• Fold Mountains: the Himalayas, Andes, Alps, etc.

• Block Mountain/Fault Mountain: The Great African Rift Valley (valley floor is graben), The Rhine Valley (graben),

and the Vosges mountain (horst) in Europe.

• Volcanic Mountain: Mount Fuji

• Residual Mountains: Sierras in Spain and Mesas in USA.

The Western Ghats are locally known by different names such as Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in

Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills and Cardamom hills in Kerala. Their average elevation is

about 1,500 m with the height increasing from north to south.

Key Highlights of Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) for July 2018 to June 2019:

o India’s unemployment rate fell to 5.8% during 2018-19 from 6.1% during the same period of 2017-18.

✓ The urban unemployment rate reduced to 7.7% from 7.8%.

✓ The rural unemployment reduced to 5% from 5.3%.

o The labour force participation rate rose to 37.5% during 2018-19 from 36.9% of 2017-18.

✓ The female participation rate also improved going up to 18.6% in 2018-19 from 17.5% the year before.

o The worker population ratio also increased, to 35.3% as against 34.7% in 2017-18.

• Igneous rocks are classified based on texture. The texture depends upon the size and arrangement of grains or other

physical conditions of the materials. If molten material is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large.

Sudden cooling (at the surface) results in small and smooth grains. Intermediate conditions of cooling would result in

intermediate sizes of grains making up igneous rocks.

• Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia, and tuff are some of the examples of igneous rocks.

• Metamorphic Rocks: They are formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallization. Gneissoid, granite, syenite,

slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc. are some examples of metamorphic rocks.

Western Disturbances are shallow cyclonic depressions (weak temperate cyclones) originating over the eastern

Mediterranean Sea and travelling eastwards across West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan before they reach the

northwestern parts of India.

o They are steered in India by Westerly Jet Streams

o On their way, moisture content gets augmented from the Caspian Sea in the north and the Persian Gulf in the south.

o Although the amount of rainfall caused by them is meagre, it is highly beneficial for rabi crops.

o It sustains the flow of water in the Himalayan rivers during the summer months.

o increase in prevailing night temperature generally indicates an advance in the arrival of these cyclonic disturbances.

• Any limestone or dolomitic region showing typical landforms produced by the action of groundwater is called Karst

topography after the typical topography developed in limestone rocks of Karst region in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic

sea.

• Erosional landforms:

o Swallow holes: also known as Sinkholes are funnel-shaped shallow depressions formed on the surface of limestones

through solution.

o Doline: refers to the collapse sinks

o Uvalas: When sinkholes and dolines join together because of slumping of materials along their margins or due to roof

collapse of caves, long, narrow to wide trenches called valley sinks or Uvalas form.

o lapies: are the ridges formed due to differential solution activity along parallel to sub-parallel joints. The lapie field may

eventually turn into somewhat smooth limestone pavements.

• Depositional landforms:

o Stalactites: They hang as icicles from the roofs and are of different diameters. Normally they are broad at their bases and

taper towards the free ends.

o Stalagmite: They rise up from the floor of the caves. In fact, stalagmites form due to dripping water from the surface or

through the thin pipe, of the stalactite, immediately below it.

o Pillars: stalagmite and stalactites eventually fuse to give rise to columns and pillars of different diameters.

• ‘Anaimudi’ (2,695 m), the highest peak of Peninsular plateau is located on the Anaimalai Hills of the Western Ghats

followed by Dodabetta (2,637 m) on the Nilgiri hills.

• Peninsular Block of India: The northern boundary of the Peninsular Block may be taken as an irregular line running

from Kachchh along the western flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi and then roughly parallel to the Yamuna and

the Ganga as far as the Rajmahal Hills and the Ganga delta.

• Apart from these, the Karbi Anglong and the Meghalaya Plateau in the northeast and Rajasthan in the west are

also extensions of this block.

• The northeastern parts are separated by the Malda fault in West Bengal from the Chotanagpur plateau. The

Malda fault broadly separates the Meghalayan Plateau from the peninsular plateau.

o Basin area of Indus touches 4 countries (China, India, Afghanistan, Pakistan). Basin area is distributed between

Pakistan (47%), India (39%), China (8%) and Afghanistan (6%). The Kabul River, the classical Cophes, is a 700 km

long river that emerges in Maidan Wardak Province in the Sanglakh Range of the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan

and is separated from the watershed of the Helmand River by the Unai Pass. The Kabul River empties into the Indus

River near Attock, Pakistan.

• An eclipse season is one of only two periods during each year when eclipses can occur, due to the variation in the

orbital inclination of the Moon. Each season lasts about 35 days and repeats just short of six months later, thus two full

eclipse seasons always occur each year. In most calendar years there are two lunar eclipses; in some years one or

three or none occur. Solar eclipses occur two to five times a year, five being exceptional; there last were five in

1935, and there will not be five again until 2206.

• If the Earth had a perfectly circular orbit centered around the Sun, and the Moon's orbit was also perfectly circular and

centered around the Earth, and both orbits were coplanar (on the same plane) with each other, then two eclipses would

happen every lunar month (29.53 days). A lunar eclipse would occur at every full moon, a solar eclipse every new

moon, and all solar eclipses would be the same type.

• Pokkali is a unique rice variety in the coastal areas of Alappuzha, Ernakulam and Thrissur districts. The salt water

resistant variety grows tall, flourishes under flood-like conditions and grows entirely on leftovers from half-a-year of fish

culture in fields.

• Porteresia is a form of wild rice that grows in saline estuaries in Bangladesh and India and is harvested and eaten as

a delicacy. The plant is salt-tolerant, and is seen as a possibly important source of salt tolerance genes for transfer to other

rice species. Damodar is also a salt-tolerant variety of rice.

• Green Revolution rice was IR-8. It was developed based on experience in developing the Norin variety of Japan and

Ponlai variety of Taiwan. IR- 8 was short, stiff strawed, and highly responsive to the fertilizers.

The entire group of islands is broadly divided by the Eleventh-degree channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to

the south of the Cannanore Island.

• These are scattered between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -74°E longitude.

• The entire island group is built of coral deposits.

• The entire group of islands is broadly divided by the 110 channel, north of which is the Amini Island, and to the south

of the Cannanore Island.

• The Islands of this archipelago have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles, and

boulders on the eastern seaboard.

• The maritime boundary between the Maldives and India (Lakshadweep) runs through the 80 channel, locally known

as Addigiri Kandu.

• Saddle Peak is located on North Andaman Island in India's Andaman and the Nicobar Islands.

• Narcondam is a small volcanic island located in the Andaman Sea. They are supposed to be dormant volcanoes.

• Raja Parba of Odisha

• Thrissur Pooram is an annual Hindu festival held

in Kerala.

• Ambubachi Mela marks the annual menstruation

of the presiding Goddess in the Kamakhya Temple,

Guwahati

Venus is one of just two planets that rotate from east

to west. Only Venus and Uranus have this

"backwards" rotation. It completes one rotation in

243 Earth days — the longest day of any planet in

our solar system, even longer than a whole year on

Venus. Uranus orbits the sun quite unusually, being

the only planet whose equator is nearly at a right

angle to its orbit, with a tilt of 97.77 degrees.

Because of this, it rotates in the opposite direction

than most planets, from East to West.

Recently FSSAI released the State Food Safety

Index in which Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and

Maharashtra have topped. It is an index that ranks

states ensuring food safety in 2019-20. The index

ranks states on five parameters of food safety:

human resources and institutional data,

compliance, food testing facility, training and

capacity building besides consumer

empowerment.

Equatorial Region: There are also small palm

trees and climbing plants like Lianas or Rattans,

which are epiphytic (A plant that grows on another

plant and depends on it for support but not food).

• Antecedent or Inconsequent Drainage: The Rivers that existed before the upheaval of the Himalayas and cut

their courses southward by making gorges in the mountains are known as the antecedent rivers. The Indus,

Satluj, Ganga, Sarju (Kali), Arun (a tributary of Kosi), Tista and Brahmaputra are some of the important antecedent

rivers, originating from beyond the Greater Himalayas.

• Consequent Rivers: The Rivers which follow the general direction of slope are known as the consequent

rivers. Most of the rivers of peninsular India are consequent rivers. For example, rivers like Godavari, Krishna and

Kaveri, descending from the Western Ghats and flowing into the Bay of Bengal, are some of the consequent rivers of

Peninsular India.

• Subsequent Rivers: A tributary stream that is eroded along an underlying belt of non-resistant rock after the

main drainage pattern (Consequent River) has been established is known as a subsequent river. Due to the

northward slope of the Peninsula towards the Great Plains, the rivers originating from the Vindhyan and the Satpura

ranges flow northward into the Ganga system. The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and Son meet the Yamuna and

the Ganga at right angles.

