BOARD OF EDUCATION OF HOWARD COUNTY

MEETING AGENDA ITEM

TITLE: A Vision for Pre-K-12 Science DATE: March 18, 2017

PRESENTER(S): Amy Reese, Coordinator, Elementary Science

Mary Weller, Coordinator, Secondary Science

VISION 2018 GOAL: Students Staff Families and Community Organization

OVERVIEW: The purpose of this report is to provide an update on HCPSS’ transition to the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), which were adopted by the Maryland State Board of Education in June 2013 as the Maryland Science Standards (MSS). These standards define the science learning targets for all students at the elementary, middle, and high school levels and fully align with Vision 2018 by supporting college and career readiness. Rigorous first instruction, best practices in organization, and enhanced equity and access are fundamental to success in this transition. An update to the changing science accountability system in Maryland is also provided.

RECOMMENDATION/FUTURE DIRECTION: In every science classroom, ensure that teachers 1) provide students with a solid foundation Science and Engineering Practices, Disciplinary Core Ideas, and Cross-cutting Concepts through hands-on learning experiences that leverage students’ curiosity and natural science instincts; 2) provide multiple avenues to Advanced Placement and other higher-level science courses for all students; 3) provide curricula and assessments reflecting the Maryland Science Standards. The Howard County Public School System is committed to ensuring that all students graduate college and career ready.

SUBMITTED BY:

APPROVAL/ CONCURRENCE:

Ebony Langford-Brown, Executive Director, School Improvement and Curricular Programs

Renee A. Foose, Ed.D. Superintendent

Caroline Y. Walker, Director,

Curricular Programs, Elementary and Pre-K-12

Linda T. Wise, Deputy Superintendent

William J, Barnes, Director,

Curricular Programs, Secondary and Pre-K-12

REPORT

Introduction

The Howard County Public School System (HCPSS) is committed to ensuring every student is inspired to learn and empowered to excel in a vibrant and supportive learning environment. In science, this means teachers facilitate learning experiences where students act as scientists to develop deep and lasting understanding about the natural and designed worlds. Students can then apply their understanding as scientifically literate citizens and successfully pursue further study in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields at the postsecondary level. The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) were adopted by the Maryland State Board of Education in June 2013 as the Maryland Science Standards (MSS). These standards provide the learning targets for students in science in elementary, middle, and high school. This report provides an update on the HCPSS elementary and secondary science programs’ transition to MSS, and the NGSS philosophy and research, as well as our alignment to Vision 2018 in order to ensure that all students are college and career ready upon graduation.

Rationale

There is no doubt that science — and, therefore, science education — is central to the lives of all Americans. Never before has our world been so complex and science knowledge so critical to making sense of it all. When comprehending current events, choosing and using technology, or making informed decisions about one’s healthcare, science understanding is key. Science is also at the heart of the United States’ ability to continue to innovate, lead, and create the jobs of the future. All students — whether they become technicians in a hospital, workers in a high tech manufacturing facility, or Ph.D. researchers — must have a solid K–12 science education (NGSS, xiii).

Despite the necessity for scientific literacy, some students in HCPSS, especially those from historically underserved populations and/or those who receive special services (i.e., those who have IEPs, are English language learners, or are eligible for Free and Reduced-Price Meals (FARMS)), have not fully realized the goal of college and career readiness in science. In response, the HCPSS has implemented research-informed strategies to ensure that each and every student has an opportunity to access rigorous, relevant, and authentic science courses prior to graduation. A high quality science program is crucial to realizing the goals set forth in Vision 2018. The following outcomes are particularly pertinent:

Outcome 1.1 - The instructional program is rigorous, globally-relevant, and aligned with international and/or nationally recognized college and career readiness standards. Outcome 1.2 - Students have equitable access to a rigorous instructional program.

Outcome 1.3 - Technology is leveraged so that students have access to learning experiences that meet their needs and interests. Outcome 1.4 - Students are engaged in the learning process. Outcome 1.5 - Students meet or exceed rigorous performance standards. Outcome 1.6 - Meaningful measures of student outcomes are in place. Outcome 2.2 - Staff members have access to learning experiences that support their professional growth. Outcome 2.3 - Staff members are held accountable for and supported in meeting standards-based performance expectations. Outcome 3.2 - HCPSS is strengthened through partnerships. Outcome 3.3 - HCPSS engages families and the community through relevant, timely, accessible, and audience-focused communications. Outcome 4.2 - HCPSS hires and retains a talented, effective, and diverse workforce.

Science knowledge is continually expanding, so limiting science teaching and learning to mere information acquisition is unwise. Instead, we must prepare students for careers that will be quite different from the ones we know today. The HCPSS science program is designed to equip students with sufficient core scientific knowledge and the ability to engage in science practice so that, in the future, students can apply this knowledge to interact successfully with an ever changing world. Students need to be able to acquire, interpret, assimilate, and apply new information as they encounter new problems throughout their lives. HCPSS science teaches students to “learn for life” through relevant, authentic, active learning with coherence across grade levels Pre-K-12.

The Pre-K-12 Science Program Instructional Plan

There are three primary components to the Pre-K-12 Science Instructional Plan: rigorous first instruction, increased equity and access, and effective organizational structures. This report will outline how educators fulfill each of these components. An update on the changing accountability system for science in Maryland will also be provided.

First Instruction

“Children are born investigators” (NRC, A Framework for K-12 Science Education, 2012) and enter school with developed conceptions of the natural world. Teachers fulfill a unique and important role to help students build on these early ideas and to develop accurate scientific understandings of the natural world. The Maryland Science Standards (MSS), derived from the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), provide the framework upon which HCPSS has based its goals for science learning and pedagogy for science instruction.

The NGSS describe what all students should know and be able to do to be college and career ready in science (NGSS, xiii). The NGSS are the product of a multi-year, collaborative effort to create new science standards that reflect the many advances in both science and learning theory since the last round of standards were written in the 1990s. The standards are derived from the Framework for K12 Science Education (NRC, 2012), a consensus report that articulates a clear vision where students, throughout their years of school, should actively engage in science and engineering practices to develop a deep understanding of the important ideas that are fundamental to scientific literacy. The NGSS are based in a robust body of educational research and were collaboratively developed by professional scientists, college/university educators, and K-12 educators from around the nation who identified the knowledge and skills students need to become scientifically literate. The standards are quite different than previous standards in science as they are much more than a list of discrete science facts and skills that define students’ learning. Instead, the standards weave together three dimensions of science learning: Science and Engineering Practices (SEP), Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCI), and Crosscutting Concepts (CC). Each of these dimensions is explained in greater detail in the Standards section below. Performance Expectations (PE) were developed from these three dimensions and are also described below. The Next Generation Science Standards were developed by states for states, and Maryland was an active leader in the development process. The Maryland State Board of Education voted unanimously for Maryland to adopt the NGSS in June 2013. Since adoption, the Maryland State Department of Education (MSDE) has worked collaboratively with HCPSS and all the school systems in Maryland to implement the standards deliberately and effectively. Full implementation of the standards through full course alignment is targeted for the 2018-2019 school year. The timeline for NGSS implementation in Maryland was developed by Maryland’s NGSS Leadership Team (Appendix A). HCPSS is on schedule to meet this implementation goal at both the elementary and secondary levels. The MSS and the HCPSS science curriculum are designed to more effectively provide a broad and robust science education to all students. The goal is to develop science literacy and a solid foundation for success in higher education and careers in science or engineering. First (initial) instruction must be rigorous, aligned with evidence-based strategies, and implemented by highly-skilled science teachers. Standards Science is a complex, creative process that leads to understanding of the natural world. It cannot be distilled down to mere information, nor can it be distilled down simply to processes. The

MSS deftly and inextricably intertwine scientific knowledge and scientific processes into a “three dimensional” structure consisting of Science and Engineering Practices (SEP), Crosscutting Concepts (CC), and Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCI).

The Science and Engineering Practices are based upon the activities in which professional scientists and engineers engage regularly in order to “do” science. They are also the activities that, when students engage in them, result in deep and lasting learning. They include activities such as asking questions, designing investigations, collecting and analyzing data, and engaging in scientific discourse to explain science phenomena. The Disciplinary Core Ideas in science refer to the knowledge of science and are organized into four major disciplines: the Earth/Space sciences, the Life sciences, the Physical sciences, and Engineering. The disciplinary core ideas were carefully selected to avoid an overemphasis on a collection of information. The Crosscutting Concepts are the major concepts or “big ideas” of science. These are the principles that organize science knowledge and drive scientific activities within all disciplines. They include ideas such as patterns, cause and effect, scale, and structure and function.

A more complete overview of the three dimensions is included on the HCPSS: NGSS Quickcard (Appendix B). This tool has and continues to be distributed widely to teachers and school leaders in the HCPSS. The Next Generation Science Standards seek to correct common misunderstandings of science by supporting the acquisition of science knowledge (DCI) through direct and continuous involvement by students in the SEP. The CC offer an organizational framework that helps students think more like experts in science. All three dimensions are intended to be at the forefront of the learning process simultaneously--hence the three-dimensional nature of the standards. Importantly, whereas in the past, inquiry in science might be reserved for students deemed to be “higher achieving,” the NGSS and the three-dimensional learning environment are intended for all students and are designed as college and career ready standards. The three dimensions were woven into Performance Expectations (PE) for the NGSS and describe intended outcomes of learning in an NGSS environment (Appendix C - example). The PE are organized by grade (K-5) at the elementary level and by middle school and high school. Currently, the NGSS do not include standards for prekindergarten, but MSDE plans to include prekindergarten in the Maryland Science Standards in the future. The PE are intended to guide development of assessments to measure student learning by grade level. Importantly, the standards are much more than just the PE. The NGSS are surrounded by additional rich information in the form of the Framework for K12 Science Education and other

supplemental materials. A wealth of other resources is also being developed across the nation to support full implementation and meaningful science learning for all. Pedagogy Standards describe the intended targets for learning. The instruction provided by highly skilled teachers brings the science standards to life for students. Every child is born an investigator with nearly unquenchable curiosity about the world. The NGSS follow a learning progression that taps into this inquisitiveness and takes students from Pre-K through Grade 12. Even before intentional instruction of major content begins, students are learning to think and act like scientists as early as age 4. The three dimensions from the Next Generation Science Standards, Science and Engineering practices (SEP), Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCI), and Crosscutting Concepts (CC), are taught in every grade from Kindergarten to Grade 12. The standards are aligned across grade levels and build on each other. An example of such a progression is exemplified in the excerpt from NGSS Appendix F (Appendix D). The imperative for students to engage as student scientists sets NGSS apart from previous science standards. Figure 1 contrasts the NGSS learning environment with traditional environments.

