agencies that deserve mention is the Nakai District Army, the Nakai District Police, Mr. Bountavi (Khammouane PFS Head), Dr. Bounsalong Southidara (NTSEP Coordinator, MIH), Mr. Thongphoune Chanphengxay (Deputy Director & Chief of Cabinet, Khammouane Provincial Committee for Rural Development), Mr. Soukatha Vannalat (Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA Head), Ms. Latsamay Silavong (Field Manager), Mr. Keo Oudone (Consultant, Rural Access & Agricultural Extension), Ban Thalang residents, and the staff at the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and at the IUCN Lao PDR office. Bryan Stuart of WCS Lao PDR office kindly identified the photographs of reptiles and amphibians. Lastly, but not the least, the trainees themselves, who discovered the joys of field activities (made more exciting by projects timing to coincide with the wet season), and who had to endure the demands of their instructor. Ramesh Boonratana, Ph.D. a.k.a. Zimbo

November 14, 2000

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GLOSSARY, ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONSamsl Ban CITES DAFO DFRC DoF DUDCP GPS GoL IDA IUCN Keng MIH Muang Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area Nam NBCA NTFP NTSEP PAFO PDR PFS PHRD Poung Sayphou Sop WCS Xe above mean sea level Village/settlement Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora District Agricultural and Forestry Office Division of Forest Resources Conservation Department of Forestry District Upland Development and Conservation Project Global Positioning System Government of Lao PDR International Development Association The World Conservation Union Rapids Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts District Comprise the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and its extensions. River National Biodiversity Conservation Area Non-timber forest product Nam Theun Social and Environmental Project Provincial Agricultural and Forestry Office Peoples Democratic Republic Provincial Forestry Section Population and Human Resources Development Mineral lick Mountain range Rivermouth Wildlife Conservation Society River

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TABLE OF CONTENTSEXECUTIVE SUMMARY______________________________________________2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ______________________________________________4 GLOSSARY, ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS____________________________5 TABLE OF CONTENTS ______________________________________________61. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................. 9 OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................... 9 TERMS OF REFERENCE ............................................................................... 10 STUDY AREA ................................................................................................... 10 Figure 1.1 Location of Nam Theun Corridor ........................................................... 12 Figure 1.2 The Nam Theun Corridor....................................................................... 13 Plate 1.1: Habitats of the Nam Theun Corridor I..................................................... 14 Plate 1.2: Habitats of the Nam Theun Corridor II .................................................... 15 Plate 1.3: Access to the Study Area I ..................................................................... 16 Plate 1.4: Access to the Study Area II..................................................................... 17 2. TRAINING .................................................................................................................... 18 2.1 2.2 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 18 TRAINING & CAPACITY-BUILDING.................................................................. 19 2.2.1 HQ-based Theory Training ............................................................................ 19 2.2.2 On-the-Job Training ....................................................................................... 21 2.2.3 Training in Data Compilation, Analysis, Interpretation and Presentation............................................................................................................ 22 2.3 2.4 OBSERVATIONS AND ASSESSMENT ........................................................... 22 DISCUSSION.................................................................................................... 24 Table 2.1 Topics of HQ-based Theory Training ..................................................... 26 Table 2.2 Assessment of Trainees Performance.................................................. 27 Annex 2.1 Wildlife Data Recording Format ............................................................ 28 Annex 2.2 Wildlife Data Recording Format (in Lao) ............................................... 29 Annex 2.3 Wildlife/Habitat Impact Data Recording Format .................................... 30 Annex 2.4 Wildlife/Habitat Impact Data Recording Format (in Lao)....................... 31 Annex 2.5 Sample Specimen Recording Format................................................... 32 Annex 2.6 Procedures for Making Plaster Casts of Tracks ................................... 33 Annex 2.7 Ethics of Field Surveys and Patrols....................................................... 34

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Annex 2.8: Locations and Preparation of Camps ................................................... 35 Annex 2.9: List of Field Equipment ......................................................................... 36 Annex 2.10 Sample Trip Report of a Sub-team...................................................... 37 Plate 2.1: Training Activities I.................................................................................. 45 Plate 2.2: Training Activities II ................................................................................. 46 Plate 2.3: Training Activities III................................................................................. 47 3. WILDLIFE AND IMPACT SURVEYS .......................................................................... 48 3.1 3.2 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 48 RESULTS ......................................................................................................... 48 3.2.1 Wildlife............................................................................................................ 48 3.2.2 Impacts .......................................................................................................... 50 Table 3.1 List of Wildlife Recorded in the Nam Theun Corridor............................. 54 Table 3.2 List of Wildlife Recorded by Area and Route.......................................... 59 Table 3.3 Frequency of Hunting and Non-hunting Impacts by Locality .................................................................................................................... 63 Figure 3.1 Location of Key Wildlife and Wildlife Habitats Recorded ...................... 64 Plate 3.1 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor I........................................................ 65 Plate 3.2 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor II....................................................... 66 Plate 3.3 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor III ...................................................... 67 Plate 3.4 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor IV ..................................................... 68 Plate 3.5 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor V...................................................... 69 Plate 3.6 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor VI ..................................................... 70 Plate 3.7 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor VII..................................................... 71 Plate 3.8 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor I ...................................................... 72 Plate 3.9 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor II...................................................... 73 Plate 3.10 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor III................................................... 74 Plate 3.11 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor IV .................................................. 75 Plate 3.12 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor V................................................... 76 4. WILDLIFE MOVEMENTS/SEASONAL MIGRATION ................................................ 77 4.1 4.2 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 77 METHODS ........................................................................................................ 77 4.2.1 Distribution, Movements & Seasonal Migration ............................................. 77 4.2.2 Density Estimation......................................................................................... 78 4.3 RESULTS ......................................................................................................... 79 4.3.1 Distribution, Movements & Seasonal Migration ............................................. 79 4.3.2 Elephant Density Estimate ............................................................................ 80 4.3.3 Ecology and Behavior .................................................................................... 81 4.3.4 Elephant-Human Conflict............................................................................... 82 4.4 DISCUSSION.................................................................................................... 827


Table 4.1 Elephant Crop Damage Claims of Ban Thalang (Sep. 15, 2000). ...................................................................................................................... 85 Figure 4.1 Location of Elephant Sighting and Signs (Jun-Oct. 2000) .................... 86 Figure 4.2 Distributional Range of Elephants in the Nam Theun Corridor ................................................................................................................... 87 Figure 4.3 Elephant Movements (Jun-Oct. 2000)................................................... 88 Annex 4.1 The Asian Elephant: A Brief Description................................................ 89 Annex 4.2 Recording Format for Dung Density Transects .................................... 90 Annex 4.3 Recording Format for Dung Decomposition Rate................................. 91 Annex 4.4 Recording Format for Dung Defecation Rate........................................ 92 Plate 4.1 Photographic Summary of Activities I...................................................... 93 Plate 4.2 Photographic Summary of Activities II..................................................... 94 Plate 4.3 Photographic Summary of Activities III .................................................... 95 5. CONCLUDING DISCUSSION & RECOMMENDATIONS........................................ 96 5.1 5.2 5.3 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 96 IMPORTANCE OF THE NAM THEUN CORRIDOR......................................... 97 RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................... 97 5.3.1 Training & Training Needs ............................................................................. 97 5.3.2 Surveys, Monitoring and Research................................................................ 98 5.3.3 Patrolling and Law Enforcement.................................................................... 99 5.3.4 Zonation........................................................................................................ 100 5.3.5 Administration .............................................................................................. 101 5.3.6 Miscellaneous .............................................................................................. 101 5.3.7 Wildlife Conservation and Mitigation Measures ........................................... 102 5.4 STRATEGY FOR THE NAKAI - NAM THEUN CONSERVATION AREA 104 5.5 CONCLUSION................................................................................................ 105 Figure 5.1 Proposed Extension and Boundary Improvements............................. 107

LITERATURE CITED ______________________________________________108

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1.1.1

INTRODUCTIONBACKGROUND1

A Population and Human Resources Development (PHRD) Grant have been secured by the government of Lao PDR (GoL) from the International Development Association (IDA) to support preparations associated with the proposed Nam Theun II Social and Environmental Project (NTSEP). This grant was used to finance a series of studies and activities related to the environmental and social interventions linked to the construction and operation of the Nam Theun II Hydropower Project. The proposed Nam Theun II Hydropower Project includes the development of:n n

a 50 m high dam; a 450 km reservoir on the Nakai Plateau with the capability of storing about half the annual water inflow; a diversion tunnel with a vertical drop of 350 m to a 900 MW powerhouse; a 38 km tunnel to channel the diverted water to the Xe Bang Fai; and a 140-km transmission line.