• Superimposed, Epigenetic (Discordant) or Superinduced Drainage: It is formed when a stream with a course

originally established on a cover of rock now removed by erosion, so that the stream or drainage system is

independent of the newly exposed rocks and structures. The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas

and the rivers flowing at the Rewa Plateau present some good examples of superimposed drainage.

o West coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes are bordered by cool waters. Their average

temperatures are relatively low with a narrow diurnal and annual ranges. There is fog, but generally, the areas are

arid.

o West coasts of the continents in the middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm waters which cause a

distinct marine climate. They are characterized by cool summers and relatively mild winters with a narrow

annual range of temperatures.

o Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes. This results in

warm and rainy climates.

The Biennial Environmental Performance Index Report has been developed by Yale and Columbia University in

collaboration with World Economic Forum and the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission.

• PM Street Vendor’s Atma Nirbhar Nidhi (PM SVANidhi) is a special micro-credit facility for street vendors

launched recently by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. It is a Central Sector Scheme to facilitate street

vendors to access affordable working capital loan for resuming their livelihoods activities, after easing of lockdown.

• Objectives of the Scheme:

o To facilitate working capital loan up to Rs. 10,000 at subsidized rate of interest;

o To incentivize regular repayment of loan; and

o To reward digital transactions.

• Salient Features of the scheme:

o Interest subsidy on timely/ early repayment @ 7%

o Monthly cash-back incentive on digital transactions

o Higher loan eligibility on timely repayment of the first loan.

o It covers street vendors/ hawkers vending in urban areas, as on or before March 24, 2020, including the vendors of

surrounding peri-urban and rural areas.

• Lending institutions that will provide credit under it: Scheduled Commercial Banks, Regional Rural

Banks, Small Finance Banks, Cooperative Banks, Non-Banking Financial Companies, Micro-Finance

Institutions and SHG Banks.

• The Scheme shall be implemented up to March, 2022.

• No collateral security is required to avail this loan.

➢ Mizoram is known as the land of rolling mountains as it has a huge number of mountains, the formation of

most mountains is accompanied by the formation of foreland basin or in simple terms valley type depression

which runs parallel to mountains. These depression get accumulated with unconsolidated deposits known as

molasses basin.

• Drumlins are depositional landforms of

glaciation. These are smooth oval-shaped ridge-

like features composed mainly of glacial till with

some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes

of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice

movement. One end of the drumlins facing the

glacier called the stoss end is blunter and

steeper than the other end called the tail. The

stoss end gets blunted due to pushing by moving

ice. Drumlins give an indication of the

direction of the glacier movement.

• Serrated ridges are erosional landforms

formed by glacial action.

• Moraines are long ridges of deposits of glacial

till. Unlike drumlins, they do not indicate the

direction of glacial movement.

• Eskers are a long, winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel and very coarse materials like boulders and blocks.

• River Vamsadhara is an east-flowing river between Rushikulya and Godavari, in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.

• It is the main river of north-eastern Andhra region and the Boddepalli Rajagopala Rao Project was constructed on it

to meet the irrigation needs of the region.

• The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into three categories.

o Urban forestry pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and privately owned lands in and around urban

centres such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues, industrial and commercial green belts, etc.

o Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and community-forestry.

✓ Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of the waste patches.

✓ Community forestry involves the raising of trees on public or community land such as the village pasture and temple land,

roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and schools, etc. It aims at providing benefits to the community as a whole.

Farm forestry means process under which farmers grow trees for commercial and non-commercial purposes on their farmlands.

• Atlantic ocean currents include the below-given currents:

o North Equatorial Current (warm)

o Equatorial Counter Current

o Gulf Stream (warm)

o Florida Current (Warm)

o Canary Current (Cold)

o Labrador Current (Cold)

o Brazilian Current (Warm)

o Falkland Current (Cold)

o South Atlantic Drift (Cold)

o Benguela Current (Cold)

• Pacific Ocean Currents are mentioned below:

o North Equatorial Current (Warm)

o South Equatorial Current (Warm)

o Counter Equatorial Current (Warm)

o Kuroshio System (Warm)

o North Pacific Drift (Warm)

o Oyashio Current (Cold)

o California Current (Cold)

o Peruvian or Humboldt Current (Cold)

o East Australia Current (Warm)

o Alaska current (warm)

• The Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve is located in the Satpura Range of Madhya Pradesh. The Satpura range forms

the watershed between the river Narmada to the north and river Tapi to the south. UNESCO designated it a

biosphere reserve in 2009. It includes three wildlife conservation units: Bori Sanctuary, Pachmarhi Sanctuary and

Satpura National Park.

o Lakes Formed by Earth Movement: Tectonic lakes, Rift valley lakes

o Lakes Formed by Glaciation: Cirque lakes or tarns, Rock-hollow lakes, Kettle lakes, Lakes due to morainic damming

of valleys

o Lakes Formed by Volcanic Activity: Crater and caldera lakes

o Lakes Formed by Erosion: Karst lakes and wind deflated lakes

o Lakes Formed by Deposition

o Manmade lakes

• A rift valley is formed when two blocks of earth move apart letting the ‘in-between’ block slide downwards. Rift valleys

are deep, narrow, and elongated. Hence the lakes formed along rift valleys are also deep, narrow, and very long. E.g.:

Lakes Tanganyika, Malawi • Cirque is a hollow basin cut into a mountain ridge. It has a steep-sided slope on three sides, an open end on one side,

and a flat bottom. When the ice melts, the cirque may develop into a tarn lake.

• A kettle is a depression/hole in an outwash plain formed by retreating glaciers or draining floodwaters. The kettles are

formed as a result of blocks of dead ice left behind by retreating glaciers.

• The Achanakmar- Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve is the most dramatic and ecologically diverse landscape in the

Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh states of India. The area of this Biosphere Reserve is considered to be one of the major

watersheds of peninsular India. It separates the rivers that drain into the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The reserve is

also the source of three major river systems: the Narmada, the Johilla and the Son River. Maikal hill ranges together with

Vindhya and Satpura lie within the Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve. UNESCO designated it a biosphere

reserve in 2012.

• The Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve was Established in 2001 and includes 3,500.36 km² of which 1828 km² is in

Kerala and 1672.36 km² is in Tamil Nadu. Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve became part of World Network of Biosphere

Reserves in 2016. Is also under UNESCO's world list of biosphere reserve.

• Saser Kangri is a mountain in India. It is the highest peak in the Saser Muztagh, the easternmost subrange of the

Karakoram range. Sasir Kangri is located within Ladakh, the northernmost union territory in India.

• Lali Ane: Recently, an organisation representing people of more than 30 villages under two circles of Arunachal

Pradesh’s East Kameng district has opposed a proposed high-altitude firing range of the Indian Air Force (IAF). Lal Ane,

a flat valley spread over 21-km in length and 6.5-km in width in the Lal Ane mountain range. It has alpine meadows and

remains snow-capped from November to March.

o Batholiths: These are dome-shaped granitic bodies formed from the cooled portion of magma chambers. They appear on

the surface only after the denudational processes remove the overlying materials. They cover large areas, and at times,

assume depth that may be several km.

o Dykes: are sheet intrusions that cut across layers, or into an unlayered mass. Dikes usually follow zones of weakness in

the rocks they travel through. Even if they came to lie horizontal, for example by folding, as long as they cut host rock strata

they are still dikes. The rocks in dikes can be both pegmatites (very coarse-grained) and aplites (sugary fine-grained).

Several dikes together can form a dike swarm. – In scientific terms, a dike is a relatively narrow tabular discordant body

which propagates through rock perpendicular to the least principal stress.

o Lapolith: As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a horizontal direction

wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get rested in different forms. In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the

sky body

o Phacolith: A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top of the anticline in the

folded igneous country. Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of magma chambers

(subsequently developed as batholiths).

• Chang Chenmo: Recently, reports have emerged about intrusions and ‘face-offs’ in the Galwan River on the north bank

of Pangong Tso, and possibly at Hot Springs in Chang Chenmo River valley, and at Demchok.

Tropical Marine Climate is experienced along the eastern coast of tropical lands in Central America, West Indies,

north-eastern Australia, eastern Africa, etc. They receive steady rainfall from the Trade Winds all the time. The

rainfall is both orographic where the moist trades meet upland masses as in eastern Brazil, and convectional due to

intense heating during the day and in summer. There is no month without any rainfall.

o Sudan Climate is characterized by the alternate hot, rainy season and cool, dry season. This transitional type of

climate is found between the equatorial forests and the trade wind hot deserts.

o The residual mountains are also called relict mountains.

o Examples of Residual Mountains in India are the Nallamala hills, Mahendragiri hills, the Aravalli hills, the Javadi

hills, the Veliconda hills, and the Palkonda range.

As of 2018, Brazil produced 746 Mt that account for 39.20% of the world's sugar cane production. The top 5

countries (others are India, China, Thailand, and Pakistan) account for 73.70% of it. Maharashtra and UP are largest

producers of sugarcane in India. • The crop yield is low in Northern India than in Southern India. Uttar Pradesh's

yield is low, but in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu the yield is high.