Figure 1: A New Vision for Science Education (NRC, 2015)

A New Vision for Science Education: Implications of the Vision of A Framework for K-12 Science Education

and the Next Generation Science Standards

Science Instruction will Involve Less Science Instruction will Involve More

Rote memorization of facts and terminology

Learning facts and terminology as needed while developing explanations and designing solutions supported by evidence-based arguments and reasoning

Learning ideas disconnected from questions about phenomena

Using systems thinking and modeling to explain phenomena and to provide a context for the ideas to be learned

Teachers providing information to the whole class

Students conducting investigations, solving problems, and engaging in discussions with teachers’ guidance

Teachers posing questions with only one right answer

Students discussing open-ended questions that focus on the strength of the evidence used to generate claims

Students reading textbooks and answering questions at the end of the chapter

Students reading multiple sources, including science-related magazine and journal articles and web-based resources; students developing summaries of information

Having preplanned outcomes for “cookbook” laboratories or hands-on activities

Conducting multiple investigations driven by students’ questions, with a range of possible outcomes that collectively lead to a deep understanding of established core scientific ideas

Using worksheets Students producing journals, reports, posters, and media presentations that explain and argue

Oversimplifying activities for students who are perceived to have less capability in science and engineering

Providing supports so that all students can engage in sophisticated science and engineering practices

The instructional shifts outlined above are critical for all students, beginning as early as prekindergarten. They span a continuum of instruction and build the foundation for future learning. The NGSS provide for coherence in science instruction while also connecting tightly with mathematics and English Language Arts. Students cannot simply read about science in order to learn science. They must do science. Participation in science offers students reasons to apply their mathematics learning and to communicate in mathematical language. Science participation offers students opportunities to read and to engage in discourse using evidence. In an NGSS science classroom, students operate as student scientists under the skillful facilitation of their teacher. Curriculum The science curriculum provides the pathway for development of scientific literacy among all students. Whereas the standards describe the learning outcomes desired for students at various points in their educational careers, it is the curriculum that guides the activities, pedagogy, and assessment of student learning to ensure students are making progress toward these goals. The science curriculum in the HCPSS is developed in collaboration with classroom teachers and uses research-based resources to advance student learning. Coherence within a grade level or course and across all grade levels is a high priority so that students see their learning in the context of

previous and future learning. The transition to NGSS curriculum has been deliberate and strategic at both the elementary and secondary levels. For elementary schools, the transition to new science units aligned to the NGSS began in 2013. During each stage of the transition, teachers had professional learning opportunities in a variety of venues, both before their grade level transitioned, as well as after. The elementary science office brought in teachers from various schools, levels, and positions (classroom teachers, ESOL teachers, Special Educators, Technology Teachers, G/T Resource Teachers) to help develop progressive units aligned to NGSS standards and philosophy. Each grade level, K-5, have four distinct science units (one per quarter), with fully developed lesson plans, teacher background, and student resources, all made available through our HCPSS Canvas Learning Management System. These units include lessons that support all science disciplines, engineering, and environmental literacy. Connections to mathematics standards and English language arts standards are explicitly written in throughout. At the secondary level, the transition to NGSS began with the College Board’s revision to Advanced Placement Biology curriculum in 2013. Revisions to AP Chemistry and AP Physics curricula soon followed. These revised AP courses, based on the College Board’s College and Career Ready Standards, leverage the same body of research that undergirds NGSS (College Board, 2009). To ensure all students will be well prepared for the option of AP science enrollment, the HCPSS began integrating NGSS curricula and resources in middle schools in 2013. The curricula were refined and expanded gradually until all middle schools fully implemented NGSS in 2015. The learning activities and performance tasks support student growth toward the middle school performance expectations. The learning is structured so that students pursue driving questions that lead them through sophisticated inquiry and creation of unique solutions. Students fully engage in the SEP and increase their expertise as student scientists throughout the three years of middle school. At the high school level, teachers began implementation through incorporation of the SEP in 2013. Full transition of the high school science curriculum has progressed more deliberately than at elementary and middle schools due to two factors: continuation of the Biology High School Assessment graduation requirement through 2017 and a commitment to ensure that students would be well-prepared for the inquiry rich learning of the NGSS in high school by first encountering the NGSS in elementary and middle school. Beginning in 2005, students in Maryland high schools were first required to pass High School Assessments (HSAs) in Algebra/Data Analysis, English Language Arts, Biology, and Government. In 2013, the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness in College and Careers (PARCC) was introduced in Algebra and English Language Arts/Literacy and replaced the HSAs

in those subjects. Also at this time, Maryland adopted the Maryland Science Standards. Yet, the Biology HSA, based on the outdated Maryland Core Learning Goals (CLG) in science, remained in place as a high school graduation requirement. Thus, graduation from Maryland high schools remained tied to an assessment that was not consistent with the new science standards. In October 2016, with new graduation requirements on the horizon, the Maryland State Board of Education decided that students in the 2016-2017 school year who took the HSA Biology assessment during the school year would meet graduation requirements through simple participation without requiring a minimum passing score (COMAR 13A.03.02.09.) This adjustment to the HSA requirement meant high school science teachers, for the first time, had more opportunity to shift their pedagogy and curriculum towards NGSS as opposed to covering content that could potentially be included on the high stakes, end-of-course test. The second factor affecting high school transition has been the imperative to ensure that students be well-equipped to learn in an NGSS environment in high school. The NGSS introduce a higher level of rigor than found in the previous science standards, and student success is dependent upon steady growth along the learning progressions in each of the three dimensions. By focusing efforts earlier in students’ educational careers, at the middle school transition ahead of the high school transition, all students who entered high school in 2016 had been immersed in at least one year of NGSS learning prior to high school. Students are experienced in the SEP and ready to continue to learn as student scientists. Despite the limitations noted from continuation of the Biology HSA, additional progress on the high school transition is notable. An early NGSS curriculum project in high school was the Watershed Report Card that began in 2014 through a collaborative partnership between the HCPSS Office of Secondary Science and the Howard County Conservancy. In this year-long NGSS-aligned experience, students in Biology and their teachers worked with the HCPSS Environmental Educator at the Howard County Conservancy to study the health of the Howard County watershed and to understand humans’ impact on it. The high school student scientists designed investigations, collected and analyzed data, and publicly reported their findings. The program has continued to grow, and participating Biology teachers have become more adept at integrating the SEP in their classes. The project also supports environmental literacy among students and contributes to fulfillment of the requirements of COMAR 13A.04.17.01 Environmental Education Instructional Programs for Grades Prekindergarten-12. This project will expand in 2017-2018 to include students and teachers in the high school Earth Space Systems Science course. Thus, the experience will be one in which all ninth grade students will participate and contribute. The expansion of the Watershed Report Card project into Earth Space Systems Science will complement the NGSS transition of the Earth/Space Science curriculum that was piloted

beginning in 2014 and implemented fully in 2016-2017. In the Earth/Space Science curriculum, students act as student scientists to learn important science ideas related to all of the earth’s systems and the earth’s place in the universe. These ideas build upon the students’ middle school experiences and offer an opportunity to more deeply apply the SEP. The next steps for NGSS curriculum implementation at the high school level include full NGSS implementation in Biology in 2017-2018. The Secondary Science Office has been coordinating the writing and piloting of NGSS-aligned curriculum in Biology classrooms and has worked closely with a curriculum writing team of master teachers who represent a variety of HCPSS high schools since 2014. As in other secondary science courses, the new Biology curriculum will immerse students in the SEP and be built around the important organizing science ideas defined within the standards. Student learning will be driven by key performance tasks that maximize motivation to learn. Biology and Biology G/T will both be offered to students, but Biology G/T will include learning activities that lead to understanding of relevant Earth/Space Science DCI in addition to the high school life science DCI. NGSS implementation within the high school physical sciences will follow in 2018-2019. The Secondary Science Office continues to work closely with a team of master teachers in chemistry and physics to shape the new Chemistry G/T course, which will include important chemistry DCI and Earth/Space DCI related to chemistry, and the Advanced Physical Science course that will offer students an opportunity to learn all of the physical science disciplinary core ideas from the NGSS. Curriculum writers will identify and develop curriculum, run pilots of new material, and collect feedback data from teachers and students. These data will be collected, analyzed, and acted upon for future improvements. Importantly, this rolling wave of implementation follows the students’ readiness as they progress into high school and meets state expectations for NGSS implementation. Currently, few examples of NGSS curriculum materials exist. Textbooks, a traditional means to offer access to science learning, have not been updated to reflect the NGSS paradigm yet. HCPSS’s Science Offices and teacher leaders continue to scour the literature surrounding NGSS and to participate in the national and state discourse on NGSS transition to gather the best information and implementation opportunities. Science Instructional Time and Sequence Time to participate in science and the sequence in which science ideas are encountered are important considerations at all levels. The Next Generation Science Standards performance expectations (PE) are organized by grade at the elementary level to support developmentally appropriate understandings among students. The PEs are organized as grade band endpoints at the secondary level and do not specify a particular sequence in which ideas are encountered. The

following section describes both the allocation of time and the sequence of learning at all levels within the HCPSS. Science instructional time varies at each grade level. At the elementary level, there are numerous instructional models across the 41 elementary schools, such as Elementary School Model, Departmentalization, and homeroom teacher teaching all subjects. Regardless of the model used in an elementary school, there are baseline expectations and recommendations from the curriculum office. It is expected that science instruction regularly occurs in our prekindergarten classrooms. In primary grades, K-2, there is a minimum of 15-20 hours of science instruction each quarter. Primary grades are expected to use a 30-45-minute block of science instructional time, to ensure adequate time for young children to explore and engage in the science and engineering practices (SEPs), by working and writing within their science journals, working in cooperative teams, discussing their findings, and developing conclusions about the scientific phenomena they were investigating. In the intermediate grades, 3 -5, science instruction is expected to occur for a minimum of 20 hours per quarter. This typically equates to being taught during a content block for half the days of each quarter. We recommend that these intermediate grades have a 60-minute block of science instructional time to ensure enough time for exploration, data collection, and cooperative discussion/closure before the end of the class period. Throughout their elementary years, students are learning concepts across science disciplines, and are applying their scientific knowledge to solve problems through the engineering design process. The science concepts are learned through three-dimensional instruction. Students are engaged in the use of the SEPs daily. Students are actively investigating, observing, designing, collecting evidence, proving ideas, and making claims about scientific phenomena, which lays a critically important foundation for their work in middle school and beyond. In our Pre-K and Kindergarten classrooms, teachers have the same children for all subject areas and often find ways to integrate science instruction throughout the day/week, as well as into center time for extension and further exploration/application. In grades 1-5, the Elementary Science Office has worked closely with the Elementary Language Arts (ELA) office to ensure developmentally appropriate integration of reading and writing skills, to allow for transfer of skills between ELA and Science, as well as to plan best use of instructional time. Informational writing units in each grade level have been explicitly written into the end of science units, to connect what students have learned in science and allow them the opportunity to take that science background knowledge and apply it in their informational writing. In middle school, students attend science for one period each day for 180 days. Laboratory experiences are integral within each middle school science course, and the physical structure of

the science classrooms provides for individual, collaborative, and hands-on work. Students devote significant time to data collection and analysis as well as to scientific discourse as they solve the science and engineering problems that anchor the curriculum. This environment provides students with opportunities to expand, change, enhance, and modify the ways in which they view the world.