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The project would also include components designed to protect the environment and water quality in the dams catchment and affected areas downstream, and the resettlement and rural development in the sub-region. IUCN had already conducted some wildlife surveys, and initiated some conservation and development activities in selected communities, as part of other PHRD-funded environmental and social strategy planning for the area2. On completion of those activities, there exist urgent needs with respect to the project area, and to the management planning. Requiring timely attention, these needs comprise:n n n

concerns for food security in settlements in the upper catchment area; improved accessibility to remote settlements; unassessed wildlife movements and seasonal migration patterns in the lower Nam Theun, particularly the Nam Theun Corridor.

All activities proposed and implemented during this project were accordingly planned in consultation with the project management unit of the upcoming District Upland Development and Conservation Project (DUDCP), funded by the World Bank.

1.2

OBJECTIVES

The primary objective of this consultancy is to address one of those urgent needs, while simultaneously preparing essential information needed towards the management plans:n

To assess wildlife movements and seasonal migration in the lower Nam Theun, in particular the Nam Theun Corridor, and identifying critical factors affecting them. assess wildlife movements and seasonal migration patterns in the lower Nam Theun, focusing on the Nam Theun Corridor;

Hence, working closely with the staff of Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA to:n

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Background, objectives, and terms of reference as per contract between MIH and IUCN. This is with reference to the Environmental and Social Management Plan for Nakai - Nam Theun, and earlier field activities in the project area. 9

NTSEP Year 2000 Activities: Wildlife Movement Study & Staff Training n

train the NBCA staff to conduct similar studies, and establish regular monitoring of critical factors; and recommend management guidelines for the lower Nam Theun, in particular the Nam Theun Corridor.

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1.3

TERMS OF REFERENCE

The terms of reference for the wildlife biologist consultant require that the consultant carry out the following tasks: 1. Training on biophysical assessment and environmental monitoring: n Design and plan a training program for the NBCA and other relevant personnel on biophysical assessment and environmental monitoring;n

Conduct and evaluate the training.

2. Conduct a wildlife field study: n Assess wildlife movements and seasonal migration patterns in the lower Nam Theun, in particular the Nam Theun Corridor;n

Study critical factors a ffecting these movements and seasonal migration patterns such as habitat loss, water availability, poaching, etc.

3. Establish a wildlife monitoring system in the study area: n Assist the NBCA staff to establish a system for regular monitoring of critical factors in the study area. 4. Analysis and management planning: n Analyze the habitats, wildlife movements, and critical factors and recommend management guidelines for the lower Nam Theun, in particular Nam Theun Corridor;n

Provide a summary report upon completion of these activities.

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STUDY AREA

This study focused on the corridor linking the 3,532 km Nakai - Nam Theun3 NBCA with the 1,500 km Phou Hin Poun NBCA, located in the lower Nam Theun between 1746N and 1810N, and between 10447E and 1057E (fig. 1.1). Earlier proposals gave the area of the Nam Theun Corridor as 640 km (Berkmuller et al., 1995), and as 668 km (IUCN, 1998), However, its subsequent revision that included part of a proposed extension recommended by this study (section 5.3.7), it now covers an area of 738.6 km (fig. 1.2). Part of this corridor (365.5 km) is located within the Bolikhamxay Province, and the remainder (373.1 km) is located within the Khammouane Province. Albeit yet to be gazetted, the Nam Theun Corridor was declared an extension to the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA in June 2000, and plans are underway to post signboards demarcating its boundaries. The Nam Theun Corridor, the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and the proposed extensions to the NBCA form a contiguous area conventionally referred to as the Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area. Much of the Nam Theun Corridor forms part of the Nakai Plateau (1,300 km), and has an altitudinal range from 500 to 600 m amsl. This plateau lies in the catchment area of the Nam Theun and its tributaries. This plateau forms a synclinical basin between Sayphou Loung to the north and Sayphou Ak in the south (IUCN, 1997b). The Nam Theun Corridor lies within the Annam Sub-Unit 5B of the South Indochina and Annam biogeographic unit (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Berkmuller et al., (1995) described the vegetation of the Nam Theun Corridor primarily comprising a mosaic of evergreen forest mostly in the hills (60%), followed by pine forest in the flatter areas (14%),3

The latest revised boundary demarcation as of August 29, 2000 gave this figure as the area covered by the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA. 10


and deciduous forest in some areas. Much of this vegetation has changed since then, as a direct result of logging activities. Nevertheless, there still remains some fragmented stands of evergreen, pine, bamboo, and riverine forest, and open grasslands/rocky flats. There are only three settlements located within the Nam Theun Corridor (fig. 1.2): Ban Thalang (50 households; predominantly Lao Loum), Ban Sopnian4 (53 households; predominantly Meuy5 ethnic group) and Ban Namnian (18 households; predominantly Meuy ethnic group). However, some residents from these three villages are found practicing swidden agriculture scattered along parts of the lower Nam Theun and its tributaries. A seasonal road, Route 8B, runs through the Nam Theun Corridor. Hence, the Nam Theun Corridor can be accessed through the towns of Lak Sao in the north, and Nakai in the south. This route is usually inaccessible to motored vehicles during the wet season due to the soft muddy condition of the road, landslides, bridges being washed away by swollen tributaries of the Nam Theun, and floods.

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Previously known as Ban Sophia, i.e., before settling to its current location. A distinctive ethnic group of the Tai linguistic family. 11


Figure 1.1 Location of Nam Theun Corridor

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Figure 1.2 The Nam Theun Corridor

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Plate 1.1: Habitats of the Nam Theun Corridor I

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Plate 1.2: Habitats of the Nam Theun Corridor II

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Plate 1.3: Access to the Study Area I

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Plate 1.4: Access to the Study Area II

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2.2.1

TRAININGINTRODUCTION

The long-term goals of any protected area can only be realized through an effective management plan, which incorporates the management of its wildlife, habitat, and the people who uses it. Surveys, patrols, monitoring and law enforcement are some of the more important field-based management activities that must be carried out by the protected area staff to ensure the conservation, protection, and sustainability of the natural resources within that protected area. Thus, as part of the long-term objective to strengthen the management of Nakai Nam Theun NBCA, it is important to impart training in field conservation techniques to the NBCA staff and other relevant personnel. Training and capacity building of protected area staff are recognized as two important primary steps towards protected area management - needed for proper implementation of its management plans and activities. For every protected area, it is essential to obtain information on:n n n n

the presence, distribution and abundance of the fauna and flora present; the habitat types and key wildlife habitats found; the threats to the wildlife and habitats; the statuses of people living in and adjacent to it, how they use it, and their impacts on wildlife and the habitats.