• Patagonian desert, also known as the Patagonian Steppe is the largest desert in Argentina. It is located primarily

in Argentina and is bounded by the Andes, to its west, and the Atlantic Ocean to its east, in the region of Patagonia,

southern Argentina. To the north the desert grades into the Cuyo Region and the Pampas. The central parts of the steppe

are dominated by shrubby and herbaceous plant species albeit to the west, where precipitation is higher, bushes are

replaced by grasses. Topographically the deserts consist of alternating tablelands and massifs dissected by river valleys

and canyons. The more western parts of the steppe host lakes of glacial origin and grades into barren mountains or cold

temperate forests along valleys.

• Mojave desert is an arid rain-shadow desert and the driest desert in North America. It is in the Southwestern

United States, primarily within southeastern California and southern Nevada. It extends from the Sierra Nevada

range to the Colorado Plateau and merges with the Great Basin to the north and the Sonoran Desert to the south.

• Gibson desert is the arid zone in the interior of Western Australia. Hence, pair 3 is not correctly matched. The

desert lies south of the Tropic of Capricorn between the Great Sandy Desert (north), the Great Victoria Desert

(south). It is known for its undulating red dunes, desert pavement, and sandy plains and the desert grass Triodia. It is

a fire-prone landscape.

• The sedimentary basins of the country have been classified into four categories as below:

o Category-I: Basins with established commercial production. Cambay, Mumbai Offshore, Rajasthan, Krishna Godavari,

Cauvery, Assam Shelf and Assam-Arakan Fold Belt

o Category-II: Basins with known accumulation of hydrocarbons but no. commercial production achieved so far. Kutch,

Mahanadi-NEC (North East Coast) Basin,Andaman-Nicobar, Kerala-Konkan- Lakshadweep Basin.

o Red-Collar Worker: The employees at the primary level are called Red-Collar Worker. Because they have to work in

the sun and with water all the time outside the house. For example, farmer or farming staff.

o Blue-Collar Worker: The workers employed in the secondary level are called blue-collar workers. For example, workers

engaged in factories or industries.

o Black-Collar Worker: The workers of coal and mining oil extraction are called Black-Collar Worker. In some cases, it is

used to associate black marketing activities.

o Pink-Collar Worker: Employees employed in tertiary activities are called Pink-Collar Worker. Example: Nurses,

Secretaries, Elementary School Teacher etc.

o White-Collar Worker: A white-collar worker is a person who performs professional, desk, managerial, or administrative

work. White-collar work may be performed in an office or other administrative setting. Some examples include: corporate

executives, advertising and public relation professionals, architects, stockbrokers, doctors, dentists and dietitians.

o Yellow-Collar Worker: People who are involved in creative work, who also do works of creating blue-collar and white-

collar work outside the chardeal, are called 'Yellow-Collar Worker'.E.g. photographers, filmmakers, directors, editors etc.

o Green-Collar Worker: Natural elements (solar, water, air, etc.) are the 'Green-Collar Worker' workers employed in the

economic field. E.g-Solar panels, workers working in Greenpeace, World wide fund for nature

o Orange-Collar Worker: They have been named after working for orange jump suits after the orange clothes dressed by

the residents of the Prison Labors.

o Gray-Collar Worker: Retired workers. That is, those who are re-employed after any work from their work are called

'Gray-Collar Worker'. E.g.- fire fighters, police officers, health-care professional, security guards etc.

o Category-III: Basins having hydrocarbon shows that are considered geologically prospective. Himalayan Foreland

Basin, Ganga Basin, Vindhyan basin, Saurashtra Basin,Kerela Konkan Basin, Bengal Basin.

o Category-IV: Basins having uncertain potential which may be prospective by analogy with similar basins in the world.

Karewa basin, Spiti-Zanskar basin, Satpura–South Rewa–Damodar basin, Chhattisgarh Basin, Narmada basin, Deccan

Syneclise, Bhima-Kaladgi, Bastar Basin, Pranhita Godavari basin, Cuddapah basin.

• In DSR, water is replaced by real chemical herbicides.

• Advantages of DSR:

o saving irrigation water o Saves labour, energy, time, o Reduces emission of greenhouse-gases, etc.

• Disadvantage of DSR:

o high weed infestation, o evolution of weedy rice, o increase in soil borne pathogens (nematodes), o nutrient

disorders, o exposure to birds and rats incidence, o rice blast, brown leaf spot etc.

o Pulses occupy about 11% of the total cropped area in the country.

• The oilseeds are produced for extracting edible oils. The coarse cereals together occupy about 16.5% of the total

cropped area in the country.

o India ranks second in the world in the production of cotton after China. Cotton occupies about 4.7% of the total

cropped area in the country.

o Being concentrated only in a few states, Jute accounts for only 0.5% of the total cropped area in the country.

• The 12 Snow Leopard Range Countries according to GSLEP are:

o India o Mongolia o Russia o China o Bhutan o Afghanistan o Kazakhstan o Kyrgystan o Nepal o Pakistan

o Tajikistan o Uzbekistan

o Myanmar is the leading producer of teak in the world. Indonesia and Malasiya for Palm Oil. India- Jute.

o The Rhine Waterways: The Rhine river flows through Netherlands and Germany and is navigable for 700 km from

Rotterdam, in the Netherlands to Basel in Switzerland. It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland, Germany,

France, Belgium, and the Netherlands with the North Atlantic Sea Route.

Minerals are generally concentrated in three broad belts in India. There may be some sporadic occurrences here and

there in isolated pockets. These belts are:

• The North-Eastern Plateau Region: This belt covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West Bengal, and parts

of Chhattisgarh. It has a variety of minerals viz. iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.

• The South-Western Plateau Region: This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands

and Kerala. This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite. It also contains high-grade iron ore, manganese, and

limestone. This belt lacks in coal deposits except for Neyveli lignite. This belt does not have as diversified mineral

deposits as the north-eastern belt. Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium, bauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.

Anthracite Coal is found in parts of Jammu & Kashmir only.

• The North-Western Region: This belt extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and part of Gujarat and minerals are associated

with the Dharwar system of rocks. Copper, zinc has been major minerals. Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e.

sandstone, granite, marble. Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are also extensive. Gujarat is known for its petroleum

deposits. The Himalayan belt is another mineral belt where copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, and tungsten are known to occur.

• National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency (NRIDA) is an agency under the Ministry of Rural

Development (not a statutory body).

• PMGSY New Technology Guidelines:

o The State Governments are required to propose a minimum of 15% of the total length of annual road proposals

under new technologies such as cement stabilization, Lime stabilization, cold mix, waste plastics, cell filled concrete,

paneled cement concrete pavement, fly ash, etc.

• Out of this, 5% of roads are to be constructed using Indian Road Congress (IRC) accredited technology. The

IRC has now accredited coir Geotextiles for the construction of rural roads. Thus, a 5% length of the rural roads

under PMGSY-III will be constructed using coir geotextiles.

o The Danube Waterway: The Danube river rises in the Black Forest of Germany and flows eastwards through many

countries. It is navigable up to Taurna Severin, Romania.

o The Volga Waterway: It starts in Russia, it provides a navigable waterway of 11,200 km and drains into the Caspian

Sea. The Volga-Moscow canal connects it with the Moscow region and the Volga- Don Canal with the Black Sea.

o There are three varieties of coffee i.e. arabica, robusta and Liberia. India mostly grows superior quality coffee,

arabica, which is in great demand in the international market.

o In the Amazon basin the Indian tribes collect wild rubber, in the Congo basin the Pygmies gather nuts and in

the jungles of Malaysia the Orang Asli make all sorts of cane products and sell them to people in villages/towns.

Global Forest Resource Assessment is released by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). • Total forest area:

o The world’s total forest area is 4.06 billion hectares (bha), which is 31% of the total land area.

o This area is equivalent to 0.52 hectares per person.

• Top countries in forest cover — the Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America and China constituted

more than 54% of the world’s forests.

• Forest loss: According to the report, the world has lost 178 million hectares (mha) of forest since 1990, an area the size of Libya.

• Decline in rate of forest loss:

o The rate of net forest loss decreased substantially during the period of 1990–2020.

o It was 7.8 mha per year in the decade 1990–2000, 5.2 mha per year in 2000–2010 and 4.7 mha per year in 2010–2020.

An invasive mussel native to the South and Central American coasts is spreading quickly in the backwaters of Kerala.

• The rapid spread of the Charru mussel (Mytella strigata) may have been triggered by Cyclone Ockhi which struck the

region in 2017.

• With a population as high as 11,384 per sq metre here, it has replaced the Asian green mussel (Perna Viridis) and the

edible oyster Magallana bilineata (known locally as muringa).

• The Kharif season largely coincides with Southwest Monsoon under which the cultivation of tropical crops, such as

rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra, and tur is possible.

• The Rabi season begins with the onset of winter in October-November and ends in March-April. The low-temperature

conditions during this season facilitate the cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops such as wheat, gram, and

mustard.