Middle school science courses are sequenced around the science domains defined in the NGSS, and students take earth/space science in grade 6, life science in grade 7, and physical science in grade 8. Secondary course sequencing decisions include a number of factors, and a thorough discussion of course sequencing at the secondary level is included in NGSS: Appendix K -Model Course Mapping for Middle and High School. This was one of several considerations used to determine the optimal sequences at the secondary level. The full expected progression of Pre-K-8 science instruction is diagrammed in Figure 2.

Figure 2: HCPSS Elementary and Middle School Science Progression

In high school, students must earn three credits in science courses aligned to the Maryland Science Standards and one of these credits must be in Biology (COMAR 13A.03.02.03). Laboratories are integral to all science classes, and all high school science classes meet either daily for 50 minutes or every other day on the 90-minute block.

High school students may select from among the many science courses offered in HCPSS. In selecting courses to meet the three-credit requirement, however, students are best served to seek a broad array of learning experiences that include each of the major disciplines of science (Earth/Space, Life, and Physical science). To ensure scientific literacy for all students in

accordance with the Next Generation Science Standards, recommended course sequences for students entering high school beginning in 2016 are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: HCPSS High School Course Pathways

The high school science pathways are based upon the domain and modified domain models thoroughly discussed in NGSS: Appendix K. At the end of either three course sequence, all students have accessed all standards. Additionally, all students build a foundation to support advanced study at the high school or postsecondary level. Beyond the core science courses, students are encouraged to select from the many available science electives including Advanced Placement courses in Biology, Chemistry, Environmental Science, Physics 1, Physics 2, Physics C (Mechanics), and Physics C (Electricity and Magnetism.) Other available electives include Anatomy and Physiology, Astronomy, Forensic Science, Environmental Science, and Marine Science.

The core science course sequences in high school provide full access to all science standards for all students. Although COMAR 13A.03.02.03 only names Biology among three required science credits, COMAR 13A.04.09.01 makes clear that the comprehensive science program available to all students in prekindergarten through grade 12 in Maryland will include the Maryland Science Standards in Earth/Space Science, Life Science (Biology and Environmental Science), and Physical Science. Engineering and applications of science will also be included. Additionally, as described in a later section of this report, science accountability measures in Maryland are undergoing a transition. The new assessment is expected to include Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCI) from each of the aforementioned science disciplines as well as engineering and applied science. This accountability model stands in stark contrast to the outgoing Biology HSA which focused on only a single science discipline.

In short, the high school science core course sequences prepare students for scientific literacy and for study of science at advanced levels including through Advanced Placement courses. The G/T courses compact learning, and by the end of the third course in the G/T pathway, students will have exceeded all the rigorous Maryland Science Standards. Students may move from standard level to G/T level, and vice versa, if they are seeking different levels of challenge in subsequent years. The curriculum for each course will be distinct so that even when disciplinary core ideas appear in more than one course, the learning activities and means through which learning is demonstrated will be different in each course. With sensitivity to the fact that the transition to high school can be challenging, the curricula for Biology G/T and Earth Space Systems Science are deliberately designed to allow students to move between the courses during the first quarter, if needed. This careful design is intended to help grade 9 students remain with their grade level peers as they begin high school. It is also important to note that the core courses in science ensure content experts work with students in each of the science disciplines. As per COMAR 13A.12.02.06, science teachers at the secondary level in Maryland are certified to teach in specific areas of science (i.e., Biology, Chemistry, Earth/Space Science, Physics). These certifications are based upon a rigorous set of requirements and are typically tied to an individual’s major in college. COMAR 13A.12.02.02 stipulates that teachers may only teach outside of their certification area for up to two courses per year for one year. If assigned outside of the certification area for longer, the individual teacher “shall earn at least 6 hours per year toward certification in the out-of area assignment before continuing the assignment” (COMAR 13A.12.02.02). Since HCPSS science teachers at each high school hold certification in one or more of Earth/Space science, Biology, Chemistry, or Physics disciplines the core courses will be taught by expert and qualified instructors.

Organizational Practice Professional Learning Teachers are critical to meeting the challenge of supporting all students in the development of scientific literacy, and the “quality of their instruction therefore acts as a major fulcrum for improving science education” (National Academies, 2015, p. 11). In the complex environment that is the science classroom, teachers must have a deep understanding of science content and pedagogy for their current courses as well as a clear grasp on the progressions of science content in the preceding and following grades. Much like physicians must stay apprised of the latest techniques and breakthroughs to treat their patients, teachers must stay abreast of the latest content and pedagogy to facilitate learning. This requires high-quality, job-embedded, customized professional learning opportunities for instructional personnel, and this remains a top

priority in both the elementary and secondary science programs. Opportunities for learning have included customizable options within countywide professional learning days, after school workshops, online courses, summer workshops, as well as individualized support. The Canvas Learning Management System has proven instrumental in delivery of professional learning for NGSS transition. Applications have included the delivery of relevant video clips and vignettes of students and teachers in action. Dissemination of best practice information and other resources, created within the county as well as from across the nation, has been expedited through Canvas. Each of these resources supports teachers’ understanding of the science content, concept progressions, and effective teaching practices. School-based administrators also require professional learning so they can support high leverage science instructional strategies. Administrators should have discussions about the science program at their schools and the strengths and needs of the instructional staff. A key element of developing leadership for school-based administrators has been the Principals’ Curriculum and Instruction Meetings. For the past two years, principals and assistant principals participated in professional learning on science, the new standards, the instructional shifts, and the impact these practices will have on students and teachers. Working collaboratively with community partners on a variety of levels has also helped to ensure continuity and consistency for our students. Specifically, at a national and state level, HCPSS teachers work closely with National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), Maryland Association of Science Teachers (MAST), and the Maryland State Department of Education (MSDE). At a local level, the science program benefits from an active Science Advisory Committee, which includes parents, community members, STEM professionals, and higher education personnel. Partnerships with community resources such as the Howard County Conservancy, the Robinson Nature Center, and the Howard County Master Gardeners are invaluable to ensure that students have instructive environmental literacy experiences both in and out of school that are aligned and complementary. Communication Communication surrounding the science learning of all students is critical to a strong science program. This is especially important as standards and assessments are undergoing fundamental shifts. To support open, accessible, and timely communication to all stakeholders, the Elementary and Secondary Science Offices continue to use Canvas extensively for internal communication. Collaboration with the HCPSS Communications Office has allowed for significant messaging to external stakeholders. Some of the recent opportunities to share information and updates related to science education include:

● Science Advisory Committee (monthly) ● Grade 9 Scheduling Information nights at various high schools (Winter 2017) ● Middle School and High School Counselor meetings (Fall 2016 and Winter 2017) ● Principals’ meetings (Fall 2016 and Winter 2017) ● HCPSS Insight broadcast (January 2017) ● Parent Teacher Association Council Howard County (PTACHC) meeting (December

2016) ● HCPSS PTA Presidents meeting (December 2016)

Numerous resources have also been developed to assist parents and students in understanding the new standards and other science program revisions. Some of these include: ● Revised High School and Middle School Course Catalogs ● NGSS information flyer for HCPSS schools and community members ● HCPSS curriculum website: (www.hcpss.org/academics) ● HCPSS NGSS website and video: (http://www.hcpss.org/insight/next-generation-science-

standards) Resources The National Research Council report, Taking Science to School (2007), highlights that, “Students learn science by actively engaging in the practices of science, including conducting investigations; sharing ideas with peers; ...mechanical, mathematical, and computer-based modeling; and development of representation of phenomena.” (NRC, pg. 251). Students learn science through doing science. All children must be active participants in a variety of experiences and opportunities in order to build background knowledge of the natural world and have common experiences to discuss with peers in the classroom. Access to safe and relevant materials and supplies is critical to active hands-on learning. In the elementary classroom, resources such as kit and consumable materials are a critical piece of instruction. The Science Resource Center, where science kits for all science and engineering units are created for all elementary grades, provides resources and materials specifically selected by the Elementary Science Coordinator to ensure the effective implementation of each instructional unit. In addition to extensive curricular kit material resources, the elementary science program resources include meaningful school-based and field-based environmental experiences, the integration of technology as an instructional tool, and current, information-rich trade books and texts that extend classroom learning. At the secondary level, individual schools manage their supply stores to support the science curriculum.

Equity and Access HCPSS is committed to ensuring that all students develop scientific literacy. All programmatic decisions, including curriculum design, course sequencing, and professional learning, are developed with this goal in mind. Science courses are places where all students can participate, and often shine, when they may struggle elsewhere. Those who may be below grade level in reading or are English Learners, have an opportunity to experience learning first-hand. Science investigations and real life experiences in class “level the playing field” for students, and ensure common background knowledge and experiences all students can use to move forward with their science learning. In order to ensure equitable learning opportunities for all students, our science classrooms value and respect the experiences that all students bring from their homes, communities, and cultures. We offer experiences and opportunities that help students capitalize on their strengths, while building their disciplinary knowledge and understanding in both science and engineering. Opportunities Today’s students face a complex future where science and engineering are more integral than ever before. The NGSS offer unprecedented opportunities for students to develop scientific and engineering literacy, and the elementary and secondary science programs are committed to ensuring opportunity gaps are diminished. The inclusion of engineering is a key equity-inducing component within these new standards. NGSS: Appendix D - Making Next Generation Science Standards Accessible to All Students highlights, “From a global perspective, engineering offers opportunities for ‘innovation’ and ‘creativity’ at the K-12 level. Engineering is a field that is critical to innovation, and exposure to engineering activities (e.g., robotics and invention competitions) can spark interest in the study of STEM or future careers (National Science Foundation [NSF], 2010). Although exposure to engineering at the pre-collegiate level is currently rare (Katehi, Pearson, & Feder, 2009), NGSS makes exposure to engineering at the pre-collegiate level a priority. This opportunity is particularly important for students who traditionally have not recognized science as relevant to their lives or future for students who come from multiple languages and cultures in this global community” (NGSS: Appendix D, pg 5). The HCPSS science programs are committed to the ideal of “all standards for all students” at each level of school. This has not always been the case in science instruction. In elementary schools, students have been often pulled from science instruction to receive intervention in mathematics and/or language arts, ESOL services, or Special Education pull-outs. This has led to opportunity gaps for many student groups at an early age that persist through high school.