This information will then assist the protected area managers/staff to effectively plan and/or develop:n n n

a program for biodiversity resource monitoring; a program for protected area patrolling; effective and practicable zones for the protected area;

Hence, training and capacity building of protected area staff in gathering, interpreting, and using this information are important steps and contributions towards making wise management decisions in the conservation and protection of natural resources. Bearing this in mind, six trainees were trained in basic skills needed to accomplish the said objectives. The trainees comprised: 1. Mr. Somlor Vonglampanh (Khammouane PAFO Forestry Technician) 2. Mr. Phaymany Phimmasan (Khammouane PAFO Forestry Technician) 3. Mr. Bounthanh Suvannahong (Khammouane PAFO Forestry Technician) 4. Sgt. Phongsavath Lon Chundala (Nakai District Police) 5. 2nd. Lt. Teh-Noy Maekhruawan (Nakai District Military) 6. Mr. Chanthala Nyannasai (Volunteer & Field Assistant) Training was carried out over a period of five months, both in the classroom, and while onthe-job - carrying out actual surveys and patrols for wildlife presence and human activities. Both theory and on-the-job training were designed to provide the most basic of field techniques; easily understood and easy to implement, yet essential for protected area management. Furthermore, these techniques require a minimal of monetary input. Topics and instructions were adapted to satisfy the individual trainees aptitude, and to suit the needs of the NBCA and objectives of the project. With this training, it is expected that the staff will be able to organize and plan field trips, orient themselves in the field, indicate important locations/evidence on a map, record significant data, and provide a legible and comprehensible summary report for every field trip.

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Training was conducted in the Lao language, and primarily focused on developing the trainees skills in:n n

map reading, compass and GPS use, and orienteering; conducting field surveys for wildlife and key wildlife habitats, including village-based interviews; observing, recording and assessing impacts on wildlife and habitats; mapping trails and recording locations of wildlife, and evidence of human impacts; compiling, analyzing, and presenting the information gathered.

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2.2

TRAINING & CAPACITY-BUILDING

The activities related to training and capacity building of the NBCA staff and relevant personnel can be divided into three major phases:n n n

HQ-based theory training; On-the-job training; Training in data compilation, analysis, interpretation, and presentation.

2.2.1 HQ-based Theory TrainingTheory training was carried out at the NBCA headquarters in Muang Nakai for a week, and began with an introduction to the basics of conservation and protected areas. Topics that followed included the use of maps and compass, surveys for wildlife and impacts, camping and field equipment, note-taking and recording techniques, and report writing (table 2.1). In summary, the training was designed to assist the patrolling and monitoring staff in planning their field trips efficiently, to make accurate observations and record these accurately, and to clearly report their findings in a simple but detailed format. The theory training topics comprise the following: Basics of Conservation These included brief lectures and discussions on the concept of protected areas and protected area management, conservation of natural resources, conservation biology, and wildlife ecology and behavior. This was to give the trainees a better understanding the objectives of the protected area and their responsibilities, and the need of reliable and relevant information towards effectively managing species and habitats. This topic also served to generate interest and provided some insight to the necessity and purpose of acquiring the basic skills in field techniques. In addition, a fundamental understanding of wildlife ecology and behavior was to assist them in recording observations in the field properly. Map, Compass and GPS This was followed by lessons in the use of topographic maps and compasses. Lessons in map reading included detailed understanding of the maps description, details, directions, distances, and designations. Lessons in compass use were mainly on taking accurate bearings and determining back-bearings, followed by the use of compass together with maps. Trainees were also given indoor and outdoor exercises and assignments to improve their map and compass skills. Basic use of GPS was also explained. Note-taking and Recording Techniques Lessons in making observations and recording evidence in the field, including identifying tracks and other wildlife signs were then imparted to the trainees. Detailed note taking was emphasized throughout the training. Trainees were given instructions in sketching of19


unidentified wildlife species, tracks, etc., and measuring or estimating their sizes in the case of wildlife species sighting. This was to assist them in species identification. All wildlife species and human activities observed were to be recorded onto data sheets (annexes 2.1 2.4). These data recording sheets or their adaptations are currently in use at Dong Hua Sao, Phou Xiang Thong, Phou Xang He and Nam Poui NBCAs (Boonratana, 1998a & b; 1999b). There was also an emphasis on the collection of specimens whenever opportunity arose (annex 2.5). This included collection of scats for later analysis, hair samples, skulls from dead animals and making plaster casts of tracks (annex 2.6). Specimens collected would serve as important references, and as displays to impart conservation education and public awareness. Wildlife Surveys and Observations Only a single method of wildlife survey was introduced. This method primarily emphasized on diurnal surveys along existing trails. It yields information on species presence through actual sighting and indirect evidence (tracks, scats, etc.). Using existing trails have been observed to be effective in covering large areas in tropical rainforests (Boonratana, 1997a). The chances of encountering an animal or its signs are higher when patrols are carried out along existing animal trails. The method is practical - simple to understand and carry out, and less timeconsuming than others. More importantly, it is one method that staff is not reluctant to carry out (as opposed to night surveys). To improve the quality of data collected during wildlife surveys, trainees were taught how to identify species and their signs, and cross-refer them to field guides to mammal and bird identification and mammal track identification. Mammal identifications were referred to Lekagul & McNeely (1977), and bird identifications were referred to Lekagul & Round (1991) and King et al., (1991). Track identification was referred to van Strien (1983) and Suwannakerd (1998). Although most trainees could not read in English, they nevertheless found the illustrations useful. Ethics of fieldwork were also discussed (annex 2.7). Camping and Field Equipment Individual responsibilities, preparation and location of campsites (annex 2.8), essential field equipment (annex 2.9) and suggested food items for the field were discussed. Without proper planning and adequate preparation, much field time can be wasted. Equipment care and maintenance were discussed in detail. Experiences have shown that there is little regard amongst protected area staff in Lao PDR for equipment and vehicle care and maintenance. Reporting The process and format of reporting were explained. The report comprised a one to two page(s) written summary highlighting significant finds, a summarized table of wildlife recorded, a summarized table of impacts observed, map/maps for locations of key wildlife, wildlife habitats, significant impacts, and routes traveled, and the data recording sheets (annex 2.10). Four other protected areas in Lao PDR are currently using this format (Boonratana, 1998a & b; 1999b). Monitoring The concept and purpose of monitoring was explained. Repeated surveys and patrols for an area were emphasized to the trainees. Once initial data is collected, there should be a program of continuous collection of data to see changes, if any, in terms of wildlife presence and relative abundance, habitat changes, and human activity. This comprised steps and methods to summarize and evaluate information that primarily include key species, impacts, and effort. Discussions were made on what constitutes the base line information, then on how to detect changes or trends, followed by the interpretation and use of the monitoring results. Monitoring is an important component for making management decisions. A

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discussion was also held on the criteria to assist the trainees in identifying key species for monitoring purposes.

2.2.2 On-the-Job TrainingFive on-the-job field trips were carried out from June to October 2000. Field training primarily focused on developing the staffs capacity and capability in:n n n

field surveys for wildlife and key wildlife habitats; observing and assessing human impacts on wildlife and habitats; mapping trails and recording locations of key wildlife, and evidence of human/habitat impacts; note-taking, recording and reporting information correctly; patrolling; field craft.

n n n

Following the field trips, the trainees were required to prepare a trip report immediately after every field trip. Activities carried out in relation to the on-the-job training comprised: Logistics Preparations and Allocation of Responsibilities Participants were divided into two teams of three participants to each team. Team membership changed on every field trip, to promote cooperation between agencies and individuals, with emphasis on teamwork. Care was taken to ascertain that teams were of similar, if not equal, strengths. Pre- and post-survey briefings were held before and after the field trips. Responsibilities were issued and objectives were clarified during the pre-survey briefing. Supply coordinators were responsible for purchasing, preparing, and maintaining food and equipment. Team leaders were responsible for the teams and team members equipment, and planning survey routes, submission of trip reports. Daily Trip Preparations Survey routes were pre-determined from 1:25,000 topographic maps and verbal information (through village-based interviews), and focussed on existing logging tracks and wildlife trails. Routes normally took the shape of irregular loops, originating and terminating at campsites. On a rotational basis, one to two team member(s) stayed back at camp and was/were given the tasks of maintaining the camp, preparing food, gathering firewood, etc. Observations and Recording Wildlife presence was recorded based on sightings and other evidence (tracks, scats, vocalizations, etc.). No trapping was carried out. Surveys were carried out on foot, mainly along existing trails and logging tracks Team members would simultaneously search for evidence of wildlife and impact. Speed of travel when carrying out surveys was maintained between 40 to 60 minutes for every kilometer, with regular pauses of at least a minute, to observe the general surroundings. This was to avoid missing cryptic animals or animal signs. Thus, at least between ten to twelve kilometers per day was covered on each route by each team. Surveys usually began between 0700h to 0730h and teams returned to camp between 1630h to 1800h. The type of evidence was recorded, along with date, time, species, and location. Evidence such as tracks and scats were aged, described, sketched and measured. Locations of key wildlife evidence and habitats, and impacts were determined using maps and compass, and where feasible, a GPS unit was used. Data gathered on wildlife and impacts were then transferred onto data recording sheets (annexes 2.1-2.4).