• Zaid is a short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of rabi crops. The cultivation of

watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops during this season is done on irrigated lands.

• However, this type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in the southern parts of the country. Here, the

temperature is high enough to grow tropical crops during any period in the year provided the soil moisture is available.

Therefore, in this region same crops can be grown thrice in an agricultural year provided there is sufficient soil moisture.

o This is due to a reduction in deforestation in some countries, plus increases in forest area in others through afforestation and

the natural expansion of forests.

• Areas that witnessed forest loss: Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 mha, followed by

South America, at 2.6 mha.

• Areas that witnessed forest gain:

o Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe.

o However, Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010.

• Types of forest loss: The largest proportion of the world’s forests are tropical (45%), followed by boreal, temperate and sub-

tropical.

o Ports of Call: These are stock replenishment ports where ships anchor for refueling, watering and taking food items.

E.g. Aden, now developed as a commercial port.

o Packet Station: These are concerned with the transportation of passengers and mail across water bodies covering short

distances. E.g. Dover in England.

o Entrepot Ports: These are collection centers where the goods are brought from different countries for export. E.g.

Singapore.

o Annavitran portal enables a migrant worker or his family to avail the benefits of PDS outside their district but

within their state. India has been ranked at the 87th position among 115 countries in the Energy Transition Index (ETI) released by World Economic Forum.

Samadhan challenge :

• The Innovation Cell of the Ministry of Human Resources Development and All India Council for Technical Education

(AICTE) has launched it in collaboration with Forge and InnovatioCuris.

• Under the challenge, the participating students will search and develop measures against Coronavirus.

• The general direction of westerlies is South West to North East in the northern hemisphere and North West to

South East in the Southern Hemisphere.

• Because of the dominance of land in the northern hemisphere, the westerlies become more complex and

complicated and become less effective during summer seasons and more vigorous during the winter season.

o Uniting for Consensus is a movement, nicknamed the Coffee Club, that developed in the 1990s in opposition to

the possible expansion of permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council.

• Depending upon the mode of formation,

sedimentary rocks are classified into 3

major groups:

o mechanically formed - sandstone,

conglomerate, shale, loess etc. are

examples;

o organically formed - geyserite, chalk,

limestone, coal etc. are some examples;

o chemically formed — chert,

limestone, halite, potash etc. are some

examples.

• Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt,

volcanic breccia and tuff are some of the

examples of igneous rocks.

• Gneissoid, syenite, slate, schist, marble,

quartzite etc. are some examples of

metamorphic rocks.

o India has joined the Djibouti Code of Conduct/ Jeddah Amendment, as Observer. It is also known as the Code

of Conduct concerning the Repression of Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in the Western Indian

Ocean and the Gulf of Aden. It was adopted on 29th January 2009. It was established under the International

Maritime Organization (IMO).

o An aquiclude is a geological formation which is impermeable to the flow of water. It contains a large amount

of water in it but it does not permit water through it and also does not yield water.

Prominent mountain ranges of the world

o The Andes (South America) – 7,000 km

o The Rockies (US) – 4,830 km

o The Great Dividing Range (Australia) – 3,500 km

o The Ural Mountains – 2,500 km

o The Atlas Mountains – 2,500 km

o The Appalachian Mountains – 2,414 km

o The Himalayas – 2,400 km

o The Altai Mountains – 2,000 km

o The Western Ghats – 1,600 km

o The Alps – 1,200 km

o The virial mass of the Andromeda Galaxy is of the same order of magnitude as that of the Milky Way.

• Since the lifting of warm air along the warm front of temperate cyclone is slow and gradual, with the result precipitation

occurs in the form of drizzles but continues for longer duration. Thus, the precipitation associated with warm front is

widespread drizzles and of long duration.

• Dogger Bank is a large sandbank in a shallow area of the North Sea (The North Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean

located between Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and France) about 100 km off the

east coast of England.

• Grand Bank of Newfoundland (an island in the Atlantic Ocean) are a series of underwater plateaus south-east of the

island of Newfoundland on the North American continental shelf.

• Telegraph Plateau is a region of the North Atlantic ocean that was supposedly relatively flat and shallow compared to

the rest of the ocean away from shore

• Diamantina Trench is situated in the Indian Ocean.

• Sargasso Sea is a region of the Atlantic Ocean bounded by four currents forming an ocean gyre. Unlike all other

regions called seas, it has no land boundaries.

• The warm and dry winds blowing from north-east and east to west in the eastern parts of the Sahara desert are called

Harmattan. These winds become extremely dry because of their journey over the Sahara desert. The weather becomes

suddenly dry and pleasant at the arrival of Harmattan as the relative humidity of the air is remarkably reduced due to the

high temperature and hyper aridity of Harmattan. This is why it is known as ‘doctor winds’ in the Guinea coastal

area of western Africa.

• Foehn winds are warm and dry, gusty wind that periodically descends the leeward slopes of nearly all mountains and

mountain ranges.

• Sirocco is a Mediterranean wind that comes from the Sahara and can reach hurricane speeds in North Africa and

Southern Europe, especially during the summer season.

• Mistral is one of the local names given to those winds that blow from the Alps over France towards the

Mediterranean Sea.

• It is channeled through the Rhone valley. The velocity of the mistral is intensified by the funneling effect

of the valley between the central Massif and Alps.

• It is very cold and dry at a high speed. It brings blizzards into southern France. It is a harmful wind.

• On the other hand, the precipitation associated with cold fronts is always in the form of thunder showers but is of

short duration.

One might wonder that why we don’t have a lunar eclipse every month as the moon orbits Earth. It’s true that the moon

goes around Earth every month, but it doesn’t always get in Earth’s shadow. Moon’s path around Earth is tilted

compared to Earth’s orbit around the sun. Moon can be behind Earth but still get hit by light from the sun. But if the

Moon's orbit around the Earth is not tilted compared to the Earth's orbit, Lunar eclipse would occur every month.

• The ‘Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Package Insurance Scheme

for Health Workers Fighting COV1D-19’ was announced on 30

March 2020 for a period of 90 days. This was extended for a further

period of 90 days i.e. up to 25th September 2020. The scheme has now

been extended for another 180 days i.e. 6 months.

• This Central Sector Scheme provides an insurance cover of Rs. 50

lakh to healthcare providers, including community health workers,

who may have to be in direct contact and care of COVID-19 patients

and therefore at risk of being infected. It also includes accidental loss of

life on account of contracting COVID-19.

ONGC Videsh has stake in multiple oil and gas projects in several

countries, viz. Azerbaijan (2 projects), Bangladesh (2 Projects), Brazil

(2 projects), Colombia (7 projects), Iran ( 1 project), Iraq ( 1 project),

Israel ( 1 project), Kazakhstan ( 1 project), Libya ( 1 project),

Mozambique (1 Project), Myanmar (6 projects), Russia (3 projects),

Syria (2 projects), UAE ( 1 project), Venezuela (2 projects), and

Vietnam (2 projects). It does not have any project in Australia.

• The term 'basket of eggs' topography refers to Drumlins which is a depositional landform formed by glaciers. They

are forms of rounded hummocks resulting from the deposition of glacial till which looks like an inverted boat or spoon.

• Badland topography is a type of dry terrain where softer sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils have been extensively

eroded by wind and water. They are characterized by steep slopes, minimal vegetation, lack of a substantial regolith,

and high drainage density.

• Some of the other major plateaus of the world are

o Columbia – Snake Plateau (USA) o Colorado Plateau (USA) o Deccan Plateau (India)

o Kimberley Plateau (Australia) o Mexican Plateau (Mexico) o Laurentian Plateau (Canada)

o Bolivian Plateau (or Altiplano Plateau) (Bolivia) o Anatolian Plateau (Turkey)

• Along much of the Ring of Fire, plates overlap at convergent boundaries called subduction zones. That is, the plate

that is underneath is pushed down, or subducted, by the plate above. As rock is subducted, it melts and becomes magma. The abundance of magma so near to Earth’s surface gives rise to conditions ripe for volcanic activity.

• A significant exception is the border between the Pacific and North American Plates. This stretch of the Ring of Fire

is a transform boundary, where plates move sideways past one another. This type of boundary generates a large number

of earthquakes as tension in Earth’s crust builds up and is released.

• Rudrasagar Lake, also known as Twijilikma, is a fresh water lake located in Tripura.

o It has been identified as one of the wetlands of National Importance as well as a Ramsar site • The Tulbul Project is a "navigation lock-cum-control structure" at the mouth of Wular Lake.

• Tso Moriri lake is fed by springs and snow-melt from the adjacent mountains. The lake has no outlet at present

and the water is brackish though not very perceptible to taste. The lake is oligotrophic in nature, and its waters

are alkaline.

• Manganese deposits are found in almost all geological formations, however, it is mainly associated with the

Dharwar system.