Historically, at the secondary level, many students have not had access to experiences in either the Earth and Space sciences or the physical sciences, especially physics. The reasons for these access gaps are many and have included a dearth of qualified instructors, shortage of resources, and perceptions of the various science disciplines. In the HCPSS class of 2017, 100% of students took a course in Biology in high school, but only slightly more than half had formal experience in the Earth/Space sciences in high school. Approximately 80% took a course in chemistry, and just under half took a course in physics. In the new high school program of studies, all students will have the opportunity to learn all three science disciplines and engineering at all levels. Course content has been updated to offer opportunities for students to investigate and develop understanding around all DCI, thus 100% of students in HCPSS will have access to the earth/space science, physics, and all science in between. Each course pathway in high school leads students to opportunities to take advanced science coursework in high school and beyond., leading to college and career readiness in science.

Assessment Assessment is essential in instruction and learning. It is through assessment that teachers can effectively monitor student understanding in order to select appropriate instructional strategies that support students’ further development. The National Research Council’s report Developing Assessments of the Next Generation Science Standards (2014) describes a “system of assessment” that integrates the measurement of student learning from classroom level to large-scale testing. This system provides both formative and summative opportunities for educators to monitor student learning in order to inform instructional choices for individual students as well as to measure programmatic implementation of science instruction. Both of these forms of assessment are outlined in more detail below. Formative Learning in the next generation science classroom immerses students, as student scientists, in the practices of science and engineering; students construct deep and lasting understanding of important science ideas and apply the crosscutting concepts of science. In the Elementary Science program, instructional units are defined by overarching questions, with focus questions for each lesson within the unit. These overarching questions ground the learning, focusing student curiosity around an authentic, real-world “wonder.” Each of the lessons in every unit is developed and sequenced using the 5E learning cycle (BSCS, 2006) to meaningfully scaffold student learning. The 5E learning cycle is an instructional model based on a constructivist approach to learning, where learners build new ideas based on old ideas. Each of the 5 E's describes a phase of learning: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate. The 5E learning cycle ends with “Evaluation” and each elementary science lesson includes

formative assessment options for teachers to consider. Formative assessment options may be exit tickets related to the lesson/standard, observations and data related to an investigation, or claim/evidence/reasoning related to a science task. Throughout the learning, students are taught to keep science journals (composition books) for data collection, observations and ideas, questions and thoughts, as well as conclusions. Journals may include writing in the form of paragraphs, sentences, phrases and bulleted lists, diagrams with labels, or drawings. These journals are a formative assessment tool for teachers, a self-reflection tool by students, and an opportunity to show growth over time, as well as a reference for future learning. As appropriate, some units in each grade level also include authentic engineering tasks, where students must apply their science learning from the unit to problem solve an engineering design for the task. Deep and lasting learning requires time; premature focus on the “right answer” only hinders student development of understanding. In the secondary science learning environment, students benefit from developing and refining evidence-based arguments and explanations, with content-rich performance tasks forming the bedrock of the science learning experience. Performance tasks are designed to be complex, authentic, and relevant opportunities for students to demonstrate their understanding and to apply their scientific skills. Importantly, performance tasks drive the learning sequence for students and teachers. They are defined at the start of the learning sequence and readily answer the oft-asked question of “why do we need to know this?” by providing motivation and clearly defined goals. The performances are shaped by driving questions, and the learning activities are sequenced using the 5E learning cycle (BSCS) to scaffold student learning meaningfully. Much like a music student demonstrates learning through a recital, science students demonstrate science literacy through science performance. Along the way, as the students prepare for this public performance in science, teachers monitor progress through both informal and formal assessments that include discourse, questioning, and written responses. Daily learning activities serve as building blocks to the goal of active engagement and performance as scientifically literate citizens. MSDE - State assessment changes and timeline Both the federal government and the State of Maryland mandate assessment in science at the elementary, middle, and high school levels. Additionally, state requirements dictate that students must attain a minimum passing score on the high school science assessment for graduation (COMAR 13A.03.02.09). Under the former Maryland State Curriculum in Science/Core Learning Goals in Science, these assessments were known as the Maryland Science Assessment (MSA) in grades 5 and 8 and the Maryland High School Assessment (HSA) in Biology for high school. However, these assessments have been replaced by the Maryland Integrated Science Assessment (MISA) currently under development and planned to align with the Maryland Science Standards.

MSDE has spearheaded the development of MISA in consultation with school systems. The first administration of MISA in elementary and middle schools across Maryland is scheduled for March 2017. This first administration and the subsequent 2018 administration are designated as field and operational test years; therefore, full reporting of student scores is not expected. The assessment will be delivered digitally to students and is designed to immerse students in scenarios that will allow them to apply the science and engineering practices (SEPs) and cross-cutting concepts (CC) to authentic situations. Science ideas from each of the three disciplines of science and engineering will be included on the assessment. At the high school level, the Biology HSA will be administered for the last time in May 2017. Students need not attain a minimum passing score during this administration. Instead, following action by the Maryland State Board of Education in October 2016, only participation is needed to meet the graduation requirement. The first administration of the high school MISA is scheduled for the 2017-2018 school year as a field test. Operational testing in the high school MISA is expected for the 2018-2019 school year, and full administration with established cut scores is expected during 2019-2020. The high school MISA differs significantly from the Biology HSA. Whereas the HSA was an end of course test that focused on ideas within a single science discipline, the MISA include disciplinary core idea from each of the three disciplines of science as well as engineering. Students will apply the SEP and CC as well. School systems have latitude to determine when students participate in MISA in high school HCPSS is committed to helping students develop scientific literacy. The state tests are only markers on the road to the final learning destination. Since the MISA will not align to any specific course(s), students will take it after having completed coursework in all three major science disciplines. At the elementary level, students will take the MISA in 5th grade, assessing standards taught throughout elementary school. In middle school, students will take the MISA at the end of grade 8. In high school, students will participate in MISA during the year they complete their Maryland Science Standard aligned coursework. For most students, this means they will participate in MISA at the end of the eleventh grade as they complete their third science credit. Figure 4 summarizes the MSDE MISA implementation timeline and design (Appendices A and E).

Figure 4: MSDE Anticipated Timeline for MISA Implementation

Conclusion The Howard County Public School System science program fully supports HCPSS’ commitment to ensuring that every student achieves academic excellence in an inspiring, engaging, and supportive environment. To this end, rigorous and engaging instruction facilitated by highly effective teachers and supported by high quality curriculum are critical to ensure that, upon graduation, all students are scientifically literate citizens ready to contribute to the global community and to pursue further study in science and technology at postsecondary levels. To achieve this, there must be effective, consistent, and impactful implementation of the Maryland Science Standards. Through the steps detailed above in the areas of first instruction, organizational practice, equity and access, and assessment, we can address the strengths and needs of all learners and provide a solid foundation of knowledge and skills that will support future success in college and careers.

As we look ahead at the future of the HCPSS science instruction, there are some areas we have begun to explore for further development of our program. We recognize that as science pedagogy and instruction shift to even more interactive learning, long-term data collection, and reaching younger students earlier in their school careers, our facilities and classrooms must be updated to meet the need of our students and teachers. Renovations and/or new school design to include larger elementary classroom space, especially for intermediate grades, 3 - 5 that include space for science tables/work areas, should become a long-term priority. Laboratories in the middle schools and high schools meet the teaching and learning patterns most prevalent prior to Next Generation Science Standards. However, modern understanding in science blurs the lines

that traditionally have bounded the science disciplines, and engineering and technology applications are more inextricably tied to pure science than ever before. Thus, as we look ahead to new design opportunities, flexibility will be instrumental. Laboratories that support collaboration, invention, and creativity can spark student scientists to new accomplishments. In the area of professional learning, we know it is important to continue professional growth and understanding for classroom teachers and administrators, and will continue to do so; however, we also recognize the need for, and have begun the process of, reaching out to institutes of higher education (IHE). Not only do IHE need to better understand how science instruction has changed, and how well-prepared our students will be when coming to them, but also how their own instruction must shift in order to meet the deeper scientific understanding of our graduates. We intend to work with IHE to help prepare our teacher candidates to arrive in our classrooms ready to effectively teach the next generation of science students, using the philosophy, research, and standards we have addressed above. Long term, our school system will benefit from attending to what is unique about science. The National Research Council (2015) reminds us, “Implementing science standards is different from implementing standards in English language arts or mathematics…Typically, there are fewer individuals with expertise in science and science pedagogy available within the school or district [therefore, continued support for professional learning is needed]...There are also some costs associated with science - for materials and laboratory space - that are different than the costs of mathematics and English language arts [which may have budget implications in the future].” (Guide to Implementing the NGSS, p. 17). As we look ahead, we must ensure the science program continues to support all students on the path to scientific literacy.

Bibliography American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. Project 2061 - AAAS. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. BSCS. (2006). BSCS Science: An Inquiry Approach. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Bybee. R.W. (2015). The BSCS 5E Instructional Model: Creating Teachable Moments. Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers Association Press. College Board (2009). Science College Board Standards for College Success. http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/cbscs-science-standards-2009.pdf Katehi, L., Pearson, G., & Feder, M. (Eds.). (2009). Engineering in K-12 education: Understanding the status and improving the prospects (Committee on K-12 Engineering Education, National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council). Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Michaels, S., Shouse, A.W., and Schweingruber, H.A. (2008). Ready, Set, Science! Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms. Board on Science Education, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, D.C: The National Academies Press. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2015). Science Teachers Learning: Enhancing Opportunities, Creating Supportive Contexts. Committee on Strengthening Science Education through a Teacher Learning Continuum. Board on Science Education and Teacher Advisory Council, Division of Behavioral and Social Science and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. National Research Council. (2015). Guide to Implementing the Next Generation Science Standards. Committee on Guidance on Implementing the Next Generation Science Standards. Board of Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Studies and Education, Washington, D.C: The National Academies Press. National Research Council. (2014). Developing Assessments for the Next Generation Science Standards. Committee on Developing Assessments of Science Proficiency in K-12. Board on Testing and Assessment and Board on Science Education, J.W. Pellegrino, M.R. Wilson, J.A. Koenig, and A.S. Beatty, Editors. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

National Research Council. (2015). Guide to Implementing the Next Generation Science Standards. Committee on Guidance on Implementing the Next Generation Science Standards. Board of Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Studies and Education, Washington, D.C: The National Academies Press. National Research Council. (2012). A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas. Committee on a Conceptual Framework for New K-12 Science Education Standards. Board on Science Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. National Research Council. (2007). Taking Science to School: Learning and Teaching Science in Grades K-8. Committee on Science Learning, Kindergarten Through Eighth Grade. Richard A. Duschl, Heidi A. Schweingruber, and Andrew W. Shouse, Editors. Board on Science Education, Center for Education. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, D.C: The National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. (2013). Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. (www.nextgenscience.org) NSF (National Science Foundation). (2010). Preparing the next generation of STEM innovators: Identifying and developing our nation’s human capital. Washington, DC: NSF.