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Daily Debriefing Debriefing was carried out nightly after meals. This served to review the days findings and plan surveys for the next day. Teams would report the results of surveys, highlighting their main findings. Team members would alternate on a daily basis in reporting their findings, to encourage participation by all. Comments and suggestions were offered to improve their field performance and skills. Discussions were also held on issues raised by the trainees and by the instructor, hence encouraging analytical thinking. Trip Report At the end of every field trip, each team was given three days to submit their trip reports. Constant guidance and corrections were made before the reports were accepted. The reports comprised brief notes describing the trip, significant finds, obstacles, etc. The trip reports are also accompanied by a table summarizing the wildlife recorded, a table summarizing the impacts recorded, a map showing the routes taken and location of significant finds (annex 2.10). A senior member of the NBCA staff was also required to submit a copy of every trip report to the head of the Khammouane Provincial Forestry Section6 (PFS), on the completion of the report. This practice has never before been carried out by the protected area staff of Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and many other protected areas in Lao PDR.

2.2.3 Training in Data Compilation, Analysis, Interpretation and PresentationThis phase forms the final part of the training and capacity-building component of the project, and was important in allowing the trainees to synthesize the training they received and the data they collected. Thus, this phase allowed the trainees to observe and appreciate the outcome of their work, thereby allowing them to fully understand the processes and efforts needed in making plausible conservation management recommendations. The steps involved in this phase of the training included:n

Compilation of all wildlife recorded during the field trips into a single table composed of the species list against the areas where they were recorded, plus the evidence(s) observed; Compilation of all impacts on wildlife and habitats recorded during the field trips into a table composed of hunting and non-hunting activities against the areas where they were observed; Preparing a table summarizing the frequency of records of the various hunting and non-hunting activities by the areas surveyed; Compilation o nto 1:25,000 and 1:100,000 topographic maps, all the survey routes taken during the field trips; Compilation onto 1:25,000 and 1:100,000 topographic maps, locations of sightings and other evidences of key wildlife species; Analyzing and interpreting the compilation of information and maps; A report7 describing the various activities undertaken by the trainees during the project, significant finds and observations, strengths and weaknesses, and a list of recommendations based on their assessment.

n

n

n

n

n n

2.3

OBSERVATIONS AND ASSESSMENT

Skills in field techniques, knowledge concerning protected areas and conservation of natural resources varied considerably among the trainees. This was a reflection of their background6 7

At the provincial level, NBCAs are responsible to the PFS. This report (not for circulation) has now been submitted to the head of the Khammouane PFS. 22


and qualification, and their interest and attitude. During the HQ-based theory training session, the trainees initially did not participate in the discussions and were reluctant to ask questions. This changed when the trainees became familiar with one another and with the instructor. More interest was observed on the field trips, when trainees started applying skills acquired during the first training phase. In the field, most trainees worked together quite well, showing good cooperation and division of labor. Briefings carried out every night in the field improved their performance. Having the instructor with the different teams on a rotational basis served to reinforce their training. In addition, it allowed doubts and questions that usually arose during the surveys to be immediately resolved. Furthermore, several field techniques such as detecting and correctly identifying and/or measuring wildlife signs, and orienteering could only be clarified under field conditions. Initially, most trainees had several fears of camping out in the forest. With time and exposure, most overcame some of those fears. Findings made during the on-the-job training are presented in sections 3 and 4. Individual assessment of each trainee is presented in table 2.2. All trainees, but one, made tremendous achievements when compared to the initial state. The one trainee that did not make any progress was primarily due to his lack of interest and commitment. Negligible improvements were made in spite of major efforts by the instructor and other trainees. Two non-NBCA staff trainees made remarkable progress and achievements throughout the training. This was mainly attributed to their interest in the subject matter and in acquiring new skills and their commitment to projects objectives. General observations and assessment made during the three training and capacity-building phases can briefly be described as follows: Basics of Conservation Initially, almost all trainees did not truly understand the objectives and concepts of protected areas, protected area management and conservation o natural resources. All, however, f knew that conservation was future generations as often aired by the media, but never understanding what that phrase actually meant. Unfortunately, this lack of understanding is prevalent amongst the relevant government agencies throughout the country. Hence, basics of conservation were emphasized throughout the training exercise, beginning with discussions at the start of the training and regularly discussing them during daily debriefings in the field; thereby reinforcing their understanding based on actual field experience. Understanding gradually improved with time, and by the end of the training, most trainees fairly understood the basic concept of protected area and conservation of natural resources. Thus, are much clearer with the tasks and responsibilities that lay ahead of them. In general, trainees were not entirely clear about wildlife ecology, but found it much easier to comprehend wildlife behavior. Map and Compass Similarly, map and compass ability were initially almost non-existent. Not all aspects of map and compass use were, however, covered. Only skills needed for them to perform their tasks well were imparted. In the first training phase, lessons in map and compass were continued until the trainees were ready to move on to different topics. The better trainees were placed besides the weaker ones to provide more practice for the former and provide better attention to the latter. Thus, simultaneously encouraging teamwork. By the end of the HQ-based training, most trainees were fairly skilled in the use of map and compass, and were able to distinguish vegetation types and drainage features. However, distinguishing landform features was still limited, hence a major handicap in selecting the best routes of travel and survey routes. Under field conditions, skills at the use of map and compass were limited to only a few trainees.

23


Wildlife and Wildlife Signs Most trainees could identify key wildlife genus, if not species, but were unable to distinguish similar-looking mammals and birds. Track and scat identifications were still limited only to major taxonomic groups. Wildlife identification based on direct and indirect observations did, however, improve with time. The non-NBCA staff were generally better at detecting and identifying wildlife and wildlife signs. Note-taking and Data Recording Initially, none were adept at correctly recording information, making observations on wildlife and human impacts, analyzing data and writing reports. Skills at wildlife observation and correct recording of information could only be achieved under constant guidance, by having the instructor accompanying the survey teams daily. Daily debriefings further reinforce their recording skills. Most became fairly adept at observing wildlife and its signs with time. Use of field guides for identification purposes was weak in most. Note taking, sketching and measuring specimens improved with time, although sometimes lacking in important details. Report Write-up To familiarize the trainees a give them the much-needed practice in data compilation, nd analysis, and interpretation, each team had to prepare a trip report for every field trip carried out. Guidance was offered and several corrections were made before the reports were finally accepted. The quality of the reports progressed with each field trip. The major weaknesses observed were in data analyzing and interpretation. As observed during the final training phase, that even under guidance, the trainees had difficulty in making inferences and correlation from the compiled data. Equipment Care Care and maintenance of equipment was generally weak among the trainees, particularly the NBCA staff. Trainees would need to be repeatedly instructed to care and maintain the equipment issued. Damp or wet binoculars, tents, and sleeping bags were usually kept in their cases until the next field trip.

