OCR A Level Psychology Topic COMPANION

OCR A Level Psychology

Topic COMPANIONEnvironmental Psychology

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Contents

Page 2 OCR A LEVEL Psychology topic COMPANION: ENVIRONMENTAL psychology

Topic Stress in the environment 3 Biological rhythms 9

Recycling and other conservation behaviours 14

Human factors 20

Psychological effects of the built environment 25

Territory and personal space 30

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OCR A LEVEL Psychology topic COMPANION: environmental psychology Page 3

STRESSORS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Specification: Background: Environmental stressors and their impact on our biological responses. Key research: Black and Black (2007), Aircraft noise exposure and residents’ stress and hypertension. Application: At least one strategy for managing environmental stress.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW Describe:

o a) Environmental stressors o b) How environmental stressors impact on an individual’s biological responses.

Describe the key research by Black and Black (2007), Aircraft noise exposure and residents’ stress and hypertension.

Evaluate methodological issues and debates in relation to the topic of stressors in the environment. Apply knowledge of environmental stressors to suggest strategies for managing environmental stress.

Environmental Stressors Stress can be defined as a state of mental or emotional strain/tension resulting from adverse or demanding circumstances. The circumstances that cause stress for individuals will differ widely depending on factors such as their ability to cope, personality, resources, and personal circumstances. The body’s reaction to stress can also differ between individuals and can be both physiological and psychological. Reactions to stress can range from sweating, increased heart rate, tense or trembling muscles, nervousness, and anxiety. A stressor is a stimulus that causes stress. One type of external stressor is known as environmental stress, and because individuals vary in what causes them stress and how they react to it, environmental stressors will also affect different people in varying ways. There are many different aspects of the environment that can cause a stress response in people: for example, overcrowding, temperature, poor housing quality, poor neighbourhood quality and traffic congestion. One particular area of interest to psychologists is the environmental stressor of noise.

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Page 4 OCR A LEVEL Psychology topic COMPANION: environmental psychology


Noise can be defined as any unwanted sound, especially one that is unpleasant, which causes a disturbance to a daily routine. At different points in time, the same noise could be wanted or unwanted. For example, when revising for a test, loud noise can be considered as unwanted as it may disrupt an individual’s concentration; however, at a party, loud noise might be welcomed. Noise is typically measured in decibels, the higher the decibel, the louder the noise, and potentially the more stress it promotes. But other measurements may also be important in considering whether noise is a stressor, such as whether the noise is continuous or intermittent, how long it goes on for, how often it occurs, the predictability of its occurrence, and how much control we have over the noise.

How Environmental Stressors Impact on An Individual’s Biological Responses Chronic noise can produce severe stress reactions and can have a negative impact on an individual’s health, motivation, performance and social behaviour. Research by Bronzaft (1981) found that children attending school near a railway line had impaired reading ability. Those children in classrooms near the railway were found to have significantly lower reading ability than children whose classroom was not near the railway. Interestingly, they also found that when major noise reduction work was carried out at the school, classroom location no longer had any effect on reading. Other research by Evans, Bullinger and Hygge (1998) found that children who attended school near an airport showed physiological responses to stress; they had higher noradrenaline levels and higher resting blood pressure than children living in quieter areas. Constant environmental stressors can cause stress-related illnesses like cardiovascular problems due to short term stress, while long term exposure to stress will result in suppression of the immune system. Our body’s response to short term/acute stress is the activation of the SAM (Sympathetic Adrenal Medulla) System. Once the environmental stressor is perceived the sympathetic nervous system is activated, adrenaline and noradrenaline are then released from the adrenal medulla which leads to further biological responses such as increased heart rate, blood pressure and the dilation of pupils, thus preparing the body for a fight or flight response. When we are exposed to more chronic/long term stressors, a different biological system known as the HPA (Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal) system is activated. When a long term/chronic stressor is experienced, the hypothalamus becomes aroused and releases a hormone called CRF that in turn activates another part of the brain called the pituitary gland which releases another hormone ACTH, this stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. Cortisol is beneficial as it helps increase energy and alertness; however, if we are exposed to too much environmental stress such as noise, the negative effects of cortisol (illness) will be the result.

Key Study: Black & Black (2007) Aim: The aim of this study was to explore the impact of aircraft noise on health, specifically if ‘health-related quality of life’ was worse in a community exposed to aircraft noise than in a community not exposed to this noise. The researchers also wanted to explore if long term exposure to aircraft noise was associated with elevated blood pressure levels. Method: This was a literary review of research undertaken by a multi-disciplinary team. The method also utilised a cross-sectional study design with a matched control group with data gathered using a questionnaire. The sample consisted primarily of residents surrounding the area of Sydney Airport who were compared to a control group of residents living in the suburb of South Penrith located 55km from Sydney Airport. The two areas were matched because they had similar demographic and socio-economic characteristics but differed significantly in aircraft noise exposure. The aircraft noise exposure area included areas which