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APPENDIX C

Earth’s Systems

The section entitled “Disciplinary Core Ideas” is reproduced verbatim from A F ramework for K

Earth’s Systems

Develop a model to describe the cycling of Earth’s materials and the flow of energy that drives this process.

and rocks through the cy cling of Earth’s materials.] Earth’s s

of Earth’s mineral

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students’

ESS2.A: Earth’s Materials and Systems

among the planet’s systems. This energy is and Earth’s hot interior

changes in Earth’s main Earth’s Surface Processes

Humans depend on Earth’s

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Science and Engineering Practices in the NGSS

A Science Framework for K-12 Science Education provides the blueprint for developing the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). The Framework expresses a vision in science education that requires students to operate at the nexus of three dimensions of learning: Science and Engineering Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Disciplinary Core Ideas. The Framework identified a small number of disciplinary core ideas that all students should learn with increasing depth and sophistication, from Kindergarten through grade twelve. Key to the vision expressed in the Framework is for students to learn these disciplinary core ideas in the context of science and engineering practices. The importance of combining science and engineering practices and disciplinary core ideas is stated in the Framework as follows:

Standards and performance expectations that are aligned to the framework must take into account that students cannot fully understand scientific and engineering ideas without engaging in the practices of inquiry and the discourses by which such ideas are developed and refined. At the same time, they cannot learn or show competence in practices except in the context of specific content. (NRC Framework, 2012, p. 218)

The Framework specifies that each performance expectation must combine a relevant practice of science or engineering, with a core disciplinary idea and crosscutting concept, appropriate for students of the designated grade level. That guideline is perhaps the most significant way in which the NGSS differs from prior standards documents. In the future, science assessments will not assess students’ understanding of core ideas separately from their abilities to use the practices of science and engineering. They will be assessed together, showing students not only “know” science concepts; but also, students can use their understanding to investigate the natural world through the practices of science inquiry, or solve meaningful problems through the practices of engineering design. The Framework uses the term “practices,” rather than “science processes” or “inquiry” skills for a specific reason:

We use the term “practices” instead of a term such as “skills” to emphasize that engaging in scientific investigation requires not only skill but also knowledge that is specific to each practice. (NRC Framework, 2012, p. 30)

The eight practices of science and engineering that the Framework identifies as essential for all students to learn and describes in detail are listed below:

1. Asking questions (for science) and defining problems (for engineering)2. Developing and using models3. Planning and carrying out investigations4. Analyzing and interpreting data5. Using mathematics and computational thinking6. Constructing explanations (for science) and designing solutions (for engineering)7. Engaging in argument from evidence8. Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information

Rationale Chapter 3 of the Framework describes each of the eight practices of science and engineering and presents the following rationale for why they are essential.

Engaging in the practices of science helps students understand how scientific knowledge develops; such direct involvement gives them an appreciation of the wide range of approaches that are used to investigate, model, and explain the world. Engaging in the practices of engineering likewise helps students understand the work of engineers, as well as the links between engineering and science. Participation in these practices also

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helps students form an understanding of the crosscutting concepts and disciplinary ideas of science and engineering; moreover, it makes students’ knowledge more meaningful and embeds it more deeply into their worldview.

The actual doing of science or engineering can also pique students’ curiosity, capture their interest, and motivate their continued study; the insights thus gained help them recognize that the work of scientists and engineers is a creative endeavor—one that has deeply affected the world they live in. Students may then recognize that science and engineering can contribute to meeting many of the major challenges that confront society today, such as generating sufficient energy, preventing and treating disease, maintaining supplies of fresh water and food, and addressing climate change.

Any education that focuses predominantly on the detailed products of scientific labor—the facts of science—without developing an understanding of how those facts were established or that ignores the many important applications of science in the world misrepresents science and marginalizes the importance of engineering. (NRC Framework 2012, pp. 42-43)

As suggested in the rationale, above, Chapter 3 derives the eight practices based on an analysis of what professional scientists and engineers do. It is recommended that users of the NGSS read that chapter carefully, as it provides valuable insights into the nature of science and engineering, as well as the connections between these two closely allied fields. The intent of this section of the NGSS appendices is more limited—to describe what each of these eight practices implies about what students can do. Its purpose is to enable readers to better understand the performance expectations. The “Practices Matrix” is included, which lists the specific capabilities included in each practice for each grade band (K-2, 3-5, 6-8, 9-12).

Guiding Principles The development process of the standards provided insights into science and engineering practices. These insights are shared in the following guiding principles:

Students in grades K-12 should engage in all eight practices over each grade band. All eight practices are accessible at some level to young children; students’ abilities to use the practices grow over time. However, the NGSS only identifies the capabilities students are expected to acquire by the end of each grade band (K-2, 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12). Curriculum developers and teachers determine strategies that advance students’ abilities to use the practices. Practices grow in complexity and sophistication across the grades. The Framework suggests how students’ capabilities to use each of the practices should progress as they mature and engage in science learning. For example, the practice of “planning and carrying out investigations” begins at the kindergarten level with guided situations in which students have assistance in identifying phenomena to be investigated, and how to observe, measure, and record outcomes. By upper elementary school, students should be able to plan their own investigations. The nature of investigations that students should be able to plan and carry out is also expected to increase as students mature, including the complexity of questions to be studied, the ability to determine what kind of investigation is needed to answer different kinds of questions, whether or not variables need to be controlled and if so, which are most important, and at the high school level, how to take measurement error into account. As listed in the tables in this chapter, each of the eight practices has its own progression, from kindergarten to grade 12. While these progressions are derived from Chapter 3 of the Framework, they are refined based on experiences in crafting the NGSS and feedback received from reviewers. Each practice may reflect science or engineering. Each of the eight practices can be used in the service of scientific inquiry or engineering design. The best way to ensure a practice is being used

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for science or engineering is to ask about the goal of the activity. Is the goal to answer a question? If so, students are doing science. Is the purpose to define and solve a problem? If so, students are doing engineering. Box 3-2 on pages 50-53 of the Framework provides a side-by-side comparison of how scientists and engineers use these practices. This chapter briefly summarizes what it “looks like” for a student to use each practice for science or engineering. Practices represent what students are expected to do, and are not teaching methods or curriculum. The Framework occasionally offers suggestions for instruction, such as how a science unit might begin with a scientific investigation, which then leads to the solution of an engineering problem. The NGSS avoids such suggestions since the goal is to describe what students should be able to do, rather than how they should be taught. For example, it was suggested for the NGSS to recommend certain teaching strategies such as using biomimicry—the application of biological features to solve engineering design problems. Although instructional units that make use of biomimicry seem well-aligned with the spirit of the Framework to encourage integration of core ideas and practices, biomimicry and similar teaching approaches are more closely related to curriculum and instruction than to assessment. Hence, the decision was made not to include biomimicry in the NGSS. The eight practices are not separate; they intentionally overlap and interconnect. As explained by Bell, et al. (2012), the eight practices do not operate in isolation. Rather, they tend to unfold sequentially, and even overlap. For example, the practice of “asking questions” may lead to the practice of “modeling” or “planning and carrying out an investigation,” which in turn may lead to “analyzing and interpreting data.” The practice of “mathematical and computational thinking” may include some aspects of “analyzing and interpreting data.” Just as it is important for students to carry out each of the individual practices, it is important for them to see the connections among the eight practices. Performance expectations focus on some but not all capabilities associated with a practice. The Framework identifies a number of features or components of each practice. The practices matrix, described in this section, lists the components of each practice as a bulleted list within each grade band. As the performance expectations were developed, it became clear that it’s too much to expect each performance to reflect all components of a given practice. The most appropriate aspect of the practice is identified for each performance expectation. Engagement in practices is language intensive and requires students to participate in classroom science discourse. The practices offer rich opportunities and demands for language learning while advancing science learning for all students (Lee, Quinn, & Valdés, in press). English language learners, students with disabilities that involve language processing, students with limited literacy development, and students who are speakers of social or regional varieties of English that are generally referred to as “non-Standard English” stand to gain from science learning that involves language-intensive scientific and engineering practices. When supported appropriately, these students are capable of learning science through their emerging language and comprehending and carrying out sophisticated language functions (e.g., arguing from evidence, providing explanations, developing models) using less-than-perfect English. By engaging in such practices, moreover, they simultaneously build on their understanding of science and their language proficiency (i.e., capacity to do more with language).

On the following pages, each of the eight practices is briefly described. Each description ends with a table illustrating the components of the practice that students are expected to master at the end of each grade band. All eight tables comprise the practices matrix. During development of the NGSS, the practices matrix was revised several times to reflect improved understanding of how the practices connect with the disciplinary core ideas.

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Practice 1 Asking Questions and Defining Problems Students at any grade level should be able to ask questions of each other about the texts they read, the features of the phenomena they observe, and the conclusions they draw from their models or scientific investigations. For engineering, they should ask questions to define the problem to be solved and to elicit ideas that lead to the constraints and specifications for its solution. (NRC Framework 2012, p. 56)

Scientific questions arise in a variety of ways. They can be driven by curiosity about the world, inspired by the predictions of a model, theory, or findings from previous investigations, or they can be stimulated by the need to solve a problem. Scientific questions are distinguished from other types of questions in that the answers lie in explanations supported by empirical evidence, including evidence gathered by others or through investigation. While science begins with questions, engineering begins with defining a problem to solve. However, engineering may also involve asking questions to define a problem, such as: What is the need or desire that underlies the problem? What are the criteria for a successful solution? Other questions arise when generating ideas, or testing possible solutions, such as: What are the possible trade-offs? What evidence is necessary to determine which solution is best? Asking questions and defining problems also involves asking questions about data, claims that are made, and proposed designs. It is important to realize that asking a question also leads to involvement in another practice. A student can ask a question about data that will lead to further analysis and interpretation. Or a student might ask a question that leads to planning and design, an investigation, or the refinement of a design. Whether engaged in science or engineering, the ability to ask good questions and clearly define problems is essential for everyone. The following progression of Practice 1 summarizes what students should be able to do by the end of each grade band. Each of the examples of asking questions below leads to students engaging in other scientific practices.

Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

Asking questions and defining problems in K–2 builds on prior experiences and progresses to simple descriptive questions that can be tested.