2.4

DISCUSSION

Prolonged and repeated on-the-job field training is possibly the only way to equip protected area and relevant personnel with the basic skills and experience required to implement field management activities (Boonratana, 1997b; 1998a, b & c; 1999a & b). An important feature of all training programs, be it in field techniques, extension work or participatory conservation, must be followed up with on-the-job training, actually carrying out activities. It is only in this manner that one can hope to build the capacity of the protected area staff. Observations made during this training exercise and earlier ones (Boonratana, 1997b; 1998a, b; & c; 1999a & b) showed that training and capacity building of protected area staff can only be achieved through intensive long-term on-the-job training. Such training and capacity building are likely to be significantly more effective when provided systematically over a period of several years within each protected area, rather than delivered in a centralized one-off training event, which may not be adequately absorbed or acted on. However, given the short duration of this project, it now depends on the head of the NBCA to provide the necessary leadership and motivation. Likewise, it is equally important that the trainees translate the skills acquired into meaningful activities, carrying forward the processes initiated during this project. Past experiences have shown that interest is the greatest motivation for learning and fulfilling ascribed responsibilities. Reasons for failure in achieving the desired results in capacity building of protected area staff is primarily due to the lack of interest in fieldwork. This in turn

24


is partly because of the hardship involved and because it is unrewarding8. In addition, staff change frequently, hence the PA is frequently staffed with inexperienced and unqualified individuals, a feature frequently seen in other protected areas (Boonratana, 1998a). Much of this is most likely because protection, conservation, and sustainable management of natural resources do not rank high in the list of GoLs priorities for the country. Thus, it is not an uncommon practice for the staff lacking in capacity and capability (including those not favored by their superiors), to be assigned to protected areas. There must be a change of attitude, to safeguard and to arrest the rapid decline of Lao PDRs rich biodiversity. Otherwise plans to establish Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area as an international class conservation area will merely remain an unrealized vision, even with sufficient funds.

8

NBCA staff from both the patrolling/monitoring and extension units receive equal per diems, in spite the former having to camp outdoors, hike several kilometers a day (frequently in bad weather), consume limited and low quality foods, and risk life and limbs to achieve the objectives. Furthermore, there is usually a preference for the Forestry staff to be assigned duties related to timber extraction, where additional benefits are assured. 25


Table 2.1 Topics of HQ-based Theory TrainingMAJOR TOPICS Conservation Basics SKILLS/SUB-TOPICS - protected areas & protected area management; - conservation of natural resources; - conservation biology; - wildlife ecology & animal behavior. - types and purposes of maps; - topographic maps; - information from maps: description, details, directions, distances & designations; - description: map no., edition & location; - details: colors, man-made, vegetation, landform & drainage features; - directions: bearings & location determination; - distances: map scale, linear & non-linear distances; - areas: grid & dots - designations: names & significance; - contours: relief representation & landform; - best routes of travel & feasible camp locations; - types & purposes of compasses; - magnetic declination; - taking compass bearings & determining back-bearings; - using compass with topographic maps; - altimeter & GPS use; - assignments & exercises. - note-taking, sketches & measurements; - wildlife & human activity data recording sheets; - hunter/villager interviews; - photography; - specimen collection: plaster-casting, scat, skull & skin collection, specimen record book; - assignments & exercises. - presence/absence; - survey routes; - identifying species & using field guides; - indirect evidence: tracks & scat (sketch & measure), vocalization, scrapes, etc.; - speed of travel & precautionary measures. - ideal locations & set-up; - field equipment list & significance; - equipment care & maintenance; - pre-survey preparations. - tabulation of human activities & wildlife data; - maps for routes traveled, important sightings: wildlife, human activities, mineral licks, etc. - highlights of significant finds. - purpose & methods; - focus on key species and habitats; - analysis & interpretation of results.

Map, Compass & GPS

Recording Techniques

Wildlife Observation

Camping & Field Equipment

Data compilation & Report-writing

Monitoring

26


Table 2.2 Assessment of Trainees PerformanceCategories: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Map & Compass (theory) Map & Compass (field) Wildlife & Impact Surveys Wildlife Observations & Identification Note-taking & Data Recording Use of Field Guides Data Analysis & Report-writing Assessment: Trainees/Skills 1 2 Somlor A A Vonglampanh Phaymany B+ B Phimmasan Bounthanh D D Suvannahong Phongsavath C C+ Chundala Teh-Noy A B+ Maekhruawan Chanthala A A+ Nyannasai GPA: Grade Point Average Grade & Points: A+ A B+ B 4 3.5 3 2.5 Excellent Very Good Good Average C+ C D 2 1.5 1 Fair Weak Poor 3 A B+ C B+ A A 4 B B+ D B+ B+ B+ 5 A B+ D B+ A A 6 B B D B B B+ 7 A B+ C B B+ A 8 B+ B+ D B+ B+ A 9 A B+ D B+ A A+ 10 A+ A D A A A 11 A+ A D A A A+ 12 B+ B+ C+ B B+ A GPA 3.33 3.00 1.17 2.75 3.21 3.54 8. Field Craft & Ethics 9. Interest & Attitude 10. Teamwork & Leadership 11. Commitment & Diligence 12. Written test (map & compass, landform, track identification, wildlife identification)

27


Annex 2.1 Wildlife Data Recording FormatPersonnel:............................................................................................. Location:..................................................................... Date:....... Time Start:............ Time End:........................... Distance Covered:.....................km Evidence: 5.Nests 1.Sighting (including live, dead, trophies or 6.Scrapes/Claw Marks captive animals) 7.Feeding Signs 2.Tracks 8.Other (e.g., wallows, bathing pools, mud 3.Vocalization smears, and antler/horn marks 4.Scat/Dung 9.Reliable Report Time Species Location Evidence Remarks

28


Annex 2.2 Wildlife Data Recording Format (in Lao)

29


Annex 2.3 Wildlife/Habitat Impact Data Recording FormatPersonnel:.......................................................................................... Location:............................................................ Date:............. Time Start:........Time End:........................ Distance Covered:.............................km A: Hunting Activities B: Non-Hunting Activities 1. Traps/Snares 5. Camps 1. Forest clearance 5. Livestock grazing 2. Guns/Crossbows 6. Wildlife (live/dead 2. Timber-cutting 6. House construction 3. Fishing gear 7. Other 3. Huts 7. Other 4. Hunting dogs 4. NTFP9 collection Time Activity Location Active/Inactive Remarks

9NTFP = Non-timber forest product

30


Annex 2.4 Wildlife/Habitat Impact Data Recording Format (in Lao)

31


Annex 2.5 Sample Specimen Recording FormatNo.: specimen number as entered into the record book Date: date of collection Specimen: specimen type (hair, skin, bones, casts, traps, etc.), and species if known. Location: location where specimen was collected Personnel: names of personnel who made the collection Remarks: to include relevant information associated with the specimen (age, sex, habitat, amount, etc.) No. 1 2 3 4 5 Date Specimen Location Personnel Remarks

32


Annex 2.6 Procedures for Making Plaster Casts of TracksEquipment needed: Plaster of Paris Bowl or mug Stirrer (any thin stick or bamboo measuring about 20 cm long) Water Old newspapers Procedure: Clear track of fallen leaves, twigs, or stones. Repair track, if necessary, by slowly pressing index finger to the loose soil in and around the track. Place four sticks around the track, to neatly contain the plaster. Sticks should measure at least 1 cm in diameter, to maintain a cast thick enough that it wont easily break. Add water to a bowl containing some Plaster of Paris, while simultaneously stirring the mixture. The mixture should be of correct viscosity. Note: if the mixture is too thick, it will harden too quickly and not enter the crevices, therefore losing much of the details; if the mixture is too thin, it will take too long to harden. Slowly pour the mixture along the stirrer into the track, starting with the deeper recesses first. Pour the mixture until it overflows the track. (Make more plaster of Paris mixture if insufficient). Scratch a code onto the plaster cast before it finally hardens. Once harden, wrap the cast in several layers of newspaper to prevent it from breaking during transportation back to the field station. At the field station, clean the soil off the cast by using a toothbrush. Once cleaned, the track-cast should be lacquered, labeled and recorded into the specimen record book maintained at the field station

33


Annex 2.7 Ethics of Field Surveys and PatrolsThe following ethics are strongly recommended when conducting surveys and patrols: A patrolling/monitoring team should comprise not more than three persons per survey route. Fewer persons mean less noise produced. Cigarette smoking should be totally avoided when conducting survey patrols, and be allowed only at camps. In dense primary forest, the smell of cigarette smoke can linger for up to three days, and be detected up to a radius of 500 meters. Team members should maintain a distance of at least three meters from each other, and travel at a speed of an hour to a kilometer (or at least not less than 40 minutes to a kilometer). Frequent pauses of at least a minute should be made every 25-30 m to observe the general surroundings for cryptic animals and/or wildlife signs. Clothing and daypack should be dull-colored and inconspicuous. Radios at camp should be just audible to the immediate listener and not too loud as to scare away animals or drown wildlife vocalizations that could otherwise be heard. Establish camps at least 800 m away from key wildlife habitats such as mineral licks, lakes, etc. Do not disturb active nests (birds, for example do not return to disturbed nests) Do not unnecessarily handle or corner wildlife. Traumatized and cornered animals can easily die of shock or attack the source of threat.