• Odisha has the largest reserves of Manganese, whereas MP is the leading manganese ore producing State

accounted for 27% of the total production in 2016-17 and 32% in 2017-18.

• About 90-95% of world production of manganese ore is used in the metallurgy of iron and steel. A high amount

of phosphorous makes the manganese ore unsuitable for its metallurgical use, whereas, high phosphorous

and high iron content makes it unsuitable for the battery industry.

• Kazakhstan produces largest share of uranium from mines (42%), followed by Canada (13%) and Australia (12%).

Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), has been conducted by NGO Pratham since 2005 to provide estimates of children’s schooling status and their ability to read simple text and do basic arithmetic and evaluate the relevance and impact of its programs. Findings are disseminated at national, state, district and village levels, and influence education policies at both state and central levels.

Vernal pools are seasonal depressional wetlands that occur under the Mediterranean climate conditions of the West

Coast and in glaciated areas of northeastern and midwestern states. They are covered by shallow water for variable periods from winter to spring but may be completely dry for most of the summer and fall.

• They are typically small, shallow, ephemeral water bodies, and unlike a pond or a lake, they have no permanent inlet or outlet. They are filled each spring by rain and snowmelt, then dry up for a period of time during the summer. • ‘KAPILA’ is an acronym for Kalam Program for IP (Intellectual Property) Literacy and Awareness. • Under this program, students pursuing education in higher educational institutions will get information about the correct system of application process for patenting their invention and they will be aware of their rights.

• “SERB-POWER (Promoting Opportunities for Women in Exploratory Research)” to ensure equal access

and weighted opportunities for Indian women scientists engaged in research and developmental activities.

o Mechanism of Support: SERB – POWER Scheme will have two components namely (i) SERBPOWER Fellowship (ii)

SERB- POWER Research Grants.

▪ Target: Women researchers in 35-55 years of age. Up-to 25 Fellowships per year and not more than 75 at any point in

time.

▪ Components of support: Fellowship of Rs. 15,000/- per month in addition to regular income; Research grant of Rs. 10

lakh per annum; and Overhead of Rs. 90,000/- per annum.

▪ Duration: Three years, without the possibility of extension. Once in a career.

▪ POWER Grants will empower women researchers by funding them under following two categories:

❖ Level I (Applicants from IITs, IISERs, IISc, NITs, Central Universities, and National Labs of Central

Government Institutions): The scale of funding is up to 60 lakhs for three years.

❖ Level II (Applicants from State Universities / Colleges and Private Academic Institutions): The scale of

funding is up to 30 lakhs for three years.

• Bauxite is typically found in topsoil located in various tropical and subtropical regions. Bauxite is a rock formed from a reddish clay material called laterite soil and is most commonly found in tropical or subtropical regions.

• Bauxite is primarily comprised of aluminium oxide compounds (alumina), silica, iron oxides and titanium dioxide. Approximately

70% of the world’s bauxite production is refined through the Bayer chemical process into alumina. Alumina is then refined into pure aluminium metal through the Hall– Héroult electrolytic process.

Bauxite reserves are estimated to be 55 to 75 billion metric tons, primarily spread across Africa (32%), Oceania

(23%), South America and the Caribbean (21%) and Asia (18%). Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the world. In 2019, Australia produced 100 million metric tons of bauxite. Following Australia was Guinea.

The Big Inch and Little Big Inch, are petroleum pipelines extending from Texas to New Jersey, built

between 1942 and 1944 as emergency war measures in the U.S.

The National Education Policy (NEP) – 2020 provides for critical reforms in the school education. It provides for setting up of National Assessment Centre – PARAKH. It is an independent student learning assessment centre which will provide accurate measurement of learning outcomes.

• Polymetallic nodules are rounded accretions of manganese and iron hydroxides that cover vast areas of the seafloor, but

are most abundant on abyssal plains at water depths of 4000-6500 m. They are formed by slow precipitation of the metallic

components from seawater.

• They are composed of manganese and iron, nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, cadmium, vanadium, titanium, of which

nickel, cobalt and copper are considered to be of economic and strategic importance.

• Polymetallic nodules are first discovered in 19th century in the Kara Sea, in the Arctic Ocean off Siberia, they were found to

occur in most oceans of the world. However, nodules of economic interest are more localized.

• The nodules of greatest commercial interest occur in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone in the equatorial Pacific Ocean (CCZ) and in

the Central Indian Ocean Basin. In the CCZ, polymetallic nodules cover 9 million sq. km with typical concentrations of 15 kg m-2. The

nodules contain nickel, copper, and cobalt as well as traces of other metals such as molybdenum, Rare Earth Elements and lithium,

which are important to high-tech industries. The amount of copper contained in the CCZ nodules is estimated to be about 20%

of that held in global land-based reserves.

• India is the first country to have received the status of a pioneer investor in 1987 and was allocated an exclusive area in Central

Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) by UN for exploration and utilization of nodules. India had signed a 15-year contract for exploration of

Polymetallic Nodules in CIOB with the International Seabed Authority in 2002. In 2016, India got an extension of this contract up to

2022. India is implementing a long–term programme on exploration and utilization of Polymetallic Nodules through the Ministry of

Earth Sciences.

Permaculture can be seen in contrast to intensive agriculture, which eventually leaves land unfit for farming.

o Observe and interact – by taking the time to engage with nature we can design solutions that suit our particular

situation

o Catch and store energy – by developing systems that collect resources when they are abundant, we can use them in

times of need

o Obtain a yield – ensure that you are getting truly useful rewards as part of the working you are doing

o Apply self-regulation and accept feedback – we need to discourage inappropriate activity to ensure that systems

can continue to function well

o Use and value renewable resources and services – make the best use of nature’s abundance to reduce our

consumptive behavior and dependence on non-renewable resources

o Produce no waste – by valuing and making use of all the resources that are available to us, nothing goes to waste

o Integrate rather than segregate – by putting the right things in the right place, relationships develop between those

things and they work together to support each other

o Use and value diversity – diversity reduces vulnerability to a variety of threats and takes advantage of the unique

nature of the environment in which it resides.

ECI recommends a hike in election expenditure. The final authority is the government who approves it.

Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has identified Banni grassland reserve as one of the last remaining habitats of the cheetah in

India. It has some Sindhi speaking Maldhari (cattle breeders) hamlets and is also home to the Halaypotra, Hingora,

Hingorja, Jat and Mutwa tribes.

• Bugyals are alpine pasture lands, meadows, in higher elevation range between 3,300-4000m of the Himalayas in Uttarakhand.

• Khajjiar is a small plateau in Chamba district Himachal Pradesh and surrounded by green meadows and dense forests. It is

covered by dense deodar and fir forest lies in the path of the Ravi River and offers numerous trekking opportunities.

• Sholas are the local name for patches of stunted tropical montane forest found in valleys amid rolling grassland in the higher

montane regions of South India.

• In the wild state, cotton is a perennial plant, which attains a height of 5-6m, but most of the cultivated types of cotton are

annuals. Cultivated cotton is a herbaceous plant which attains a height if 75-200 cm.

• The cotton plant has a tap root system with secondary roots that branched laterally from the primary root. The main stem is

erect and much-branched; the branches develop from buds located at the nodes of the main stem.

• Cotton is cultivated on large scale in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana,

Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. Gujarat is the largest producer of cotton in India followed by Punjab and Maharashtra.

• It is grown in tropical & subtropical conditions. A minimum temperature of 15°C is required for better germination at field

conditions. The optimum temperature for vegetative growth is 21-27°C & it can tolerate temperature to the extent of 43°C but

temperature below 21°C is detrimental to the crop. Warm days and cool nights with large diurnal variations during the period

of fruiting are conducive to good boll & fibre development.

• Cotton is grown on a variety of soils ranging from well-drained deep alluvial soils in the north to black clayey soils of varying depth

in the central region and in black and mixed black and red soils in the south zone. Cotton is semi-tolerant to salinity and sensitive to

waterlogging and thus prefers well-drained soils.

• The first stage is shown by a sharply tapering pyramid with a broad base. It reflects high fertility, high mortality rates

among the younger age groups especially high IMR and high CMR. As the type of pyramid is generally identified on the basis of

the share of the population in lower and middle age groups, therefore this stage pyramid is expanding pyramid.

• In the second stage of demographic transition, mortality rates decline at a faster pace, especially among younger age groups,

but fertility rates remain still high. Therefore, the concave slopes of the first stage become straight and due to an increase in life

expectancy height and share of the population in older age groups improve slightly. The type of pyramid is still known as

expanding or expansive or Christmas tree-shape or simply triangular shape pyramids.

• In stage 3 of the late expanding stage the total population increases but with declining growth rates because due to declining

in fertility rates the gap between births and deaths gradually decreases. This is reflected in the age pyramid by shrink in the lower

or base parts age groups. The population growth rates decline (but still the growth rate is positive and the population

continues to expand) and life expectancy increases and become about 70 years. Lower- middle portion slightly bulges out and

the shape of the pyramid resembles dome or bell. Therefore, this stage pyramid is still expansive and known as the dome-

shaped or bell-shaped pyramid.