Ask questions basedon observations to findmore informationabout the natural and/or designedworld(s).Ask and/or identify questions that can be answered by aninvestigation.Define a simple problem that can be solved through the development of a new or improved object or tool.

Asking questions and defining problems in 3–5 builds on K–2 experiences and progresses to specifying qualitative relationships.

Ask questions about whatwould happen if a variable ischanged. Identify scientific (testable) and non-scientific (non-testable) questions. Ask questions that can be investigated and predictreasonable outcomes based on patterns such as cause andeffect relationships.Use prior knowledge to describe problems that can be solved.Define a simple designproblem that can be solvedthrough the development of an object, tool, process, or system and includes several criteria for success and constraints on materials, time,or cost.

Asking questions and defining problems in 6–8 builds on K–5 experiences and progresses to specifying relationships between variables, and clarifying arguments and models.

Ask questionsthat arise from careful observationof phenomena, models, or unexpected results, to clarify and/or seek additional information.to identify and/or clarify evidence and/or the premise(s) of anargument. to determine relationships betweenindependent and dependentvariables and relationships inmodels.to clarify and/or refine a model, anexplanation, or an engineering problem.that require sufficient and appropriate empirical evidence to answer.that can be investigated within the scope of the classroom, outdoor environment, and museums andother public facilities with available resources and, when

Asking questions and defining problems in 9–12 builds on K–8 experiences and progresses to formulating, refining, and evaluating empirically testable questions and design problems using models and simulations.

Ask questionsthat arise from careful observation of phenomena,or unexpected results, to clarify and/or seekadditional information. that arise from examining models or a theory, to clarify and/or seekadditional information andrelationships. to determine relationships,including quantitative relationships, betweenindependent and dependent variables.to clarify and refine a model, an explanation, or an engineering problem.

Evaluate a question to determine if it is testable and

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appropriate, frame a hypothesis based on observations and scientific principles. that challenge the premise(s) of anargument or the interpretation of adata set.

Define a design problem that can be solved through the development of an object, tool, process or system andincludes multiple criteria andconstraints, including scientificknowledge that may limit possible solutions.

relevant. Ask questions that can be investigated within the scope of the school laboratory,research facilities, or field(e.g., outdoor environment) with available resources and, when appropriate, frame a hypothesis based on a model or theory.Ask and/or evaluate questions that challenge the premise(s) of an argument, the interpretation of a data set, or the suitability of a design.Define a design problem thatinvolves the development of aprocess or system withinteracting components andcriteria and constraints thatmay include social, technical,and/or environmental considerations.

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Practice 2 Developing and Using Models Modeling can begin in the earliest grades, with students’ models progressing from concrete “pictures” and/or physical scale models (e.g., a toy car) to more abstract representations of relevant relationships in later grades, such as a diagram representing forces on a particular object in a system. (NRC Framework, 2012, p. 58)

Models include diagrams, physical replicas, mathematical representations, analogies, and computer simulations. Although models do not correspond exactly to the real world, they bring certain features into focus while obscuring others. All models contain approximations and assumptions that limit the range of validity and predictive power, so it is important for students to recognize their limitations. In science, models are used to represent a system (or parts of a system) under study, to aid in the development of questions and explanations, to generate data that can be used to make predictions, and to communicate ideas to others. Students can be expected to evaluate and refine models through an iterative cycle of comparing their predictions with the real world and then adjusting them to gain insights into the phenomenon being modeled. As such, models are based upon evidence. When new evidence is uncovered that the models can’t explain, models are modified. In engineering, models may be used to analyze a system to see where or under what conditions flaws might develop, or to test possible solutions to a problem. Models can also be used to visualize and refine a design, to communicate a design’s features to others, and as prototypes for testing design performance.

Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

Modeling in K–2 builds on prior experiences and progresses to include using and developing models (i.e., diagram, drawing, physical replica, diorama, dramatization, or storyboard) that represent concrete events or design solutions.

Distinguish between a model and the actual object, process,and/or events the model represents.Compare models to identify common features anddifferences.Develop and/or use a model to represent amounts, relationships, relative scales(bigger, smaller), and/or patterns in the natural anddesigned world(s).Develop a simple model basedon evidence to represent aproposed object or tool.

Modeling in 3–5 builds on K–2 experiences and progresses to building and revising simple models and using models to represent events and design solutions.

Identify limitations of models.Collaboratively develop and/orrevise a model based on evidence that shows the relationships among variablesfor frequent and regular occurring events. Develop a model using ananalogy, example, or abstractrepresentation to describe ascientific principle or designsolution. Develop and/or use models to describe and/or predictphenomena. Develop a diagram or simple physical prototype to convey aproposed object, tool, or process.Use a model to test cause and effect relationships or interactions concerning the functioning of a natural or designed system.

Modeling in 6–8 builds on K–5 experiences and progresses to developing, using, and revising models to describe, test, and predict more abstract phenomena and design systems.

Evaluate limitations of a model for a proposed object or tool.Develop or modify a model—based on evidence – to match whathappens if a variable or component of a system is changed. Use and/or develop a model of simple systems with uncertain andless predictable factors.Develop and/or revise a model to show the relationships among variables, including those that are not observable but predictobservable phenomena.Develop and/or use a model to predict and/or describe phenomena.Develop a model to describe unobservable mechanisms.Develop and/or use a model to generate data to test ideas about phenomena in natural or designedsystems, including those representing inputs and outputs, and those at unobservable scales.

Modeling in 9–12 builds on K–8 experiences and progresses to using, synthesizing, and developing models to predict and show relationships among variables between systems and their components in the natural and designed worlds.

Evaluate merits and limitations of two different models of the same proposed tool, process,mechanism or system in order to select or revise a model that bestfits the evidence or design criteria.Design a test of a model to ascertain its reliability.Develop, revise, and/or use amodel based on evidence to illustrate and/or predict the relationships between systems orbetween components of a system.Develop and/or use multiple typesof models to provide mechanistic accounts and/or predictphenomena, and move flexibly between model types based on merits and limitations. Develop a complex model thatallows for manipulation andtesting of a proposed process or system.Develop and/or use a model (including mathematical and computational) to generate data to support explanations, predictphenomena, analyze systems,and/or solve problems.

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Practice 3 Planning and Carrying Out Investigations

Students should have opportunities to plan and carry out several different kinds of investigations during their K-12 years. At all levels, they should engage in investigations that range from those structured by the teacher—in order to expose an issue or question that they would be unlikely to explore on their own (e.g., measuring specific properties of materials)—to those that emerge from students’ own questions. (NRC Framework, 2012, p. 61)

Scientific investigations may be undertaken to describe a phenomenon, or to test a theory or model for how the world works. The purpose of engineering investigations might be to find out how to fix or improve the functioning of a technological system or to compare different solutions to see which best solves a problem. Whether students are doing science or engineering, it is always important for them to state the goal of an investigation, predict outcomes, and plan a course of action that will provide the best evidence to support their conclusions. Students should design investigations that generate data to provide evidence to support claims they make about phenomena. Data aren’t evidence until used in the process of supporting a claim. Students should use reasoning and scientific ideas, principles, and theories to show why data can be considered evidence. Over time, students are expected to become more systematic and careful in their methods. In laboratory experiments, students are expected to decide which variables should be treated as results or outputs, which should be treated as inputs and intentionally varied from trial to trial, and which should be controlled, or kept the same across trials. In the case of field observations, planning involves deciding how to collect different samples of data under different conditions, even though not all conditions are under the direct control of the investigator. Planning and carrying out investigations may include elements of all of the other practices.

Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

Planning and carrying out investigations to answer questions or test solutions to problems in K–2 builds on prior experiences and progresses to simple investigations, based on fair tests, which provide data to support explanations or design solutions.

With guidance, plan and conduct an investigation incollaboration with peers (for K).Plan and conduct an investigation collaboratively to produce data to serve asthe basis for evidence to answer a question. Evaluate different ways of observing and/or measuring a phenomenon to determine which way can answer aquestion. Make observations(firsthand or from media)and/or measurements to collect data that can be used to make comparisons. Make observations(firsthand or from media)and/or measurements of aproposed object or tool or solution to determine if it

Planning and carrying out investigations to answer questions or test solutions to problems in 3–5 builds on K–2 experiences and progresses to include investigations that control variables and provide evidence to support explanations or design solutions.

Plan and conduct an investigationcollaboratively to produce data to serve as the basisfor evidence, using fair tests in which variables are controlled and the number of trials considered.Evaluate appropriate methods and/or tools for collecting data. Make observations and/or measurements to produce data to serve as the basisfor evidence for anexplanation of aphenomenon or test adesign solution. Make predictions about what would happen if a variable changes.Test two different modelsof the same proposedobject, tool, or process to

Planning and carrying out investigations in 6-8 builds on K-5 experiences and progresses to include investigations that use multiple variables and provide evidence to support explanations or solutions.

Plan an investigationindividually andcollaboratively, and in the design: identify independent and dependentvariables and controls,what tools are needed to do the gathering, how measurements will be recorded, and how many data are needed to support a claim. Conduct an investigation and/or evaluate and/or revise the experimental design to produce data to serve as the basis forevidence that meet the goals of the investigation. Evaluate the accuracy of various methods for collecting data. Collect data to produce data to serve as the basisfor evidence to answer scientific questions or test

Planning and carrying out investigations in 9-12 builds on K-8 experiences and progresses to include investigations that provide evidence for and test conceptual, mathematical, physical, and empirical models.

Plan an investigation or test a design individually and collaboratively to produce data to serve as the basis forevidence as part of building andrevising models, supporting explanations for phenomena, or testing solutions to problems. Consider possible confounding variables or effects and evaluate the investigation’sdesign to ensure variables are controlled.Plan and conduct an investigationindividually and collaboratively to produce data to serve as the basis forevidence, and in the design: decide on types, how much, and accuracy of dataneeded to produce reliable measurements and consider limitationson the precision of the data (e.g., number of trials, cost, risk, time), and refine the design accordingly.Plan and conduct an investigation or test a design solution in a safe and ethical manner including considerationsof environmental, social, and personal impacts. Select appropriate tools to collect,record, analyze, and evaluate data.

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solves a problem or meets a goal. Make predictions based on prior experiences.

determine which better meets criteria for success.

design solutions under a range of conditions. Collect data about the performance of a proposedobject, tool, process or system under a range ofconditions.

Make directional hypotheses thatspecify what happens to a dependentvariable when an independent variable is manipulated. Manipulate variables and collect dataabout a complex model of a proposedprocess or system to identify failure points or improve performance relative to criteria for success or other variables.