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on an average day experienced up to 50 aircraft noise events with a volume louder than 70 decibels. This level of noise would interfere with normal conversation, listening to the radio, or watching television. Questionnaires were mailed out to 1,500 home addresses in the two areas, excluding households located close to railway lines, industrial areas and major highways. A cover letter explained that the research was about environmental noise; it did not explicitly mention aircraft noise. The questionnaire was also translated into Arabic and Greek due to the ethnic composition of neighbourhoods surrounding Sydney Airport. The questionnaire measured subjective health outcomes using items from validated, internationally recognised surveys such as the SF-36 (which measures the quality of life). The questionnaire measured seven major characteristics for each participant, which were as follows: Health-related quality of life including physical functioning, general health, vitality and mental health Hypertension, assessed through a series of closed-end questions asking about medical histories in

relation to cholesterol levels and high blood pressure Noise stress Noise sensitivity Noise annoyance (assessing annoyance caused by traffic noise and aircraft noise) Demographic characteristics Confounding factors which could affect the researcher’s ability to assess the relationship between

aircraft noise and health, such as employment status, exercise, smoking habits, alcohol consumption and nutrition intake

For each health measure, a summative score in the range of 0-100 was obtained, with a higher score indicating a more positive health status. To analyse the noise level, all the aircraft noise and unusual noises such as dogs barking were not included. Measurements of environmental noise were taken according to Australian standards. Noise data were collected at 26 stations around Sydney Airport and at 3 stations in the control area. A high noise group included those noise stations located on roads that connect to roads with high traffic volume. The medium noise group is defined as those noise stations located on roads that link to roads with medium traffic volume. The low noise station group were those locations where the impact of traffic noise from other roads was either very low or negligible. Results: Only 704 individuals returned fully completed questionnaires, which gave a total response rate of just below 50%. These respondents ranged in age between 15 and 87 years, and a few more responses were received from residents in the noise-exposed area than from those in the control area. Respondents in the noise exposure group had significantly higher levels of reported noise stress, and chronic noise stress was significantly associated with a prevalence of hypertension (high blood pressure). Noise-exposed respondents also reported significantly higher levels of aircraft annoyance and they also had significantly lower scores on health measures, including physical functioning, general health, vitality, and mental health. Individuals who had been chronically exposed to high aircraft noise level had a 2.61 greater chance of having chronic noise stress, and those who suffer from chronic noise stress had a 2.74 greater chance of having hypertension compared to those without chronic noise stress. Conclusion: Environmental stressors influence biological responses which cause illness. It is clear there are negative health effects from exposure to aircraft noise. Individuals who are exposed long-term to high levels of aircraft noise are more likely to report stress and hypertension compared to those not exposed.

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These individuals are also more annoyed by aircraft noise than individuals who do not live in such areas. Therefore, practical noise management possibilities should be considered to improve resident well-being in areas exposed to aircraft noise, but this may prove difficult.

Methodological Issues and Debates USEFULNESS: A strength of Black and Black’s research is that it can be considered useful because it

increases academic knowledge about the negative health implications of chronic exposure to aircraft noise. Those residents in the noise-exposed area reported worse health and more stress associated with high blood pressure. These findings can be used to try and implement policy changes to improve residents’ health and well-being. For example, possibilities such as a building insulation scheme, conducting simultaneous landings and take-offs at Sydney Airport, and suggesting residents undergo behaviour modification techniques such as cognitive behavioural therapy or mindfulness are all possibilities that could be explored to improve residents’ health status. If the study resulted in the implementation of these policy changes, then it would be considered very useful.

ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY: A further strength of Black and Black’s research is that it has high ecological validity, as participants were not exposed to tasks that did not reflect real life. Black and Black sent questionnaires to a group exposed to aircraft noise and a control group not exposed to noise. Participants experienced aircraft noise or not naturally because of their location; and completing a questionnaire about health can be considered a standard task as individuals may do this frequently when being assessed by nurses, doctors or other health visitors.

METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES: However, a weakness with Black and Black’s research is that the validity of

the results could have been compromised, particularly by using a questionnaire as the method of data collection. Firstly, only 704 residents replied out of 1500, and those who completed the questionnaire may have been individuals who were particularly stressed by aircraft noise. Those that replied may have exaggerated their responses regarding their health status, hoping that some policy change might result from the research. Moreover, the questionnaire did not include any open-ended questions which would have allowed respondents to explain their answers. This could have compromised the validity because closed questions and rating scales do not allow participants to give detailed reasons for their behaviour. Furthermore, although the groups were matched on socioeconomic status and demographic characteristics, there would have been other differences between the groups that may have influenced their responses.

SAMPLING BIAS: Another weakness of the research by Black and Black is their use of a limited sample. Sydney has a typical population of over five million residents, yet the questionnaires on environmental noise were sent to only 1,500 addresses in the noise exposure and control groups combined, and only a total of 704 respondents returned fully completed questionnaires. Therefore, the sample is not representative of Sydney or of those who live near an airport. Residents in other areas of the world might have responded differently in relation to the stress incurred from aircraft noise.