• The population pyramid in the low stationary Stage 4 of demographic transition has nearly vertical sides; the width of the bars

remains more or less same from bottom to top. This barrel shape pyramid or stationary pyramid represents low fertility,

low mortality and high life expectancy. Stable population growth. The share of the population in the juvenile population

and the senile population is almost the same and greying of the population has not started yet.

• In the last stage of demographic transition fertility rates become very low and less than mortality rates therefore, population

growth rates become negative. In this declining stage of transition, the base of the population shrinks and top becomes heavy

reflecting the challenge of ageing or greying of the population and high dependency of the elderly population. This phase

pyramid is known as urn shape or bulb shape pyramid or constrictive or contracting pyramid.

o The Kamchatka Peninsula is a 1,250-kilometre-long peninsula in the Russian Far East. o It lies between the Sea of Okhotsk in the west and the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea on the East. Immediately offshore

along the Pacific coast of the peninsula runs the 10,500-metre-deep Kuril–Kamchatka Trench. o Kamchatka Peninsula, the Commander Islands, and Karaginsky Island constitute the Kamchatka Krai. o The Kamchatka peninsula contains the volcanoes of Kamchatka, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Laterite Soil • It develops in areas with high temperature and high rainfall. These are the result of intense leaching due to tropical rains. With

rain, lime and silica are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium compound are left behind. • Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrive well in high temperature. • These soils are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and potash are in excess.

Hence, laterites are not suitable for cultivation; however, the application of manures and fertilisers are required for making the soils fertile for cultivation. • Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like a cashew nut. • Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house construction. These soils have mainly developed in the higher areas of the Peninsular plateau. The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas

of Odisha and Assam. Red and Yellow Soil • Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau. Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, a long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil. Yellow and red soils

are also found in parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middle Ganga plain. • The soil develops a reddish color due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow

when it occurs in a hydrated form. The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile, whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry upland areas are poor infertility. • They are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.

o In the U.S.A, most of the production comes from the northern Appalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lake region (Chicago-Gary,

Erie, Cleveland, Lorain, Buffalo and Duluth) Mesabi Range, largest of three iron ranges in northern Minnesota, and the Atlantic

Coast (Sparrows Point and Morrisville). The industry also moved towards the southern state of Alabama. Pittsburg area is now

losing ground. It has now become the “rust bowl” of U.S.A.

o In Europe, the U.K., Germany, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Russia are the leading producers. The

important steel centres are Scun Thorpe, Port Talbot, Birmingham and Sheffield in the U.K.; The Ruhr region is responsible for

80% of Germany’s total steel production. Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and Essen in Germany; Le Creusot and St. Ettienne in

France; and Moscow, St. Petersburgh, Lipetsk, Tula, in Russia and Krivoi Rog, and Donetsk in Ukraine.

o Ural Region: It lies on both sides of the Urals. The major steel centres of this region are – Magnitogorsk, Chelyabinsk, Nizhnitagil,

Sverdlovsk, Serov, Perm, Orsk, etc. Magnitogorsk is the largest steel-producing centre of Russia.

o In Asia, the important centres include Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohama in Japan; Shanghai, Tientsin, Southern Manchuria

(largest steel plant of China at Anshan) and Wuhan in China; and Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai,

Bokaro, Salem, Visakhapatnam and Bhadravati in India.

o In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes. In most cases, they are formed when minerals in liquid/ molten and gaseous

forms are forced upward through cavities towards the earth’s surface. They cool and solidify as they rise. Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained from veins and lodes.

o Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills. These deposits are called

‘placer deposits’ and generally contain minerals, which are not corroded by water. Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most important among such minerals.

Black soil • It covers most of the Deccan Plateau which include parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some

parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna and the northwestern part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep. • These soils are also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’. The black soils are generally clayey, deep and impermeable. They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried. So, during the dry season, these soil develop wide cracks. Thus, there occurs a kind of ‘self ploughing’. • Because of this character of slow absorption and loss of moisture, the black soil retains the moisture for a very long time, which helps the crops, especially, the rain-fed ones, to sustain even during the dry season.

• Black soils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter. The color of the soil ranges from deep black to grey.

• Hydroelectric generation still accounts for more than 60% of renewable generation. China, Brazil, Canada, the U.S., and Russia are the leading hydropower producers.

• By early 2020, the leading country for solar power was China with 208 GW, accounting for one-third of global installed solar capacity followed by India with 35 GW of installed solar capacity. • Worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 12.8 GW, of which 28% or 3.55 GW are installed in the United States. The countries with the largest installed capacity were the USA, China, Sweden, Norway and Germany, accounting for about 63% of the installed capacity.

• Kabartal Wetland

• It covers 2,620 hectares of the Indo-Gangetic plains in the Begusarai district of Bihar. It is also known as Kanwar Jheel. • It hosts significant biodiversity with 165 plant species and 394 animal species recorded, including 221 bird species. • It is an important stopover along the Central Asian Flyway, with numerous migratory waterbirds using it to rest and refuel. • hosts 5 CR species: red-headed vulture, white-rumped vulture, Indian vulture, sociable lapwing and Baer’s pochard.

• The ’Bushmen’ are the oldest inhabitants of southern Africa, where they have lived for at least 20,000 years. Their home is in the

vast expanse of the Kalahari desert. Genetically the closest surviving people to the original Homo sapiens “core” from which

the Negroid people of Africa emerged.

• Bushmen are small in stature generally with light yellowish skin, which wrinkles very early in life . Bushmen traditionally

lived in Southern Africa in the following countries, although virtually none live purely by hunting and gathering today: Botswana,

Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Angola, with loosely related groups in Tanzania.

• Their social structure is not tribal because they have no paramount leader and their ties of kinship are fairly relaxed. They

are a loosely knit family culture where decisions are made by universal discussion and agreement by consensus. An individual's

opinion is naturally weighted according to their level of skill and experience in the particular field of discussion.

• The Tuareg people are a large Berber ethnic confederation. They principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from

far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria, Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso. Traditionally nomadic pastoralists, also called the "blue

people" for the indigo dye colored clothes they traditionally wear and which stains their skin. The Tuareg have been one of the ethnic

groups that have been historically influential in the spread of Islam and its legacy in North Africa and the adjacent Sahel region.

• The Bedouin or Bedu is a population of nomadic Arabs who have historically inhabited the desert regions in North Africa,

the Arabian Peninsula, Upper Mesopotamia and the Levant. Bedouin territory stretches from the vast deserts of North Africa to

the rocky sands of the Middle East. They are traditionally divided into tribes, or clans and historically share a common culture of

herding camels and goats.

• The Maasai are a Nilotic ethnic group inhabiting northern, central and southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. They are

among the best known local populations internationally due to their residence near the many game parks of the African Great Lakes,

and their distinctive customs and dress. The Maasai speak the Maa language a member of the Nilotic language family. Except for

some elders living in rural areas, most Maasai people speak the official languages of Kenya and Tanzania, Swahili and English.

• Asan Conservation Reserve is a 444-hectare stretch of the Asan River running down to its confluence with the Yamuna River in Dehradun district of Uttarakhand.

• It supports 330 species of birds including critically endangered red-headed vulture, white-rumped vulture, Baer’s pochard etc.

• Kanjli Wetland is a man made Wetland over the Kanjli Lake in the Kapurthala district of Punjab. • It was created in 1870 by constructing the headworks across the perennial Bien River, a tributary of the Beas River to provide irrigation facilities to the hinterland. • Due to its rich biodiversity comprising aquatic, mesophytic and terrestrial flora and fauna. (Ramsar wetland in 2002)

• Samaspur Bird Sanctuary is situated in Rae Bareli, UP. • It was established in 1987 and was recently declared Ramsar wetland in 2019. • More than 250 varieties of birds can be seen here. Some of the birds come here from a distance of more than 5000 km, including Greylag Goose, Pintail, Common Teal, Eurasian Wigeon etc.

Based on the geological mapping of the country, an area of 5.71 lakh sq km, out of a total mappable area of 31.46

lakh sq km, has been demarcated as an Obvious Geological Potential (OGP) area, but only 10% of it has been explored and 1.5% is being mined.

Northern Atlantic Sea Route (Big Trunk Route): This links North-eastern U.S.A. and Northwestern Europe, the two

industrially developed regions of the world. The foreign trade over this route is greater than that of the rest of the world combined. One-fourth of the world’s foreign trade moves on this route.

• As on 31 March 2018, India had estimated natural gas reserves of 1339.57 billion cubic meters (BCM). The production of natural gas was 31.73 billion cubic meters in 2017–18, growing by 60.86% over the previous year. India accounted for 0.77% of world natural gas production in 2016–17.