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Practice 4 Analyzing and Interpreting Data

Once collected, data must be presented in a form that can reveal any patterns and relationships and that allows results to be communicated to others. Because raw data as such have little meaning, a major practice of scientists is to organize and interpret data through tabulating, graphing, or statistical analysis. Such analysis can bring out the meaning of data—and their relevance—so that they may be used as evidence.

Engineers, too, make decisions based on evidence that a given design will work; they rarely rely on trial and error. Engineers often analyze a design by creating a model or prototype and collecting extensive data on how it performs, including under extreme conditions. Analysis of this kind of data not only informs design decisions and enables the prediction or assessment of performance but also helps define or clarify problems, determine economic feasibility, evaluate alternatives, and investigate failures. (NRC Framework, 2012, p. 61-62)

As students mature, they are expected to expand their capabilities to use a range of tools for tabulation, graphical representation, visualization, and statistical analysis. Students are also expected to improve their abilities to interpret data by identifying significant features and patterns, use mathematics to represent relationships between variables, and take into account sources of error. When possible and feasible, students should use digital tools to analyze and interpret data. Whether analyzing data for the purpose of science or engineering, it is important students present data as evidence to support their conclusions.

Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

Analyzing data in K–2 builds on prior experiences and progresses to collecting, recording, and sharing observations.

Record information(observations, thoughts,and ideas). Use and share pictures,drawings, and/or writings of observations. Use observations(firsthand or frommedia) to describe patterns and/or relationships in the natural and designed world(s) in order to answer scientificquestions and solve problems.Compare predictions(based on prior experiences) to whatoccurred (observable events). Analyze data from testsof an object or tool to determine if it works asintended.

Analyzing data in 3–5 builds on K–2 experiences and progresses to introducing quantitative approaches to collecting data and conducting multiple trials of qualitative observations. When possible and feasible, digital tools should be used.

Represent data in tablesand/or various graphical displays (bar graphs, pictographs and/or pie charts) to reveal patternsthat indicate relationships.Analyze and interpret datato make sense of phenomena, using logical reasoning, mathematics,and/or computation.Compare and contrast data collected by differentgroups in order to discusssimilarities and differencesin their findings. Analyze data to refine a problem statement or the design of a proposedobject, tool, or process. Use data to evaluate and refine design solutions.

Analyzing data in 6–8 builds on K–5 experiences and progresses to extending quantitative analysis to investigations, distinguishing between correlation and causation, and basic statistical techniques of data and error analysis.

Construct, analyze, and/or interpretgraphical displays of data and/or large data sets to identify linear and nonlinear relationships.Use graphical displays (e.g., maps,charts, graphs, and/or tables) of large data sets to identify temporal andspatial relationships. Distinguish between causal andcorrelational relationships in data. Analyze and interpret data to provide evidence for phenomena.Apply concepts of statistics andprobability (including mean, median, mode, and variability) to analyze andcharacterize data, using digital toolswhen feasible.Consider limitations of data analysis(e.g., measurement error), and/or seek to improve precision and accuracy of data with better technological tools andmethods (e.g., multiple trials).Analyze and interpret data to determine similarities and differences in findings.Analyze data to define an optimal operational range for a proposed object, tool, process or system that best meetscriteria for success.

Analyzing data in 9–12 builds on K–8 experiences and progresses to introducing more detailed statistical analysis, the comparison of data sets for consistency, and the use of models to generate and analyze data.

Analyze data using tools,technologies, and/or models (e.g.,computational, mathematical) in order to make valid and reliable scientificclaims or determine an optimal design solution. Apply concepts of statistics andprobability (including determining function fits to data, slope, intercept, and correlation coefficient for linear fits) to scientific and engineering questions and problems, using digital tools when feasible.Consider limitations of data analysis(e.g., measurement error, sample selection) when analyzing andinterpreting data.Compare and contrast various types of data sets (e.g., self-generated,archival) to examine consistency of measurements and observations. Evaluate the impact of new data on a working explanation and/or model of a proposed process or system.Analyze data to identify designfeatures or characteristics of the components of a proposed process or system to optimize it relative to criteria for success.

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Practice 5 Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking

Although there are differences in how mathematics and computational thinking are applied in science and in engineering, mathematics often brings these two fields together by enabling engineers to apply the mathematical form of scientific theories and by enabling scientists to use powerful information technologies designed by engineers. Both kinds of professionals can thereby accomplish investigations and analyses and build complex models, which might otherwise be out of the question. (NRC Framework, 2012, p. 65)

Students are expected to use mathematics to represent physical variables and their relationships, and to make quantitative predictions. Other applications of mathematics in science and engineering include logic, geometry, and at the highest levels, calculus. Computers and digital tools can enhance the power of mathematics by automating calculations, approximating solutions to problems that cannot be calculated precisely, and analyzing large data sets available to identify meaningful patterns. Students are expected to use laboratory tools connected to computers for observing, measuring, recording, and processing data. Students are also expected to engage in computational thinking, which involves strategies for organizing and searching data, creating sequences of steps called algorithms, and using and developing new simulations of natural and designed systems. Mathematics is a tool that is key to understanding science. As such, classroom instruction must include critical skills of mathematics. The NGSS displays many of those skills through the performance expectations, but classroom instruction should enhance all of science through the use of quality mathematical and computational thinking.

Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

Mathematical and computational thinking in K–2 builds on prior experience and progresses to recognizing that mathematics can be used to describe the natural and designed world(s).

Decide when to use qualitative vs.quantitative data. Use counting and numbers to identify anddescribe patterns in the natural and designed world(s).Describe, measure,and/or compare quantitative attributes of different objects anddisplay the data usingsimple graphs. Use quantitative data to compare two alternative solutions to a problem.

Mathematical and computational thinking in 3–5 builds on K–2 experiences and progresses to extending quantitative measurements to a variety of physical properties and using computation and mathematics to analyze data and compare alternative design solutions.

Decide if qualitative or quantitative data are best to determine whether a proposedobject or tool meetscriteria for success. Organize simple datasets to reveal patterns that suggestrelationships.Describe, measure,estimate, and/or graphquantities (e.g., area,volume, weight, time) to address scientific andengineering questionsand problems.Create and/or use graphs and/or charts generated from simple algorithms to compare alternative solutions to an engineering problem.

Mathematical and computational thinking in 6–8 builds on K–5 experiences and progresses to identifying patterns in large data sets and using mathematical concepts to support explanations and arguments.

Use digital tools (e.g.,computers) to analyze very large data sets for patterns and trends. Use mathematical representations to describe and/or support scientificconclusions and designsolutions. Create algorithms (a series of ordered steps) to solve aproblem.Apply mathematical conceptsand/or processes (e.g., ratio,rate, percent, basic operations, simple algebra) to scientific and engineering questions and problems. Use digital tools and/or mathematical concepts andarguments to test andcompare proposed solutionsto an engineering design problem.

Mathematical and computational thinking in 9-12 builds on K-8 experiences and progresses to using algebraic thinking and analysis, a range of linear and nonlinear functions including trigonometric functions, exponentials and logarithms, and computational tools for statistical analysis to analyze, represent, and model data. Simple computational simulations are created and used based on mathematical models of basic assumptions.

Create and/or revise a computational model or simulation of a phenomenon, designeddevice, process, or system.Use mathematical, computational, and/or algorithmic representations of phenomenaor design solutions to describe and/or support claims and/or explanations.Apply techniques of algebra and functionsto represent and solve scientific andengineering problems. Use simple limit cases to test mathematical expressions, computer programs,algorithms, or simulations of a process or system to see if a model “makes sense” by comparing the outcomes with what isknown about the real world.Apply ratios, rates, percentages, and unitconversions in the context of complicatedmeasurement problems involving quantitieswith derived or compound units (such asmg/mL, kg/m3, acre-feet, etc.).

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Practice 6 Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions

The goal of science is to construct explanations for the causes of phenomena. Students are expected to construct their own explanations, as well as apply standard explanations they learn about from their teachers or reading. The Framework states the following about explanation:

“The goal of science is the construction of theories that provide explanatory accounts of the world. A theory becomes accepted when it has multiple lines of empirical evidence and greater explanatory power of phenomena than previous theories.”(NRC Framework, 2012, p. 52)

An explanation includes a claim that relates how a variable or variables relate to another variable or a set of variables. A claim is often made in response to a question and in the process of answering the question, scientists often design investigations to generate data. The goal of engineering is to solve problems. Designing solutions to problems is a systematic process that involves defining the problem, then generating, testing, and improving solutions. This practice is described in the Framework as follows.

Asking students to demonstrate their own understanding of the implications of a scientific idea by developing their own explanations of phenomena, whether based on observations they have made or models they have developed, engages them in an essential part of the process by which conceptual change can occur.

In engineering, the goal is a design rather than an explanation. The process of developing a design is iterative and systematic, as is the process of developing an explanation or a theory in science. Engineers’ activities, however, have elements that are distinct from those of scientists. These elements include specifying constraints and criteria for desired qualities of the solution, developing a design plan, producing and testing models or prototypes, selecting among alternative design features to optimize the achievement of design criteria, and refining design ideas based on the performance of a prototype or simulation. (NRC Framework, 2012, p. 68-69)

Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

Constructing explanations and designing solutions in K–2 builds on prior experiences and progresses to the use of evidence and ideas in constructing evidence-based accounts of natural phenomena and designing solutions.

Make observations(firsthand or frommedia) to construct an evidence-based account for natural phenomena.Use tools and/or materials to design and/or build a device that solves a specific problem or a solutionto a specific problem.Generate and/or compare multiple solutions to a problem.

Constructing explanations and designing solutions in 3–5 builds on K–2 experiences and progresses to the use of evidence in constructing explanations that specify variables that describe and predict phenomena and in designing multiple solutions to design problems.

Construct anexplanation of observedrelationships (e.g., the distribution of plants inthe back yard).Use evidence (e.g.,measurements,observations, patterns) to construct or support an explanation or design a solution to a problem. Identify the evidence that supports particular points in an explanation. Apply scientific ideas to solve design problems.Generate and compare multiple solutions to aproblem based on how

Constructing explanations and designing solutions in 6–8 builds on K–5 experiences and progresses to include constructing explanations and designing solutions supported by multiple sources of evidence consistent with scientific ideas, principles, and theories.

Construct an explanation thatincludes qualitative or quantitative relationships between variables thatpredict(s) and/or describe(s) phenomena. Construct an explanation using models or representations. Construct a scientific explanationbased on valid and reliable evidence obtained from sources (including the students’ own experiments) and the assumption that theories and lawsthat describe the natural worldoperate today as they did in the pastand will continue to do so in the future.Apply scientific ideas, principles,and/or evidence to construct, revise and/or use an explanation for real-world phenomena, examples, or events.Apply scientific reasoning to show why the data or evidence is adequate for the explanation or conclusion.