INDIVIDUAL VERSUS SITUATIONAL DEBATE: In terms of the individual and situational explanations

debate: Both Black and Black’s and Evans, Bullinger and Hygge’s studies conclude that situational factors (living close to an airport) have a significant, negative effect on health and wellbeing. This was found to be the case when individual factors such as lifestyle were controlled for. However, the definition of stress that we looked at earlier states ‘that circumstances that cause stress for individuals would differ widely depending on factors such as their ability to cope, personality, resources, and personal circumstances’, so it may not be the situation that causes stress, but the individual’s ability to cope.

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BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM: The body’s response to stress is biologically deterministic; this shown through the activation of the SAM and HPA systems during acute and chronic stress, respectively. We have no choice in how we respond to stress, nor do we choose to experience the negative effects of stressors. However, the strategies outlined below (hardiness training and REBT) to manage environmental stress demonstrate an element of free will and show that responses to stressors are not entirely determinist.

Exam Hint: This is a difficult piece of research to evaluate because it is not an empirical study; it is a literature review. However, within the review, many methods were used to collect data, and this research also uses a cross-sectional study with a matched control group with data gathered through a questionnaire. Therefore, when evaluating issues such as reliability, validity, and usefulness, be sure to consider all the different elements of the research (and other studies within this topic) that can contribute to these issues to provide a varied discussion that considers both the strengths and implications of the design of the research.

Critical Thinking What other factors could influence hypertension and health-related quality of life besides exposure to airport noise? The residents in Black and Black’s research in the noise exposure group lived near Sydney airport, which is only five miles from Sydney city centre. Participants in the noise exposure group were found to have better educational qualifications and better employment status, and therefore it is likely that these residents worked in the city centre and had professional jobs that were equally as stressful as the noise level experienced. Living in a city centre can bring many environmental stressors, not just noise. Other factors such as profession, traffic congestion, pollution and overcrowding involved in living near the city centre also might have contributed to the residents’ low health-related quality of life scores and hypertension. Therefore, caution should be taken when considering the results of this study.

Application: Strategies for Managing Environmental Stress There are many practical strategies that aim to reduce the effects of environmental stressors, such as noise. For example, soundproofing buildings with increased insulation, double glazing, changes to the operating hours of airports, or imposing building regulations on houses in areas near airports are all noise-reducing measures. However, this section will focus on psychological strategies that may help people cope with emotional responses to environmental stressors. REBT: Emotion-focused strategies involve stress reduction programmes for individuals who suffer from environmental stress. Rational emotive behavioural therapy (REBT) is one type of emotion-focused strategy. Developed by Albert Ellis in 1977, it is based around an A-B-C-D-E model. A – Stands for the activating experience that is causing the distress, for instance, noise from outside. B – Stands for beliefs that an individual might have about this experience, which might be either rational or irrational. C – Relates to the consequences arising from these beliefs. D – Stands for the process of disputing the beliefs. This is where a psychologist would help to replace irrational beliefs with more rational ones. E – Stands for the effects of the therapy. Hopefully, the effects would include a new set of beliefs about the activating experience that will enable the individual to cope better with the stressor in the future.

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Therefore, rational emotive therapy can be used to modify an individual’s thought processes in relation to the environmental stressor, and that could relieve some of the psychological symptoms deriving from environmental stress, like noise.

Hardiness Training: A second strategy for managing environmental stress would be to undergo hardiness training. Kobasa (1977) suggests that hardy individuals have characteristics that make them less vulnerable to the effects of environmental stress. These traits are known as ‘the 3Cs’: control, commitment and challenge. People with high hardiness believe they have control over events in their life and have a higher internal locus of control; they show commitment and purpose in those things that they engage with, and they see life changes as challenges and opportunities. Kobasa found that hardy people are less likely to suffer from stress-related illness.

Kobasa claims that hardiness levels can be increased in three ways as part of hardiness training: focusing - clients are taught to identify signs of stress, enabling them to recognise the environmental stressors; reliving stressful encounters - involves the client thinking back to recent stressful events, how they dealt with the stress; allowing them to analyse their current coping strategies which may be surprisingly effective; self-improvement - gives the client the opportunity to identify stressors and challenges that they can cope with, thus increasing their internal locus of control.

Possible Exam Questions (a) Using the research by Black and Black (2007) explain biological responses as a result of being exposed

to environmental stressors. (10)

(b) Assess the validity of research into stressors in the environment. (15)

(c) Mo was tired of living at home with his parents and five siblings but couldn’t afford to buy a house inthe area he wanted. He ended up buying a cheaper house in the student area of Leeds but is veryunhappy and stressed living there because of all the noise he must deal with from student parties.

Suggest how an environmental psychologist could use their knowledge to help Mo overcome thestress he is experiencing. (10)

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OCR A Level Psychology Topic COMPANION