34


Annex 2.8: Locations and Preparation of CampsAn ideal campsite should have the following criteria: Campsites should be approximately centrally located within the study area, to allow adequate coverage of the area. Campsites should be in a relatively flat area and close to a water source, to allow a comfortable and convenient campsite. Campsites should be checked for dead standing trees before setting up camps, to prevent injury/injuries, if the tree/trees should fall. Campsites should not be less than 800 m from key wildlife habitats (for example, mineral licks, water pools, etc.), to avoid disturbing the animals. Preparations and maintenance of campsites: Campsites should preferably be established by 1630 h, to prevent chaos once it gets dark or at the worst, when it rains. Hence, campsites should be reached by 1500 h to allow adequate time for establishing campsites. The distance and the terrain from the point of hike to the proposed campsite should be considered when planning the time at the start of the hike. [Note: speed of travel with a full backpack along forest trails ranges from 2-3 km/hr.] On arrival at campsites, team members should first prepare the kitchen. These include having two fireplaces (to speed up cooking, therefore preventing loss of field time), a rack for storage of edibles, and a tarpaulin over the kitchen area to ensure the kitchen and supplies remain dry in case of sudden rains. Water for drinking should immediately be boiled. Pit toilets should be prepared, and some soil should be thrown into the pit after every visitation. Toilets should be closed and buried at the end of the trip. Rubbish at camps should be burnt and buried, and campsites should be thoroughly checked for any leftover litter before campsites are abandoned.

35


Annex 2.9: List of Field EquipmentFor each Participant: Backpack & daypack Sleeping bag or light blanket Tent or mosquito net & tarpaulin (5 x 5 m) Binoculars Compass Global Positioning System unit* Altimeter* 35 mm autofocus camera* & ASA 200 films Watch Flashlight (with spare batteries & bulbs) Machete Notebooks (1 pocket size for the field & 1 regular size for camp) Ball-point pens & pencils Measuring tape (2-3 m) Dull-colored field clothes, cap, & jacket/vest Light canvas shoes with studded soles & slippers Insect repellent & leech socks Water canteen Lighters Whistle (for emergencies) Mug, spoon & bowl Personal medication Personal toiletries For each Survey Team: Global Positioning System* Walkie-talkies* Altimeter* Camera (35 mm with ASA 200 films)* Flare-gun & flares* (for emergencies) First-aid kit Topographic maps & photocopies of proposed survey areas Data recording sheets Cooking pots, rice baskets, etc. Sharpening stone Plastic string (2 rolls) Plastic pails (for soaking glutinous rice and storing boiled drinking water) Candles (approximately two 20 cm candles per night) Plastic bags (various sizes) & rubber bands Small spade Tarpaulins (5 x 5 m) - shelter for food and essential equipment

* if available

Note: all items except those in italics should be issued by the protected area

36


Annex 2.10 Sample Trip Report of a Sub-team

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Plate 2.1: Training Activities I

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Plate 2.2: Training Activities II

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Plate 2.3: Training Activities III

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3.3.1

WILDLIFE AND IMPACT SURVEYSINTRODUCTION

Although previous surveys have provided some information on the fauna and flora in the Nam Theun Corridor (WCS, 1996 & 1997), a general wildlife survey based on direct observations and indirect evidence was nevertheless carried out. This was carried out in conjunction with a training program in the Nam Theun Corridor to provide hands-on experience and on-the-job training to the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA staff and other relevant personnel (section 2), and in conjunction with a study on wildlife movements/seasonal migration (section 4). Surveys were not limited only to wildlife, but included recording signs and evidence of human activities in the Nam Theun Corridor. The latter information was used to assess the impacts of human on wildlife and habitats in the Nam Theun Corridor, hence identifying threats to the long-term viability of the area and its denizens. Survey methodology follows that as described in section 2.2.2. Wildlife surveys focused mainly on mammals and birds. Information on reptiles and amphibians were opportunistically gathered. No trapping was carried out. Information on human activities in the area was recorded simultaneously while carrying out wildlife surveys.

3.2

RESULTS

Including replicated routes, both intensive and extensive surveys for wildlife and impacts covered a total distance of approximately 1,350 km. Of this total distance, approximately 705 km was covered while conducting foot surveys, 420 km while conducting boat surveys, and 225 km using a slow-moving terrestrial vehicle. This total distance was achieved in approximately 350 man-days or in approximately 3,150 man-hours.

3.2.1 WildlifeWith the exception of a few species, the wildlife density in the Nam Theun Corridor is generally low. Wildlife recorded in and around the Nam Theun Corridor during this component of the project listed 52 mammals and 85 birds (table 3.1). Of these, 22 species are recognized as globally threatened. It must be emphasized that this list is far from exhaustive. There are more species present in the area than recorded as the team:n n n

did not carry out any form of trapping or collection; did not focus on bats; did not focus on small mammals (except opportunistically recording the more common ones); recorded the presence of birds, reptiles, and amphibians opportunistically; primarily focused on the projects main objectives.

n n

Table 3.2 gives the localities where various wildlife species were recorded. Apparently, most wildlife records were from the Thalang/Poung Phai/Poung Ta-ee and the Nam Gnalong areas. Significant Finds Observations on species of conservation significance (figure 3.1) and significant observations of some common species are briefly described:n

Macaques: Four species of macaques, comprising rhesus macaque, Assamese macaque, pig-tailed macaque, and bear macaque are found the study area. The species commonly sighted is the rhesus macaque, usually along the Nam Theun and its major tributaries, with most encounters in the middle reaches of Nam Xot.48


Assamese macaques were sighted only once, in the lower Nam Xot. Captive pig-tailed macaques were observed at Ban Bocho and in the Nakai township. Captive rhesus macaques were observed in Ban Sopnian and Ban Namnian, and a captive bear macaque was observed in Thakhek town.n