• The largest reserves of natural gas are located in the Eastern Offshore (38.13%) and the Western Offshore (23.33%). The

gas fields in India are located at western and southeastern areas viz. Hazira, Dahej, Mundra (Gujarat), Mumbai offshore & KG basin, Ravva Oil & Gas field in Andhra Pradesh as well as North East Region Sivasagar in Assam & Khubal in Tripura. • India has the second-highest wind capacity in Asia and fourth highest in the world and is the only Asian country apart from China to make the list, with a total capacity of 37GW. • Tamil Nadu with 9231.77 MW of installed wind capacity is well ahead of the rest and second positioned Gujarat which has 7203.77 MW of wind generation capacity. • The Indian government has set a target of installing 60GW of wind energy by 2022, as pledged in its Intended nationally determined contributions (INDC).

Pakshipitti (pakshi meaning "bird" in Malayalam, Telugu and Tamil), is an uninhabited coral islet in Lakshadweep. Pitti Bird Sanctuary is a small reef that is approximately 24 north-west of Kavaratti, is one of the major tourist attractions.

• The dynamic balance between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere is known as isostasy. This term implies that the

Earth’s gravity causes segments of the lithosphere to shift upward or downward according to their densities. It is invoked to explain

how different topographic heights can exist on the Earth's surface.

• This essentially implies that wherever equilibrium exists on the Earth’s surface, the mass above the surface will be balanced by an

equal mass below it in the same are and the lighter crust floats on the denser underlying mantle.

• There are two theories regarding the isostasy i.e. Pratt's theory and Airy's theory.

• When large amounts of sediment are deposited in a particular region, the immense weight of the new sediment may cause the

crust below to sink. Similarly, when large amounts of material are eroded away from a region, the land may rise to compensate. If a

layer of ice is somehow sliced off the top of the iceberg, the remaining iceberg will rise.

• The sediments that have collected are squeezed in the downfolds and fused into magma. The magma rises to the surface through

volcanic activity or intrusions of masses of magma as batholiths (massive rock bodies). When the convection currents die out, the

crust uplifts, and these thickened deposits rise and become subject to erosion again.

• Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary is a wildlife sanctuary and estuary situated near Kakinada. It is the second-largest stretch of mangrove forests in India with 24 mangrove tree species and more than 120 bird species. It is home to the critically

endangered white-backed vulture and the long-billed vulture. In a mangrove ecosystem, the water bodies of the ocean/sea and the river meet together at a certain point.

• Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary is a marine wildlife sanctuary located in Odisha and is a very popular tourist attraction of Odisha. It is the world's largest nesting beach for Olive Ridley Turtles. It extends from Dhamra River mouth in the north to Brahmani river mouth in the south.

• Scientists from Agharkar Research Institute, Pune discover two new species of pipeworts from the Western Ghats of

Maharashtra & Karnataka. The one reported from Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra was named as Eriocaulon

parvicephalum (due to its minute inflorescence size), and the other reported from Kumta, Karnataka was named as Eriocaulon karaavalense (named after Karaavali = Coastal Karnataka region).

• Waigani Convention (Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within South Pacific Region)

• Archaean Rock System These rocks are the oldest rocks formed about 4 billion years ago. They are formed due to the solidification of molten magma. They are crystalline because they are volcanic in origin.

o Dharwar System: They are highly metamorphosed sedimentary rock-system formed between 4 – 1 billion years ago. They possess valuable minerals like high-grade iron-ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc. (Dharwar,Karnataka)

• Manganese: Manganese is an important raw material for smelting of iron ore and also used for manufacturing ferro alloys.

Balaghat Mine is one of the largest mine producing one of the best quality of manganese ore in the country. It is also the deepest

underground manganese mine in Asia. About 80% of the manganese production in India comes from Balaghat District.

• Aluminum: Bauxite is found mainly in tertiary deposits and is associated with laterite rocks occurring extensively either on the

plateau or hill ranges of peninsular India and also in the coastal tracts of the country. The state of Odisha is the largest producer of

bauxite ore in India. Most of the aluminum production comes from the Panchpatmali hills mine operated by NALCO.

o Patlands of Jharkhand in Lohardaga have rich deposits. Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are other

major producers.

• Iron: The two main types of ore found in our country are haematite and magnetite. The iron ore mines occur in close proximity to

the coal fields in the north-eastern plateau region of the country which adds to their advantage.

o About 95% of total reserves of iron ore is located in the States of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana,

Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The important mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar (Mayurbhaj),

Kiruburu(Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh).

• Copper: The major copper mines are the Khetri copper belt in Rajasthan, Singhbhum copper belt in Jharkhand and Malanjkhand

copper belt in Madhya Pradesh.

• The Pangwala is a tribal community predominant in the Pangi valley of Chamba. The official list of ST in Himachal includes a)

Gaddis, b) Gujjars, c) Kinnara or Kinnauras, d) Lahaulas and e) Pangwalas apart from some other smaller tribes groups like

Bhot/Bodh, Beda, Jad/Lamba/ Khampa, and Swangla.

• The Sahar, Sehariya, or Sahariya are an ethnic group in Madhya Pradesh. The Saharias are mainly found in the districts of

Morena, Sheopur, Bhind, Gwalior, Datia, Shivpuri, Vidisha and Guna districts of Madhya Pradesh and Baran district of Rajasthan.

• The Chenchus are Adivasi, a designated Scheduled Tribe in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Odisha. They are an

aboriginal tribe whose traditional way of life been based on hunting and gathering.

• The Shompen are the indigenous people of the interior of Great Nicobar Island, part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• Purana Rock System (1400 – 600 Million Years)

o Cuddapah System: These are unfossiliferous clay, slates, sandstones and limestones that were deposited in the depression between fold mountains. They are abundant in Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh. These rocks contain ores of iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc. o Vindhyan System: Deriving its name from the great Vindhyan mountains, it comprises of mostly unfossiliferous ancient sedimentary rocks. It has diamond-bearing regions from which Panna and Golconda diamonds have been mined.

• Dravidian Rock System (600 – 300 million years ago) These are fossil abundant rock system found in the Extra Peninsular region (Himalayas and Ganga plain) and are very rare in Peninsular India. o It comprises of rocks of Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous periods, however, Carboniferous rocks (350 million years) are most significant which comprise mainly of limestone, shale and quartzite.

• Aryan Rock System (Upper Carboniferous to the Recent)

o Gondwana System: These are deposits laid down in synclinal troughs on ancient plateau surface and derive its name from Gonds, the most primitive people of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Gondwana rocks contain nearly 98% of India’s coal reserves. They have rich deposits of iron ore, copper, uranium and antimony also. o Deccan Trap: They are formed by volcanic outburst over a vast area of Peninsular India. These volcanic deposits have flat top

and steep sides and therefore called ‘trap’ meaning a ‘stair’ or ‘step’ in Swedish. They have been weathered and eroded for millions of years to almost half of its original size and has given birth to black cotton soil known as ‘regur’. It mainly occurs in parts of Kuchchh, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, the Malwa plateau and northern Karnataka.

• Tertiary System is about 60 to 7 million years ago. It is the most significant period in India’s geological history because the Himalayas were born and India’s present form came into being in this period.

• ASEAN Defence Ministers' Meeting -Plus (ADMM-PLUS) meeting recently being hosted by Vietnam. In the 2nd

ADMM held in Singapore in 2007 adopted a resolution to establish the ADMM-PLUS. Eight Dialogue Partners are Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Russia, and the USA (the "Plus Countries").

• The Government has launched The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity TEEB-India Initiative (TII) to highlight the economic consequences of the loss of biological diversity and the associated decline in ecosystem services. • The Initiative focussed on three ecosystems, namely forests, inland wetlands and coastal and marine ecosystems. • TII has been implemented under the Indo-German Biodiversity Programme as technical cooperation with GIZ. • Wealth Accounting and the Valuation of Ecosystem Services (WAVES) is a World Bank-led global partnership that aims to promote sustainable development by ensuring that natural resources are mainstreamed in development planning and national economic accounts. • WAVES is now part of the broader World Bank umbrella initiative, the Global Program for Sustainability (GPS).

• Bonn Challenge is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020 and 350

million hectares by 2030.

• It is an implementation vehicle for national priorities such as water and food security and rural development while contributing

to the achievement of international climate change, biodiversity, and land degradation commitments.

• Launched by the Government of Germany and IUCN, the Bonn Challenge unites nations and regions in bringing landscapes

into restoration, to halt and reverse the effects of land degradation.

• Forest landscape restoration (FLR) approach – will create approximately US$ 84 billion per year in net benefits that could

bring direct additional income opportunities for rural communities. About 90% of this value is potentially tradable, meaning

that it encompasses market-related benefits. Achieving the 350 million hectare goal will generate about US$ 170 billion per year in

net benefits from watershed protection, improved crop yields, and forest products, and could sequester up to 1.7 Gt of CO2

equivalent annually.

• WAVES is funded by the European Commission, Denmark, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

Stunting refers to low height for age. Wasting refers to low weight for height. Undeweight refers to low weight for age.

• Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY) completed 6 years. MPs can select any gram panchayat, other than their own village

or that of their spouse', to be developed as an Adarsh Gram. The village must have a population of 3000-5000 people if it is

located in the plains, or 1000-3000 people if located in hilly areas.

• Ministry of Rural Development will be the nodal Ministry coordinating and monitoring the scheme.

• No new funds have been allocated for the yojana. Resources may be raised through funds from:

o existing schemes, such as Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, MGNREGA, etc.

o Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme(MPLADS),

o Gram panchayat's own revenue,

o Central and State Finance Commission Grants, and

o Corporate Social Responsibility funds.

• Milch breed: Here cows yield a higher quantity of milk but the bullocks are not of good quality. Some important milch breeds

are Gir, Sindhi, Sahiwal, Tharparkar and Deoni. The Gir breed yields about 3175 kg of milk per lactation period. Sahiwal

breed yields about 2725-4535 kg of milk per lactation period.

• Draught Breeds: The cows are poor milkers but the bullocks are excelllent draught animals. This group consists of Nagori,

Bachaur, Kathiawar, Malvi Hallikar, Amritmahal, Kangyam, Killari, Ponwar and Siri.

• General Breeds: The cows are fairly good yielders of milk and the bullocks are good for draught purposes. The group includes:

e.g. Hariana, Ongale, Gaolo, Rath, Dangi, Nimari, Tharparkar and Kankrej.

• TX2 is the global award which was set up in 2010 in St. Petersburg, Russia by international organisations working for tiger

conservation like WWF, UNDP, IUCN, Global Tiger Fund (GTF).

• The TX2 goal is a global commitment to double the world's wild tigers by 2022. The goal has been set by the World

Wildlife Fund (WWF) through the Global Tiger Initiative and Global Tiger Forum.

• Nepal became the first country in the world to double its tiger population in a decade as part of WWF 'TX2' programme which

aims to double the number of tigers by 2022.

• Tiger range countries: India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia,

Thailand and Vietnam.

• Central Pollution Control Board of India (CPCB) is a statutory organization under MoEFCC. It was established in 1974 under the Water Act, 1974. The CPCB is also entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air Act, 1981.

The Blue Carbon Initiative is a global program working to mitigate climate change through the restoration and sustainable use of coastal and marine ecosystems. The Initiative currently focuses on mangroves, tidal marshes, and seagrasses. The Blue Carbon Initiative brings together governments, research institutions, non-governmental organizations, and communities from around the world. The Initiative is coordinated by o Conservation International (CI),

o the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), o the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the UNESCO (IOC-UNESCO).

• Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) is an initiative aimed at setting up Compressed Bio-Gas production

plants and make it available in the market for use in automotive fuels by inviting Expression of Interest from potential entrepreneurs.

• Initiative was launched in October 2018 by the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas in association with PSU Oil Marketing Companies (OMC)

• The government of India, under the SATAT initiatives, envisages setting up of 5000 CBG plants by 2023-24 with a production target of 15 MMT, facilitating the creation of new employment opportunities and enhancing farmers' income towards further invigorating the rural economy.

• Littoral Zone- The topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond is the Littoral zone. This zone is the warmest since it is shallow

and can absorb more of the Sun's heat. It sustains a fairly diverse community, which can include several species of algae (like

diatoms), rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing snails, clams, insects, crustaceans, fishes, and amphibians. The vegetation and

animals living in the littoral zone are food for other creatures such as turtles, snakes and ducks.

• Limnetic Zone- The near-surface open water surrounded by the littoral zone is the limnetic zone. The limnetic zone is the open

water area where light does not penetrate to the bottom. The limnetic zone is well-lighted (like the littoral zone) and is

dominated by plankton, both phytoplankton and zooplankton. Plankton is small organisms that play a crucial role in the food

chain. Without aquatic plankton, there would be few living organisms in the world, and certainly no humans. A variety of

freshwater fish also occupies this zone.

• Profundal Zone- The deep-water part of the lake or pond is called the profundal zone. This zone is much colder and denser than

the other two. Little light penetrates all the way through the limnetic zone into the zone. The fauna is heterotrophs that eat dead

organisms and use oxygen for cellular respiration.

• Recently a newly constituted Panda committee under MoTA is to look into the issue of forest rights of the Mankidia tribe

in Simlipal Tiger Reserve. Mankidiya is one of the 13 Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG) in Odisha. They critically

depend on making rope with siali fibre that is richly available in Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR). They were denied habitat rights

inside STR under Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006.

• Jharkhand has passed a resolution to send the center a letter to recognize Sarna religion and include it as a separate code in

census of 2021. Followers of Sarna faith believe in praying to nature. Their motto of faith is "Jal, Jungle, Zameen".

• The Uttar Pradesh government has recently embarked upon a scheme to take the unique culture of its ethnic Tharu tribe across

the world. Most of them are forest dwellers and some practiced agriculture. They live mostly in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand,

and Bihar. They are the followers of Theravada Buddhism.

• McArthur River is a river in Northern Australia which flows into the Gulf of Carpentaria. It has significant mineral reserves such as zinc, lead and silver deposits. It was initially an underground mining operation that has been converted to opencut.

• Birim River is one of the main tributaries of the Pra River in Ghana. It is one of the important production areas for gold and diamond. It is named after the Birimian rock formation, which yields most of the gold in the region.

•Indian Railways has launched "Meri Saheli" initiative for focused action on the security of women across all zones. • Ujjawala scheme aims to prevent the trafficking and rescue, rehabilitation, reintegration, and repatriation of victims.

• Swadhar Greh scheme aims to cater to the primary need for shelter, food, clothing, medical treatment, and care of the women in distress and who are without any social and economic support. • Sakhi One Stop Centres aims to provide integrated support and assistance to women affected by violence in public and

private spaces, within the family, community, and at the workplace.

• Global Report on Food Crisis is a report released by WFP.

• WFP is also a member of the United Nations Sustainable Development Group. o The WFP has been working in India since 1963, two years after its establishment. it provides policy inputs, advocacy and technical assistance for improving access to food. o WFP has proposed some initiatives like Automatic Grain Dispensing Machine (Annapurti) and Mobile Storage Units for effective implementation of TPDS. Annapurti allows beneficiaries to withdraw their food grain quota accurately and at a time

of their choice. It can dispense two commodities at a speed of 25 kg per 1.3 minutes. It has a storage capacity of 200 kg to 500 kg. o It has completed a pilot on rice fortification used in the government’s Mid-day Meals scheme in Varanasi. • Corinth Canal: It connects the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf in the Aegean Sea. It divides the Peloponnese peninsula from the Greek mainland. With the 6.4-kilometre length and 8 meters (26 ft) depth, it is considered as one of the deepest canal

in the world. It helps the seafarers to avoid the dangers of sailing around the Peloponnese’s treacherous southern capes.

• Kiel Canal: It connects the Baltic Sea with the North Sea. It passes through the German province of Schleswig-Holstein. It helps vessels to bypass the longer route that passes via Denmark which is regarded as quite unstable maritime route, saving an average

• Climate Vulnerable Forum (CVF) is an international partnership of countries highly vulnerable to a warming planet.

• The Forum serves as a South-South cooperation platform for participating governments to act together to deal with global

climate change.

• CVF is the international forum for countries most threatened by climate change. Composed of 48 members from Africa, Asia,

the Caribbean, Latin America, and the Pacific, it represents some 1.2 billion people worldwide. It was founded in November

2009 by the Maldives at Male’, together with 10 other countries. The Forum is led by a rotating chair for an ordinary period of two

years, with Bangladesh currently chairing for the second time for the period 2020-2022.

of 250 nautical miles. With this artificial waterway, vessels en route to east through the North Sea enter the canal at Brunsbüttel and complete the journey at Kiel-Holtenau to enter into the Baltic.

• White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal: The White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal, also called White Sea Canal, is an important waterway that regularizes traffic internally along the Russian waterways starting from the White Sea in the north and extending to the Baltic Sea down south. It passes through various smaller water bodies, including the Arctic Ocean and Lake Onega, before finally emerging into the Baltic Sea.

• Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal: It is popularly known as Grand Canal. It is the longest and the oldest canal in the world connecting China’s the Yellow River and Yangtze River. It links northern and southern China, the canal contributes heavily to the country’s economy and is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

• Danube-Black Sea Canal: It connects the Danube River to the Black Sea. It also interlinks the Black Sea to the North Sea

through the Danube-Main-Rhine channel. It enables vessels to bypass the difficult deltaic region of Danube.

• Rhine-Main-Danube Canal: It links three important rivers in Western Europe, the Rhine-Main-Danube. It is major transportation gateway linking the North Sea to the Black Sea, via the Atlantic Ocean. • The Suri is a sedentary pastoral tribe in southwestern Ethiopia. They live on the west bank of the Omo River. The Suri

tribe has a cattle-centered culture. They breed their cattle, mainly cows, on their land in the Omo Valley. The total population of the Suri is estimated at 7,500.