Constructing explanations and designing solutions in 9–12 builds on K–8 experiences and progresses to explanations and designs that are supported by multiple and independent student-generated sources of evidence consistent with scientific ideas, principles, and theories.

Make a quantitative and/or qualitative claim regarding the relationship between dependent and independentvariables. Construct and revise an explanationbased on valid and reliable evidence obtained from a variety of sources(including students’ own investigations,models, theories, simulations, peer review) and the assumption that theories and laws that describe the natural world operate today as they didin the past and will continue to do so inthe future. Apply scientific ideas, principles,and/or evidence to provide anexplanation of phenomena and solve design problems, taking into accountpossible unanticipated effects.Apply scientific reasoning, theory,and/or models to link evidence to the claims to assess the extent to which the reasoning and data support the explanation or conclusion.

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well they meet the criteria and constraints of the design solution.

Apply scientific ideas or principlesto design, construct, and/or test adesign of an object, tool, process or system.Undertake a design project, engaging in the design cycle, to constructand/or implement a solution that meets specific design criteria and constraints. Optimize performance of a design by prioritizing criteria, making tradeoffs, testing, revising, and re-testing.

Design, evaluate, and/or refine asolution to a complex real-worldproblem, based on scientific knowledge, student-generated sources of evidence, prioritized criteria, andtradeoff considerations.

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Practice 7 Engaging in Argument from Evidence

The study of science and engineering should produce a sense of the process of argument necessary for advancing and defending a new idea or an explanation of a phenomenon and the norms for conducting such arguments. In that spirit, students should argue for the explanations they construct, defend their interpretations of the associated data, and advocate for the designs they propose. (NRC Framework, 2012, p. 73)

Argumentation is a process for reaching agreements about explanations and design solutions. In science, reasoning and argument based on evidence are essential in identifying the best explanation for a natural phenomenon. In engineering, reasoning and argument are needed to identify the best solution to a design problem. Student engagement in scientific argumentation is critical if students are to understand the culture in which scientists live, and how to apply science and engineering for the benefit of society. As such, argument is a process based on evidence and reasoning that leads to explanations acceptable by the scientific community and design solutions acceptable by the engineering community. Argument in science goes beyond reaching agreements in explanations and design solutions. Whether investigating a phenomenon, testing a design, or constructing a model to provide a mechanism for an explanation, students are expected to use argumentation to listen to, compare, and evaluate competing ideas and methods based on their merits. Scientists and engineers engage in argumentation when investigating a phenomenon, testing a design solution, resolving questions about measurements, building data models, and using evidence to evaluate claims.

Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

Engaging in argument from evidence in K–2 builds on prior experiences and progresses to comparing ideas and representations about the natural and designed world(s).

Identify arguments thatare supported by evidence.Distinguish betweenexplanations that account for all gathered evidence and those that do not. Analyze why some evidence is relevant to ascientific question andsome is not.Distinguish betweenopinions and evidence in one’s own explanations. Listen actively to arguments to indicate agreement or disagreement based onevidence, and/or to retell the main points of the argument. Construct an argumentwith evidence to supporta claim.Make a claim about the effectiveness of an object, tool, or solutionthat is supported by relevant evidence.

Engaging in argument from evidence in 3–5 builds on K–2 experiences and progresses to critiquing the scientific explanations or solutions proposed by peers by citing relevant evidence about the natural and designed world(s).

Compare and refine arguments based on an evaluation of the evidence presented.Distinguish among facts, reasoned judgment based onresearch findings, andspeculation in an explanation.Respectfully provide andreceive critiques from peersabout a proposed procedure,explanation, or model by citing relevant evidence and posing specific questions. Construct and/or support an argument with evidence, data, and/or a model.Use data to evaluate claimsabout cause and effect.Make a claim about the meritof a solution to a problem by citing relevant evidence abouthow it meets the criteria andconstraints of the problem.

Engaging in argument from evidence in 6–8 builds on K–5 experiences and progresses to constructing a convincing argument that supports or refutes claims for either explanations or solutions about the natural and designed world(s).

Compare and critique two arguments on the same topic and analyze whether they emphasize similar or differentevidence and/or interpretations of facts. Respectfully provide andreceive critiques about one’sexplanations, procedures,models, and questions by citing relevant evidence and posing and responding to questions that elicit pertinentelaboration and detail.Construct, use, and/or presentan oral and written argumentsupported by empirical evidence and scientificreasoning to support or refute an explanation or a model for aphenomenon or a solution to aproblem.Make an oral or writtenargument that supports or refutes the advertisedperformance of a device,process, or system based on empirical evidence concerning whether or not the technology meets relevant criteria andconstraints.

Engaging in argument from evidence in 9–12 builds on K–8 experiences and progresses to using appropriate and sufficient evidence and scientific reasoning to defend and critique claims and explanations about the natural and designed world(s). Arguments may also come from current scientific or historical episodes in science.

Compare and evaluate competing arguments or design solutions in light of currently accepted explanations, new evidence,limitations (e.g., trade-offs),constraints, and ethical issues.Evaluate the claims, evidence,and/or reasoning behind currently accepted explanations or solutions to determine the merits of arguments.Respectfully provide and/or receive critiques on scientific arguments by probing reasoning and evidence,challenging ideas and conclusions, responding thoughtfully to diverse perspectives, and determining additional information required to resolve contradictions.Construct, use, and/or present anoral and written argument or counter-arguments based on data andevidence.Make and defend a claim based on evidence about the natural world or the effectiveness of a design solution that reflects scientific knowledge and student-generated evidence. Evaluate competing design solutions to a real-world problem based onscientific ideas and principles,

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Evaluate competing designsolutions based on jointly developed and agreed-upon design criteria.

empirical evidence, and/or logical arguments regarding relevant factors (e.g. economic, societal, environmental, ethical considerations).

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Practice 8 Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information

Any education in science and engineering needs to develop students’ ability to read and produce domain-specific text. As such, every science or engineering lesson is in part a language lesson, particularly reading and producing the genres of texts that are intrinsic to science and engineering. (NRC Framework, 2012, p. 76)

Being able to read, interpret, and produce scientific and technical text are fundamental practices of science and engineering, as is the ability to communicate clearly and persuasively. Being a critical consumer of information about science and engineering requires the ability to read or view reports of scientific or technological advances or applications (whether found in the press, the Internet, or in a town meeting) and to recognize the salient ideas, identify sources of error and methodological flaws, distinguish observations from inferences, arguments from explanations, and claims from evidence. Scientists and engineers employ multiple sources to obtain information used to evaluate the merit and validity of claims, methods, and designs. Communicating information, evidence, and ideas can be done in multiple ways: using tables, diagrams, graphs, models, interactive displays, and equations as well as orally, in writing, and through extended discussions.

Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information in K–2 builds on prior experiences and uses observations and texts to communicate new information.

Read grade-appropriate textsand/or use media to obtainscientific and/or technical information to determine patterns in and/or evidence about the natural anddesigned world(s).Describe how specific images(e.g., a diagram showing how a machine works) support ascientific or engineering idea.Obtain information using various texts, text features(e.g., headings, tables of contents, glossaries,electronic menus, icons), andother media that will be useful in answering ascientific question and/or supporting a scientific claim. Communicate information or design ideas and/or solutionswith others in oral and/or written forms using models,drawings, writing, or numbersthat provide detail aboutscientific ideas, practices,and/or design ideas.

Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information in 3–5 builds on K–2 experiences and progresses to evaluating the merit and accuracy of ideas and methods.

Read and comprehend grade-appropriate complex texts and/or other reliable mediato summarize and obtainscientific and technical ideas anddescribe how they are supported by evidence.Compare and/or combine across complex texts and/or other reliable media to support the engagement in other scientificand/or engineering practices. Combine information in writtentext with that contained incorresponding tables, diagrams,and/or charts to support the engagement in other scientificand/or engineering practices. Obtain and combine informationfrom books and/or other reliable media to explain phenomena orsolutions to a design problem.Communicate scientific and/or technical information orally and/or in written formats,including various forms of media as well as tables,diagrams, and charts.

Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information in 6–8 builds on K–5 experiences and progresses to evaluating the merit and validity of ideas and methods.

Critically read scientific textsadapted for classroom use to determine the central ideasand/or obtain scientific and/or technical information to describe patterns in and/or evidence about the natural and designed world(s).Integrate qualitative and/or quantitative scientific and/or technical information in writtentext with that contained in media and visual displays to clarify claims and findings. Gather, read, and synthesize information from multiple appropriate sources and assessthe credibility, accuracy, andpossible bias of each publicationand methods used, and describe how they are supported or notsupported by evidence.Evaluate data, hypotheses,and/or conclusions in scientificand technical texts in light of competing information or accounts. Communicate scientific and/or technical information (e.g. abouta proposed object, tool, process,system) in writing and/or through oral presentations.

Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information in 9–12 builds on K–8 experiences and progresses to evaluating the validity and reliability of the claims, methods, and designs.

Critically read scientific literature adapted for classroom use to determine the central ideas orconclusions and/or to obtain scientific and/or technical information to summarize complex evidence, concepts, processes, or information presented in a text by paraphrasing them in simpler butstill accurate terms. Compare, integrate and evaluate sources of information presented indifferent media or formats (e.g.,visually, quantitatively) as well as in words in order to address a scientificquestion or solve a problem.Gather, read, and evaluate scientific and/or technical information frommultiple authoritative sources,assessing the evidence and usefulness of each source.Evaluate the validity and reliability of and/or synthesize multiple claims,methods, and/or designs that appear in scientific and technical texts or media reports, verifying the datawhen possible.Communicate scientific and/or technical information or ideas (e.g.about phenomena and/or the processof development and the design andperformance of a proposed processor system) in multiple formats (i.e.,orally, graphically, textually,mathematically).

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Reflecting on the Practices of Science and Engineering

Engaging students in the practices of science and engineering outlined in this section is not sufficient for science literacy. It is also important for students to stand back and reflect on how these practices have contributed to their own development, and to the accumulation of scientific knowledge and engineering accomplishments over the ages. Accomplishing this is a matter for curriculum and instruction, rather than standards, so specific guidelines are not provided in this document. Nonetheless, this section would not be complete without an acknowledgment that reflection is essential if students are to become aware of themselves as competent and confident learners and doers in the realms of science and engineering. References

Bell, P., Bricker, L., Tzou, Carrie, Lee., T., and Van Horne, K. (2012). Exploring the science framework; Engaging learners in science practices related to obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information. Science Scope, 36(3), 18-22.

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References

Lee, O., Quinn, H., & Valdés, G. (2013). Science and language for English language learners in relation to Next Generation Science Standards and with implications for Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics. Educational Researcher.

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