Douc langur: Only one group of douc langur was observed throughout the survey, and this was at Keng Non, close to the proposed Nam Theun II hydropower site. Reports suggest that this species are found in the hilly areas to the east and west of the proposed hydropower site. Francoiss langur: Albeit none was encountered during surveys, yet there were consistent reports of this species occurring along the Sayphou Ak. White/yellow-cheeked crested gibbon: Gibbons were heard at two locations, one in the Nam Gnalong area and one in the Nam Xot area (within the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA). The species could not be confirmed from the vocalizations. Dhole: Albeit not occurring at high densities, the dhole is probably the main top predator in the areas surveyed. Several signs mainly in the form of tracks and scats were observed in Nam Xot, the middle reaches of Nam Gnalong, Nam Gnala, and around the mineral licks Poung Phai and Poung Ta-ee. Several signs observed in the rocky flats and in other areas could not be confirmed as that belonging to the dhole. This was because there were several human and domestic dog signs in the same areas. Scats when analyzed revealed that their diet during this study primarily comprised rodent species, and occasionally muntjac. Bears: Both the Asiatic black bear and the sun bear occur in the area. This was confirmed from fresh tracks observed. Fresh tracks of the Asiatic black bear was observed in the Nam Gnala area, and that of the sun bear observed in the middle reaches of Nam Gnalong. Indistinguishable bear scat, feeding signs and claw marks, both old and recent were observed at several places, with a major concentration in the Kouangten area. Clouded leopard: One set of fresh prints was observed in an ecotone (pine forest and evergreen forest) close to a rocky flat (Thong Heen Kon), almost halfway between Poung Phai and Nam Gnalong. Tiger: Two sets of fresh tiger tracks were observed on an abandoned logging track between Ban Thalang and Poung Phai. The two sets, although of slightly different measurements, probably belong to the same tiger, as they were made on the same day but on different substrates. Elephant: The most distinguishable species recorded in the area, as their signs are the most apparent and not easily obliterated. Details of the Asian elephant are given in section 4. Eurasian wild pig: Albeit not a threatened species (by IUCN threatened species categorization), the wild pig is an important prey base to most large predators (including humans), therefore a species of conservation significance. This species is widely distributed but not occurring at high densities. A significant observation made during this study was the widespread presence of pigs' breeding nests in many areas, particularly in Kouangten and Nam Gnalong, in late July and early August, implying a breeding season for the species. Sambar: Similarly as above, this species is not designated a threatened category, but because of its rarity (most likely as a result of human persecution), this species deserve special consideration. Signs of sambar were mainly observed in the Kouangten area. Muntjacs: Two muntjac species are confirmed from the area, the common muntjac and the large-antlered muntjac. The common muntjac, although widespread, does not exist at high densities. The distribution of the large-antlered muntjac appears to be49

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n


more localized, with concentrations in areas close to the mineral licks, Poung Phai, and Poung Ta-ee. Trophies of both species can be seen in some homes. Villagers reported finding two freshly killed large-antlered muntjacs (by dholes). One at Poung Phai on June 28, and the other at Poung Ta-ee on June 29.n

Gaur: Evidences of gaur, otherwise rare, were observed at five locations. Close to Ban Thalang where a lone bull was seen by some villagers close to the Nam Theun on June 22. Also at Poung Phai, Nam Gnalong and Nam Xot. At one location near Nam Gnalong and at Nam Xot, tracks showed the presence of at least an adult and a young gaur, possibly a mother-juvenile pair. On June 19, villagers reported seeing two gaurs at Poung Ta-ee. Southern serow: No evidence was observed, but there were consistent reports of this species occurring in parts of the Sayphou Ak. Hornbills: Four hornbill species were recorded in the area, the great hornbill, wreathed hornbill, brown hornbill, and pied hornbill. The great hornbill and wreathed hornbill might not be resident to the area, as they were seen coming and returning in the direction of the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA. Captive brown hornbills were observed at Ban Nakai Tai and Ban Sopnian. Indochinese water dragon: This species was commonly observed along the Nam Theun between the rivermouth of Nam Xot to Ban Sopphaen, and along the Nam Xot. Snakes: The two commonly observed snake species in the study area was the green cat snake and the checkered keelback. The green cat snake was commonly observed coiled on bamboo overhanging the river, particularly along the Nam Theun, between Ban Thalang and Nam Gnalong. Checkered keelback was usually observed along the logging tracks. Caecilian: A caecilian of indeterminate species was observed along the road close to Ban Bocho (on the road from Muang Nakai). Although this area was outside the study area, this taxonomic group nevertheless deserved mention, as it is rarely reported.

n

n

n

n

n

3.2.2 ImpactsAll the impacts on wildlife and habitat observed in the Nam Theun Corridor during this study are human-induced. They can broadly be categorized into hunting and non-hunting activities, although most of these activities overlapped one another and are interlinked. Impacts observed in the area are significantly high. Table 3.3 shows the frequency of impact records by area. This can be summarized as below:n

the Keng Kung Gnai/Nam Gnala area rates the highest in terms of overall impact, followed by Tham On/Nam Xot area, Thalang/Poung Phai/Poung Ta-ee area, and Nam Gnalong/Huai Chike area; hunting activities follow the same order as above; snaring is high in the Keng Kung Gnai/Nam Gnala and Kouangten area; gunshots were heard most often in Thalang/Poung Phai/Poung Ta-ee area, followed by Nam Gnalong/Huai Chike area, and Keng Kung Gnai/Nam Gnala area; non-hunting activities, primarily forest clearance for swidden agriculture was observed in the middle reaches of Nam Gnala; livestock grazing was highest around Thalang/Poung Phai/Poung Ta-ee.

n n n

n

n

Significant Finds Observations made on the direct and indirect impacts on wildlife and habitats through hunting and non-hunting activities include:

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NTSEP Year 2000 Activities: Wildlife Movement Study & Staff Training n

Snares: Two main types of snares were observed in the Nam Theun Corridor. The more common one using nylon strings are meant for small terrestrial mammals and birds. These snarelines usually range from 400 to 500 m long, and each snare is placed a meter apart along a fence that comprised branches and sapling. The use of these snares is widespread throughout the area, and is effective in reducing the prey base population. The other snare type observed was the use of cables, ranging from motorcycle brake wires to truck winches. These cable snares were observed at two localities, on both sides of the Nam Theun in the Kouangten area. These cable snares are effective for large mammals that include bear, tiger, sambar, muntjac, and gaur. These cable snares are placed in a similar manner as the nylon snares, although the fence is more than a meter high, and comprise branches, saplings, and small trees. One of these cable snarelines apparently coincided with an area that showed the highest density of bear and sambar signs. Another newly fenced area, very likely for the use with cable snares was observed in the Nam Gnala area. The fencing here resemble an enclosure and covered an area almost a square kilometer. Snares when encountered were removed10. Guns: Gunshots from modern firearms (CKC, AKA, & K44) and muzzle-loading guns were frequently heard throughout the study, although the frequency of gunshots from modern firearms was much higher. Most modern firearms are government-issued, primarily to the army and the village militia, although it was reported that there are some hunters from Khamkeut District in Bolikhamxay Province frequently seen similarly using these modern firearms. It was reported that some members of the army and the village militia often lend their firearms to relatives and friends for hunting purposes. It was also reported that bullets can be purchased without much difficulty for USD 0.06 a bullet. Most disturbing was the frequency of gunshots heard in the forest close to the NBCAs headquarters. These shots were fired by members of the District Military. Some of the hunted animals are sold at the Nakai District market (e.g., wild pig, muntjac, and civet). On August 20, some army personnel from Ban Bocho were observed with a freshly shot rhesus macaque close to Poung Phai. In the fourth week of September, several gunshots by army personnel (from Ban Bocho) were heard in the Poung Phai and Poung Ta-ee area11. Hunting Parties: There are frequent reports of hunting parties (with modern and muzzle-loading guns, and hunting dogs) traversing the Nam Theun Corridor into the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA, carrying out hunting in both the corridor and the NBCA. These hunting parties are mainly from Khamkeut District. On July 27, three men with hunting dogs were observed in the Nam Xot area of the NBCA. There were apparently collecting palm fronds to make temporary shelters. Their objective was to collect NTFPs that may include wildlife (through snaring). On July 30, in the Nam Xot area of the corridor, a party of six to seven men with muzzle-loading guns and hunting dogs immediately ran away upon encounter with a survey sub-team. Apparently, this route serves as the main access into the NBCA. On August 12, a sub-team encountered three armed men and a boy in the Kouangten area. No other information could be obtained as the sub-team feared the hunting party. On August 18, three armed men in military uniforms were observed travelling up the Nam Gnalong. Elephant: Bones of elephants were observed at two sites. Although the cause of death could not be determined, it was nevertheless reported the elephants may have been killed for their ivory. Resident villagers and other informants reported that there have been several incidences of elephant poaching in the past. They further reported that some of these poachers are professional hunters from within the region, and some were from across the border, while the others are opportunistic hunters involved in

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This was done only when the consultant happened to encounter the snares (and other trapping devices), otherwise the trainees felt that it was not in their interest to remove the snares for fear of repercussions. Similarly, trainees dare not record particulars when encountering poachers in the forest. 11 They were later requested to refrain from hunting in the area, which they complied, at least during the presence of the wildlife team. 51


logging activities. WCS (1997), based on the information they gathered, suggested that at least 30 elephants from the Nakai Plateau have been killed by poachers since early 1990s.n

Mineral licks: Three important mineral licks, Poung Phai, Poung Ta-ee, and Poung Mak Pat, in the Ban Thalang area are severely disturbed by the permanent presence of green pigeon catchers (from Ban Thalang, Ban Nakai Tai and Ban Nakai Nua). The licks are covered with branches to prevent the pigeons from landing at any other spot other than where a trap (spring-net) is. Evidence shows regular use of licks by elephants, ungulates and occasionally by top predators. These mineral licks are also regularly used by domestic buffaloes. Hence, activities related to the trapping of green pigeons severely interrupt the ecological needs of wildlife, in particular herbivores. In addition, contagious diseases from domestic buffaloes could easily spread to wildlife with disastrous effects. Wildlife trade: Wildlife traders, primarily from Lak Sao township (Bolikhamxay Province) regularly and frequently visit Ban Sopnian, Ban Namnian, Ban Thalang and other villages in the Nabon-Nathon area (in Phou Hin Poun NBCA), and other settlements along the road from Ban Thalang to Muang Nakai township to purchase wildlife and wildlife parts. Wildlife purchased was resold to other middlemen in Vietnam. The main species sought by the traders is the pangolin, usually bought from the villagers at USD 25/kg). Wildlife observed sold at the fresh market of Muang Nakai included live green pigeons (USD 0.63/bird), muntjac (USD 2.25/kg), wild pig (USD 1.88/kg), and a masked palm civet (USD 3.75/animal). Domestic trade in wildlife (for consumption) is common during the dry season with the onset of logging and related activities. Captive wildlife: Captive animals observed at Ban Sopnian included two full-grown east Asian porcupine, an infant rhesus macaque (bought at USD 0.63), three infant common palm civet, a Bengal monitor, an Indochinese box turtle and a brown hornbill, and a few commoner squirrels and birds. A brown hornbill and a crested serpent eagle were observed at Ban Nakai Tai. There was also a juvenile rhesus macaque at Ban Namnian, and a juvenile pig-tailed macaque at Ban Bocho. Fishing and NTFP collection: Old, recent and active camps and campsites were observed throughout the study area, being mainly located along the Nam Theun and Nam Xot. Although the primary objective is to fish, NTFPs (primarily rattan) were nevertheless harvested and wildlife poached. The fishing methods observed during the study comprised baited hooks and nets. However, there are consistent reports of some resident villagers and outsiders using explosives to fish in the area. Forest clearance: Some new clearances for agricultural purposes were observed along the Nam Theun close to Nam Poungphai and Nam Gnala, and along the Nam Gnala. Tree-felling: There are a few forms of tree felling in the area. Commercial logging and its related impacts were observed in all areas surveyed. In several areas, timber extraction was observed to be above the inundation area. There still exist several logs awaiting to be transported out when access is feasible during the dry season (beginning in November). Signs of timber extraction by resident villagers for local use was occasionally observed. Non-timber species were often felled to harvest their fruits, or rattan (twined to the tees), or wildlife nesting in those trees. Livestock: Cattle, particularly buffaloes range freely throughout the area, and regularly use the mineral licks. These have serious implications on the wildlife population, which include competition for resources, the spread of diseases to wildlife, and the escalation of human-wildlife conflicts through wildlife predation on cattle. Related to this is a large fenced enclosure built by Ban Bocho residents, in an open grassland between Poung Phai and Poung Ta-ee, and covering an area about 80 ha, whose objective is to capture their semi-feral free-ranging buffaloes. This large enclosure52

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has direct impacts on the movement of terrestrial wildlife, and on the habitat (tree felling for fence construction). In addition, these buffalo gatherers partake in snaring and hunting activities.

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Table 3.1 List of Wildlife Recorded in the Nam Theun Corridor12Evidence: 1. Sighting (including live, dead, captive animals or trophies ) 2. Tracks 3. Vocalization 4. Scat/Dung 5. Nests Mammals: Common Name Chinese pangolin Sunda pangolin Northern treeshrew Slow loris Pygmy/Intermediate loris Pig-tailed macaque Assamese macaque Rhesus macaque Bear macaque Douc langur White/Yellow-cheeked crested gibbon Dhole Bear spp. Asiatic black bear Sun bear Back-striped weasel Yellow-throated marten Hog badger Large-toothed ferret badger Otter spp. Smooth-coated otter(?) Oriental small-clawed otter Large Indian civet Small Indian civet Common palm civet Binturong12

6. Scrapes/Claw Marks 7. Feeding Signs 8. Other (e.g. wallows, bathing pools, mud smears, and antler/horn marks 9. Reliable Report

Scientific Name Manis pentadactyla Manis javanica Tupaia belangeri Nycticebus coucang Nycticebus pygmaeus/intermedius Macaca nemestrina Macaca assamensis Macaca mulatta Macaca arctoides Pygathrix nemaeus Hylobates leucogenys/gabriellae Cuon alpinus Ursus thibetanus Ursus malayanus Mustela strigidorsa Martes flavigula Arctonyx collaris Melogale personata

Lao Loum Name Lin khoay(?) Lin nguoa(?) Kachon Ling lom Ling lom Ling kang Ling Ling daeng/ling nam Kha-dum Kha daeng Thanee Ma nai Maeauy Mi Ma nai mai Mou lung Lung tong Nak Nak teen pet Nak teen ma Haen hang kaan Haen Haen om/Haen teen tam Haen hang khaw/khawt

Evidence 9 9 1 9 9 1,9 1,9 1,2,9 1,9 3,9 2,3,4,9 6,7 2,9 2,9 9 2,9 8,9 4 2,9 2,9 2,9 1,2,9 1,9 9

IUCN NT NT

CITES II II II II/II II II II II I I II I I

V/? V V NT V E DD V V DD V

Lutrogale perspicillata Aonyx cinerea Viverra zibetha Viverricula indica Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Arctictis binturong

V NT

II II

Taxonomic names of wildlife (unless indicated otherwise) and order of listing follow that used in Duckworth et al., (1999) for ease of comparison. 54


Small Asian mongoose Crab-eating mongoose Leopard cat Fishing cat(?) Asian golden cat Clouded leopard Leopard Tiger Elephant Eurasian wild pig Lesser oriental chevrotain Sambar Muntjac sp. Red muntjac Large-antlered muntjac Gaur Southern serow Black giant squirrel Pallas squirrel(?) Inornate squirrel Cambodian striped squirrel Red-cheeked squirrel Berdmores squirrel Large flying squirrel sp. Phayres flying squirrel East Asian porcupine Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine Siamese hare Hoary bamboo rat Birds:

Herpestes javanicus Herpestes urva

khaw/khawt Chon-phon Chon-phon

1,9 1,9 2,9 NT NT V E II I I I I I I

Prionailurus bengalensis Seua nok/Seua meo Prionailurus viverrinus Catopuma temminckii Pardofelis nebulosa Seua takout/kalout Panthera pardus Seua dao Panthera tigris Seua/Seua ngai/Seua krong Elephas maximus Xang Sus scrofa Tragulus javanicus Cervus unicolor Muntiacus muntjak Megamuntiacus vuquangensis Bos gaurus Naemorhedus sumatrensis Ratufa bicolor Callosciurus erythraeus Callosciurus inornatus Tamiops rodolphii Dremomys rufigenis Menetes berdmorei Petaurista sp. Hylopetes phayrei Hystrix brachyura Atherurus macrourus Lepus peguensis Rhizomys pruinosus Mou paa Kaai/Faan kaai Kouang Faan/Faan thamada Faan dong Meauy Nyearng pha Khadang Kahok Kahok Kalaen Kanai Ketae Baang loua Baang tong Min Hon Katai On

2,9 9 2,9

1,2,3,4,7, E 8,9 1,2,4,5,7, 8,9 1

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NTSEP Year 2000 Activities: Wildlife Movement Study & Staff Training